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when did hops start being used in beer | Hops - wikipedia
Hops are the flowers (also called seed cones or strobiles) of the hop plant Humulus lupulus. They are used primarily as a flavoring and stability agent in beer, to which they impart bitter, zesty, or citric flavours; though they are also used for various purposes in other beverages and herbal medicine. The hop plant is a vigorous, climbing, herbaceous perennial, usually trained to grow up strings in a field called a hopfield, hop garden (nomenclature in the South of England), or hop yard (in the West Country and U.S.) when grown commercially. Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world, with different types being used for particular styles of beer.
The first documented use of hops in beer is from the 9th century, though Hildegard of Bingen, 300 years later, is often cited as the earliest documented source. Before this period, brewers used gruit, composed of a wide variety of bitter herbs and flowers, including dandelion, burdock root, marigold, horehound (the old German name for horehound, Berghopfen, means "mountain hops ''), ground ivy, and heather. Early documents include mention of a hop garden in the will of Charlemagne 's father, Pepin III.
In addition to adding flavor to beer, hops are also used in brewing for their antibacterial effect over less desirable microorganisms and for many purported benefits, including balancing the sweetness of the malt with bitterness, contributing a variety of desirable flavors and aromas. Historically, traditional herb combinations for beers were believed to have been abandoned when beers made with hops were noticed to be less prone to spoilage.
The first documented hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present - day Germany, although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing in that country was 1079. However, in a will of Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne, hop gardens were left to the Cloister of Saint - Denis in 768. Not until the 13th century did hops begin to start threatening the use of gruit for flavoring. Gruit was used when taxes were levied by the nobility on hops. Whichever was taxed made the brewer then quickly switch to the other. In Britain, hopped beer was first imported from Holland around 1400, yet hops were condemned as late as 1519 as a "wicked and pernicious weed ''. In 1471, Norwich, England, banned use of the plant in the brewing of ale ("beer '' was the name for fermented malt liquors bittered with hops; only in recent times are the words often used as synonyms).
In Germany, using hops was also a religious and political choice in the early 16th century. There was no tax on hops to be paid on the Catholic church, unlike on gruit, for which the Protestant preferred hopped beer.
Hops used in England were imported from France, Holland and Germany with import duty paid for those; it was not until 1524 that hops were first grown in the southeast of England (Kent) when they were introduced as an agricultural crop by Dutch farmers. Therefore, in the hop industry there are many words which originally were Dutch words (see oast house). Hops were then grown as far north as Aberdeen, near breweries for infrastructure convenience.
According to Thomas Tusser 's 1557 Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry:
"The hop for his profit I thus do exalt, It strengtheneth drink and it flavoureth malt; And being well - brewed long kept it will last, And drawing abide, if ye draw not too fast. ''
In England there were many complaints over the quality of imported hops, the sacks of which were often contaminated by stalks, sand or straw to increase their weight. As a result, in 1603, King James I approved an Act of Parliament banning the practice by which "the Subjects of this Realm have been of late years abused &c. to the Value of £ 20,000 yearly, besides the Danger of their Healths ''.
Hop cultivation was begun in the present - day United States in 1629 by English and Dutch farmers. Before national alcohol prohibition, cultivation was mainly centered around New York, California, Oregon, and Washington. Problems with powdery mildew and downy mildew devastated New York 's production by the 1920s, and California only produces hops on a small scale.
Hop bars were used before modern machinery was invented to make the holes for the hop poles.
Hops production is concentrated in moist temperate climates, with much of the world 's production occurring near the 48th parallel north. Hop plants prefer the same soils as potatoes and the leading potato - growing states in the United States are also major hops - producing areas; however, not all potato - growing areas can produce good hops naturally: soils in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, for example, lack the boron that hops prefer. Historically, hops were not grown in Ireland, but were imported from England. In 1752 more than 500 tons of English hops were imported through Dublin alone.
Important production centers today are the Hallertau in Germany (more hop - growing area than any other country as of 2006), the Yakima (Washington) and Willamette (Oregon) valleys, and western Canyon County, Idaho (including the communities of Parma, Wilder, Greenleaf, and Notus). The principal production centers in the UK are in Kent which produces Kent Goldings hops, Herefordshire and Worcestershire. Essentially all of the harvested hops are used in beer making.
Although hops are grown in most of the continental United States and Canada, cultivation of hops for commercial production requires a particular environment. As hops are a climbing plant, they are trained to grow up trellises made from strings or wires that support the plants and allow them significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile. In this way, energy that would have been required to build structural cells is also freed for crop growth.
Male and female flowers of the hop plant usually develop on separate plants (that is, the plant is dioecious), although fertile monoecious individuals appear occasionally. Because viable seeds are undesirable for brewing beer, only female plants are grown in hop fields, thus preventing pollination. Female plants are propagated vegetatively, and male plants are culled if plants are grown from seeds.
Hop plants are planted in rows about 2 to 2.5 metres (7 to 8 ft) apart. Each spring, the roots send forth new bines that are started up strings from the ground to an overhead trellis. The cones grow high on the bine, and in the past, these cones were picked by hand. Harvesting of hops became much more efficient with the invention of the mechanical hops separator, patented by Emil Clemens Horst in 1909.
Harvest comes near the end of summer when the bines are pulled down and the flowers are taken to a hop house or oast house for drying. Hop houses are two - story buildings, of which the upper story has a slatted floor covered with burlap. Here the flowers are poured out and raked even. A heating unit on the lower floor is used to dry the hops. When dry, the hops are moved to a press, a sturdy box with a plunger. Two long pieces of burlap are laid into the hop press at right angles, the hops are poured in and compressed into bales.
Hop cones contain different oils, such as lupulin, a yellowish, waxy substance, an oleoresin, that imparts flavor and aroma to beer. Lupulin contains lupulone and humulone, which possess antibiotic properties, suppressing bacterial growth favoring brewer 's yeast to grow. After lupulin has been extracted in the brewing process the papery cones are discarded.
The need for massed labor at harvest time meant hop - growing had a big social impact. Around the world, the labor - intensive harvesting work involved large numbers of migrant workers who would travel for the annual hop harvest. Whole families would partake and live in hoppers ' huts, with even the smallest children helping in the fields. The final chapters of W. Somerset Maugham 's Of Human Bondage and a large part of George Orwell 's A Clergyman 's Daughter contain a vivid description of London families participating in this annual hops harvest. In England, many of those picking hops in Kent were from eastern areas of London. This provided a break from urban conditions that was spent in the countryside. People also came from Birmingham and other Midlands cities to pick hops in the Malvern area of Worcestershire. Some photographs have been preserved.
Particularly in Kent, because of a shortage of small - denomination coin of the realm, many growers issued their own currency to those doing the labor. In some cases, the coins issued were adorned with fanciful hops images, making them quite beautiful.
In the US, Prohibition had a major impact on hops productions, but remnants of this significant industry in West and Northwest US are still noticeable in the form of old hop kilns that survive throughout Sonoma County, among others. Florian Dauenhauer, of Santa Rosa in Sonoma County, became a manufacturer of hop - harvesting machines in 1940, in part because of the hop industry 's importance to the county. This mechanization helped destroy the local industry by enabling large - scale mechanized production, which moved to larger farms in other areas. Dauenhauer Manufacturing remains a current producer of hop harvesting machines.
In addition to water, cellulose, and various proteins, the chemical composition of hops consists of compounds important for imparting character to beer.
Probably the most important chemical compound within hops are the alpha acids or humulones. During wort boiling, the humulones are thermally isomerized into iso - alpha acids or isohumulones, which are responsible for the bitter taste of beer.
Hops contain beta acids or lupulones sensitive to oxidative decomposition which may be detrimental to the taste of beer. For this reason, beta acids are considered a negative factor in brewing and many brewers usually choose hops with a low beta acid content.
The main components of hops essential oils are terpene hydrocarbons consisting of myrcene, humulene and caryophyllene. Myrcene is responsible for the pungent smell of fresh hops. Humulene and its oxidative reaction products may give beer its prominent hop aroma. Together, myrcene, humulene, and caryophyllene represent 80 to 90 % of the total hops essential oil.
Xanthohumol is the principal flavonoid in hops. The other well - studied prenylflavonoids are 8 - prenylnaringenin and isoxanthohumol. Xanthohumol is under basic research for its potential properties, while 8 - prenylnaringenin is a potent phytoestrogen.
Hops are usually dried in an oast house before they are used in the brewing process. Undried or "wet '' hops are sometimes (since ca. 1990) used.
The wort (sugar - rich liquid produced from malt) is boiled with hops before it is cooled down and yeast is added, to start fermentation.
The effect of hops on the finished beer varies by type and use, though there are two main hop types: bittering and aroma. Bittering hops have higher concentrations of alpha acids, and are responsible for the large majority of the bitter flavor of a beer. European (so - called "noble '') hops typically average 5 -- 9 % alpha acids by weight (AABW), and the newer American cultivars typically range from 8 -- 19 % AABW. Aroma hops usually have a lower concentration of alpha acids (~ 5 %) and are the primary contributors of hop aroma and (nonbitter) flavor. Bittering hops are boiled for a longer period of time, typically 60 -- 90 minutes, to maximize the isomerization of the alpha acids. They often have inferior aromatic properties, as the aromatic compounds evaporate off during the boil.
The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which alpha acids are isomerized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in International Bitterness Units. Unboiled hops are only mildly bitter. On the other hand, the nonbitter flavor and aroma of hops come from the essential oils, which evaporate during the boil.
Aroma hops are typically added to the wort later to prevent the evaporation of the essential oils, to impart "hop taste '' (if during the final 30 minutes of boil) or "hop aroma '' (if during the final 10 minutes, or less, of boil). Aroma hops are often added after the wort has cooled and while the beer ferments, a technique known as "dry hopping '', which contributes to the hop aroma. Farnesene is a major component in some hops. The composition of hop essential oils can differ between varieties and between years in the same variety, having a significant influence on flavor and aroma.
Today, a substantial amount of "dual - use '' hops are used, as well. These have high concentrations of alpha acids and good aromatic properties. These can be added to the boil at any time, depending on the desired effect. Hop acids also contribute to and stabilize the foam qualities of beer.
Flavors and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include "grassy '', "floral '', "citrus '', "spicy '', "piney '', "lemony '', "grapefruit '', and "earthy ''. Many pale lagers have fairly low hop influence, while lagers marketed as Pilsener or brewed in the Czech Republic may have noticeable noble hop aroma. Certain ales (particularly the highly hopped style known as India Pale Ale, or IPA) can have high levels of hop bitterness.
Brewers may use software tools to control the bittering levels in the boil and adjust recipes to account for a change in the hop bill or seasonal variations in the crop that may lead to the need to compensate for a difference in alpha acid contribution. Data may be shared with other brewers via BeerXML allowing the reproduction of a recipe allowing for differences in hop availability.
There are many different varieties of hops used in brewing today. Historically, hops varieties were identified by geography (such as Hallertau, Spalt, and Tettnang from Germany), by the farmer who is recognized as first cultivating them (such as Goldings or Fuggles from England), or by their growing habit (e.g., Oregon Cluster).
Around 1900, a number of institutions began to experiment with breeding specific hop varieties. The breeding program at Wye College in Wye, Kent was started in 1904 and rose to prominence through the work of Prof. E.S. Salmon. Salmon released Brewer 's Gold and Brewer 's Favorite for commercial cultivation in 1934, and went on to release more than two dozen new cultivars before his death in 1959. Brewer 's Gold has become the ancestor of the bulk of new hop releases around the world since its release.
Wye College continued its breeding program and again received attention in the 1970s, when Dr. Ray A. Neve released Wye Target, Wye Challenger, Wye Northdown, Wye Saxon and Wye Yeoman. More recently, Wye College and its successor institution Wye Hops Ltd., have focused on breeding the first dwarf hop varieties, which are easier to pick by machine and far more economical to grow. Wye College have also been responsible for breeding hop varieties that will grow with only 12 hours of daily light for the South African hop farmers. Wye College was closed in 2009 but the legacy of their hop breeding programs, particularly that of the dwarf varieties, is continuing as already the U.S.A. private and public breeding programs are using their stock material.
Particular hop varieties are associated with beer regions and styles, for example pale lagers are usually brewed with European (often German, Polish or Czech) noble hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau and Strissel Spalt. British ales use hop varieties such as Fuggles, Goldings and W.G.V. North American beers often use Cascade hops, Columbus hops, Centennial hops, Willamette, Amarillo hops and about forty more varieties as the U.S.A. have lately been the more significant breeders of new hop varieties, including dwarf hop varieties.
Hops from New Zealand, such as Pacific Gem, Motueka and Nelson Sauvin, are used in a "Pacific Pale Ale '' style of beer with increasing production in 2014.
The term "noble hops '' traditionally refers to varieties of hops which are low in bitterness and high in aroma. They are the European cultivars or races Hallertau, Tettnanger, Spalt, and Saaz.
Their low relative bitterness but strong aroma are often distinguishing characteristics of European - style lagers, such as Pilsener, Dunkel, and Oktoberfest / Märzen. In beer, they are considered aroma hops (as opposed to bittering hops); see Pilsner Urquell as a classic example of the Bohemian Pilsener style, which showcases noble hops.
As with grapes, the location where hops are grown affects the hops ' characteristics. Much as Dortmunder beer may within the EU be labelled "Dortmunder '' only if it has been brewed in Dortmund, noble hops may officially be considered "noble '' only if they were grown in the areas for which the hop varieties (races) were named.
English noble varieties are Fuggle, East Kent Goldings and Goldings. They are characterized through analysis as having an alpha: beta ratio of 1: 1, low alpha - acid levels (2 -- 5 %) with a low cohumulone content, low myrcene in the hop oil, high humulene in the oil, a ratio of humulene: caryophyllene above three, and poor storability resulting in them being more prone to oxidation. In reality, this means they have a relatively consistent bittering potential as they age, due to beta - acid oxidation, and a flavour that improves as they age during periods of poor storage.
In addition to beer, hops are also used in herbal teas and in soft drinks. These soft drinks include Julmust (a carbonated beverage similar to soda that is popular in Sweden during December), Malta (a Latin American soft drink) and kvass.
Hops are also used in herbal medicine in a way similar to valerian, as a treatment for anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia. A pillow filled with hops is a popular folk remedy for sleeplessness, and animal research has shown a sedative effect. The relaxing effect of hops may be due, in part, to the specific degradation product from alpha acids, 2 - methyl - 3 - buten - 2 - ol, as demonstrated from nighttime consumption of non-alcoholic beer. 2 - methyl - 3 - buten - 2 - ol is structurally similar to tert - amyl alcohol which was historically used as an anesthetic. Hops tend to be unstable when exposed to light or air and lose their potency after a few months ' storage.
Hops are of interest for hormone replacement therapy and are under basic research for potential relief of menstruation - related problems.
In preliminary veterinary research, hops compounds are under study for potential activity against pasture - associated laminitis in horses.
Hops can also be eaten, the young shoots of the bine are edible and can be cooked similar to asparagus.
Dermatitis sometimes results from harvesting hops. Although few cases require medical treatment, an estimated 3 % of the workers suffer some type of skin lesions on the face, hands, and legs. Hops are toxic to dogs.
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how many episode are in the originals season 5 | The Originals (season 5) - wikipedia
The Originals, a one - hour American supernatural drama, was renewed for a fifth season by The CW on May 10, 2017. The 2016 -- 17 United States television season debut of The Originals was pushed to midseason, as with the fourth - season premiere. On July 20, 2017, Julie Plec announced via Twitter that the upcoming season would be the series ' last. The fifth season consists of 13 episodes and debuted on April 18, 2018. The series finale aired on August 1, 2018.
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mc 900 jesus if i only had a brain | MC 900 Ft. Jesus - wikipedia
Mark Griffin (born 1957), better known as MC 900 Ft. Jesus, is an American classically trained musician turned rapper and experimental musician. MC 900 Ft. Jesus ' music is influenced by hip hop, incorporating many sound samples.
The son of an army officer, Griffin moved around quite a bit before settling in Dallas, Texas in 1979. Griffin studied the trumpet and has a BA in Music from Morehead State University as well as an advanced degree in music from North Texas State University. Before becoming MC 900 Ft. Jesus, Griffin played in local Dallas bands The Telefones and Lithium X-Mas.
Hell with the Lid Off (1990) was Griffin 's first full - length release for MC 900 Ft. Jesus as well as the first time Griffin had appeared on a major record label. Featuring DJ Zero (Patrick Rollins) and the single "Truth is Out of Style '' which gained a cult following.
The following year Welcome to My Dream (1991) was released. DJ Zero appears on Welcome to My Dream under his real name, Patrick Rollins, because of uncertainty about whether he would have been able to tour in support of the album. His subsequent single, "The City Sleeps '', was featured in the album in which explored the mind of a serial arsonist. The song sparked controversy in Baltimore when a then ABC affiliate, WJZ, ran a report suggesting that a series of arson in the area was a result of WHFS allowing the song play time.
His final album, One Step Ahead of the Spider, was released in 1994; it contained the single "If I Only Had a Brain '', which became his best - known song. The song gained increased exposure from the music video directed for it by Spike Jonze, as well as exposure on MTV 's Beavis and Butt - Head cartoon show. Rollins once again appears but is not listed in the credits.
Griffin eventually became disillusioned with the music industry, and following unproductive sessions for his fourth album, felt he had taken his style of music as far as he wanted to go and overall losing interest in music citing alcoholism. Record label interest waned and eventually in 2001, Griffin officially retired. Needing a new direction, he gained his commercial pilot 's license, hoping to become a flight instructor. However, when the September 11 attacks occurred, demand plummeted for flight instructors and Griffin was unable to find a job. Eventually, Griffin took a job at a Borders bookstore.
In 2007, he began DJing weekly at a Dallas music venue, Lee Harvey 's, located in the Cedars neighborhood next to downtown.
On November 26, 2016, Griffin announced via Facebook that he was set to perform a show at The Kessler Theater in Dallas with a quartet including Chris McGuire, Greg Beck, and Wanz Dover in hopes of kick - starting a tour as well as a possible fourth album with his former label Nettwerk of which had approached Griffin about. On February 3, 2017, the quartet played a sold - out concert performing several of the MC 900 songs, receiving a rapturous ovation.
Griffin 's stage name came from a sermon by Oral Roberts, in which the televangelist claimed that he had received a vision of a 900 - foot - tall (270 m) Jesus, who commanded him to build a hospital on the campus of Oral Roberts University.
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what is the girl cowboy's name in toy story | List of Toy Story characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from Disney / Pixar 's Toy Story franchise which consists of the animated films Toy Story (1995), Toy Story 2 (1999), and Toy Story 3 (2010) and the animated short films.
Voiced by:
Sheriff Woody Pride is a 1950s old traditional pull string cowboy doll, and Andy 's favorite toy. Appearing in all three Toy Story films, he usually acts as the leader of the gang. His rivalry with Buzz forms the basis of the plot of the first film. In Toy Story 2, he is stolen at a yard sale by a toy collector, causing the other toys to embark on a rescue mission. In Toy Story 3 he and the other toys are shipped to a daycare center.
Voiced by:
Previously known as Tinny and Lunar Larry, Buzz Lightyear is a modern - day "space ranger '' action figure, and wears a green and white space suit with various features such as retractable wings and transparent air helmet, a laser "weapon, '' and various sound effects. In the films, he acts as Woody 's second - in - command. In Toy Story, he begins the series believing he is a real space ranger (the other toys are aware that they are toys) and develops a rivalry with Woody, who resents him for getting more attention as the newcomer. During the film, he comes to realize that he is just a toy, and eventually becomes good friends with Woody. He is extremely loyal to his friends. During his time trapped at Sid 's house, Hannah, Sid 's sister, called Buzz Mrs. Nesbit. In Toy Story 2, Buzz goes to save Woody from Al with Potato Head, Hamm, Rex, and Slink (Slinky Dog) where he gets stuck in the Buzz Lightyear aisle in Al 's Toy Barn by another Buzz and finds out for himself what he was really like. In Toy Story 3, a relationship begins to develop between Buzz and Jessie. He is particularly open with his affection when accidentally switched to "Spanish mode. ''
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Jessie is a cowgirl doll, and part of the Woody 's Round Up gang. Jessie is also Buzz Lightyear 's girlfriend. She first appeared in Toy Story 2 along with Bullseye (her horse) and Stinky Pete. Initially, Jessie was hesitant to join Andy 's friends. After she becomes part of the family, she is very happy (despite that Andy first calls her Bazooka Jane). In Toy Story 3, she was riding Bullseye when Woody fell off the train in Andy 's opening sequence. She argued with Woody on their way to Sunnyside Daycare because of when the others think Andy threw them out. Later in the film, Jessie feels close with Buzz, even when Buzz got switched into Spanish. At the end, Jessie and Buzz danced to the Spanish version of "You 've Got a Friend in Me. '' Jessie also makes a cameo appearance in Monsters, Inc. as one of the toys Boo gives Sulley. Jessie also appears in Pixar 's production of Toy Story of Terror! as the main character that saves the other toys from the toy stealer and seller at the rest stop.
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Hamm is a wisecracking realist piggy bank with a cork in his belly in place of a stopper. He and Mr. Potato Head appear to be best friends, and are often seen playing games, such as Battleship (with Hamm always winning). Out of all the toys, he is shown to have the most knowledge of the outside, often being very familiar with various gadgets that are shown, likely as an homage to Ratzenberger 's famous role of mail carrier and bar know - it - all Cliff Clavin on the sitcom Cheers.
In Toy Story, Hamm interrupts Woody 's staff meeting by alerting the crowd telling them that the birthday guests are arriving at 3: 00. Hamm becomes fascinated with Buzz 's features and ridicules of Woody, along with Potato Head. When Woody inadvertently knocks Buzz off the window, Hamm is one of the many toys who believes that Woody did it intentionally and he turns on him. However, Hamm realizes the truth that Buzz is alive. At the end, Hamm cheers for Potato Head when Molly gets a Mrs. Potato Head for Christmas.
In Toy Story 2, Hamm resents the Al 's Toy Barn chicken mascot. When Woody is stolen, he and Mr. Potato Head organize a crime scene to present Woody 's kidnapping to the other toys. After helping the toys find the Al 's Toy Barn commercial on TV, Hamm goes with Buzz, Slinky, Rex, and Mr. Potato Head on a mission to rescue Woody. In Al 's Toy Barn, Hamm spots a "Bonus Belt '' Buzz, thinking he is Andy 's Buzz, though he comments on the new Buzz 's odd behavior. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he and Mr. Potato Head operate the truck 's levers and knobs and are advised to pull the gear lever to get the truck to move. While reading the truck 's manual, he states "I seriously doubt he 's getting this kinda mileage ''. Eventually, Hamm and the other toys are able to rescue Woody and are able to return home in a stolen baggage carrier.
In Toy Story 3, Hamm is "Evil Dr. Porkchop '' in Andy 's western play opening sequence, appearing in a giant pig - shaped spaceship to rescue One - Eyed Bart and thwart Woody and his gang. Later, when the toys are accidentally thrown out, Hamm is angry, believing that Andy threw them out on purpose. He escapes with the rest of the toys to Sunnyside Daycare, where he is initially happy to be played with, but dismayed as he realizes the toddlers are too rough. Later that night, Hamm and his friends realize that Woody was telling the truth about Andy. When the toys are imprisoned by Lotso and his henchmen, Hamm is shown to be able to play the harmonica. When Woody comes back to rescue the toys from Sunnyside he quotes "Return of the Astro - Nut '' on Buzz being turned back to demo. He helps the toys escape by fighting with Rex to distract Buzz, who has been switched to demo mode by Lotso, so that Jessie can trap him under a plastic container. Hamm and Rex, being the heaviest of the toys, sit on top of the container to prevent Buzz from escaping. When Woody returns with Buzz 's instruction manual to switch him back, Hamm reads the instructions while the others hold Buzz down. When they were about to die in the incinerator, Hamm grabbed the hands of Slinky and Rex. Later, after the toys are rescued from an incinerator - related death at the dump due to Lotso 's selfishness, Hamm, along with Slinky, wants revenge, but Woody talks them both out of it. He is donated along with Andy 's other toys to Bonnie, where he becomes best friends with Buttercup.
In a 2010 advertisement for the United States Postal Service promoting Toy Story 3, Hamm wears a postal worker 's hat while promoting the Priority Mail service; Ratzenberger is best known for his role as mailman Cliff Clavin on the long - running sitcom Cheers. He also makes an appearance in the Toy Story 3 video game as the mayor in Toy Box mode.
Hamm also appears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.
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Rex is an excitable large, green, plastic Tyrannosaurus Rex. Rex suffers from anxiety, an inferiority complex and the concern that he is not scary enough. Rex 's worst fear (after Sid) is that Andy will get another, scarier dinosaur. He is among the largest of Andy 's toys, and is often depicted as the heaviest. He is voiced by Earl Boen in the video games Toy Story 2: Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue (1999) and Toy Story Racer (2001). Although Rex is a toy dinosaur he dislikes confrontation and is sensitive in nature.
In Toy Story, he states that he was manufactured by a smaller company that was purchased in a leveraged buyout by Mattel (coincidentally, real - life Rex toys used to be made by Hasbro, but as of 2009 are indeed made by Mattel). He is first introduced when he moves Woody 's doodle pad, then tries to scare Woody with his roar. When Buzz arrives, Rex is fascinated by his cool features. Later, when Woody knocks Buzz out the window, he reluctantly sides against Woody out of pressure from the other toys. He is, however, a great deal less antagonistic than most of the other toys. He later feels guilty when everyone discovers Woody was telling the truth all along. He gains confidence at the end, saying he could play as the dominant predator if Andy gets a leaf eater.
The beginning of Toy Story 2, he is shown playing the "Buzz Lightyear: Attack on Zurg '' video game, which he loses, much to his frustration. He is responsible for the toys seeing the commercial for Al 's Toy Barn commercial when he accidentally clicks the remote control. When Woody was kidnapped by Al, Rex tried to send a message to the FBI for help, but he did n't know how to write FBI, and later joins Buzz ' team to rescue Woody. Inside Al 's Toy Barn, he excitedly finds a "Buzz Lightyear '' video game strategy guide, which he takes with him. He loses the guide later, but is still able to give Buzz two tips from the guide on defeating Zurg. In a parody of Jurassic Park, he chases a car driven by the toys in Al 's Toy Barn, in which Mr. Potato Head spots his reflection in the rear view mirror. It is Rex 's tail sticking out of Al 's bag that later causes the real Buzz to go after them. When the other Toys, led by Buzz 2 reach Al 's Apartment, the toys use an unwilling Rex as a battering ram to break in against the unlocked grate. When Zurg is about to finish off Buzz 2, he turns away, not bearing to look anymore, but his tail knocks Zurg down the elevator shaft, making him feel overjoyed about finally defeating Zurg for real. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he serves as the navigator and tells Buzz which way to go since he ca n't see out the window while controlling the steering wheel. Eventually, he and the others manage to rescue Woody and return home in a stolen baggage carrier.
In Toy Story 3, he is Woody 's "Dinosaur who Eats Force Field Dogs '' in Andy 's opening western play sequence, where he frightens One - Eyed Bart and his gang with a terrifying roar, but is then overpowered by a flood of monkeys. He is seen to be especially sad about Andy 's lack of attention to the toys, expressing joy when Andy touches him for only a few moments. When the toys are initially left for the garbage pickup, he is ultimately responsible for saving them when they use his tail to rip a hole in the garbage bag. He is initially happy to be at Sunnyside, and is visibly sad when Woody leaves, but becomes dismayed after a rough playtime with the toddlers, commenting "Andy never played with us like that! '' He is imprisoned along with Andy 's other toys by Lotso and his gang. Later, at the garbage dump, Rex is the last to escape the shredder, only barely escaping when he grabs onto a broken fan. He discovers a source of light thinking that it 's daylight, but Woody convinces him that it 's not; it 's the light of the flame from the incinerator. When the toys are finally given to Bonnie, Rex becomes close friends with Trixie the Triceratops.
In an outtake of Toy Story 2, when used as a battering ram, Rex hurt his head when banged against the locked grate. Rex makes an appearance in an outtake of Monsters, Inc. where he waits at the crosswalk with Mike and Sulley in a scene reminiscent of Jurassic Park. Rex is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game. In the movie WALL - E, Rex is seen in the background inside WALL - E 's truck.
Rex reappears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, Partysaurus Rex and in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror!, and Toy Story That Time Forgot.
Voiced by:
Slinky Dog (usually called just Slinky or sometimes Slink) is a toy dachshund with a metal Slinky for a body, who speaks with a southern accent. Slinky 's head, feet, and tail are plastic and he is missing his pull string. Slinky also has a green collar. Slinky Dog is based on Slinky, a pull toy by James Industries, which was popular in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s. With the permission of James Industries, Slinky Dog was partially redesigned for the film by Pixar artist Bud Luckey to make him more appealing as an animated character.
In Toy Story, he likes playing checkers with Woody, usually choosing the red side. Slinky is shown to be the most loyal to Woody and stands up for him when Potato Head complains. Slinky is fascinated by Buzz, along with the rest of the toys, but does not make fun of Woody when Buzz arrives like the others do. When Woody knocks Buzz out of the window, Slinky is one of the few toys who believes it was an accident. Later, when Andy notices Woody is missing, he and Bo Peep are worried about him, in contrast to the others, who are glad he 's gone. Later, he attempts to help when Woody throws a chain of Christmas lights from Sid 's house to Andy 's, but Potato Head stops him. Even Slinky appears to give up on Woody when he pretends Buzz is with him but accidentally reveals his broken arm. He is stretched almost to the point of breaking when helping rescue Woody and Buzz on the moving truck, but is fixed by the end of the film.
At the beginning of Toy Story 2, Slinky is the one who finds Woody 's hat, and joins Buzz, Hamm, Mr. Potato Head and Rex on a mission to rescue Woody from Al McWhiggin. His springy coil is used as a bungee cord when the toys jump from the roof of Andy 's house. When the toys break into Al 's apartment, Slinky uses his spring to hold Jessie and Bullseye back by coiling them up so the toys can safely rescue Woody. After Al packs up Woody and his Roundup gang and heads for the airport, Slinky, stretching down from the elevator ceiling by Buzz, Hamm and Potato Head, reaches for the case that contains Woody, and almost manages to save him, but is thwarted by the Prospector. While following Al to the airport on a pizza planet delivery truck, he operates the truck 's gas and brake pedals. They manage to reach the airport and use a pet carrier to get inside. When a girl approaches them (mistaking the toys for a puppy), Slinky barks to scare her off to prevent their discovery. After rescuing Woody, they return home with the rest of the group in a stolen baggage carrier. In an outtake, he is seen petting his own hind section and talking to it.
In Toy Story 3, Slinky has a smaller role compared to the previous two films. He is the only original character that had to be re-cast (due to Jim Varney 's death), and was replaced by Blake Clark (with a professional Jim Varney voice) in this film. Slinky is One - Eyed Bart 's "Attack Dog with a Built - in Force Field '' and protects the bad guys with his shield in Andy 's western play sequence. At Sunnyside Daycare, Slinky has been tangled up by the young children. Later that night, Slinky reveals that Woody was telling them the truth about Andy 's intention to store the toys into the attic. Slinky and his friends are imprisoned by Lotso 's gang. He is shown to be the happiest toy to see Woody return, and assists him in subduing the Monkey toy who monitors the security cameras. When the toys reach the dumpster, Slinky stretches himself to create a bridge for the toys to climb across to safety, although they are stopped by Lotso. When the toys end up at the dump, Slinky is the first to be taken up by a magnetic ceiling due to the metallic section (Slinky) of his body. When Lotso betrays the toys and leaves them to be burned up in the incinerator, Slinky is the first to follow Buzz in joining hands in acceptance of their fate. After the toys are rescued by the Squeeze Toy Aliens, he and Hamm are the most vocal about wanting to get revenge on Lotso for leaving them to die before Woody convinces them Lotso is n't worth it. He is eventually donated to Bonnie along with the rest of the toys.
His catchphrase, said in all three movies, is "Golly bob - howdy! ''
Slinky reappears in the short film Hawaiian Vacation, in which he acts as a hotel porter as part of Ken and Barbie 's Hawaiian adventures. He also appears in Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex. He does not speak in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins, silently appearing along with Jessie in one scene.
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Mr. Potato Head (often referred to as simply Potato Head) is a Brooklyn - accented doll based on the real - life toy Mr. Potato Head by Playskool. He is an outspoken and sarcastic potato - shaped toy: his patented design allows him to separate his detachable parts from his body by removing them from the holes on his body. He also has a compartment on his lower back to store extra appendages. He is capable of retaining control over his parts even if they are several meters away from his main body. For example, he can still see if one or both of his detachable eyes are removed, as well as being able to move his hands if they are detached. The same thing applies to his "Mrs. '' counterpart, as she was able to see Andy in his room through her eye left behind. While this attribute is mostly used for comedic effect (i.e. as a running gag, he often finds himself being split or falling apart due to outside forces), it does have its uses, particularly in the second and third films.
In Toy Story, it is hinted that he used to be Andy 's favorite toy years before the events of the film, until he received Woody at the point of kindergarten, and therefore seems to have a strong jealousy towards Andy ` s love for Woody. Then, when Andy gets the Buzz Lightyear action figure for his birthday he becomes fascinated with all of Buzz 's features and ridicules Woody for not having a laser like Buzz as well as Woody 's pull - string. After Buzz is knocked out of the window, Potato Head (perhaps due to his jealously towards Woody, and wanting to reclaim his long lost favorite toy position) blames Woody for kicking him out, thinking that Woody might do the same to him if Andy plays with him more often, and turns the other toys against Woody and leads a mutiny with them. When Woody reveals himself at Sid 's House later, Mr. Potato Head convinces the others to refuse to help him, still assuming that Woody attacked Buzz. But when they are packed up Mr. Potato Head is still unhappy because he is stuck with Rex as a moving buddy and put in a moving truck. Later when Woody catches up with them and tosses RC onto the street to rescue Buzz, Potato Head, still distrusting Woody (and perhaps still eager to reclaim his favorite toy position), orders the other toys to mutiny again, and "toss him overboard '', however, when Bo Peep reveals that "Woody was telling the truth, '' the toys realize their mistake. He decides to reform himself as an apology to Woody by holding Slinky 's tail to help Woody and Buzz back at the truck but gets hit after Slinky 's attempt fails. When Woody tosses RC in the truck, Potato Head gets hit. At the end of the film, he is surprised to hear Molly receiving Mrs. Potato Head for her Christmas present and promptly decides to shave by removing his mustache.
In Toy Story 2, after Al McWhiggin steals Woody, he goes with Buzz, Hamm, Rex, and Slinky to rescue Woody. Later, when they are going to leave, Mrs. Potato Head packs some extra pair of shoes and angry eyes on his back compartment. When the toys cross the street to Al 's Toy Barn, they cause a semi to jackknife, and the chains restraining a large pipe on the semi break, freeing the pipe, which rolls down the street, during which Mr. Potato Head gets one of his feet stuck in a chewing gum and has to pull his foot off the gum before the pipe can crush him. After the toys break into Al 's room using Rex as a battering ram, Potato Head attempts to frighten Jessie by reaching into his back compartment for his angry eyes, but attaches his spare pair of shoes by mistake. When the toys leave the apartment after Al leaves with Woody, Potato Head throws his hat like a frisbee to jam the closing doors, letting the toys pass through. Outside, he is the first to spot an idling Pizza Planet delivery truck nearby. While the toys chase Al in the truck, Potato Head and Hamm operate the truck 's levers and knobs and are advised by three alien toys to pull the truck 's gear lever to get the truck to move. He later saves the alien toys from flying out the window. In the airport, when he sees the luggage area, he gasps and his angry eyes and pair of shoes come out after his compartment opens. He feels annoyed when the aliens repeatedly express their eternal gratefulness towards him, but after the toys return home in a stolen baggage carrier, he reluctantly gives in when his wife wants to adopt the aliens, much to his dismay. In an outtake, he is seen taking a dislike with the Barrel of Monkeys, saying he is "drawing the line at monkeys '' and wants to call his agent.
In Toy Story 3, Potato Head is resentful of the aliens, who still worship him for saving their lives. Potato Head is sad that Andy does n't play with them anymore, and complains all that to Woody. He is frustrated that Andy "threw them away '', when he was actually going to put them in the attic. Again, Potato Head is the toy most doubtful of Woody when he and the other toys are almost thrown away by accident. Potato Head is excited to get played with in Sunnyside. After a rough playtime with the toddlers, he and Mrs. Potato Head 's parts are scattered on the floor, and he gets his parts stuck up a kid 's mouth and nose. Later that night, his wife Mrs. Potato Head through the other eye left in Andy 's bedroom, spots that Andy is looking for his toys, making Mr. Potato Head and the other toys shocked. When Lotso 's dark attitude is revealed, he tries to defend his friends from Lotso, but Big Baby throws him into "The Box '' on Lotso 's orders. When Jessie told Woody she was wrong to leave Andy, Potato Head agrees saying that she was wrong. The toys hatch an escape plan which Potato Head initiates by arguing with and distracting the captors, and he is thrown in the box once again. Only his smaller parts are able to escape, through a small hole. He reassembles onto a floppy tortilla, checks if Lotso is sleeping and then gives the signal. Pecked at by a pigeon, the tortilla falls apart, and Potato Head rejoins the other toys using a cucumber for a body. Bullseye returns his original plastic body to him. The toys manage to escape Sunnyside, and he and the other toys jump onto a garbage truck. Eventually, they end up in a landfill, facing death in the incinerator. However, Potato Head and the toys are saved by his alien children, who he now accepts and declares himself to be eternally grateful, just as the aliens had told him when they met. They eventually return to Andy 's home and get washed. Mr. Potato Head then says his farewell to Woody before Andy comes into the room. Potato Head is donated to Bonnie at the end of the film.
Potato Head reappears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appears in Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot. Mr. Potato Head 's actor, Don Rickles, however died in 2017 so his voice actor is currently unknown for 2019 's upcoming film, Toy Story 4.
He is seen as an Interactive Audio - Animatronic at Toy Story Midway Mania!. It is stated on the Toy Story website that Mr. Potato Head was Andy 's second toy.
Voiced by Estelle Harris (1999 -- present)
Mrs. Potato Head is Mr. Potato Head 's wife and female counterpart. Unlike her husband, Mrs. Potato Head is sweet and not hot - headed or impatient. Although mentioned as one of Molly 's Christmas presents near the end of the first movie, she is not seen until Toy Story 2.
In Toy Story 2, her husband has found her lost earring. Before her husband leaves with Buzz and his troops, she stores his "extra pair of shoes and angry eyes '' into his back compartment. She also warns the toys by saying "Do n't talk to any toy you do n't know! '' She is not seen again until the end of the film. She becomes an adoptive mother of the three Squeeze Toy Aliens that Andy 's toys had found in the Pizza Planet truck, as they will not leave because Mr. Potato Head saved their lives. She is then happily watching Wheezy sing his version of "You 've Got a Friend in Me '' with her husband.
In Toy Story 3, she has a more central role. She is "One - Eyed Betty '', One - Eyed Bart 's wife in the opening sequence. She uses her ninja skills and her nunchuk to herd Woody to the back, and eventually off the train. After One - Eyed Bart and Betty rob tons of gold, they are transported to Dr. Porkchop 's aircraft. At the present time when Andy 's toys all cram themselves in the toy box, Mrs. Potato Head loses one of her eyes. She is one of the toys who believe Andy threw them out on purpose. They are later donated to Sunnyside Daycare. She and her husband experience a rough playtime with the toddlers at the Caterpillar Room. When the toys hear something from the halls, Mrs. Potato Head uses her eye and looks under the door. She at first just sees the dark hall, but then she sees Andy looking for the toys in his room, due to the eye she left behind in Andy 's house. She tells the toys it truly was an accident that they were thrown away. When Lotso is revealed to be evil, Mrs. Potato Head complains about her chewed up pocketbook and yells at him when he calls her "Sweet Potato, '' along with telling him she needs more respect and having over 30 accessories. But Lotso takes off her mouth. Near the end of the film, she is saved from death in an incinerator by her adoptive children, and much to her delight, her husband now accepts them. She recovers her missing eye before she and the toys are donated to Bonnie. Even though she was Molly 's Christmas gift in the first film, the second and third films imply that she is one of Andy 's toys.
Mrs. Potato Head reappears in the theatrical short film Hawaiian Vacation and acts as a tour guide for Ken and Barbie in their Hawaiian adventures. She also reappears in Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.
Vocal effects by Frank Welker (1999 -- present)
Bullseye is a toy horse who was introduced in Toy Story 2. He is the first toy with which Woody interacted in Al 's penthouse. He was very happy to finally see Woody after a long time in storage. Bullseye is shown to loathe fights as he hides in a can when Jessie jumps on Woody. He is also upset at Woody 's intention to abandon the Roundup gang to return to Andy, as Bullseye does not want Woody to leave. When Woody ultimately decides to return to Andy 's room, it is Bullseye 's loyalty that causes Woody to try to get the other toys to join him. At the airport, after Bullseye escapes from Al 's case, Woody and Buzz Lightyear mount Bullseye and gallop across the airfield to rescue Jessie from being sent to Japan. Although Woody gets separated from Buzz, Buzz commandeers Bullseye to follow Woody, as they are seen galloping next to the wheels of the plane Woody and Jessie are on as it heads down the runway. The mission finally ends when Woody and Jessie swing down from the plane and land on Bullseye right behind Buzz, seconds before the plane takes off. After the toys return home, both Bullseye and Jessie become part of Andy 's toys. Bullseye has every letter of Andy 's name printed on the sole of each of his hooves.
Bullseye returns in Toy Story 3 as one of the remaining toys in Andy 's room. He is still Woody 's horse in the opening sequence and saves him when he falls off the train by One - Eyed Betty. Bullseye 's fast speed helps Woody catch the train and rescue the orphans. Bullseye is really sad when Andy would n't play with them anymore. After Andy 's mother thought the bag that the toys were in was trash, Bullseye and the toys manage to safely hide in a recycling bin. The toys are donated to Sunnyside Daycare. At Sunnyside, he proves his loyalty to Woody when he makes clear he wants to stay with him. He only stays when Woody tells him to since Woody does n't want him to be alone in the attic. Bullseye is roughly tumbled over by a screaming toddler with a rolling wheel toy. After the toddler play session, Bullseye is covered with paint and has a blue sticker in his snout, which is removed by Jessie. When Lotso is revealed to be evil, he locks the toys up and shows them Woody 's hat, making Bullseye miss Woody and sad he 's gone. Bullseye is extremely happy when Woody comes back to Sunnyside and gives him back his hat. The toys then plan an escape. Bullseye helps by going through the playground, carrying the aliens on his back. He goes with Woody and is almost caught by Big Baby when Bullseye jumps and accidentally makes an alien fall and squeak. But they hide inside a pail safely. The toys then go to the garbage dump, and Bullseye is the most desperate to escape from the incinerator. They are rescued by the three aliens. At the end, Bullseye is donated to Bonnie, along with the rest of the toys. In Bonnie 's room Bullseye changes the channel of a radio to a Spanish channel causing Buzz and Jessie to dance to the Spanish version of "You 've got a friend in me. ''
Bullseye acts like a dog in many ways. Unlike most of the other toys, Bullseye can not communicate in clear speech but sounds like an actual horse and uses body language to speak. According to a character interview that used to be on the Toy Story website, Bullseye communicated with Jessie while in storage by tapping his hooves to yes or no questions.
Bullseye reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex.
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The Squeeze Toy Aliens, also known as Little Green Men (or "LGMs '') in the Buzz Lightyear of Star Command television series, are a series of green, three - eyed squeaky toy aliens. They appear in all three films, and some were among Andy 's toys after the events of Toy Story 2. Similar to Buzz, they think they 're real aliens. Though it is not certain whether they are male or female at first glance, they are identified in the third film by Mr. Potato Head as "(his) boys, '' implying that all three are male.
In Toy Story, Buzz and Woody climb inside a giant rocket - shaped claw game at Pizza Planet. Inside the claw game are hundreds of squeeze toy aliens. When Buzz asks who is in charge, the Little Green Men say "the claw '', which belongs in the machine; the Little Green Men say that the claw will "decide who will go and who will stay ''. Sid spots Buzz inside the claw game and tries to win him. Woody attempts to save Buzz and escape through the claw game 's maintenance hatch, but the Little Green Men stop him and say that they must not fight the claw. Woody, Buzz, and a Little Green Man get taken to Sid 's house. Sid gives the Little Green Man to his dog, Scud, who violently chews it as Woody and Buzz watch in horror. Near the end of the movie, the same Little Green Man is seen to be intact, and it helps Woody try to scare Sid by getting out of Scud 's food bowl and walking like a zombie toward Sid.
In Toy Story 2, a trio of them are hanging above the dashboard in the Pizza Planet truck. Buzz groans when he sees them, remembering them from the claw game in the first film. When the toys are having trouble getting the truck to move, they tell Mr. Potato Head to "use the wand of power '' (the truck 's gear lever), which they mistook for the control lever of the giant claw game. They nearly fall out of the window, due to the sharp turns from Buzz trying to catch Al in his car. Fortunately, Mr. Potato Head saves them. The Little Green Men are thankful and hand him his ear. Throughout the rest of the movie they frequently say "You have saved our lives, we are eternally grateful, '' much to Potato Head 's dismay. The Little Green Men join the quest to save Woody and mistake the entrance to the baggage area for the "Mystic Portal ''. They chase after the luggage with Rex, Hamm, and Potato Head, only to find cameras. Back home, the trio, along with Bullseye and Jessie, end up becoming some of Andy 's toys. They say their gratefulness to Mr. Potato Head, and Mrs. Potato Head is so happy that he saved their lives, so she suggests that they adopt them, with the Little Green Men calling Potato Head "daddy ''.
They reappear in Toy Story 3 as the "henchmen '' under One - Eyed Bart and One - Eyed Betty, and serve as the getaway drivers during the western opening sequence and drive Barbie 's corvette. The car is destroyed by Buzz 's laser and they are transported to Dr. Porkchop 's aircraft. In the present time, the same trio continues to express their gratefulness to Mr. Potato Head. When Andy 's mother mistakes the trash bag containing them as trash, she puts the toys on the curb, but they manage to escape the garbage bag. They are donated to Sunnyside along with the rest of Andy 's toys. In Sunnyside, the Little Green Men find a toy crane, which reminds them of the claw game in Pizza Planet. The Little Green Men get sat on and bounced on during a rough playtime with the toddlers. The toys plan to escape Sunnyside. The Little Green Men have to go through the playground with Woody and ride on Bullseye. They almost get caught by Big Baby because one of the Little Green Men falls off Bullseye and squeaks, but manage to hide inside a pail. Later when Andy 's toys escape, one of the Little Green Men 's feet gets stuck in the lid of the bin at the bottom of the chute, possibly after being pulled by Lotso, who had been thrown in the bin by Big Baby. Woody goes in to help, but after he helps the Little Green Man, Lotso grabs Woody 's feet and pulls him into the bin just as the refuse truck arrives. The toys are collected by the truck and subsequently sent to landfill. The Little Green Men are separated from the others by a bulldozer when they wander off, having spotted a crane. Woody and Mrs. Potato Head yell and try to warn them, but they are presumed to be dead after being crushed by the bulldozer. In the end, however, they are revealed to have avoided the conveyor belt and later rescue everyone from an incinerator with a giant claw crane for which the Potato Heads finally acknowledges them as his children, reciting their repetitive line, "You have saved our lives and we are eternally grateful. '' The trio are later delivered to Bonnie along with Andy 's other toys.
The Aliens reappear in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by Jodi Benson -- (1999 -- present)
In Toy Story 2, when the toys discover Barbie dolls in an aisle while searching for Woody, Tour Guide Barbie volunteers to help them. During the end credits she is a cinema usherette and is seen giving out instructions to the audience. After a while she asks if everyone has gone and promptly stops smiling and complains that it hurts her face. She then leaves for her break.
In Toy Story 3, a Barbie appears to be one of the toys that Andy 's sister, Molly, owns. In Sunnyside, she falls in love with Ken, but after Lotso 's minions reset Buzz 's personality, and reveal that they want to sacrifice Andy 's old toys in order to protect themselves, she ingratiates herself with Ken in order to obtain the Buzz Lightyear manual that lets her friends reset Buzz to his original form. When she stands up to Lotso by saying that being treated fairly is better than living under his rule, Ken switches his allegiance to her and her friends. In the end credits of the film, they get back together and change Sunnyside, becoming its co-leaders, after Lotso is defeated.
Barbie appears with Ken in Hawaiian Vacation. They sneak out of the daycare and stowaway in Bonnie 's backpack to go to Hawaii but Ken is disappointed to find out that Bonnie did n't take her backpack on her family vacation. The gang creates their own Hawaiian paradise to cheer Ken and Barbie up. They share their first kiss outside and then get trapped in the snow.
Voiced by R. Lee Ermey (Sarge)
Sarge (also known as Army Sarge and Sergeant) is the gung - ho commander of an army of plastic toy soldiers from Bucket O Soldiers and loosely based on his voice actor 's role as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman in the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket.
In Toy Story, he and the Bucket O ' Soldiers are set in particular positions. They are highly disciplined with a "Leave no man behind '' policy and are masters of reconnaissance. Woody describes them as "professionals. '' The soldiers venture out of Andy 's room with one of Andy 's baby monitors (while the other monitor resides in Andy 's room with Woody operating it) and hide in an indoor plant to report Andy 's birthday presents to the toys and one of his comrades was injured after Mrs. Davis accidentally steps on one of them. They announced the first few presents to the other toys in Andy 's room through the monitors, but did n't get to tell them that Andy got a Buzz Lightyear action figure after Rex accidentally breaks the monitor. However, they were able to warn them that Andy and his friends are coming upstairs upon Woody fixing the monitor. Sarge and his soldiers thought Woody was a murderer when he knocked Buzz off the window, so they "frag '' him and each one of them attack Woody, along with the other toys. In the moving van, the soldiers attack Woody when he pushed RC off the van, making Sarge and the toys think he 's murdering him now. However, Sarge sees that Woody knocking Buzz out the window was an accident, attempts to helps him on the van with the other toys, and is proud to work under Woody once again as shown at the end of the film when they hide in a Christmas tree and Christmas lights with the baby monitor to report to the toys what Andy and Molly are getting for Christmas.
In Toy Story 2, the role of Sarge is very minor. He first orders the soldiers to keep looking for Woody 's hat in the toy box. When Buster was about to come to the room, Sarge and his army held back the door (with help from Rocky) to prevent Buster 's entry, but Buster bursts open the door, causing the soldiers to go flying everywhere. When Woody alerts the toys about the yard sale occurring outside the house, he signals Sarge for an "emergency roll call '' and Sarge orders the toys to line up in a single - file line. At the end, Sarge and his soldiers watch Wheezy sing "You 've Got a Friend in Me. ''
In Toy Story 3, several years after Toy Story 2, only Sarge and two paratroopers are seen. Woody orders Sarge and his men to retrieve Andy 's cellphone. That plan, however, fails, and knowing that Andy is going to get out the garbage bag, Sarge and his last two men leave Andy 's room to find a better life. Buzz believes they are going AWOL, but Sarge claims that their mission is complete, and that when trash bags come out, the Army men are always the first to be thrown away (it 's likely that the rest of the soldiers had either left prior to that day, or were sold in a yard sale). They appear again at the end of the film where they land in Sunnyside, and possibly recognizing Barbie, begin a happy new life under Barbie and Ken 's leadership.
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Bo Peep is a porcelain figurine attached to Molly 's bedside lamp inspired by the heroine of the famed nursery rhyme; a beautiful, sweet - natured shepherdess accompanied by a single figure merged to resemble three sheep, who serves as Woody 's romantic interest of the films. In spite of her status as one of Molly 's toys, like Mrs. Potato Head she may fall under the category of Andy 's toy. In Andy 's games of imaginative play she is used as the damsel - in - distress of the stories, and she is depicted as gentle, ladylike, and kindhearted. In the first film, after Woody 's exclusion from the group when Buzz Lightyear started to attract more attention, she remained loyal to him rather than taunting him because of Buzz 's rise in popularity. After Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window, she was one of the only toys who did not antagonize him. She continued to show her attraction to Woody in Toy Story 2, flirting with him while playing a minor role. However, she did not return in Toy Story 3, except in flashback footage, as, over the years, she had apparently been sold, much to Woody 's distress, like a few of the other characters. The particular reason for her disappearance was never disclosed officially, though Woody shows grief over her loss. In August 2015, however, it was revealed that Bo Peep will have a major role in Toy Story 4. The fourth film will focus on her relationship with Woody, along with Woody and Buzz trying to find and bring her back.
RC is Andy 's remote controlled buggy. He has a green body with blue splash decals on the front. RC "speaks '' with revving sounds, although Mr. Potato Head and the other toys can understand him regardless. RC is a playable character in Toy Story Racer.
In Toy Story, RC was fascinated with Buzz 's features. When Woody becomes really jealous, he calls out to Buzz that there is a toy (a magic 8 - ball) trapped underneath the desk. Woody sneaks over to RC, starts him up, and tried to hit Buzz but misses. However, RC hits a board instead, causing thumbtacks on the board to fall and a globe to roll. Buzz falls out a window when the globe hits a red lamp and swings around and hits him. RC says to the other toys that Woody accidentally knocked Buzz out the window. RC then turns on Woody and thinks that he murdered Buzz. When Woody went to the moving van, he got RC out of the box and pushes him into the street and controlled him to rescue Buzz during the moving scene at the end of the film.
After the toys mistakenly think that Woody is trying to get rid of RC, they toss Woody out of the moving truck into the street. RC finds Buzz hiding under the car in the streets and is thrilled to see him alive and well. Buzz controlled RC to catch Woody. Woody switched the remote to turbo mode to catch up with the truck, but RC 's batteries deplete, causing him to slow down and finally stop. When Woody lights the rocket taped onto Buzz 's back, Woody and Buzz hold onto RC as they rocket toward the truck, but the force of the rocket lifts Woody up from RC. Nevertheless, Woody manages to toss RC back into the truck (knocking Mr. Potato Head apart in the process) before he and Buzz go skyrocketing into the air.
In Toy Story 2, RC has a very minor role. He was used when Andy played with his toys. With Buzz riding him, he crashed into Evil Dr. Porkchop and knocked him down. He is not seen again until the end of the film, when he watched Wheezy sing "You 've Got a Friend in Me ''.
RC does not directly appear in Toy Story 3, having seemingly been sold in a yard sale alongside a number of other toys. Instead, he only appears via archival footage.
Voiced by:
Wheezy (also known as Wheezy the Penguin) is a squeeze toy penguin with a red bow tie.
In Toy Story 2, Wheezy is introduced when Woody finds him on the shelf. Wheezy was one of Andy 's favourite toys until one day his squeaker broke. Andy 's mom then put him on the shelf, intending to fix his broken squeaker later, but she forgot about him. He is about to be sold at the yard sale, and in saving him, Woody ends up falling so that he is stuck at the yard sale himself and subsequently stolen by Al. At the end of the film, he gets a new "squeaker '' and sings "You 've Got a Friend in Me, '' the ending theme of the movie. During the outtakes, he describes himself as "not a good catcher '' as he fails to catch Mike 's microphone thus hurting himself several times.
Wheezy does not directly appear in Toy Story 3 as he was sold in a yard sale after Toy Story 2, as mentioned by Woody, but he does appear in footage of Andy as a boy (Toy Story 3). Wheezy appears in the Toy Story 3 video game, where he is voiced by Phil LaMarr in toy box mode along with Bo Peep.
Etch is an Etch A Sketch magic screen by Ohio Art Company. Etch can draw quickly and accurately. Such sketches include guns, portraits of Buzz, Woody and Al, and even semi-complicated maps. This is his form of communication as he is unable to talk.
In Toy Story, Woody compliments Etch 's art by saying that he has the fastest knobs in the west. He was also seen in the background many times, such as during the staff meetings and during Andy 's birthday and Christmas gift opening scenes. He became fascinated with Buzz during the middle of the film when he sketched a portrait of him. Angered by this, Woody erased it. He apparently, like most of the toys, temporarily believes Woody deliberately knocked Buzz out of the window; he helps Mr. Potato Head threaten Woody by sketching a hangman 's noose.
In Toy Story 2, Etch was seen helping Hamm, Mr. Potato Head and the gang to identify Woody 's kidnapper, Al. Later on, when the toys were surfing channels to find the location on how to find Al 's Toy Barn, Etch is seen in the back as he was ready to draw a map for Buzz. Near the end of the movie, sometime before Andy comes back from cowboy camp, Etch, as well as the rest of the toys (then including Jessie, Bullseye, and the Aliens), were aligned to welcome Andy home, with a "Welcome Home, Andy '' sign written on Etch.
Etch was sold in yard sale years after the second Toy Story, was mentioned by Woody, and only appeared in the archive footage of Andy as a kid in Toy Story 3.
Voiced by Jeff Pidgeon
Mr. Spell is based on a popular 1970s Speak & Spell toy by Texas Instruments. He frequently holds or has held seminars on a variety of topics such as "plastic corrosion awareness '' and "what to do if you or part of you is swallowed. '' He also reveals the words he is saying.
When Andy 's friends came to his birthday party, the toys panicked in thinking that they might be replaced with new toys and Mr. Spell, along with basically everyone else aside from Woody, ran to the window in panic to see the size of the presents. Then later, when Andy 's friends were running up to his room, Woody told everyone to go back to their places and the toys began to scatter and Mr. Spell can be seen in the overhead shot running in fright and then again behind Mr. Potato Head.
In Toy Story 2, when Buster finds Woody, Mr. Spell displays 13.5, the amount of time in seconds it has elapsed for Buster to find Woody, setting a new record. Later, after Woody is stolen from a yard sale, Buzz uses Mr. Spell to help Andy 's toys figure out who has stolen Woody.
Mr. Spell does not appear in Toy Story 3. He was sold in a yard sale along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Rocky Gibraltar, Lenny, Snake, Robot, Mr. Shark, Mr. Mike, Roly Poly Clown, See ' n Say, the Troikas, Troll and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
Voiced by:
Rocky Gibraltar, more simply referred to as Rocky, is a figure of a heavyweight wrestler. He is the second strongest toy in Andy 's room, after Buzz Lightyear. In the first movie, he is seen lifting weights (Tinker Toys) with Snake, Troll, Buzz, Mr. Potato Head, and Rex. Rocky lifts the heaviest weights out of all of Andy 's toys. Rocky is silent and plays a minor role in the movies, but he can speak in the Disney Adventures comics and in the Toy Story Animated Storybook and Toy Story Activity Center CD - ROM games from Disney Interactive. In the Activity Center computer game, he can be seen on the top shelf playing cards with Hamm and speaks in third - person, saying, "Rocky needs to work on brain muscles. '' He is one of the toys who turn against Woody, who accidentally knocked Buzz off a window. After Woody throws RC off the moving truck, Rocky, under Mr. Potato Head 's orders, spins Woody in the air and later tosses him off the truck personally. But when the toys realize that Woody 's only use of RC is to help Buzz onto the truck, Bo Peep calls Rocky who then redeems himself by lowering the truck 's ramp for them.
In Toy Story 2, Rocky, along with Sarge 's toy soldiers, tries to hold back the door to prevent Buster from entering, but Buster rams the door open, causing Rocky and the soldiers to go flying. Rocky is also seen holding Wheezy as Wheezy begs Buzz to rescue Woody and when waving Buzz and his rescue squad goodbye as they leave on their mission. At the end of the movie, Rocky is seen enjoying Wheezy 's rendition of "You 've Got a Friend in Me. '' He only appears in the third film via archive footage of Andy as a child.
Rocky 's name and a logo on his championship belt are references to the Rock of Gibraltar. Rocky is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.
Voiced by Joe Ranft
Lenny (often known as Lenny the Binoculars) is a pair of wind up binoculars. He is used as binoculars by the other toys in various situations and is talkative when he warns the toys what he sees on his watch and has a major role in Toy Story. Lenny does not speak in Toy Story 2, unlike the first film, and his role is more minor; Buzz uses Lenny to keep watch on Woody during the events at the yard sale until Al McWhiggin of Al 's Toy Barn steals Woody. Lenny appears in Toy Story 3 through archive footage from when Andy was young. Lenny was sold, possibly at a yard sale, before the events of Toy Story 3. Lenny is a playable character in the Toy Story Racer video game.
Voiced by: Jack Angel
Snake is a green and purple jointed rattlesnake toy who is best friends with Robot, as they are often seen together. He has a major role in the first film. He is unable to talk, but he communicates through hissing. When Buzz was accidentally knocked out the window, he sided with Mr. Potato Head against Woody. Later, at the end of the film, he and the other toys try to help Woody, Buzz and RC get back onto the moving van when they realized their mistake.
In Toy Story 2, Snake has a very minor role in the film. He is first seen when Hamm, Mr. Potato Head, Etch and everyone else try to figure out who stole Woody. He is n't seen again until the end of the movie where he watches Wheezy sing "You Got a Friend in Me ''.
He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3 along with Robot, Bo Peep, Etch, Lenny and the other toys, but he made two cameos in the home videos at the start of the film.
Voiced by: Jeff Pidgeon
Robot is an educational robot toy from Playskool. Unlike his best pal Snake, he speaks English. He is shown to be good with building blocks. In Toy Story, he stands on his head for Buzz to run on his treads like a treadmill and also repairs his ship. He is also one of the toys who turn against Woody when Buzz was accidentally knocked out the window. He and Rocky later throw Woody out of the moving truck, but then try to help Woody, Buzz and RC when the toys realized that they made a big mistake.
In Toy Story 2, he assists Buzz in the yard sale role call and is n't seen again until later at the end of the film where he watches Wheezy sing "You Got a Friend in Me ''.
Robot does not appear in Toy Story 3. He was sold at yard sale along with Snake and the others, but he made a cameo in the home videos at the beginning of the film.
Voiced by: Jack Angel
Mr. Shark is a blue rubber, squeaky shark toy who appears in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. The back of him is never seen because he spends most of his time in the toy box. In the first film, he steals Woody 's hat and imitates him before he takes his hat back.
In Toy Story 2, he is used as one of the death traps during Andy 's playtime. At the end of the film, he repairs Wheezy by finding him an extra squeaker. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3.
Mr. Mike, also known as Microphone, is a toy tape recorder who helps Woody amplify his voice during staff meetings with his attached microphone. In Toy Story 2, Wheezy uses him as a karaoke machine. He was sold at a yard sale prior to the events of Toy Story 3.
See ' n Say is an educational animal toy that appeared in Toy Story. Whenever he feels strong emotions, his central arrow wheel spins rapidly. This is his form of communication as he is unable to talk and just like Etch, Mr. Spell and Mike, he gets around by waddling on his stand. See ' n say did not appear in Toy Story 2. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3. However, a different See ' n Say was seen when Ken, Twitch, Sparks, Chunk and Stretch were seen gambling inside a vending machine.
Roly Poly Clown is a rocking, chiming clown toy with a painted jacket and hands and a party hat seen in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. While not being able to talk, he mainly communicates through facial expressions. He also must rely on rolling around to get places since he does n't have feet. When not out, Roly Poly Clown resides in the toy box. He was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Lenny, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Robot, Snake, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Mr. Shark, the Troikas, and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
The Troikas are a set of five non-talking egg - shaped toys that appear in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. They are in the style of the Russian doll with a picture of five animals: a dog (largest), a cat (second largest), a duck (medium), a fish (smallest), and a ladybug (second smallest). They were sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with Bo Peep, her sheep, RC, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, Troll and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
Troll is a Troll doll with pink hair and a blue bathing suit that appear in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. In the first film it became fascinated with Buzz and is seen lifting weights (Tinker dolls) with Rocky, Rex, Mr. Potatoe Head, Robot and Snake. In Toy Story 2 it is seen alongside with Bo Peep to help for searching Woody 's hat before Andy is about to go to the summer camp. It was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with RC, Bo Peep, her sheep, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, the Troikas and Toddle Tots Fire Truck.
The Toddle Tots Fire Truck is a fire truck toy directly taken from the Little Tikes company that appears in Toy Story and Toy Story 2. It is piloted by the Fireman Toddle Tots. It was sold at a yard sale before Toy Story 3, along with RC, Bo Peep, her sheep, Wheezy, Etch, Mr. Spell, See ' n Say, Lenny, Mr. Mike, Rocky Gibraltar, Robot, Snake, Mr. Shark, Roly Poly Clown, the Troikas and Troll.
These characters are the toys owned by Bonnie in Toy Story 3 and the short films.
Voiced by:
Chuckles is a brokenhearted toy clown who was once owned by Daisy (along with Lotso and Big Baby), and is later owned by Bonnie. He is first seen mournfully looking out the kitchen window in Bonnie 's house, where he tells Woody about Lotso 's past, stating that Lotso used to be a good friend. Chuckles explains that he, Lotso, and Big Baby were accidentally left behind on a trip with Daisy 's family, and when they finally made it back to Daisy 's house, both him and Lotso discovered that Lotso had been replaced, which caused Lotso to snap. Chuckles objected when Lotso claimed all three had been replaced, but Lotso silenced him, and lied to Big Baby, saying that Daisy did not love him anymore. After the three found their way to Sunnyside and Lotso took over, running it like a prison, Chuckles was damaged and Bonnie found him and took him home. He still feels sorry for what happened to Lotso, but knows that what Lotso is doing at Sunnyside is wrong. He gives Woody a pendant (which formerly belonged to Big Baby) that says My heart belongs to Daisy, which later leads Big Baby to discover Lotso 's deception and rebel against him. In one of the end credits sequences, Chuckles sees a crayon - drawn picture of him, and Dolly says that "Bonnie really got your smile, '' making Chuckles happy again, for the first time in many years.
Chuckles returns in the short film Hawaiian Vacation and he sings a Hawaiian love song while playing a ukulele when Barbie and Ken get their recreated Hawaiian adventures. He also appears in Small Fry.
Voiced by Bonnie Hunt
Dolly is a soft dress - up rag doll with purple hair, googly - eyes, an orange dress with buttons sewn on, and gently blushing cheeks. She helps Woody get back to Sunnyside Daycare Center with the rest of Andy 's toys. In the Toy Story 3 video game, she is seen as a witch. It 's indicated that she is the leader of Bonnie 's toys.
Dolly appears in the theatrical short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by Timothy Dalton
Mr. Pricklepants is a stuffed hedgehog. He wears lederhosen and a Tyrolean hat, and views himself as a thespian. Mr. Pricklepants was made in Germany (although he speaks with an English accent and actor 's diction) and is from the Waldfreunde (Forest Friends) collection of premium imported plush toys. Throughout Toy Story 3, he expresses great interest in theater arts and in the same respect, takes the art of role playing as a child 's toy very seriously. Buttercup refers to him sarcastically as "Baron von Shush '' due to his habit of "shushing '' the other toys when they break character. During the credits, he plays Romeo, with one of the aliens playing Juliet.
Mr. Pricklepants reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appeared in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot.
Voiced by Kristen Schaal
Trixie is a blue toy Triceratops. She chats online with "a dinosaur toy down the street '' who goes by the name "Velocistar237. '' She becomes best friends with Rex during the credits, playing cooperatively on a computer.
Trixie reappears in the short films Hawaiian Vacation, Small Fry, and Partysaurus Rex, and appears in the TV specials Toy Story of Terror! and Toy Story That Time Forgot.
Voiced by Jeff Garlin
Buttercup is a white unicorn with a yellow mane and a pink nose. Despite his appearance, he has a very gruff voice and sarcastic personality. He is the first to introduce himself to Woody when Bonnie brings him home. He later appears at the end of the movie, now very close friends with Hamm.
He also appears in Small Fry, Hawaiian Vacation, and Partysaurus Rex.
Voiced by
Peas - in - a-Pod are three soft, plush green balls in a green zip - up case that looks like a pea pod. They have the personalities of small children, and their names are Peaty, Peatrice, and Peanelope.
The Peas - in - a-Pod reappear in the short film Hawaiian Vacation. They also appear in Small Fry.
Voiced by Emma Hudak
Angel Kitty is a Christmas ornament that only appears in Toy Story That Time Forgot. A running gag in the film is Angel Kitty giving a moral about Christmas much to other toys ' (mostly Trixie) dismay and joy. She is mostly seen with a trumpet giving morals. She was last seen in Toy Story That Time Forgot giving one last moral and "vanishes ''.
Totoro, the title character from My Neighbor Totoro, who is also the mascot of Studio Ghibli, appears as one of Bonnie 's toys. He is a big plush toy and does not speak at all during the film, nor is he spoken to by anyone by his name. He does however display his famous grin during the credit scenes, and at the end of the film, he is seen juggling the alien triplets, while Mr. and Mrs. Potato Head watch. According to the tie - in book, The Art of Toy Story 3, Totoro 's appearance in the film was intended as a tribute to Hayao Miyazaki, who is a close friend of Pixar executive John Lasseter. In addition to Lasseter 's relationship to Miyazaki, another factor that contributed to Totoro 's appearance was Disney 's role in dubbing Studio Ghibli films for their English - language releases.
The following toys are only seen in the first film.
Combat Carl is a G.I. Joe - type toy character. He first appears as a toy of Sid 's that Sid blows up with an M - 80 explosive in his first scene in Toy Story. Pieces of him are later seen coming to life during Woody 's plan to frighten Sid into altering his behavior near the end of the film.
A different character with the same name appears in Toy Story of Terror!
The Mutant Toys are mutilated toys who live their unhappy lives in the darkest corners of Sid 's room. They are assembled by Sid from mixed pieces of several toys that belong to him and Hannah (hence the baby doll 's parts). They do not speak, though it is revealed they know Morse Code. Woody and Buzz initially think that they are cannibals who are going to eat them, before they learn that the toys are actually friendly and compassionate. They fix Buzz 's broken arm, Janie and the Pterodactyl, and also help Woody implement his plan to save Buzz from Sid. They close in on Sid as Woody tells Sid how much they hate being mutilated, and they all rejoice in victory after Woody frightens Sid away with his own voice. In Toy Story Treats, the Mutant Toys appear in Andy 's house.
Appearing in Toy Story That Time Forgot, these are the toys of Bonnie 's best friend Mason.
Shown in a Buzz Lightyear commercial in Toy Story, this section contains characters from Toy Story 2. Al 's Toy Barn appears in Toy Story 3: The Video Game.
Voiced by:
Stinky Pete, also known as Prospector, is a prospector doll and the primary antagonist of Toy Story 2. He is a toy modeled after a character on the fictional television show, Woody 's Roundup, where the characters consists of Sheriff Woody, Jessie, Stinky Pete, and Bullseye. The Prospector doll seen in the film had never been opened and was still "Mint in the Box '' making him sought after by thousands of collectors.
In contrast to the character on the show, Stinky Pete is quite intelligent, manipulative, and well - spoken and, when he first appears, he seems to be a grandfather figure and mentor. However, he becomes embittered because he has never been sold or played with until Al McWhiggin eventually found him. Stinky Pete makes no secret of his hatred for space toys like Buzz Lightyear, whom he blames for causing the show to be canceled after the launch of Sputnik, causing children all over America to lose their interest in cowboy toys, shifting their interest to space adventures instead.
Years after being purchased, Stinky Pete would spend years in storage while Al bought more toys and advertisements from Woody 's Roundup. After Al had stolen Woody, Stinky Pete and Jessie were excited because now they could go to the Konishi Toy Museum in Japan, where they will be treated with respect. Woody reveals that he has an owner named Andy Davis, which infuriates Jessie and leads the Prospector to become determined to make sure Woody does n't go back to Andy at any cost, despite the fact that he is now aware that Al actually has stolen Woody because he still belongs to Andy.
When Al accidentally rips off Woody 's arm, Stinky Pete secretly leaves his box and he sabotages Woody 's attempt to recover his arm and return to Andy by turning on the TV. He then frames Jessie for this by putting the TV remote near her before returning to his box and pretending that he "does n't know '' how the TV turned on after Woody falls for his trick. He later convinces Woody to wait until his arm is supposed to be fixed in the morning, which is done after Al calls in a cleaner. After Woody 's arm is fixed, Stinky Pete convinces Woody after a story that Jessie tells him about her old owner, that Andy wo n't play with him anymore by the time he goes to college, but in Japan, Woody will be treasured forever. Woody agrees to stay with them instead of going back to Andy, much to Stinky Pete, Jessie and Bullseye 's delight.
However, Woody 's friends arrive during a celebration of going to Japan and they demand that Woody returns to Andy, but Woody angrily refuses, resulting in the toys sadly saying goodbye and leaving without him. However, before leaving, Buzz says an upset goodbye to Woody by saying that he 'll be staying behind glass forever and not being loved again if he chooses to go to Japan, leaving Woody to think over his choice. However, Woody has a change of heart and tells Buzz that he is coming with them, and invites his friends to come with him to Andy 's house. However, Stinky Pete is very angry with Woody for attempting to leave with Jessie and Bullseye back to Andy 's house, and once again he sabotages Woody 's attempt to escape by tightening the bolt to the vent (as well as revealing to the others that he can actually get out of his box whenever he wants) and uses his pick axe to turn off the TV, causing Woody to realize that it was the Prospector who foiled his escape the previous night by turning on the TV and framing Jessie for it. He sees unpopular toys like him and the Roundup Gang doomed to either always ending up in storage or "spending a lifetime on a dime store shelf watching every other toy be sold, '' similar to his fate before Al found him, and does not want Woody, Jessie, and Bullseye to suffer the same fate. He also sees children as destroyers of toys whose ultimate fate will be "spending eternity rotting in some landfill ''. This makes him all the more determined to go to the Tokyo museum and become an exhibit for the rest of his life, unlike Woody and Jessie. When Slinky attempts to get Woody out of Al 's suitcase, Stinky Pete quickly stops them and yanks Woody back in.
When an angry Stinky Pete punches Buzz off the ramp at the airport to prevent Woody 's rescue, Woody confronts and fights Stinky Pete for harming his friend. Stinky Pete manages to overpower him, ripping his right arm in the process. He then attempts to finish Woody off after he refuses to get back in the case as told, assuring him that he will be fixed again in Japan while saying that going home will eventually end up with him being in pieces. The other toys blind and stun Stinky Pete with flash cameras that the toys found after they confused and mistook another green luggage case for Woody 's. Buzz, surviving the fall, captures Stinky Pete and Woody instructs Buzz and the other toys to dump Stinky Pete into a Barbie doll backpack that belongs to a little girl named Amy (voiced by Debi Derryberry), who enjoys decorating her dolls ' faces with tattoos, as punishment and revenge for his betrayal, knowing it will make him learn the true meaning of playtime. Upon learning of Amy 's occupations of decorating her dolls, Stinky Pete starts to weep as he is taken to his new owner 's home. Ironically, this fate is a rectification of a past injustice done to Stinky Pete. Since much of his anger came from never being sold, opened or played with; now he is finally being owned by a child after waiting 50 years.
However, after the film 's release, the film 's website featured interviews with the characters. In Stinky Pete 's interview, he has reformed and said that he has become accustomed to Amy decorating him, as well of being fond of Amy herself.
Despite his appearance, Stinky Pete does not appear in the third film, because he was no longer mentioned, though he seems to accurately predict the events of Toy Story 3 (as what he had said after his defeat started to come true in the film). He asks Woody if Andy will take him to college, and later tells the rest of the toys that children destroy toys, which occurs in the Sunnyside Daycare, and that they will be forgotten and end up in a landfill permanently, where the toys are narrowly rescued from the incinerator after an escape attempt and return to Andy 's. The last part of his prediction did not come true.
According to his box, Stinky Pete had a total of 9 sayings. In one outtake, Stinky Pete is seen talking to two Barbie dolls in the box, promising them a role in the third film. In another outtake, Stinky Pete gives Woody a choice to go back to Andy 's home or stay, until he suffers a bout of flatulence, which he later implies is the reason for his nickname.
Despite the fact that he does not appear in the third film, Stinky Pete does appear in the Toy Box Mode of Toy Story 3: The Video Game.
According to the DVD commentary, the Pixar team had deliberated for a while what the proper comeuppance for the Prospector would be before it was decided for him to be placed in a Barbie bag with a face - painted Barbie.
Voiced by Tim Allen
When searching for Woody at Al 's Toy Barn, Buzz comes across the Buzz Lightyear aisle, causing him to stare in awe. While looking around, Buzz notices that there is a display case labeled "New Utility Belt. '' Buzz then climbs up the display case to find a newer Buzz Lightyear with a Utility Belt. When Buzz tries to take the belt, the newer Buzz (who thinks he is a real Space Ranger, similar to Andy 's Buzz in the original film) springs to life and grabs him, believing him to be an AWOL Space Ranger. Buzz finds himself wondering out loud if he was this deluded, which Utility Belt Buzz mistakes for talking back and threatens to use his laser on him. Buzz tries to prove to him that he is not an actual Space Ranger by showing him that his laser is actually a light bulb. This does n't work however and Utility Belt Buzz jumps out of the way and tells him that he could 've killed him. Buzz then decides that he 's had enough and tries to leave, only for Utility Belt Buzz to jump out and attack him. After trapping Buzz in a box similar to the one he came in, he is mistaken for the original Buzz by the gang. When Rex mentions that he knows how to defeat Emperor Zurg -- having recently acquired a walkthrough guide for the Buzz Lightyear video game that he 's been stuck on, Utility Belt Buzz quickly decides to tag along thinking that the toys are trying to find Zurg. While the gang search Al 's Toy Barn and through the vents of Al 's apartment with Utility Belt Buzz, they become increasingly suspicious of his cocky attitude ("I 'm Buzz Lightyear! I 'm always sure! '') and strange actions (such as thinking that he is flying up the elevator shift and is unaware that he 's standing on the elevator, which is helping him fly) until they are finally reunited with Andy 's Buzz, who defuses his counterpart 's confusion by claiming that the situation is a ' Code 546 ' (Precisely what this involves is unknown, but it prompted Utility Belt Buzz to refer to Woody as "Your Majesty '').
Heading to the elevator on the way down, they encounter a savage Emperor Zurg toy and Utility Belt Buzz engages him in battle. When Utility Belt Buzz claims Zurg killed his father, Zurg responds he is his father, causing Utility Belt Buzz to scream in dismay (a parody of The Empire Strikes Back). Rex defeats Zurg by accident, sending him falling off the elevator to his apparent doom by knocking him off - balance with his tail when he turns away as Zurg prepares to shoot Utility Belt Buzz, upsetting him. He is last seen playing catch with his "father, '' the Zurg toy, whose attitude towards Utility Belt Buzz has changed after the fall.
Voiced by:
Evil Emperor Zurg is a space villain action figure and Buzz Lightyear 's archenemy. He has red evil eyes with neon gritting teeth, silver horns on his head, a purple tunic with a black cape on it and his weapon, a gun (which has a power control that, as a homage to This is Spinal Tap, goes to 11). In some cases, he does not have a gun but a hand like the one on his other arm.
In the first film, Zurg is a referenced character, and does not appear at all. However, Zurg is first seen in the opening sequence of the second film when Buzz is trying to take his main power away from him (Zurg 's main power is from an AA battery which is actually revealed to be a hologram). In the ensuing battle, Zurg vaporizes the top half of Buzz Lightyear 's body with his gun, killing him. The sequence then cuts showing that the opening sequence was actually a video game played by Rex.
As the story progresses, a Zurg toy in Al 's Toy Barn bursts out from its box and follows Andy 's Buzz Lightyear, who is on the way to rescue Woody from Al McWhiggin. Zurg is deluded, similar to Andy 's Buzz in the first film. In the second film, another copy of Buzz Lightyear, deluded in the same way as Andy 's Buzz in the first film, escapes from Al 's Toy Barn and battles with Zurg on top of an elevator. In a reference to the relationship of Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader, the principal hero and villain respectively of the original Star Wars trilogy, Evil Emperor Zurg claims he is in fact the father of Buzz, in an almost word - for - word parody of the scene in The Empire Strikes Back. As Zurg attempts to finish off Buzz at point - blank range, Rex accidentally hits Zurg with his large tail and sends him falling down the elevator shaft. The second Buzz looks down the shaft in despair, thinking he has lost his father, while Rex is excited that he has finally managed to defeat Zurg in real life. Near the end of the film, Zurg is seen to have survived his fall with a bent horn and is now playing catch with the second Buzz. He supposedly bumped his head so hard that he forgot he was Buzz Lightyear 's worst enemy. In the novelisation, however, Zurg is killed by the fall, and Buzz finds him and takes him back to Al 's Toy Barn to bury him.
Zurg is mentioned in the third film by Buzz in his bad guy character after Lotso resets him to Demo mode. Zurg appears briefly during a sequence in the end credits, where he is donated to Sunnyside Daycare center and greeted by the resident toys.
Zurg also appears as in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and its direct - to - video movie Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins. Zurg says he is Lightyear 's father during a fight in order to shock Lightyear, before regaining the advantage during the fight and then denying the truth of that previous claim. Whether or not this is actually true, Buzz definitely does not know who his father is. This version of Zurg is also severely lightened up, going from the movie 's Darth Vader-esque version to a far less intimidating one; in the TV series Zurg is a flamboyant villain who is just as much a comic relief character as he is a formidable opponent, similar to Skeletor. This Zurg is known for videotaping Buzz 's speeches, maintaining a troll doll collection, and various other comedic habits. He is shown to have a bit of a British accent throughout the series. It is revealed in the first episode that there is a Nana Zurg, but she is never seen at all (although he claims that she 's "plenty evil ''). Zurg would appear to be a cyborg of some description, also much like Darth Vader. However, it has also been discussed amongst fans that his "cybernetic '' traits could also very well be because of advanced technology. There is yet to be a clear answer. In the TV series, he is the warlord - like ruler of an evil empire and is in command of an army of Hornet robots, as well of a minion workforce consisting of Grubs and Brainpods. The seat of which is the hellish Planet Z (standing for Xrghthung). In various media surrounding the film, his planet is said to be called Xrghthung. However, because this is unpronounceable in the TV series it is changed to simply "Z. '' It is unknown whether Zurg rules over any other worlds, but, if he does, they have not been revealed. Planet Z evidently possesses vast resources and forces enabling Zurg to be a serious threat to the Galactic Alliance. Despite being frequently gullible and bungling, Zurg is evidently highly intelligent, able to concoct sound military tactics and Machiavellian evil schemes. Additionally, he occasionally references stereotypes of typical evil villains and intentionally violates them, showing how aware he is of his similarity to them. For example, when designing a vast prison on Planet Z, he declines building an execution arena, for it simply "gives the captives more time to get away. '' When he was designing a schematic for a new base, he expressly forbade for air vents that allow "hero - sized objects '' into the control room. "And, may I remind you, no giant trash compactor! When heroes fall in, they always have enough time to figure a way out. Make it -- an incinerator! ''
Despite his camp nature, he is just as fearsome and ruthless as his movie counterpart. Zurg is frequently mentioned to be the most evil villain in the galaxy and appears to possess authority over all other villains. In fact, he would appear to be a physical manifestation of pure evil. He is particularly proud of this and frequently brags of how "evil '' he is. He is a parody of Darth Vader on Star Wars, Darkseid on DC Comics, Ming the Merciless on Flash Gordon, Megatron on Transformers, Doctor Doom on Marvel Comics as well as The Six Million Dollar Man.
Zurg appears as a playable character in Toy Story 3: The Video Game on the PlayStation 3 in Toy Box Mode after completing several missions. He also has a convertible (the ZurgsMobile) that matches his personality. His mini counterpart is featured in the short Small Fry.
Zurg appears in the 2015 live - action Disney movie, Tomorrowland.
Voiced by Jodi Benson
Tour Guide Barbie is a Barbie doll initially from Al 's Toy Barn in Toy Story 2. When Hamm, Slinky Dog, Rex and Mr. Potato Head come upon the Barbie aisle at Al 's Toy Barn while searching for Woody, Tour Guide Barbie hops into the toy car they are driving. She gives the toys a tour in the toy barn and helps them locate Buzz Lightyear (they actually find a different, ' limited - edition ' Buzz). After the outtakes of the film, Tour Guide Barbie waves goodbye to the audience until her face hurts from smiling. She then leaves for a break.
These characters live at Sunnyside Daycare Centre. All appear in Toy Story 3 only.
Voiced by Ned Beatty
Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear (Lotso for short) is a plush, hot pink teddy bear with a big plum nose, a sweet strawberry scent and a southern accent, who uses a wooden toy mallet as an assistive cane (although he is still able to walk even without it). He is the self - proclaimed leader of the toys at the Sunnyside Daycare Center. He initially acts like a kind - hearted and wise caretaker, but is eventually revealed to be a ruthless prison warden, although his backstory makes him more of a tragic villain.
In Toy Story 3, he welcomes Andy 's toys to Sunnyside and assigns them to the Caterpillar Room. Woody tries to escape from Sunnyside so he could go back to Andy, but is instead found and taken by a little girl named Bonnie. Woody learns from Chuckles, one of Bonnie 's toys, that Lotso was once owned and loved by a girl named Daisy, having become Daisy 's favorite toy when she obtained it for Christmas. Lotso became friends with Chuckles and Big Baby. One day, Daisy and her family had a picnic in the countryside. When she fell asleep, her parents drove her home, inadvertently leaving the toys behind. Not wanting to give up, Lotso led his two friends on a long trek back to Daisy 's house, only to discover that Daisy had gotten another Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear. Lotso became embittered and convinced Big Baby that they had been replaced, leaving Daisy 's home with Chuckles. Lotso eventually discovered Sunnyside Daycare Center and turned it into an internment camp for toys. Big Baby took on the role of Lotso 's enforcer, while Chuckles was broken, and was discovered by Bonnie and taken home.
Meanwhile, Lotso realizes that Buzz is actually requesting a transfer of himself and the rest of Andy 's toys to the Butterfly Room. Thinking of Buzz to be useful to him, Lotso only approves the transfer to him. When Buzz refuses Lotso 's offer to stay in the Caterpillar Room, Lotso reverses Buzz to demo mode and manipulates him into imprisoning Andy 's other toys.
When Woody and Andy 's toys attempt to flee from the daycare center. Lotso catches the group and once again offers them to stay at Sunnyside when a garbage truck arrives, but the toys refuse and Lotso instructs Stretch to push the toys into the dumpster. Woody argues with Lotso over his wrongdoings and reveals to him what he knows about Daisy and tosses Daisy 's ownership tag to him; Lotso destroys it and says that toys are supposed to be discarded. His henchmen then turn on him and Big Baby throws him into the dumpster. As the toys attempt to flee, a vengeful Lotso pulls Woody into the dumpster just as the truck collects it to get the other toys to be sent to the dump.
At the landfill, the toys end up on a conveyor belt leading to a shredder. Finding Lotso stuck under a large golf bag, Woody and Buzz rescue him and escape the shredder, only to realize that it leads to an incinerator. As they are about to reach the incinerator, Lotso sees an emergency stop button, and with Woody and Buzz 's help, manages to reach it. However, instead of pushing the button, he chooses to leave them behind, as he is still evil and selfish on the inside and still believes that all toys are meant to be at the dump. When Woody and the toys are rescued by the aliens, Hamm and Slinky want to get back at Lotso for leaving them to die, but Woody talks them out of it, claiming that "he 's not worth it '' and that the dump is the right place for him. Lotso (who is unaware the Andy 's toys are still alive) is eventually found by a garbage man who recalls that he once had a Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear as a child, and straps Lotso to the grill of a garbage truck with three other toys before driving away.
Lotso was intended to be in the first film (originally for a sequel to Tin Toy), but the technology to design the fur to the proper consistency had yet to exist until Monsters, Inc. in 2001, so he was saved for the third film. However, an early version of Lotso can be seen in the first film when Woody says "Everybody hear me? Up on the shelf, can you hear me? Great! '' and can be seen in the second film during the first Al 's Toy Barn Commercial.
Test audiences who had sympathized with Lotso for his backstory had wanted him to push the button in the incinerator scene to redeem himself. However, according to the DVD commentary, director Lee Unkrich explained that Lotso not pushing the button to save the toys was intended for the audience to really care about the characters after three films of getting to know them when it looked like it was the end for them in the incinerator. The Pixar team took note of the people 's concerns and made Lotso to be an outright, selfish liar.
Lotso also makes a cameo appearance in Pixar 's 2009 movie Up in a little girl 's room in the city where Mr. Fredricksen 's house goes by in the bottom left corner in the shadow of the bed.
Ned Beatty was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Villain for his performance as Lotso, and Pixar and he received widespread praise for the character 's back story and Beatty 's performance. IGN named Lotso the best villain of the summer of 2010.
Voiced by Michael Keaton
Ken is a smooth - talking doll who falls in love with Barbie. He first appears wearing light blue pleated and cuffed shorts, and a tucked - in leopard - print shirt with short sleeves. His accessories include matching ascot, sensible loafers and a fashion - forward gold belt. He lives in Ken 's Dreamhouse, a big yellow doll house with three stories, a large wardrobe room, and an elevator. Barbie originally breaks up with Ken when she finds him, Lotso, his other henchmen, and a reset Buzz Lightyear locking up her friends and discovering their ulterior motive. Piqued, Ken orders her locked up as well.
However, as part of a plan to escape, she pretends to forgive Ken, gaining access to his dream house. Barbie then ties Ken hostage to try to get him to reveal how to reset Buzz back to normal. As a provocation, she entangles him in an ironing board and rips his clothing apart. Ken reveals the truth after she begins to sabotage his prized Nehru jacket. He is not seen again until Lotso has the toys cornered at the dumpster, where he is the first to turn on Lotso. Ken comes to Barbie 's help by trying to stop Lotso, having realized Barbie through her understanding of civics. Lotso tells Ken "there 's 100,000,000 just like her '', but Ken insists that for him, there is no one else like her, and wins back her affections.
In the end credits of the film, he and Barbie are seen greeting new toys at Sunnyside as Barbie becomes his girlfriend again, and with Lotso gone, they both take charge of the Sunnyside toys as the new leaders. He resembles a real doll from 1988 called Animal Lovin ' Ken. Due to being called a "girl 's toy, '' it is often joked about his femininity: such as his large selection and obsession with clothes, him wearing Barbie 's scarf, his rather feminine boxer - shorts, Bookworm not being suspicious seeing who he believed being Ken (Barbie in a spacesuit outfit) in high heels, as well as at the end Buzz believing Barbie wrote them the fancy note, only to discover Ken 's signature at the end.
Ken, along with Barbie, appears in the theatrical short, Hawaiian Vacation, in which the two embark on a journey to Hawaii, but ends up in Bonnie 's room, where Woody and the other toys reenact various Hawaiian scenes.
Voiced by Woody Smith (2010 -- present)
Big Baby is a Bitty Baby doll with a lazy eye who carries around a bottle and is adorned with childlike scribbling that resembles ferocious tattoos. He normally does not speak, instead communicating through baby sounds, with the exception of one spoken line after the toys escape Sunnyside. Big Baby was once one of Daisy 's toys before he, Lotso, and Chuckles were lost at a rest area. After returning home, Lotso lied to Big Baby, claiming that Daisy replaced and no longer loved them. They eventually took over Sunnyside Daycare, where Big Baby became Lotso 's third - in - command. Eventually, Woody reveals to Lotso that Daisy still cared about them and gives Big Baby his pendant, sparking his memory of his former owner, whom he called "Mama ''. Lotso derides Big Baby for his attachment to Daisy and smashes the pendant with his mallet. Big Baby turns against Lotso and throws him in the dumpster (a parody of a scene from Return of the Jedi), blows him a raspberry, and helps Woody and his friends escape Sunnyside.
In the credits, Big Baby is much happier at Sunnyside under Barbie and Ken 's care, and even wears gold diapers to match their outfits at a party at the daycare.
The baby who provided the voice for Big Baby is named "Woody, '' according to Lee Unkrich 's Twitter account, and the film 's credits confirm it as being Woody Smith (listed under Additional voices).
Voiced by John Cygan
Twitch is a green "insectaloid warrior '' action figure with a bug 's head, orange eyes with ferocious chomping mandibles, wings, and two muscular arms. He is one of the toy thugs working for Lotso. He helps to reprogram Buzz, and later apprehends Andy 's other toys. He keeps a search light working in the playground. He and Sparks "break '' the Chatter telephone before he is convinced of Lotso 's evil by Woody and Ken. Because of how Lotso abused Big Baby, Twitch turns on Lotso, along with the other gang members. During the credits, he is seen living in a happier Sunnyside and is shown taking a turn to endure playtime with the young children in the Caterpillar Room, switching with Chunk so he can rest.
Twitch is reminiscent of the 1980s "He - Man and the Masters of the Universe '' toy line, and other similar lines.
Voiced by Whoopi Goldberg
Stretch is a toy rubber octopus with sticky suckers on her eight long arms and a glittery, purple body. She is the sole female member of Lotso 's gang, and at first welcomes the toys, but later helps capture them with her elastic tentacles. With her cohorts, she later catches Woody and his friends, and was eager to push them into the dumpster, should they not admit defeat. However, Stretch was also seen to be the first toy to doubt Lotso 's leadership and motives, as she was seen to visibly cringe at Lotso 's true character being revealed. After Lotso destroys Big Baby 's locket, he angrily orders Stretch to push Woody and his friends into the dumpster, which Stretch is now reluctant to do, causing Lotso to reveal his true feelings about all toys. Eventually, Lotso is thrown into the dumpster by Big Baby for his lies and treachery, and Stretch immediately leaves the area, shocked at what had happened but relieved. In the credits, she welcomes new toys happily without Lotso and is later seen sneaking a message to Woody and the gang in Bonnie 's backpack. She is based on a purple Wacky WallWalker toy from the 1980s.
Voiced by Jack Angel
Chunk is an orange muscular rock monster toy. He has two red eyes when fierce, blue eyes when he 's friendly, huge fists, and a face that you can change by rolling it up or down to a different facial expression or pressing a button at the top of his head. He welcomes the toys to Sunnyside, but later helps Lotso and Buzz imprison them. He is then convinced of Lotso 's deception when he abuses Big Baby, and is seen helping Woody and his friends climb to safety. In the credits, he is seen taking the abuse of the younger children, later taking a rest while Twitch takes his place. He is based on the short lived Rock Lords toyline.
Chunk has a very low level of intelligence: During a gambling scene, he describes Buzz as "He ai n't the sharpest knife in the... place... where they... keep the knives ''. He enjoys teasing Ken during the gambling scene since he called him a "girl 's toy. ''
Voiced by Jan Rabson
Sparks is a robot toy at Sunnyside Daycare. He has shown to be both blunt and sarcastic. Sparks ' retro design has flashing red LED eyes and a blaster cavity in his chest that spits out real sparks when he 's rolling around on his wheels, but is completely safe for children. He sports telescoping arms with working pincers and he can also elevate his body to make himself taller. He starts out as one of Lotso 's henchmen, but in the dumpster scene, when Ken states that Lotso put all of the toys in Sunnyside Daycare into a pyramid and placed himself on the top, he and Twitch (and likely Chunk as well) start to doubt Lotso 's leadership as both of them look at each other. Both of them are also in shock when Lotso shows his true colors and pokes Big Baby angrily in the stomach. They also witness Big Baby who retaliates by throwing Lotso into the dumpster, and he and the rest of his fellow henchmen let Andy 's toys escape. In the end, he and the rest of Lotso 's former henchmen reform for the better and become nicer.
Sparks has only one line, when he points out Chunk 's low intelligence, he says, "Neither are you, Chunk '' after Chunk gives his opinion on Buzz.
Voiced by Teddy Newton
Chatter Telephone is a character based on the real - life toy of the same name. He can only speak when his receiver is lifted from its cradle. He lives in the Caterpillar Room. He is the oldest toy at Sunnyside, and becomes an ally to Woody. When Woody returns to Sunnyside, he immediately says that coming back was a mistake because Lotso had rigged his security after he left and that the best action would be to just lay low. He reluctantly gives him instructions on how to escape Sunnyside. For this, he is later brutally beaten and broken for helping Woody and his group escape, and eventually rats Woody out when convinced that Woody and the other toys had already escaped, but are caught just before they can do so. He sadly apologizes to Woody who fortunately shows sympathy for the broken toy. In the credits, he has been repaired and now lives a happier life there at Sunnyside Daycare without Lotso, having been invited into the Butterfly Room. When Woody talked to him, he called him Ol ' Timer.
Voiced by Richard Kind
The Bookworm is a green toy worm with a built - in flashlight who wears glasses. He is a genius who loves reading books. He keeps a library of instruction manuals in a closet at Sunnyside, and gives Lotso the instruction manual for Buzz Lightyear. He later gives the same manual to Barbie (who he thinks is Ken since she is disguised in his spacesuit outfit). It is unknown if he is in allegiance with Lotso but is most likely not, since he is never seen with him very often. In the credits, he is happy without Lotso, and is seen using his flashlight to light a disco ball during a party at Sunnyside. He is based on the Glo Worm toys from the 1980s. He only has two lines in the film.
The cymbal - banging monkey is a monkey toy based on the Musical Jolly Chimp toy from the 1960s. he monitors the Sunnyside Daycare security cameras at night, and can alert Lotso and the gang of any toys attempting to escape by screeching into a microphone to broadcast over the intercom. Chatter Telephone tells Woody that he must get rid of the monkey before he and his friends can escape. Woody and Slinky manage to succeed in taking him down by wrapping him up in Scotch Tape and shutting him in a filing cabinet. In the credits, he is seen in a much happier situation, gently playing his clash cymbals while wearing star - shaped sunglasses.
The following toy characters were seen in other Toy Story projects:
Appearing in Small Fry, the Discarded Fun Meal Toys are toys that were discarded by children and have formed a support group in a storage room at Poultry Palace. Buzz Lightyear came across them at the time when he was replaced by the Fun Meal Toy version of Buzz. Among the Fun Meal Toys are:
A set of toys who were stolen from their owners during their stay at the Sleep Well roadside motel by Manager Ron 's pet iguana, Mr. Jones, so that Ron could sell them online. They appear in Toy Story of Terror!, where they are held along with Bonnie 's toys while Ron auctions them off on the Internet. They eventually escape with help from Jessie, and depart the Sleep Well on a mail truck.
Voiced by:
Andrew "Andy '' Davis Jr. is the owner of Woody, Buzz and the other toys in each of the three films. He lived with his mother and sister Molly, but left to go to college when he was 17. However, his father is never seen or mentioned in the films. Toy Story 2 implies that Woody might be a hand - me - down toy, and when introducing the 2009 set of Toy Story collectibles, John Lasseter said "We always imagined he was a hand - me - down to Andy from his father. ''
In Toy Story, Andy receives a Buzz Lightyear action figure for his 6th birthday party. Tension erupts between Buzz and Woody, who has always prided himself on being Andy 's favorite. Andy initially spends much more time with his new toy, but still has a special place in his heart for Woody. Thus, he becomes concerned when both toys go missing for a time, fearing they would be lost during his family 's move to a new house.
In Toy Story 2, Andy is only seen in the beginning and for a short while in the ending. During his appearances, it is clear that he still loves his toys very much. At the end of the film, Andy is pleased to have five new toys -- Jessie, Bullseye, and the three Squeeze Toy Aliens -- added into his collection. He marks them, as he has all his toys, with his name on the soles of their feet, or in Bullseye 's case, one letter of his name on each hoof.
In Toy Story 3, Andy is 17 and preparing to go off to college, intending to put most of his toys in the attic except for Woody, whom he initially plans to take with him. While he apparently has not played with his toys for some years and has given many of them away, he is still resistant to his mother 's suggestion to either donate or sell his remaining toys, referring to them as "junk '' (which the toys believe is what he truly thinks). When they go missing, however, he becomes upset and confused when he can not find them. Before he goes to college, Woody secretly puts the address of Bonnie (the young daughter of a family friend) on the box with the toys in it, causing Andy to come around to the idea of donating them. He passes them on to young Bonnie, who he realizes will look after his childhood playthings and gives them each their own introduction, stating the qualities that make each of them special. When Bonnie finds Woody in the box as well, Andy shows great reluctance to pass on his favorite toy, but ultimately relents, allowing the toys to stay together in an environment where they will be loved and played with. He spends time with Bonnie and the toys one last time before departing for college, and is noticeably sad when Bonnie has Woody "wave '' to him. He then responds with a quiet "Thanks, guys ''.
According to Toy Story producer Ralph Guggenheim in a December 1995 Animation Magazine article, John Lasseter and the story team for Toy Story reviewed the names of Pixar employees ' children, looking for the right name for Woody 's owner. Davis was ultimately named after and based on Andy Luckey, the son of legendary animator Bud Luckey, Pixar 's fifth employee and the creator of Woody. Luckey has declined to publicly comment on the connection.
In the DVD feature for Toy Story 3 on the voice cast, the Pixar crew remark that they were n't sure if Morris would want to do it or would sound right, and were ecstatic when they heard his voice on an answering machine, Morris was perfect for teenage Andy.
Voiced by Emily Hahn
Bonnie Anderson appears in Toy Story 3 as one of the children who goes to Sunnyside Daycare. She becomes the owner of Woody, Buzz and the other toys at the end of the film. Although she has an active imagination and boisterous manner when playing with her toys, she is shy and withdrawn when she is around adults, but she quickly warms up to Andy, when he donates his toys to her. She finds Woody, who was trying to escape Sunnyside, takes him home, and plays with him. Woody is impressed by what he sees at her house and ultimately gets himself (and all of Andy 's other toys) donated to her. Andy briefly plays with her after handing over his toys, and tells her he needs someone "very special '' to take care of them for him.
In the short film Hawaiian Vacation, Bonnie goes on a vacation to Hawaii and leaves Barbie and Ken in her room.
Voiced by:
Molly Davis is Andy 's younger sister, seen as an infant in the first film, a toddler in the second film, and as a preteen in the third film. Andy uses her crib as the town jail during playtime at the beginning of the first film, implying they are sharing a room. When the family moves later in the film, Andy and Molly get separate rooms, though Molly has plans to move into Andy 's presumably larger room once he leaves for college. In the first film, she slobbers on Mr. Potato Head and throws him from the crib, causing his parts to scatter and earning her the nickname "Princess Drool '' from him. At the end of the film, she receives a Mrs. Potato Head toy for Christmas. In Toy Story 3, she also owned a Barbie doll, which she donates to the daycare center as she was less interested in dolls and toys by that time and is now a preteen.
Voiced by Laurie Metcalf (1995 -- present)
Mrs. Davis is Andy and Molly 's single mother. In the first film, she has brown hair and ties it in a ponytail. In the other two films, her physical appearance is noticeably different and instead of brown, she has blonde hair and leaves it down. Though presented as a loving mother to Andy and Molly, Mrs. Davis is actually a major (though indirect) threat to the toys, as she frequently asks Andy to throw out the toys he no longer wants. Mrs. Davis ' actions regarding the toys sets the plot in motion in all three films, though they are not malicious. In the first film, she purchases a Buzz Lightyear toy for Andy on his birthday, prompting the rivalry between Buzz and Woody which leads to them being lost and forced to find their way home. In the second film, she puts Wheezy up for sale at a yard sale (due to a broken squeaker), prompting Woody 's rescue attempt where he is subsequently stolen by Al. In the third film, she orders Andy to clean out his room before going to college and mistakenly throws away the bag of toys Andy was putting in the attic, causing them to be donated to a daycare center. Despite this, in the second film, she is overly protective of Woody, describing him as an old family toy. At the end of the third film, she breaks down and weeps at the departure of her first son, but Andy reassures her that she will always be with him even if they are apart. This moment between mother and son plays a major factor in Woody deciding to have Andy donate his toys to Bonnie, thus giving them a new lease on their lives.
Some 2014 articles explore the possibility that Mrs. Davis is Jessie 's original owner, Emily from her flashback memories. The evidence cited references the flashbacks of Jessie and Emily from Toy Story 2. The flashback sequence shows Emily as a child in the 1960s, which is when she would have been a child. The sequence also shows that the cowboy hat that Emily had is very similar to Andy 's hat but with an additional white lace area, and Emily 's hair was brown, just like Mrs. Davis 's hair in the first film.
Voiced by Erik von Detten
Sid Phillips is Andy 's neighbor until Andy moves, but it is unknown if he and Andy know each other. Sid is known for torturing and destroying toys. Many of his toys are either destroyed, have missing pieces, or replaced with parts from other toys, even Sid "torturing '' Woody by burning his forehead with a magnifying glass. He is also shown tormenting his sister and destroying her toys by certain methods such as exploding, burning, and decapitating them. He also enjoys skateboarding, and his shirt depicts the logo for Zero Skateboards. The toys mention that he was consistently kicked out of summer camp; and in the audio commentary on the tenth anniversary DVD, the directors mention that he is a bully but also the "most creative character in the movie ''. It is also implied that he does not have the best home life. His parents do not make any major appearances: his mother 's voice is only heard briefly several times in the film, and his father is only seen briefly asleep on a chair in front of the TV in the living room.
He also seems to be the only human depicted in the film to observe toys actually coming to life. At the end of the first film, Woody and Sid 's mutant toys decide to rescue Buzz by scaring Sid, which causes him to become very frightened of toys. The last straw is Woody coming alive and telling him to take good care of his toys or else. This causes Sid to panic and run back into his house screaming, and then to his room when his sister scares him with her toy doll.
Sid does not appear in the second film, although he is mentioned once by Buzz during the toys ' mission to rescue Woody from the greedy toy collector Al McWhiggin. Sid also appears in the four - issue Monsters, Inc. comic mini-series produced by Boom! Comics.
In the third film, Sid (now an adult) makes brief appearances in two scenes once again voiced by Erik von Detten. He is shown to be a garbageman with a small beard, recognizable by his characteristic T - shirt. His only dialogue in this movie involves humming guitar riffs, and he is depicted listening to heavy metal music through a pair of large headphones.
Voiced by Sarah Freeman
Hannah Phillips is Sid 's sweet - natured, younger sister who appears a few times in the first film. In Toy Story, Hannah has adjusted to her toys being mutilated by Sid. Most of her dolls either have different heads or altered body parts, and at the end of the film she finds enjoyment in scaring her brother after he has been horrified by Woody and the other toys. She spends most of the time during the movie playing with her altered dolls.
Voiced by Wayne Knight
Al McWhiggin -- nicknamed "The Chicken Man '' by Andy 's toys -- is the owner of a chain of local toy stores and also an obsessive collector of all things related to the old Woody 's Roundup TV series. He steals Woody from a yard sale held by Andy 's mother in hopes of selling him to a toy museum in Tokyo, Japan. He is unscrupulously obsessive, overweight, very impatient, and lazy, as he complains of having to "drive all the way to work on a Saturday '', despite his apartment only being across the street from the store. He is partially inspired by his voice actor Wayne Knight; during the production of Toy Story 2, Knight had a goatee like Al in the movie. Cartoonist and animator Scott Shaw has also been acknowledged as another model and inspiration for Al.
Al is the owner of a large toy store called "Al 's Toy Barn ''. The store is mentioned in the first Toy Story in an advertisement for Buzz Lightyear toys, but Al did not appear. He is first seen in Toy Story 2 during an advertisement on TV in which he is dressed up in a chicken suit of which Hamm remarks "I despise that chicken '' after turning off the TV. He later is seen trying to buy Woody in a yard sale held by Andy 's mom. After Andy 's mother refuses to hand over the doll and locks him in a box, Al steals Woody with the intent of selling him, along with the rest of his collection of Woody 's Roundup toys and memorabilia, to a Japanese toy museum for a large sum of money. Andy 's toys arrived at his apartment to rescue Woody but Stinky Pete 's interference allow Al to leave for the airport with the Roundup Gang. Andy 's toys follow him there on a stolen pizza planet truck. (In the original script, Andy 's toys steal Al 's car and Al steals the pizza planet truck and gives chase) As Al 's plane is about to fly off to Japan with the Roundup Gang packed in the luggage, Andy 's toys are able to save Woody, Jessie and Bullseye, getting Jessie off of the plane at the last second, while the Prospector is placed in a little girl 's backpack for his betrayal. During his latest commercial soon after, Al is unable to control himself from hysterically sobbing over his losses as a result, which Hamm responded to by saying "Well, I guess crime does n't pay. ''
Al was originally conceived to appear in the first Toy Story film, but was cut in the final screenplay. However, Al 's Toy Barn makes an appearance in the first film during a television advertisement for Buzz Lightyear toys.
Al 's last name was revealed on the nameplate on his office desk; also, when he is done taking pictures, he answers his cellphone and Mr. Konishi can be heard saying his full name. According to Disney Adventures magazine, Al was not permitted to play with his toys when he was a kid, which led to his toy - collecting niche. It is implied that Al 's full name is actually Carl McWhiggin since Mr. Konishi is heard calling him that on the phone.
His car 's license plate reads LZTYBRN, which is "Al 's Toy Barn '' (minus the vowel letters). It is also the actual license plate of Ash Brannon, co-director of Toy Story 2, according to the Toy Story 2: Special Edition commentary.
Voiced by Lori Alan
Mrs. Anderson is the mother of Bonnie. She wears purple glasses. In Toy Story 3, she is the receptionist at Sunnyside Daycare. When Andy comes to return his toys to Bonnie, Mrs. Anderson is amazed to see a grown - up college student donating his childhood toys to her daughter. During the credits scene, she carries another box of donation toys into the Butterfly Room at Sunnyside that contains Emperor Zurg.
In Toy Story of Terror, she and Bonnie are driving in the countryside at nighttime when the car tire punctures. In the morning, the curtain behind the manager 's desk fell down revealing all her missing toys. Mrs. Anderson calls the police to arrest the manager who stole the toys.
Voiced by Jonathan Harris
Geri, an elderly specialist in toy restoration and repair with a fully loaded toy repair kit, comes to Al 's apartment in Toy Story 2 to fix Woody up in preparation for his trip to Japan. He insists that Al let him take his time with the work and views it as more than a simple job, asserting, "You ca n't rush art. ''
Geri previously appeared in Pixar 's 1997 short, Geri 's Game, where he plays a chess game against himself. In that short, he is voiced by Bob Peterson. One of the drawers in his carrying case contains chess pieces, a reference to the short.
Emily was the name of Jessie 's former owner and is mentioned by her in the second film. She appears in a flashback musical sequence while "When She Loved Me '' by Sarah McLachlan is played. During this sequence, Jessie tells Woody of her first experience with an owner who was Emily and why she resented being a child 's toy. As a young child she was a fan of the Wild West and horses, along with the Woody 's Roundup TV show, apparent through her love of Jessie. As she became a teenager, her interest began to shift towards makeup, pop culture of the time and gossip with her friends which led to Jessie being neglected then thrown away through a donation box. She is mentioned by Jessie for the second time in the third film, when she fears of being thrown away by Andy, saying "I should 've seen this coming! It 's Emily all over again! ''.
Daisy is a little girl who appears in flashbacks in Toy Story 3. She owned Lotso, Big Baby and Chuckles in the beginning, but accidentally left them behind at a rest area along the road. In order to pacify her, Daisy 's parents bought her another Lots - O ' - Huggin ' Bear rather than finding Lotso and the rest of her toys, which made Lotso think he had been replaced and forgotten about, and changed him into a sinister, ruthless toy.
Voiced by Stephen Tobolowsky
Ron is the greedy manager of the Sleep Well Motel, appearing in Toy Story of Terror. He has a habit of stealing toys from customers in his motel and selling them on the Internet, with the help from his pet iguana, Mr. Jones. When Bonnie and her mother went to Sleep Well after their car got a flat tire, Mr. Jones steals a number of Bonnie 's toys, including Woody, Buzz, and Jessie. Ron then takes pictures of the toys and puts them on his bidding sale, awaiting buyers. Jessie manages to trick Mr. Jones into tearing off the curtain, revealing the toys ' location and Ron 's scheme to Bonnie and her mother, who then calls the police.
Two police officers later arrive to question Ron, who attempts to escape by stealing their car but is forced to flee on foot after immediately crashing it into the motel sign. The police officers initiate a manhunt for him.
Voiced by R.C. Cope
Mason is Bonnie 's best friend, and a post-Christmas playdate between the pair serves as the setting for Toy Story That Time Forgot. Mason receives an entire Battlesaurs collection for Christmas but is distracted from them by a new video game system. However, due to Trixie and Reptillus ' efforts he abandons the video game and plays with his new toys. He is later shown to write his name on his toys in similar fashion to Andy and Bonnie.
Voiced by Frank Welker
Scud is Sid 's aggressive Bull Terrier. His viciousness is first demonstrated when Sid sets a Squeeze Toy Alien on his nose and commands him to maul it mercilessly. Scud serves as an obstacle for Woody and Buzz as they try to escape Sid 's house. First, as Woody tries to run off when Sid leaves the bedroom door open he encounters Scud sleeping and accidentally wakes him, forcing him and Buzz to hide. When Sid takes Buzz to the backyard to blow him up with a rocket, Woody tries to save him but Scud traps him in Sid 's room. The mutant toys help Woody distract Scud so they can rescue Buzz. Scud later spots Woody and Buzz trying to escape on the moving van and pursues them, but is eluded when he runs after them into the middle of a traffic intersection and is trapped by the cars as they crash while trying to avoid him.
Voiced by Frank Welker
Buster is Andy 's pet dachshund, whom he receives at the end of Toy Story. Buster appears in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3. In Toy Story 2, he is depicted as being very energetic. Buster is considered to be nice to the toys in Andy 's room and is the only one in Andy 's house who knows that the toys are alive, and is fiercely loyal to Woody, obeying all commands given to him by Woody: when Wheezy is taken by Andy 's mother to be sold at a yard sale, Woody is able to command Buster to carry him down to the yard sale so he can rescue Wheezy. However, he does not respond to commands from Andy whatsoever. Slinky is also able to communicate with him due to the fact they are both dogs. At the beginning of Toy Story 2, Buster finds Woody in a record of 13.5 seconds.
In Toy Story 3, Buster is now older and looks very aged, with mixed brown and gray fur, a gray - white snout, overweight, and too old to help Woody save the other toys (in a direct parody of the rescue scene from Toy Story 2), although he remains nice and loyal to them. He tends to fall asleep as well.
Crazy Critters are a bunch of 2 - dimensional animal puppets from the Woody 's Roundup show including an armadillo, bat, bear, beaver, bird, deer, vulture, bear cub, porcupine, flying squirrel, rabbit, skunk, snake, fox, raccoon, tortoise and bobcat. They come quickly when Jessie calls them, with the tortoise falling slightly behind the others. Woody understands them in the Woody 's Roundup show. The Crazy Critters make cameo appearances as prizes determined by the score of players in Toy Story Midway Mania!, and in the Toy Story 2 video game on the Nintendo 64.
Voiced by Dee Bradley Baker
Mr. Jones is an iguana appearing in Toy Story of Terror!, owned by the manager of Sleep Well Motel, Ron. He is loyal to his master and is trained to secretly steal toys from customers so that his master can sell the toys off the Internet. During the majority of the special, he is seen snatching most of Bonnie 's toys away in a flash through the air shafts and ventilation systems. Eventually, he accidentally swallowed Mr. Potato Head 's left arm and Combat Carl 's right hand. However, he is forced to regurgitate them out after Jessie tricks him into ripping off the curtain, revealing Ron 's scheme to Bonnie and her mother. It is unknown what happens to him afterwards, although it is implied that he will be sent to Animal Control.
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when did the stop the boats campaign start | Operation Sovereign Borders - wikipedia
Operation Sovereign Borders (OSB) is a border protection operation led by the Australian Defence Force and headed by Major General Andrew Bottrell, aimed at stopping maritime arrivals of asylum seekers to Australia. The operation is the outcome of a 2013 federal election policy of the Coalition, which commenced on 18 September 2013 after the election of the Abbott Government. The operation has largely addressed the issue of people smuggling into Australia, by implementing a "zero tolerance '' posture towards illegal boat arrivals in Australia, in conjunction with mandatory detention. The current Commander Operation Sovereign Borders, Air Vice Marshal Stephen Osborne, was appointed to the command on 1 February 2017.
During the 2013 federal election, the Abbott - led Coalition campaigned on a policy that, if elected to government, they would "stop the boats '' and would launch Operation Sovereign Borders, combining the resources of multiple government bodies under direct control of a three star general. Following the election, Angus Campbell was promoted and appointed to oversee the operations.
Following the 2013 election, the portfolio of the Minister for Immigration was renamed as the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection. The appointed ministers, initially Scott Morrison and subsequently Peter Dutton, refused to release information on asylum seeker boat arrivals as they occurred, and a weekly media briefing was announced. In January 2014, having not held a media briefing for almost a month, Morrison announced that briefings would be held on what he described as "an as needs basis ''. On 10 July 2014, Morrison stated that the secrecy policy was put in place by Lieutenant General Campbell, which had been rigorously implemented by ministers, their advisers, and various government departments.
On 23 August 2013, during the election campaign, the Coalition announced a key component of Operation Sovereign Borders called the Regional Deterrence Framework. Budgeted at A $ 420 million, the RDF aimed to engage with other countries in the region, particularly Indonesia, to prevent asylum seeker vessels leaving for Australia. The framework included a $20 million proposal (titled "The Indonesian community engagement programme '') which was to include:
The "buy - the - boats '' plan was widely ridiculed, with fact - checking group PolitiFact Australia calling the proposal "ridiculous ''. Lieutenant General Campbell told a Senate Estimates committee that, two months into the OSB program, no boats had been purchased because Indonesia did not support the idea, although he stated that the measure remained available.
The government runs a "communication campaign to counter people smuggling '' with advertisements in multiple languages, targeting "press, radio, social and search media '' across Australia. Between January and May 2015, $750,000 had been spent on the campaign.
Operation Sovereign Borders operates as a Joint Agency Taskforce (JATF), with the support of a range of government agencies, organised as three operational task groups:
Abbott 's government claimed a ninety per cent reduction in illegal maritime arrivals. There were 207 in November 2013, as opposed to 2,629 in November 2012.
In response, Shadow Minister for Immigration and Border Protection Richard Marles claimed there was a 40 per cent reduction in arrivals in the month following the introduction of the Regional Resettlement Arrangement with Papua New Guinea, shortly before the 2013 election.
On 30 March 2014, the Coalition announced that 100 days had passed since a "successful boat arrival ''. On 19 June, the Government announced six months since the last successful illegal boat arrival.
On 7 July 2014, a vessel containing 157 (mostly Tamil) asylum seekers from India was intercepted by Australian authorities 27 kilometres (15 nmi) from Christmas Island. The government refused to confirm the existence, location, or status of the boat, until the High Court placed an injunction on any attempted refoulement of the vessel 's passengers to Sri Lanka. Pre-empting the decision of the court, Minister for Immigration and Border Protection Morrison announced that the people on the boat would be transferred to the Curtin Immigration Reception and Processing Centre in Western Australia, where they would be assessed by Indian consular officials under an arrangement made with that country to repatriate any Indian citizens or residents. On 2 August, Morrison announced that the group had refused to meet with Indian officials and were then transferred to the Nauru Regional Processing Centre.
On 6 August 2015, the new immigration minister Peter Dutton announced it had been 12 months since the last successful people smuggling operation, with the last SIEV arriving in Australia 's care in July 2014. The ABC News ' Fact Check subsequently listed the Coalition 's "We Will Stop the Boats '' promise as delivered.
The number of arrivals given in OSB operational updates is defined as those "transferred to Australian immigration authorities '', and does not include arrivals in Australian territorial waters who have been subject to a turnback operation -- that is, sent out of Australian waters on their own vessel, or an Australian vessel employed for this purpose. As of 7 February 2014, The Australian newspaper estimated that at least "six boatloads '' of asylum seekers had been subject to turnbacks by OSB authorities.
On 15 January 2014, an orange fibreglass "survival capsule '', containing about 60 asylum seekers, came ashore at Cikepuh in West Java. A second containing 34 people arrived at Pangandaran on 5 February. The Daily Telegraph reported that the Australian government was believed to have purchased eleven of the capsules from Singapore at a cost of around $500,000.
In May 2014, Australia was alleged to have placed two persons who had arrived earlier in the year onto a boat with other asylum seekers which was turned back to Indonesia.
In January 2015, Minister Dutton announced that 15 vessels, containing 429 asylum seekers in total, had been subject to turnback operations of some kind towards Indonesia or Sri Lanka since the beginning of OSB.
In July 2015, Labor Shadow Minister Richard Marles conceded that "Offshore processing and regional resettlement, together with the Coalition 's policy of turn - backs, is what actually stopped the boats. ''
In August 2015, Dutton stated that, since December 2013, 633 people on 20 vessels have been subject to turnback operations, including a boat from Vietnam in July. In March 2016, Dutton stated that 698 people on 25 vessels had been turned back since the beginning of the OSB program.
In 2014, the status of refugees sent to offshore processing centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea was decided: 13 people (9 people from Iran and 4 people from Pakistan) were granted asylum, while 7 people (from Iran, Pakistan, and Cameroon) received negative assessments. The asylum protection in Nauru was valid from 2014 for up to 5 years. As of 2015, more than 400 people who had their refugee claims rejected had been returned home from the Australian - run detention centre in Papua New Guinea, some of which did so voluntarily.
The Indonesian government has voiced concern over the operation due to its implications for Indonesia 's national sovereignty. A member of the Golkar party, Tantowi Yahya, described the plan as "offensive '', and officials from the Indonesian Navy said "forcing the boats back would also unfairly shift the burden of dealing with the asylum - seeker problem back on Indonesia ''. The policy also came under fire from refugee advocates.
On 26 September 2013, Indonesian Foreign Minister Marty Natalegawa took the "unusual step '' of releasing details of his talks about the policy with his Australian counterpart Julie Bishop, which was later blamed on a clerical error.
Australia has apologised for violating Indonesian waters during their "tow back '' operations. These incursions occurred after Chief of the Defence Force David Hurley stripped naval personnel of workplace safety protections that would have required them to exercise "reasonable care '' to protect their safety and that of the refugees. On 21 January 2014, Customs (now Australian Border Force) and Defence announced that a joint review would be conducted to investigate the circumstances under which Australian naval vessels entered Indonesian territorial waters. The inquiry, which covered the period between 1 December 2013 and 20 January 2014, found that two Royal Australian Navy frigates had crossed into Indonesian territory four times during the period, while Customs vessels did so on another two occasions. In response, one Australian Navy officer lost his command, while several others were disciplined. Indonesia has responded to the incursions by deploying military assets to intercept people - smuggling boats.
Several journalists and media outlets have expressed concern and frustration over the tightly - controlled release of information about Operation Sovereign Borders, usually restricted to the weekly briefings held on Friday afternoons. In the weekly briefings, both Minister Morrison and Lieutenant General Campbell have refused to discuss "operational '' or "on - water '' matters in response to questions from journalists. The Minister has rationalised the control of information by stating that the government was not "operating a shipping news service for people smugglers ''.
On 22 January 2014, the ABC broadcast allegations that Royal Australian Navy personnel had mistreated asylum seekers during an OSB operation, including video footage of passengers receiving medical treatment in Indonesia for burns on their hands, which they claimed were sustained when they were forced to touch a hot boat engine. Minister Morrison downplayed refugee claims of being abused by the navy, saying that they had "strong motivations to fabricate stories '', and was among several ministers to call for the ABC to apologise to the Navy. Foreign Minister Julie Bishop said: "if there is any co-operation we can extend to ensure that these allegations are scotched then we 'd be prepared to do it ''. The ABC 's Media Watch program opined that ABC News had "over-reached '' when reporting the story, and should have been more thorough in verifying the claims. On 4 February, ABC managing director Mark Scott issued a statement in which he said that "The wording around the ABC 's initial reporting needed to be more precise on that point '', referring to the video footage verifying the injuries but not how they had occurred. On 7 February, Fairfax Media 's correspondent in Indonesia, Michael Bachelard, interviewed Yousif Ibrahim Fasher who repeated the initial allegations, as well as several further claims of mistreatment and possible breaches of maritime law.
53 Australian legal scholars signed a joint statement condemning the transfer of asylum seekers to Sri Lanka, claiming a breach of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
On 7 July 2014, the High Court of Australia placed an injunction on the transfer of 153 asylum seekers to Sri Lankan authorities while the full bench of the court considered a challenge to the handover mounted by refugee advocates on the grounds that the government was breaching "non-refoulement '' obligations under international law. Under Article 33 of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, in which Australia is a signatory, this principle forbids a nation state from sending a refugee back to anywhere where they may face persecution.
In 2016, Operation Sovereign Borders is still in effect, with international law allowing Australia to deny any vessel entry into their territorial waters, as long as Australia does not return these asylum seekers to a place in which they may be threatened. Australia therefore recognises there to be no violation of their international obligations, as refusing entry of asylum seekers does not equate to a breach of non-refoulement.
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when did postage go up to 49 cents | History of United States postage rates - wikipedia
Initial United States postage rates were set by Congress as part of the Postal Service Act signed into law by President George Washington on February 20, 1792. The postal rate varied according to "distance zone '', the distance a letter was to be carried from the post office where it entered the mail to its final destination. Rates were adopted in 1847 for mail to or from the Pacific Coast and in 1848 for mail sent from one place in the west to another place in the west. There were double and triple rates as a letter 's size increased. There were ship fees which were also added (i.e. mail to Hawaii). The ship fee, including the ship rate on letters for delivery at the port of entry, were on a per letter basis, rather than weight. The United States issued its first postage stamps in 1847. Before that time, the rates, dates and origin of the letter were written by hand or sometimes in combination with a handstamp device.
Since enactment of the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970, postage rates have been set by the Postal Regulatory Commission.
Taking the above data and plotting it yields the graph shown to the right. The dark plot is the nominal issued price of the stamp and the light plot is the price adjusted for inflation and is shown in 2016 US cents.
This plot shows that, despite the rise in the nominal cost of a first - class stamp, the adjusted cost of the stamp has stayed relatively stable. The large jumps in the early 1900s are because a change by a single penny was large compared to the cost of the stamp. For example, the price increase from $0.02 to $0.03 on July 6, 1932 was a 50 % increase in cost. Additionally, while the cost of the stamp itself remained fixed, the adjusted price in 2016 dollars was not fixed over time which added to larger jumps in adjusted prices.
Domestic parcel post service was adopted in 1913, 25 years after the Post Office had agreed to deliver international parcel post packages pursuant to the Universal Postal Union treaty and various bilateral agreements with other nations. Initially, there were no or few postal regulations governing packages mailed by parcel post. E.g., to construct a bank in Vernal, Utah, in 1916, a Salt Lake City company ascertained that the cheapest way to send 40 tons of bricks to the building was by parcel post.
Bulk postal rates were restructured in 1996:
In 2007, First Class Mail was restructured to include variable pricing based on size, not just on weight. Shape - based postage pricing is a form of dimensional weight. Also at that time, International Parcel Post air service was re-branded as Priority Mail International, and Parcel Post surface service was discontinued for international destinations.
Regular Air Mail service began in 1918 and over the years rates varied considerably depending on distance and technology. Domestic Air Mail, as a class of service, officially ended May 1, 1977. By that time all domestic First Class Mail was being dispatched by the most expeditious means, surface or air, whether or not the Air Mail postage had been paid.
Additional charges for Special delivery existed from 1885 to 2001. Today, Express Mail Overnight is the most similar service level.
During the summer of 2010 the USPS requested the Postal Regulatory Commission to raise the price of a first class stamp by 2 cents, from 44 cents to 46 cents, to take effect January 2, 2011. On September 30, 2010, the PRC formally denied the request, but the USPS filed an appeal with the Federal Court of Appeals in Washington DC.
On September 25, 2013, the USPS announced a 3 cent increase in the First Class postal rate, to be effective January 26, 2014, increasing the price of a stamp to 49 cents. Bulk mail, periodicals, and package service rates were also increased by 6 percent. A loss of US $5 billion during the 2013 fiscal year was the reason given for the increase.
The legislation which set the price to 49 cents was enacted as a temporary measure and as an "exigent surcharge for mailing products and services ''. However, this legislation was set to expire in April 2016. As a result, the Post Office retained one cent of the price change as a previously allotted adjustment for inflation, but the price of a first class stamp became 47 cents: for the first time in 97 years (and for the third time in the agency 's history), the price of a stamp decreased.
Unions of the U.S. Postal Service:
History:
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who wrote the gathering the most recent irish winner of the man booker prize | Booker Prize - wikipedia
The Man Booker Prize for Fiction (formerly known as the Booker -- McConnell Prize and commonly known simply as the Booker Prize) is a literary prize awarded each year for the best original novel written in the English language and published in the UK. The winner of the Man Booker Prize is generally assured international renown and success; therefore, the prize is of great significance for the book trade. From its inception, only novels written by Commonwealth, Irish, and South African (and later Zimbabwean) citizens were eligible to receive the prize; in 2014, however, this eligibility was widened to any English - language novel -- a change which proved controversial.
A high - profile literary award in British culture, the Booker Prize is greeted with great anticipation and fanfare. It is also a mark of distinction for authors to be selected for inclusion in the shortlist or even to be nominated for the "longlist ''.
The prize was originally known as the Booker -- McConnell Prize, after the company Booker, McConnell Ltd began sponsoring the event in 1968; it became commonly known as the "Booker Prize '' or simply "the Booker ''.
When administration of the prize was transferred to the Booker Prize Foundation in 2002, the title sponsor became the investment company Man Group, which opted to retain "Booker '' as part of the official title of the prize. The foundation is an independent registered charity funded by the entire profits of Booker Prize Trading Ltd, of which it is the sole shareholder. The prize money awarded with the Booker Prize was originally £ 21,000, and was subsequently raised to £ 50,000 in 2002 under the sponsorship of the Man Group, making it one of the world 's richest literary prizes.
In 1970, Bernice Rubens became the first woman to win the Booker Prize, for The Elected Member. The rules of the Booker changed in 1971; previously, it had been awarded retrospectively to books published prior to the year in which the award was given. In 1971 the year of eligibility was changed to the same as the year of the award; in effect, this meant that books published in 1970 were not considered for the Booker in either year. The Booker Prize Foundation announced in January 2010 the creation of a special award called the "Lost Man Booker Prize, '' with the winner chosen from a longlist of 22 novels published in 1970.
Alice Munro 's The Beggar Maid was shortlisted in 1980, and remains the only short story collection to be shortlisted.
Before 2001, each year 's longlist of nominees was not publicly revealed.
John Sutherland, who was a judge for the 1999 prize, has said,
There is a well - established London literary community. Rushdie does n't get shortlisted now because he has attacked that community. That is not a good game plan if you want to win the Booker. Norman Mailer has found the same thing in the US -- you have to "be a citizen '' if you want to win prizes. The real scandal is that (Martin) Amis has never won the prize. In fact, he has only been shortlisted once and that was for Time 's Arrow, which was not one of his strongest books. That really is suspicious. He pissed people off with Dead Babies and that gets lodged in the culture. There is also the feeling that he has always looked towards America.
In 1972, the winning writer John Berger, known for his Marxist worldview, protested during his acceptance speech against Booker McConnell. He blamed Booker 's 130 years of sugar production in the Caribbean for the region 's modern poverty. Berger donated half of his £ 5,000 prize to the British Black Panther movement, because they had a socialist and revolutionary perspective in agreement with his own.
In 1980, Anthony Burgess, writer of Earthly Powers, refused to attend the ceremony unless it was confirmed to him in advance whether he had won. His was one of two books considered likely to win, the other being Rites of Passage by William Golding. The judges decided only 30 minutes before the ceremony, giving the prize to Golding. Both novels had been seen as favourites to win leading up to the prize, and the dramatic "literary battle '' between two senior writers made front page news.
Judging for the 1983 award produced a draw between J.M. Coetzee 's Life & Times of Michael K and Salman Rushdie 's Shame, leaving chair of judges Fay Weldon to choose between the two. According to Stephen Moss in The Guardian, "Her arm was bent and she chose Rushdie '' only to change her mind as the result was being phoned through.
In 1993, two of the judges threatened to walk out when Trainspotting appeared on the longlist; Irvine Welsh 's novel was pulled from the shortlist to satisfy them. The novel would later receive critical acclaim, and is now considered Welsh 's masterpiece.
The award has been criticised for the types of books it covers. In 1981, nominee John Banville wrote a letter to The Guardian requesting that the prize be given to him so that he could use the money to buy every copy of the longlisted books in Ireland and donate them to libraries, "thus ensuring that the books not only are bought but also read -- surely a unique occurrence. '' In 1994, Guardian literary editor Richard Gott, citing the lack of objective criteria and the exclusion of American authors, described the prize as "a significant and dangerous iceberg in the sea of British culture that serves as a symbol of its current malaise. ''
In 1997, the decision to award Arundhati Roy 's The God of Small Things proved controversial. Carmen Callil, chair of the previous year 's Booker judges, called it an "execrable '' book and said on television that it should n't even have been on the shortlist. Booker Prize chairman Martyn Goff said Roy won because nobody objected, following the rejection by the judges of Bernard MacLaverty 's shortlisted book due to their dismissal of him as "a wonderful short - story writer and that Grace Notes was three short stories strung together. ''
In 2001, A.L. Kennedy, who was a judge in 1996, called the prize "a pile of crooked nonsense '' with the winner determined by "who knows who, who 's sleeping with who, who 's selling drugs to who, who 's married to who, whose turn it is ''.
The Booker prized created a permanent home for the archives from 1968 to present at Oxford Brookes University Library. The Archive, which encompasses the administrative history of the Prize from 1968 to date, collects together a diverse range of material, including correspondence, publicity material, copies of both the Longlists and the Shortlists, minutes of meetings, photographs and material relating to the awards dinner (letters of invitation, guest lists, seating plans). Embargoes of ten or twenty years apply to certain categories of material; examples include all material relating to the judging process and the Longlist prior to 2002.
Between 2005 and 2008, the Booker Prize alternated between writers from Ireland and India. "Outsider '' John Banville began this trend in 2005 when his novel The Sea was selected as a surprise winner: Boyd Tonkin, literary editor of The Independent, famously condemned it as "possibly the most perverse decision in the history of the award '' and rival novelist Tibor Fischer poured scorn on Banville 's victory. Kiran Desai of India won in 2006. Anne Enright 's 2007 victory came about due to a jury badly split over Ian McEwan 's novel On Chesil Beach. The following year it was India 's turn again, with Aravind Adiga narrowly defeating Enright 's fellow Irishman Sebastian Barry.
Historically, the winner of the Man Booker Prize had been required to be a citizen of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Republic of Ireland, or Zimbabwe. It was announced on 18 September 2013 that future Man Booker Prize awards would consider authors from anywhere in the world, so long as their work was in English and published in the UK. This change proved controversial in literary circles. Former winner A.S. Byatt and former judge John Mullan said the prize risked diluting its identity, whereas former judge A.L. Kennedy welcomed the change. Following this expansion, the first winner not from the Commonwealth, Ireland, or Zimbabwe was American Paul Beatty in 2016. Another American, George Saunders, won the following year. In 2018, publishers sought to reverse the change, arguing that the inclusion of American writers would lead to homogenisation, reducing diversity and opportunities everywhere, including in America, to learn about "great books that have n't already been widely heralded. ''
The selection process for the winner of the prize commences with the formation of an advisory committee, which includes a writer, two publishers, a literary agent, a bookseller, a librarian, and a chairperson appointed by the Booker Prize Foundation. The advisory committee then selects the judging panel, the membership of which changes each year, although on rare occasions a judge may be selected a second time. Judges are selected from amongst leading literary critics, writers, academics and leading public figures.
The Booker judging process and the very concept of a "best book '' being chosen by a small number of literary insiders is controversial for many. The Guardian introduced the "Not the Booker Prize '' voted for by readers partly as a reaction to this. Author Amit Chaudhuri wrote "The idea that a "book of the year '' can be assessed annually by a bunch of people -- judges who have to read almost a book a day -- is absurd, as is the idea that this is any way of honouring a writer ``..
The winner is usually announced at a ceremony in London 's Guildhall, usually in early October.
The 2017 prize was awarded to George Saunders for Lincoln in the Bardo.
In 1993, to mark the prize 's 25th anniversary, a "Booker of Bookers '' Prize was given. Three previous judges of the award, Malcolm Bradbury, David Holloway and W.L. Webb, met and chose Salman Rushdie 's Midnight 's Children, the 1981 winner, as "the best novel out of all the winners. ''
Similarly, The Best of the Booker was awarded in 2008 to celebrate the prize 's 40th anniversary. A shortlist of six winners was chosen and the decision was left to a public vote; the winner was again Midnight 's Children.
In 2018, to celebrate the 50 anniversary, the Golden Man Booker was awarded. One book from each decade was selected by a panel of judges: Naipaul 's In a Free State (the 1971 winner), Lively 's Moon Tiger (1987), Ondaatje 's The English Patient (1992), Mantel 's Wolf Hall and Saunders ' Lincoln in the Bardo. The winner, by popular vote, was The English Patient.
Each publisher 's imprint may submit two titles. In addition, previous winners of the prize and those who have been shortlisted in the previous five years are automatically considered. Books may also be called in: publishers can make written representations to the judges to consider titles in addition to those already entered. In the 21st century the average number of books considered by the judges has been approximately 130. -- >
A separate prize for which any living writer in the world may qualify, the Man Booker International Prize was inaugurated in 2005. Until 2015, it was given every two years to a living author of any nationality for a body of work published in English or generally available in English translation. In 2016, the award was significantly reconfigured, and is now given annually to a single book in English translation, with a £ 50,000 prize for the winning title, shared equally between author and translator.
A Russian version of the Booker Prize was created in 1992 called the Booker - Open Russia Literary Prize, also known as the Russian Booker Prize. In 2007, Man Group plc established the Man Asian Literary Prize, an annual literary award given to the best novel by an Asian writer, either written in English or translated into English, and published in the previous calendar year.
As part of The Times ' Literature Festival in Cheltenham, a Booker event is held on the last Saturday of the festival. Four guest speakers / judges debate a shortlist of four books from a given year from before the introduction of the Booker prize, and a winner is chosen. Unlike the real Man Booker (1969 through 2014), writers from outside the Commonwealth are also considered. In 2008, the winner for 1948 was Alan Paton 's Cry, the Beloved Country, beating Norman Mailer 's The Naked and the Dead, Graham Greene 's The Heart of the Matter and Evelyn Waugh 's The Loved One. In 2015, the winner for 1915 was Ford Madox Ford 's The Good Soldier, beating The Thirty - Nine Steps (John Buchan), Of Human Bondage (W. Somerset Maugham), Psmith, Journalist (P.G. Wodehouse) and The Voyage Out (Virginia Woolf).
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what is pradhan mantri jivan jyoti bima yojana (pmjjby) | Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana - Wikipedia
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana is a government - backed Life insurance scheme in India. It was originally mentioned in the 2015 Budget speech by Finance Minister Arun Jaitley in February 2015. It was formally launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 9 May in Kolkata. As of May 2015, only 20 % of India 's population has any kind of insurance, this scheme aims to increase the number.
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana is available to people between 18 and 50 years of age with bank accounts. It has an annual premium of ₹ 330 (US $4.80). The GST is exempted on Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana. The amount will be automatically debited from the account. In case of death due to any cause, the payment to the nominee will be ₹ 2 lakh (US $2,900).
This scheme will be linked only to the bank accounts opened under the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana scheme. Most of these account had zero balance initially. The government aims to reduce the number of such zero balance accounts by using this and related schemes.
Now all Bank account holders can avail this facility through their net - banking service facility or filling a form at the bank branch at any time of the year.
As of 30 MAY 2018, 5.33 crore people have already enrolled for this scheme. 60,422 claims have been disbursed against 63,767 claims received.
The banks have complained that revenue received will be very low. Some bankers have claimed that amount they are receiving is not sufficient to cover the service costs. Since this is a group insurance scheme, banks have not received instruction regarding cases where excessive claims are in a year. Insurers have also pointed out that no health certificate or information of pre-existing disease is required for joining.
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up until the later parts of the 20th century operations management mainly focused on | Operations management - wikipedia
Operations management is an area of management concerned with designing and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. It involves the responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few resources as needed and effective in terms of meeting customer requirements. It is concerned with managing an entire production system which is the process that converts inputs (in the forms of raw materials, labor, and energy) into outputs (in the form of goods and / or services), as an asset or delivers a product or services. Operations produce products, manage quality and creates service. Operation management covers sectors like banking systems, hospitals, companies, working with suppliers, customers, and using technology. Operations is one of the major functions in an organization along with supply chains, marketing, finance and human resources. The operations function requires management of both the strategic and day - to - day production of goods and services.
In managing manufacturing or service operations several types of decisions are made including operations strategy, product design, process design, quality management, capacity, facilities planning, production planning and inventory control. Each of these requires an ability to analyze the current situation and find better solutions to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of manufacturing or service operations.
The history of production and operation systems began around 5000 B.C. when Sumerian priests developed the ancient system of recording inventories, loans, taxes, and business transactions. The next major historical application of operation systems occurred in 4000 B.C. It was during this time that the Egyptians started using planning, organization, and control in large projects such as the construction of the pyramids. By 1100 B.C., labor was being specialized in China; by about 370 B.C., Xenophon described the advantages of dividing the various operations necessary for the production of shoes among different individuals in ancient Greece:
"... In large cities, on the other hand, inasmuch as many people have demands to make upon each branch of industry, one trade alone, and very often even less than a whole trade, is enough to support a man: one man, for instance, makes shoes for men, and another for women; and there are places even where one man earns a living by only stitching shoes, another by cutting them out, another by sewing the uppers together, while there is another who performs none of these operations but only assembles the parts. It follows, therefore, as a matter of course, that he who devotes himself to a very highly specialized line of work is bound to do it in the best possible manner. ''
In the Middle Ages, kings and queens ruled over large areas of land. Loyal noblemen maintained large sections of the monarch 's territory. This hierarchical organization in which people were divided into classes based on social position and wealth became known as the feudal system. In the feudal system, vassals and serfs produced for themselves and people of higher classes by using the ruler 's land and resources. Although a large part of labor was employed in agriculture, artisans contributed to economic output and formed guilds. The guild system, operating mainly between 1100 and 1500, consisted of two types: merchant guilds, who bought and sold goods, and craft guilds, which made goods. Although guilds were regulated as to the quality of work performed, the resulting system was rather rigid, shoemakers, for example, were prohibited from tanning hides.
Services were also performed in the Middle Ages by servants. They provided service to the nobility for cooking, cleaning and entertainment. Court jesters were service providers. The medieval army could also be considered a service since they defended the nobility.
The industrial revolution was facilitated by two elements: interchangeability of parts and division of labor. Division of labor has always been a feature from the beginning of civilization, the extent to which the division is carried out varied considerably depending on period and location. Compared to the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery were characterized by a greater specialization in labor, one of the characteristics of growing European cities and trade. It was in the late eighteenth century that Eli Whitney popularized the concept of interchangeability of parts when he manufactured 10,000 muskets. Up to this point in the history of manufacturing, each product (e.g. each gun) was considered a special order, meaning that parts of a given gun were fitted only for that particular gun and could not be used in other guns. Interchangeability of parts allowed the mass production of parts independent of the final products in which they would be used.
In 1883, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the stopwatch method for accurately measuring the time to perform each single task of a complicated job. He developed the scientific study of productivity and identifying how to coordinate different tasks to eliminate wasting of time and increase the quality of work. The next generation of scientific study occurred with the development of work sampling and predetermined motion time systems (PMTS). Work sampling is used to measure the random variable associated with the time of each task. PMTS allows the use of standard predetermined tables of the smallest body movements (e.g. turning the left wrist by 90 °), and integrating them to predict the time needed to perform a simple task. PMTS has gained substantial importance due to the fact that it can predict work measurements without observing the actual work. The foundation of PMTS was laid out by the research and development of Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth around 1912. The Gilbreths took advantage of taking motion pictures at known time intervals while operators were performing the given task.
Service Industries: At the turn of the twentieth century, the services industries were already developed, but largely fragmented. In 1900 the U.S. service industry consisted of banks, professional services, schools, general stores, railroads and telegraph. Services were largely local in nature (except for railroads and telegraph) and owned by entrepreneurs and families. The U.S. in 1900 had 31 % employment in services, 31 % in manufacturing and 38 % in agriculture.
The idea of the production line has been used multiple times in history prior to Henry Ford: the Venetian Arsenal (1104); Smith 's pin manufacturing, in the Wealth of Nations (1776) or Brunel 's Portsmouth Block Mills (1802). Ransom Olds was the first to manufacture cars using the assembly line system, but Henry Ford developed the first auto assembly system where a car chassis was moved through the assembly line by a conveyor belt while workers added components to it until the car was completed. During World War II, the growth of computing power led to further development of efficient manufacturing methods and the use of advanced mathematical and statistical tools. This was supported by the development of academic programs in industrial and systems engineering disciplines, as well as fields of operations research and management science (as multi-disciplinary fields of problem solving). While systems engineering concentrated on the broad characteristics of the relationships between inputs and outputs of generic systems, operations researchers concentrated on solving specific and focused problems. The synergy of operations research and systems engineering allowed for the realization of solving large scale and complex problems in the modern era. Recently, the development of faster and smaller computers, intelligent systems, and the World Wide Web has opened new opportunities for operations, manufacturing, production, and service systems.
Before the First industrial revolution work was mainly done through two systems: domestic system and craft guilds. In the domestic system merchants took materials to homes where artisans performed the necessary work, craft guilds on the other hand were associations of artisans which passed work from one shop to another, for example: leather was tanned by a tanner, passed to curriers, and finally arrived at shoemakers and saddlers.
The beginning of the industrial revolution is usually associated with 18th century English textile industry, with the invention of flying shuttle by John Kay in 1733, the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves in 1765, the water frame by Richard Arkwright in 1769 and the steam engine by James Watt in 1765. In 1851 at the Crystal Palace Exhibition the term American system of manufacturing was used to describe the new approach that was evolving in the United States of America which was based on two central features: interchangeable parts and extensive use of mechanization to produce them.
Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903, with $28,000 capital from twelve investors. The model T car was introduced in 1908, however it was not until Ford implemented the assembly line concept, that his vision of making a popular car affordable by every middle - class American citizen would be realized. The first factory in which Henry Ford used the concept of the assembly line was Highland Park (1913), he characterized the system as follows:
"The thing is to keep everything in motion and take the work to the man and not the man to the work. That is the real principle of our production, and conveyors are only one of many means to an end ''
This became one the central ideas that led to mass production, one of the main elements of the Second Industrial Revolution, along with emergence of the electrical industry and petroleum industry.
The post-industrial economy was noted in 1973 by Daniel Bell. He stated that the future economy would provide more GDP and employment from services than from manufacturing and have a great effect on society. Since all sectors are highly interconnected, this did not reflect less importance for manufacturing, agriculture, and mining but just a shift in the type of economic activity.
Although productivity benefited considerably from technological inventions and division of labor, the problem of systematic measurement of performances and the calculation of these by the use of formulas remained somewhat unexplored until Frederick Taylor, whose early work focused on developing what he called a "differential piece - rate system '' and a series of experiments, measurements and formulas dealing with cutting metals and manual labor. The differential piece - rate system consisted in offering two different pay rates for doing a job: a higher rate for workers with high productivity (efficiency) and who produced high quality goods (effectiveness) and a lower rate for those who fail to achieve the standard. One of the problems Taylor believed could be solved with this system, was the problem of soldiering: faster workers reducing their production rate to that of the slowest worker. In 1911 Taylor published his "The Principles of Scientific Management '', in which he characterized scientific management (also known as Taylorism) as:
Taylor is also credited for developing stopwatch time study, this combined with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth motion study gave way to time and motion study which is centered on the concepts of standard method and standard time. Frank Gilbreth is also responsible for introducing the flow process chart in 1921. Other contemporaries of Taylor worth remembering are Morris Cooke (rural electrification in the 1920s and implementer of Taylor 's principles of scientific management in the Philadelphia 's Department of Public Works), Carl Barth (speed - and - feed - calculating slide rules) and Henry Gantt (Gantt chart). Also in 1910 Hugo Diemer published the first industrial engineering book: Factory Organization and Administration.
In 1913 Ford Whitman Harris published his "How many parts to make at once '' in which he presented the idea of the economic order quantity model. He described the problem as follows:
"Interest on capital tied up in wages, material and overhead sets a maximum limit to the quantity of parts which can be profitably manufactured at one time; "setup costs '' on the job fix the minimum. Experience has shown one manager a way to determine the economical size of lots ''
This paper inspired a large body of mathematical literature focusing on the problem of production planning and inventory control.
In 1924 Walter Shewhart introduced the control chart through a technical memorandum while working at Bell Labs, central to his method was the distinction between common cause and special cause of variation. In 1931 Shewhart published his Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, the first systematic treatment of the subject of Statistical Process Control (SPC).
In the 1940s methods - time measurement (MTM) was developed by H.B. Maynard, JL Schwab and GJ Stegemerten. MTM was the first of a series of predetermined motion time systems, predetermined in the sense that estimates of time are not determined in loco but are derived from an industry standard. This was explained by its originators in a book they published in 1948 called "Method - Time Measurement ''.
Up to this point in history, optimization techniques were known for a very long time, from the simple methods employed by F.W. Harris to the more elaborate techniques of the calculus of variations developed by Euler in 1733 or the multipliers employed by Lagrange in 1811, and computers were slowly being developed, first as analog computers by Sir William Thomson (1872) and James Thomson (1876) moving to the eletromechanical computers of Konrad Zuse (1939 and 1941). During World War II however, the development of mathematical optimization went through a major boost with the development of the Colossus computer, the first electronic digital computer that was all programmable, and the possibility to computationally solve large linear programming problems, first by Kantorovich in 1939 working for the Soviet government and latter on in 1947 with the simplex method of Dantzig. These methods are known today as belonging to the field of operations research.
From this point on a curious development took place: while in the United States the possibility of applying the computer to business operations led to the development of management software architecture such as MRP and successive modifications, and ever more sophisticated optimization techniques and manufacturing simulation software, in post-war Japan a series of events at Toyota Motor led to the development of the Toyota Production System (TPS) and Lean Manufacturing.
In 1943, in Japan, Taiichi Ohno arrived at Toyota Motor company. Toyota evolved a unique manufacturing system centered on two complementary notions: just in time (produce only what is needed) and autonomation (automation with a human touch). Regarding JIT, Ohno was inspired by American supermarkets: workstations functioned like a supermarket shelf where the customer can get products they need, at the time they need and in the amount needed, the workstation (shelf) is then restocked. Autonomation was developed by Toyoda Sakichi in Toyoda Spinning and Weaving: an automatically activated loom that was also foolproof, that is automatically detected problems. In 1983 J.N Edwards published his "MRP and Kanban - American style '' in which he described JIT goals in terms of seven zeros: zero defects, zero (excess) lot size, zero setups, zero breakdowns, zero handling, zero lead time and zero surging. This period also marks the spread of Total Quality Management (TQM) in Japan, ideas initially developed by American authors such as Deming, Juran and Armand V. Feigenbaum. TQM is a strategy for implementing and managing quality improvement on an organizational basis, this includes: participation, work culture, customer focus, supplier quality improvement and integration of the quality system with business goals. Schnonberger identified seven fundamentals principles essential to the Japanese approach:
Meanwhile, in the sixties, a different approach was developed by George W. Plossl and Oliver W. Wight, this approach was continued by Joseph Orlicky as a response to the TOYOTA Manufacturing Program which led to Material Requirements Planning (MRP) at IBM, latter gaining momentum in 1972 when the American Production and Inventory Control Society launched the "MRP Crusade ''. One of the key insights of this management system was the distinction between dependent demand and independent demand. Independent demand is demand which originates outside of the production system, therefore not directly controllable, and dependent demand is demand for components of final products, therefore subject to being directly controllable by management through the bill of materials, via product design. Orlicky wrote "Materials Requirement Planning '' in 1975, the first hard cover book on the subject. MRP II was developed by Gene Thomas at IBM, and expanded the original MRP software to include additional production functions. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is the modern software architecture, which addresses, besides production operations, distribution, accounting, human resources and procurement.
Dramatic changes were occurring in the service industries, as well. Beginning in 1955 McDonald 's provided one of the first innovations in service operations. McDonald 's is founded on the idea of the production - line approach to service. This requires a standard and limited menu, an assembly - line type of production process in the back - room, high customer service in the front - room with cleanliness, courtesy and fast service. While modeled after manufacturing in the production of the food in the back - room, the service in the front - room was defined and oriented to the customer. It was the McDonald 's operations system of both production and service that made the difference. McDonald 's also pioneered the idea of franchising this operation system to rapidly spread the business around the country and later the world.
FedEx in 1971 provided the first overnight delivery of packages in the U.S. This was based on the innovative idea of flying all packages into the single airport in Memphis Tenn by midnight each day, resorting the packages for delivery to destinations and then flying them back out the next morning for delivery to numerous locations. This concept of a fast package delivery system created a whole new industry, and eventually allowed fast delivery of online orders by Amazon and other retailers.
Walmart provided the first example of very low cost retailing through design of their stores and efficient management of their entire supply chain. Starting with a single store in Roger 's Arkansas in 1962, Walmart has now become the world 's largest company. This was accomplished by adhering to their system of delivering the goods and the service to the customers at the lowest possible cost. The operations system included careful selection of merchandise, low cost sourcing, ownership of transportation, cross-docking, efficient location of stores and friendly home - town service to the customer.
In 1987 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), recognizing the growing importance of quality, issued the ISO 9000, a family of standards related to quality management systems. There standards apply to both manufacturing and service organizations. There has been some controversy regarding the proper procedures to follow and the amount of paperwork involved, but much of that has improved in current ISO 9000 revisions.
With the coming of the Internet, in 1994 Amazon devised a service system of on - line retailing and distribution. With this innovative system customers were able to search for products they might like to buy, enter the order for the product, pay online, and track delivery of the product to their location, all in two days. This required not only very large computer operations, but dispersed warehouses, and an efficient transportation system. Service to customers including a high merchandise assortment, return services of purchases, and fast delivery is at the forefront of this business. It is the customer being in the system during the production and delivery of the service that distinguishes all services from manufacturing.
Recent trends in the field revolve around concepts such as:
A production system comprises both the technological elements (machines and tools) and organizational behavior (division of labor and information flow). An individual production system is usually analyzed in the literature referring to a single business, therefore it 's usually improper to include in a given production system the operations necessary to process goods that are obtained by purchasing or the operations carried by the customer on the sold products, the reason being simply that since businesses need to design their own production systems this then becomes the focus of analysis, modeling and decision making (also called "configuring '' a production system).
A first possible distinction in production systems (technological classification) is between continuous process production and discrete part production (manufacturing).
Another possible classification is one based on Lead Time (manufacturing lead time vs delivery lead time): engineer to order (ETO), purchase to order (PTO), make to order (MTO), assemble to order (ATO) and make to stock (MTS). According to this classification different kinds of systems will have different customer order decoupling points (CODP), meaning that work in progress (WIP) cycle stock levels are practically nonexistent regarding operations located after the CODP (except for WIP due to queues). (See Order fulfillment)
The concept of production systems can be expanded to the service sector world keeping in mind that services have some fundamental differences in respect to material goods: intangibility, client always present during transformation processes, no stocks for "finished goods ''. Services can be classified according to a service process matrix: degree of labor intensity (volume) vs degree of customization (variety). With a high degree of labor intensity there are Mass Services (e.g., commercial banking bill payments and state schools) and Professional Services (e.g., personal physicians and lawyers), while with a low degree of labor intensity there are Service Factories (e.g., airlines and hotels) and Service Shops (e.g., hospitals and auto mechanics).
The systems described above are ideal types: real systems may present themselves as hybrids of those categories. Consider, for example, that the production of jeans involves initially carding, spinning, dyeing and weaving, then cutting the fabric in different shapes and assembling the parts in pants or jackets by combining the fabric with thread, zippers and buttons, finally finishing and distressing the pants / jackets before being shipped to stores. The beginning can be seen as process production, the middle as part production and the end again as process production: it 's unlikely that a single company will keep all the stages of production under a single roof, therefore the problem of vertical integration and outsourcing arises. Most products require, from a supply chain perspective, both process production and part production.
Operations strategy concerns policies and plans of use of the firm productive resources with the aim of supporting long term competitive strategy. Metrics in operations management can be broadly classified into efficiency metrics and effectiveness metrics. Effectiveness metrics involve:
A more recent approach, introduced by Terry Hill, involves distinguishing competitive variables in order winner and order qualifiers when defining operations strategy. Order winners are variables which permit differentiating the company from competitors, while order qualifiers are prerequisites for engaging in a transaction. This view can be seen as a unifying approach between operations management and marketing (see segmentation and positioning).
Productivity is a standard efficiency metric for evaluation of production systems, broadly speaking a ratio between outputs and inputs, and can assume many specific forms, for example: machine productivity, workforce productivity, raw material productivity, warehouse productivity (= inventory turnover). It is also useful to break up productivity in use U (productive percentage of total time) and yield η (ratio between produced volume and productive time) to better evaluate production systems performances. Cycle times can be modeled through manufacturing engineering if the individual operations are heavily automated, if the manual component is the prevalent one, methods used include: time and motion study, predetermined motion time systems and work sampling.
ABC analysis is a method for analyzing inventory based on Pareto distribution, it posits that since revenue from items on inventory will be power law distributed then it makes sense to manage items differently based on their position on a revenue - inventory level matrix, 3 classes are constructed (A, B and C) from cumulative item revenues, so in a matrix each item will have a letter (A, B or C) assigned for revenue and inventory. This method posits that items away from the diagonal should be managed differently: items in the upper part are subject to risk of obsolescence, items in the lower part are subject to risk of stockout.
Throughput is a variable which quantifies the number of parts produced in the unit of time. Although estimating throughput for a single process maybe fairly simple, doing so for an entire production system involves an additional difficulty due to the presence of queues which can come from: machine breakdowns, processing time variability, scraps, setups, maintenance time, lack of orders, lack of materials, strikes, bad coordination between resources, mix variability, plus all these inefficiencies tend to compound depending on the nature of the production system. One important example of how system throughput is tied to system design are bottlenecks: in job shops bottlenecks are typically dynamic and dependent on scheduling while on transfer lines it makes sense to speak of "the bottleneck '' since it can be univocally associated with a specific station on the line. This leads to the problem of how to define capacity measures, that is an estimation of the maximum output of a given production system, and capacity utilization.
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is defined as the product between system availability, cycle time efficiency and quality rate. OEE is typically used as key performance indicator (KPI) in conjunction with the lean manufacturing approach.
Designing the configuration of production systems involves both technological and organizational variables. Choices in production technology involve: dimensioning capacity, fractioning capacity, capacity location, outsourcing processes, process technology, automation of operations, trade - off between volume and variety (see Hayes - Wheelwright matrix). Choices in the organizational area involve: defining worker skills and responsibilities, team coordination, worker incentives and information flow.
Regarding production planning, there is a basic distinction between the push approach and the pull approach, with the later including the singular approach of just in time. Pull means that the production system authorizes production based on inventory level; push means that production occurs based on demand (forecasted or present, that is purchase orders). An individual production system can be both push and pull; for example activities before the CODP may work under a pull system, while activities after the CODP may work under a push system.
Regarding the traditional pull approach to inventory control, a number of techniques have been developed based on the work of Ford W. Harris (1913), which came to be known as the economic order quantity (EOQ) model. This model marks the beginning of inventory theory, which includes the Wagner - Within procedure, the newsvendor model, base stock model and the Fixed Time Period model. These models usually involve the calculation of cycle stocks and buffer stocks, the latter usually modeled as a function of demand variability. The economic production quantity (EPQ) differs from the EOQ model only in that it assumes a constant fill rate for the part being produced, instead of the instantaneous refilling of the EOQ model.
Joseph Orlickly and others at IBM developed a push approach to inventory control and production planning, now known as material requirements planning (MRP), which takes as input both the master production schedule (MPS) and the bill of materials (BOM) and gives as output a schedule for the materials (components) needed in the production process. MRP therefore is a planning tool to manage purchase orders and production orders (also called jobs).
The MPS can be seen as a kind of aggregate planning for production coming in two fundamentally opposing varieties: plans which try to chase demand and level plans which try to keep uniform capacity utilization. Many models have been proposed to solve MPS problems:
MRP can be briefly described as a 3s procedure: sum (different orders), split (in lots), shift (in time according to item lead time). To avoid an "explosion '' of data processing in MRP (number of BOMs required in input) planning bills (such as family bills or super bills) can be useful since they allow a rationalization of input data into common codes. MRP had some notorious problems such as infinite capacity and fixed lead times, which influenced successive modifications of the original software architecture in the form of MRP II, enterprise resource planning (ERP) and advanced planning and scheduling (APS).
In this context problems of scheduling (sequencing of production), loading (tools to use), part type selection (parts to work on) and applications of operations research have a significant role to play.
Lean manufacturing is an approach to production which arose in Toyota between the end of World War II and the seventies. It comes mainly from the ideas of Taiichi Ohno and Toyoda Sakichi which are centered on the complementary notions of just in time and autonomation (jidoka), all aimed at reducing waste (usually applied in PDCA style). Some additional elements are also fundamental: production smoothing (Heijunka), capacity buffers, setup reduction, cross-training and plant layout.
A series of tools have been developed mainly with the objective of replicating Toyota success: a very common implementation involves small cards known as kanbans; these also come in some varieties: reorder kanbans, alarm kanbans, triangular kanbans, etc. In the classic kanban procedure with one card:
The two - card kanban procedure differs a bit:
Since the number of kanbans in the production system is set by managers as a constant number, the kanban procedure works as WIP controlling device, which for a given arrival rate, per Little 's law, works as a lead time controlling device.
In Toyota the TPS represented more of a philosophy of production than a set of specific lean tools, the latter would include:
Seen more broadly, JIT can include methods such as: product standardization and modularity, group technology, total productive maintenance, job enlargement, job enrichment, flat organization and vendor rating (JIT production is very sensitive to replenishment conditions).
In heavily automated production systems production planning and information gathering may be executed via the control system, attention should be paid however to avoid problems such as deadlocks, as these can lead to productivity losses.
Project Production Management (PPM) applies the concepts of operations management to the execution of delivery of capital projects by viewing the sequence of activities in a project as a production system. Operations managements principles of variability reduction and management are applied by buffering through a combination of capacity, time and inventory.
Service industries are a major part of economic activity and employment in all industrialized countries comprising 80 percent of employment and GDP in the U.S. Operations management of these services, as distinct from manufacturing, has been developing since the 1970s through publication of unique practices and academic research. Please note that this section does not particularly include "Professional Services Firms '' and the professional services practiced from this expertise (specialized training and education within).
According to Fitzsimmons, Fitzsimmons and Bordoloi (2014) differences between manufactured goods and services are as follows:
These four comparisons indicate how management of service operations are quite different from manufacturing regarding such issues as capacity requirements (highly variable), quality assurance (hard to quantify), location of facilities (dispersed), and interaction with the customer during delivery of the service (product and process design).
While there are differences there are also many similarities. For example, quality management approaches used in manufacturing such as the Baldrige Award, and Six Sigma have been widely applied to services. Likewise, lean service principles and practices have also been applied in service operations. The important difference being the customer is in the system while the service is being provided and needs to be considered when applying these practices.
One important difference is service recovery. When an error occurs in service delivery, the recovery must be delivered on the spot by the service provider. If a waiter in a restaurant spills soup on the customer 's lap, then the recovery could include a free meal and a promise of free dry cleaning. Another difference is in planning capacity. Since the product can not be stored, the service facility must be managed to peak demand which requires more flexibility than manufacturing. Location of facilities must be near the customers and scale economics can be lacking. Scheduling must consider the customer can be waiting in line. Queuing theory has been devised to assist in design of service facilities waiting lines. Revenue management is important for service operations, since empty seats on an airplane are lost revenue when the plane departs and can not be stored for future use.
There are also fields of mathematical theory which have found applications in the field of operations management such as operations research: mainly mathematical optimization problems and queue theory. Queue theory is employed in modelling queue and processing times in production systems while mathematical optimization draws heavily from multivariate calculus and linear algebra. Queue theory is based on Markov chains and stochastic processes. It also worth noticing that computations of safety stocks are usually based on modeling demand as a normal distribution and MRP and some inventory problems can be formulated using optimal control.
When analytical models are not enough, managers may resort to using simulation. Simulation has been traditionally done thought the Discrete event simulation paradigm, where the simulation model possesses a state which can only change when a discrete event happens, which consists of a clock and list of events. The more recent Transaction - level modeling paradigm consists of a set of resources and a set of transactions: transactions move through a network of resources (nodes) according to a code, called process.
Since real production processes are always affected by disturbances in both inputs and outputs, many companies implement some form of Quality management or quality control. The Seven Basic Tools of Quality designation provides a summary of commonly used tools:
These are used in approaches like Total quality management and Six Sigma. Keeping quality under control is relevant to both increasing customer satisfaction and reducing processing waste.
Operations management textbooks usually cover demand forecasting, even though it is not strictly speaking an operations problem, because demand is related to some production systems variables. For example, a classic approach in dimensioning safety stocks requires calculating standard deviation of forecast errors. Demand forecasting is also a critical part of push systems, since order releases have to be planned ahead of actual clients orders. Also any serious discussion of capacity planning involves adjusting company outputs with market demands.
Other important management problems involve maintenance policies (see also reliability engineering and maintenance philosophy), safety management systems (see also safety engineering and Risk management), facility management and supply chain integration.
The following organizations support and promote operations management:
The following high - ranked academic journals are concerned with Operations Management issues:
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where does active transport occur in the membrane | Active transport - wikipedia
Active transport is the movement of molecules across a (natemembrane)) from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration -- in the direction against some gradient or other obstructing factor (often a concentration gradient).
Unlike passive transport, which uses the kinetic energy and natural entropy of molecules moving down a gradient, active transport uses cellular energy to move them against a gradient, polar repulsion, or other resistance. Active transport is usually associated with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.
In 1848, the German physiologist Emil Heinrich du Bois - Reymond suggested the possibility of active transport of substances across membranes.
Rosenberg (1948) formulated the concept of active transport based on energetic considerations, but later it would be redefined.
Specialized transmembrane proteins recognize the substance and allow it to move across the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable to the substance moved or because the substance is moved against the direction of its concentration gradient. There are two forms of active transport, primary active transport and secondary active transport. In primary active transport, the proteins involved are pumps that normally use the chemical energy in the form of ATP. Secondary active transport, however, makes use of potential energy, which are usually derived through exploitation of an electrochemical gradient. This involves pore - forming proteins that form channels across the cell membrane. The difference between passive transport and active transport is active transport requires energy and moves substances against their respective concentration gradient, whereas passive transport requires no energy and moves substances in the direction of their respective concentration gradient.
In an antiporter, one substrate is transported in one direction across the membrane while another is cotransported in the opposite direction. In a symporter, two substrates are transported in the same direction across the membrane. Antiport and symport processes are associated with secondary active transport, meaning that one of the two substances is transported in the direction of its concentration gradient, utilizing the energy derived from the transport of such substance (mostly Na, K or H ions) down its concentration gradient.
If substrate molecules are moving from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration (i.e., in the opposite direction as, or against the concentration gradient), specific transmembrane carrier proteins are required. These proteins have receptors that bind to specific molecules (e.g., glucose) and transport them across the cell membrane. Because energy is required in this process, it is known as ' active ' transport. Examples of active transport include the transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium - potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine.
Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil or other sources, but these salts exist in very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient.
Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses metabolic energy to transport molecules across a membrane.
Most of the enzymes that perform this type of transport are transmembrane ATPases. A primary ATPase universal to all animal life is the sodium - potassium pump, which helps to maintain the cell potential. The sodium - potassium pump maintains the membrane potential by moving three Na+ ions out of the cell for every two K+ ions moved into the cell. Other sources of energy for Primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light). An example of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH.
ATP hydrolysis is used to transport hydrogen ions against the electrochemical gradient (from low to high hydrogen ion concentration). Phosphorylation of the carrier protein and the binding of a hydrogen ion induce a conformational (shape) change that drives the hydrogen ions to transport against the electrochemical gradient. Hydrolysis of the bound phosphate group and release of hydrogen ion then restores the carrier to its original conformation.
In secondary active transport, also known as coupled transport or co-transport, energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead it relies upon the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions in / out of the cell. Permitting one ion or molecule to move down an electrochemical gradient, but possibly against the concentration gradient where it is more concentrated to that where it is less concentrated increases entropy and can serve as a source of energy for metabolism (e.g. in ATP synthase).
In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium - glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. Crane 's discovery of cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology.
Cotransporters can be classified as symporters and antiporters depending on whether the substances move in the same or opposite directions.
In an antiport two species of ion or other solutes are pumped in opposite directions across a membrane. One of these species is allowed to flow from high to low concentration which yields the entropic energy to drive the transport of the other solute from a low concentration region to a high one.
An example is the sodium - calcium exchanger or antiporter, which allows three sodium ions into the cell to transport one calcium out. Many cells also possess calcium ATPases, which can operate at lower intracellular concentrations of calcium and sets the normal or resting concentration of this important second messenger. But the ATPase exports calcium ions more slowly: only 30 per second versus 2000 per second by the exchanger. The exchanger comes into service when the calcium concentration rises steeply or "spikes '' and enables rapid recovery. This shows that a single type of ion can be transported by several enzymes, which need not be active all the time (constitutively), but may exist to meet specific, intermittent needs.
Symport uses the downhill movement of one solute species from high to low concentration to move another molecule uphill from low concentration to high concentration (against its concentration gradient). Both molecules are transported in the same direction.
An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines, heart, and brain. It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy and defects in SGLT2 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria.
Endocytosis and exocytosis are both forms of bulk transport that move materials into and out of cells, respectively, via vesicles. In the case of Endocytosis, the cellular membrane folds around the desired materials outside the cell. The ingested particle becomes trapped within a pouch, known as a vesicle, inside the cytoplasm. Often enzymes from lysosomes are then used to digest the molecules absorbed by this process.
Biologists distinguish two main types of endocytosis: pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
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who's the villain in guardians of the galaxy | Guardians of the Galaxy (film) - wikipedia
Guardians of the Galaxy (retroactively referred to as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 1) is a 2014 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the tenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film was directed by James Gunn, who wrote the screenplay with Nicole Perlman, and features an ensemble cast including Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldana, Dave Bautista, Vin Diesel, Bradley Cooper, Lee Pace, Michael Rooker, Karen Gillan, Djimon Hounsou, John C. Reilly, Glenn Close, and Benicio del Toro. In Guardians of the Galaxy, Peter Quill forms an uneasy alliance with a group of extraterrestrial misfits who are fleeing after stealing a powerful artifact.
Perlman began working on the screenplay in 2009. Producer Kevin Feige first publicly mentioned Guardians of the Galaxy as a potential film in 2010 and Marvel Studios announced it was in active development at the San Diego Comic - Con International in July 2012. Gunn was hired to write and direct the film that September. In February 2013, Pratt was hired to play Peter Quill / Star - Lord, and the supporting cast members were subsequently confirmed. Principal photography began in July 2013 at Shepperton Studios in England, with filming continuing in London before wrapping up in October 2013. Post-production was finished on July 7, 2014.
The film premiered in Hollywood on July 21, 2014. It was released in theaters on August 1, 2014 in the United States in the 3D and IMAX 3D formats. The film became a critical and commercial success, grossing $773.3 million worldwide and becoming the highest - grossing superhero film of 2014, as well as the third highest - grossing film of 2014. The film garnered praise for its humor, action, soundtrack, visual effects, direction, musical score, and acting. A sequel, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, was released on May 5, 2017, with a third film, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3, scheduled to be released in 2020.
In 1988, following his mother 's death, a young Peter Quill is abducted from Earth by the Ravagers, a group of space pirates led by Yondu Udonta. Twenty - six years later on the planet Morag, Quill steals an orb but is attacked by Korath, a subordinate to the fanatical Kree, Ronan. Although Quill escapes with the orb, Yondu discovers his theft and issues a bounty for his capture, while Ronan sends the assassin Gamora after the orb.
When Quill attempts to sell the orb on Xandar, capital of the Nova Empire, Gamora ambushes him and steals it. A fight ensues, drawing in a pair of bounty hunters: the genetically and cybernetically modified raccoon Rocket, and the tree - like humanoid Groot. Nova Corps officers capture the four, detaining them in the Kyln. A powerful inmate there, Drax, attempts to kill Gamora due to her association with Ronan, who killed his family. Quill convinces Drax that Gamora can bring Ronan to him, though Gamora reveals that she has betrayed Ronan, unwilling to let him use the orb 's power. Learning that Gamora has a buyer for the orb, Quill, Rocket, Groot, and Drax work with her to escape the Kyln in Quill 's ship, the Milano.
Ronan meets with Gamora 's adoptive father, Thanos, to discuss her betrayal. Quill 's group flee to Knowhere, a remote criminal outpost in space built in the giant severed head of a Celestial. A drunken Drax summons Ronan while the rest of the group meet Gamora 's contact, the collector Taneleer Tivan. Tivan opens the orb, revealing an Infinity Stone, an item of immeasurable power that destroys all but the most powerful beings who wield it. Tivan 's tormented assistant Carina grabs the Stone, triggering an explosion that engulfs Tivan 's archive.
Ronan arrives and easily defeats Drax, while the others flee by ship, pursued by Ronan 's followers and Gamora 's adoptive sister Nebula. Nebula destroys Gamora 's ship, leaving her floating in space, and Ronan 's fighters capture the orb. Quill contacts Yondu before following Gamora into space, giving her his helmet to survive; Yondu arrives and retrieves the pair. Rocket, Drax, and Groot threaten to attack Yondu 's ship to rescue them, but Quill negotiates a truce, promising the orb to Yondu. Quill 's group agrees that facing Ronan means certain death, but that they can not let him use the Infinity Stone to destroy the galaxy. On Ronan 's flagship, the Dark Aster, Ronan embeds the Stone in his warhammer, taking its power for himself. He contacts Thanos, threatening to kill him after first destroying Xandar; hateful of her adoptive father, Nebula allies with Ronan.
The Ravagers and Quill 's group join with the Nova Corps to confront the Dark Aster at Xandar, with Quill 's group breaching the Dark Aster with the Milano. Ronan uses his empowered warhammer to destroy the Nova Corps fleet. Gamora fights and defeats Nebula, who then escapes, but the group find themselves outmatched by Ronan 's power until Rocket crashes a Ravager ship through the Dark Aster. The damaged Dark Aster crash - lands on Xandar, with Groot sacrificing himself to shield the group. Ronan emerges from the wreck and prepares to destroy Xandar, but Quill distracts him, allowing Drax and Rocket to destroy Ronan 's warhammer. Quill grabs the freed Stone, and with Gamora, Drax, and Rocket sharing its burden, they use it to destroy Ronan.
In the aftermath, Quill tricks Yondu into taking a container supposedly containing the Stone, and gives the real Stone to the Nova Corps. As the Ravagers leave Xandar, Yondu remarks that it turned out well that they did not deliver Quill to his father per their contract. Quill 's group, now known as the Guardians of the Galaxy, have their criminal records expunged, and Quill learns that he is only half - human, his father being part of an ancient, unknown species. Quill finally opens the last present he received from his mother: a cassette tape filled with her favorite songs. The Guardians leave in the rebuilt Milano along with a sapling cut from Groot.
In a post-credits scene, Tivan sits in his destroyed archive with two of his living exhibits: a canine cosmonaut and an anthropomorphic duck.
Additionally, Josh Brolin appears, uncredited, as Thanos through voice acting and performance capture. Sean Gunn stood in for Thanos during filming and portrays Kraglin, Yondu 's first mate in the Ravagers. Alexis Denisof reprises his role as Thanos 's vizier, "The Other '', from The Avengers. Ophelia Lovibond plays Carina, the Collector 's slave; Peter Serafinowicz plays Denarian Garthan Saal, a Nova Corps officer; Gregg Henry plays Quill 's grandfather; Laura Haddock plays Quill 's mother, Meredith; Melia Kreiling plays Bereet; Christopher Fairbank plays The Broker; Mikaela Hoover plays Nova Prime 's assistant; Marama Corlett plays a pit boss at the bar, The Boot; Emmett J. Scanlan plays a Nova riot guard; Alexis Rodney plays Moloka Dar; Tom Proctor plays Horuz, a Ravager; and Spencer Wilding plays a prison guard who confiscates Quill 's Walkman. Canine actor Fred appears as Cosmo. Stephen Blackehart had a supporting role. Naomi Ryan also had a supporting role in the film, though it was cut in the final version. Cameos in the film include: James Gunn as a Sakaaran; Stan Lee as a Xandarian Ladies ' Man; Lloyd Kaufman as an inmate; Nathan Fillion as the voice of an inmate; Rob Zombie as the voice of the Ravager Navigator; composer Tyler Bates as a Ravager pilot; and Seth Green as the voice of Howard the Duck.
Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige first mentioned Guardians of the Galaxy as a potential film at the 2010 San Diego Comic - Con International, stating, "There are some obscure titles, too, like Guardians of the Galaxy. I think they 've been revamped recently in a fun way in the (comic) book. '' Feige reiterated that sentiment in a September 2011 issue of Entertainment Weekly, saying, "There 's an opportunity to do a big space epic, which Thor sort of hints at, in the cosmic side '' of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Feige added, should the film be made, it would feature an ensemble of characters, similar to X-Men and The Avengers.
Feige announced that the film was in active development at the 2012 San Diego Comic - Con International during the Marvel Studios panel, with an intended release date of August 1, 2014. He stated that the film 's titular team would consist of the characters Star - Lord, Drax the Destroyer, Gamora, Groot, and Rocket Raccoon. Two pieces of concept art were also displayed, one of Rocket Raccoon, and one featuring the entire team. In August 2012, James Gunn entered talks to direct the film, beating out other contenders, including Peyton Reed and the duo Ryan Fleck and Anna Boden. The Avengers director Joss Whedon, who signed a deal to creatively consult on all of the films leading up to The Avengers sequel, was enthusiastic about the selection of Gunn to direct, saying "James (Gunn) is what makes me think it will work... He is so off the wall, and so crazy, but so smart, such a craftsman and he builds from his heart. He loves the raccoon. Needs the raccoon... He has a very twisted take on it, but it all comes from a real love for the material. It 's going to be hard for (the human characters) to keep up. ''
Nicole Perlman, who was enrolled in Marvel 's screenwriting program in 2009, was offered several of their lesser known properties to base a screenplay on. Out of those, Perlman chose Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning 's Guardians of the Galaxy, due to her interest in space and science fiction, adding, "I think (Marvel) were a little taken aback when I chose Guardians, because there were ones that would make a lot more sense if you were a romantic - comedy writer or something like that. '' Perlman spent two years writing a draft, immersing herself in the Guardians universe, and was asked in late 2011 to create another draft, before Gunn was brought in in early 2012 to contribute to the script. Gunn eventually rewrote the script entirely because "it did n't work '' for him; he would use the film The Dirty Dozen as a reference to convey his ideas of the film to Marvel. Gunn later explained that Perlman 's draft was very different from the script he used during filming, including a different story, character arcs and no Walkman; he stated, "In Nicole 's script everything is pretty different... it 's not about the same stuff. But that 's how the WGA works. They like first writers an awful lot. '' In August 2012, Marvel Studios hired writer Chris McCoy to rewrite Perlman 's script, however, it is unclear what contribution he had to the final script, since he did not receive production credit.
Gunn revealed that character introductions were the "hardest scenes to crack '', with Thanos ' introduction being the most difficult. He felt that "having Thanos be in that scene was more helpful to the (MCU) than it was to Guardians of the Galaxy, '' yet he still wanted Thanos in the film, without "(belittling) the actual antagonist of the film, which is Ronan. '' To solve his dilemma, Gunn chose to have Ronan kill "The Other '', Thanos ' vizier, saying, "I thought that was interesting, because we 've had the Other, who 's obviously very powerful even in comparison to Loki, and then we see Ronan wipe his ass with him. So that I liked, but even that was sort of difficult, because it played as funnier when I first wrote it, and the humor did n't work so much. ''
In September 2012, Gunn confirmed that he had signed on to direct the film and rewrite the script. By the end of November, Joel Edgerton, Jack Huston, Jim Sturgess, and Eddie Redmayne signed deals to test for the role of Peter Quill, as did Lee Pace, which he confirmed a week later in early December. Other actors who were considered for the role included Thor: The Dark World 's Zachary Levi, Joseph Gordon - Levitt, Michael Rosenbaum, and John Gallagher Jr. Chris Pratt was cast in the role in February 2013, as part of a multi-film deal that he signed with Marvel.
In January 2013, filming was scheduled to take place at Shepperton Studios in London, United Kingdom, and Marvel Studios announced that the film would be released in 3D. Victoria Alonso, an executive producer on the film, said that filming would begin in June. She also said that both Rocket Raccoon and Groot would be created through a combination of CGI and motion capture, going on to say that "You ca n't do any motion capture with a raccoon -- they wo n't let you put the suit on. But we will do rotomation, probably, for some of the behavior... we definitely will have performers to emulate what James Gunn will lead to be, the behavior and the performance. He 's very clear on where he wants to take the characters. '' In March 2013, Feige discussed Guardians of the Galaxy in relation to the Marvel Cinematic Universe, saying, "It 's much more of a standalone film. It takes place in the same universe. And when we 've been on the other side of that universe in other movies, you might see those characteristics in Guardians, but the Avengers are not involved with what 's happening out there at this time. '' Feige also stated that 95 % of the film would take place in space. In mid-March, Dave Bautista was signed to play Drax the Destroyer. Other actors who had been considered for the role included Isaiah Mustafa, Brian Patrick Wade and Jason Momoa. By the following week, sculptor Brian Muir, who sculpted Darth Vader 's mask for the Star Wars films, was revealed to be working on the film.
In early April 2013, Zoe Saldana entered into negotiations to star as Gamora in the film, and it was confirmed she had been cast later that month. Also in April, Michael Rooker joined the film 's cast as Yondu, and it was announced that Ophelia Lovibond had been cast in a supporting role. By this point in time, Lee Pace was in final negotiations to play the villain of the film. In May, Marvel offered John C. Reilly the role of Rhomann Dey. At the same time, it was disclosed that filmmakers were looking at actors including Hugh Laurie, Alan Rickman, and Ken Watanabe, for another role, and that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely were providing finishing touches to the script. A few days later, Glenn Close was cast as the head of the Nova Corps in the film, followed shortly by the casting of Karen Gillan as the film 's lead female villain. By June 2013, Benicio del Toro was cast in the film, as part of a multi-film deal with Marvel Studios. Later in the month, it was confirmed that Reilly had been cast as Rhomann Dey.
Special effects makeup designer David White took head and body casts of actors, such as Bautista, to experiment with materials used to create the characters. White said, "James always pushed for practical and makeup effects. He wanted, like me, to see the real deal there on set. '' White was careful not to use "modern '' creature designs to ensure they did not fall short in Gunn 's uniquely envisioned world. White and his team created upwards of 1,000 prosthetic makeup applications and 2,000 molds of different colored aliens. For the specific aesthetic look to the film, Gunn wanted to create "a colorful science - fiction world '', and include elements of 1950s and 60s pulp movies, citing the Ravagers ' spaceships, which he compared to muscle cars, as an example of the latter. Science fiction artist Chris Foss inspired and helped design the final look of some of the spacecrafts that appear in the film.
Principal photography began around July 6, 2013 in London, United Kingdom, under the working title of Full Tilt. Filming took place at Shepperton Studios and Longcross Studios. Later in July, Gunn and the film 's cast flew from London to attend San Diego Comic - Con International, where it was revealed that Pace would play Ronan the Accuser, Gillan would be Nebula, del Toro as The Collector, and that Djimon Hounsou had been cast as Korath. Close was later revealed to play Nova Prime Irani Rael. Also at San Diego Comic - Con, Feige stated that Thanos would be a part of the film as the "mastermind ''. On August 11, 2013, filming began at London 's Millennium Bridge, which was selected as a double for Xandar. In August 2013, Marvel announced that Bradley Cooper would voice Rocket. On September 3, 2013, Gunn said that filming was "a little over half (way) '' complete. Also in September, Vin Diesel stated that he was voicing Groot. However, Marvel did not confirm Diesel 's involvement in the film at the time. On October 12, 2013, Gunn announced on social media that filming had completed.
Director of photography Ben Davis used Arri Alexa XT cameras for the film, saying, "I 'm traditionally a photochemical fan, but going with the digital format was the right way for this movie... the Alexa (provided) the right look for this particular film. '' During the opening scenes in the 1980s, Davis chose JDC Cooke Xtal (Crystal) Express anamorphic prime lenses because they "had more anamorphic artifacts and aberrations, which (he) felt added something. '' Davis used spherical Panavision Primos for the rest of the film. Additionally, Davis worked closely with production designer Charles Wood in order to achieve the correct lighting looks for each scene. Dealing with two fully CGI characters forced Davis to shoot scenes multiple times, usually once with the references for the characters and once without them in the shot.
Gunn revealed that his brother, Sean Gunn, took on multiple roles during the filming process, such as standing in for Rocket, which he noted was beneficial for the other actors, including Saldana, Pratt, and Bautista, who responded positively to Sean and his on - set performances. Special effects makeup designer David White made two life - size versions of Rocket and a bust of Groot as aids for visual effects, with White saying, "it gives (the filmmakers) a good indication of where visual effects needs to pick up and whether Rocket can actually reach certain things or use certain devices. '' These busts were also used to see how the on - set lighting would affect the characters, to assist with the visual effects lighting process.
In January 2015, Disney revealed that the film came in "slightly over the agreed budget '' at $232.3 million, with Disney receiving a rebate of $36.4 million from the British government. It was previously estimated to have had a $170 million budget.
In November 2013, Gunn stated that he attempted to use as many practical effects as possible while filming to aid the use of CGI and motion capture during post-production, saying, "Our sets are enormous. We have a prison that is 350,000 pounds of steel. Anybody who knows me knows I love the mix of practical and CGI effects... I ca n't wait for people to see it, because it 's astonishingly beautiful. '' After the release of Thor: The Dark World, Feige stated that the Infinity Stones would be a focus in the film, as well as going forward into the Phase Three slate of films within the MCU. In a separate interview for The Dark World in November, Feige added that a third, unknown Infinity Stone would be seen in the film, referred to as the "Power Stone '' by the Collector. The mid-credits scene in The Dark World revealed Lovibond 's role as the Collector 's aide, later named Carina. In December 2013, Marvel confirmed that Diesel would voice Groot.
A few weeks of additional filming, involving the film 's main cast and crew, occurred in March 2014 at Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. In April 2014, Gunn described Thanos as the "head of the snake '' in the film, and confirmed he would appear via performance capture. In May 2014, Gunn stated that the film features an "enormous '' amount of smaller and minor characters from the Marvel Universe, adding that he felt the film had the most characters overall of any Marvel Studios film to date. Costume supervisor Dan Grace added to this by saying, "We really, really get the feeling of the scale and scope of the galaxy. We visit five planets, we see a hundred different races. '' The film introduces the alien race Sakaaran, who act as Ronan 's mercenaries, as a replacement to the Badoon, as the Badoon film rights belonged to 20th Century Fox.
By the end of May, Josh Brolin was revealed as the voice of Thanos, with Feige confirming in July that Brolin also provided the performance capture for the character. Thanos communicates via hologram for much of the film, though he does appear in a scene with Ronan and Nebula. In June 2014, Feige added that Thanos and his followers are "the biggest piece of connective tissue that will eventually lead us back into Avengers films in the future. '' On casting Brolin, Feige said,
We reached out to him and it was one of those things that does not happen all the time but when it does it 's very nice, where he was totally intrigued. He was a fan of what we did, he met with Jeremy Latcham in a hotel in London and learned about the characters a little bit. I spoke to him on the phone a few times. We ran it by James who loved it, ran it by Joss (Whedon) who loved it because Thanos is in this universe because of Avengers. Then we shot him and recorded for it.
On July 7, 2014, Gunn announced on social media that he had completed work on the film. In August, regarding the post-credit scene, Gunn revealed that the scene did not involve Howard the Duck when it was originally filmed, rather he was added during post-production, a decision made by "some combination of (Gunn) and the editor Fred Raskin ''. As the decision to add the character was made late in the post-production process, he had to be designed that day, before being handed off to Sony Pictures Imageworks to animate. Also in August, regarding the pre-credit scene of Groot dancing, Gunn stated that he himself danced to provide motion reference for the animators, and that the decision was made to place the scene before the credits, rather than during or after them, because of positive responses from a test audience, which made Marvel and Gunn feel that they did not want "people walking out and missing this thing ''. Marvel used design firm Sarofsky once again for the film 's title sequences, after liking their work for Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Sarofsky developed a custom typeface based on the font used in the teaser posters for the opening credits, which was tinted orange to offer a better contrast to the film 's blue and grey imagery. One of the typography solutions offered before the final product wound up being repurposed as the locator cards seen throughout the film.
The film featured 2,750 visual effects shots, which make up approximately 90 % of the film. The visual effects were created by: Moving Picture Company (MPC), who worked on creating Groot, as well as Morag, Xandar, the Dark Aster and the final battle on Xandar; Framestore, who worked on creating Rocket, extending the Kyln prison set and constructing Knowhere; Luma Pictures, who worked on Thanos; Method Studios, who worked on creating the Orb opening and revealing its powers, as well as the holographic displays at the Nova Corps command center; Lola VFX; Cantina Creative; Sony Pictures Imageworks, who worked on Howard the Duck and creating the Dark Aster shots with MPC; CoSA VFX; Secret Lab; Rise Visual Effects Studios; and Technicolor VFX. Pre - and post-visualizations were done by Proof and The Third Floor, with Proof also contributing to the creation of Rocket and Groot.
Producer Nik Korda noted how helpful it was to have Sean Gunn and Krystian Godlewski portray Rocket and Groot on set, as it provided references for lighting and on - set performances to the animators. When creating Groot, MPC realized early on that his eyes would be essential in maintaining the character 's human qualities, as his face could n't move in the way that humans ' do. MPC visual effects supervisor Nicolas Aithadi explained that, "When you look at humans what makes the eyes interesting is the imperfections -- trying to make these two irises not aimed at the same place -- trying to make them strange and look more human. '' Textures for Groot came from a number of sources, including inspiration from a botanical garden in London, and the character was modeled as individual branches, rigged individually, to simulate a muscle system for the character.
One of the major challenges for Framestore in creating Rocket was his fur. Framestore 's Rachel Williams explained that, since "raccoon fur is made up from a layer of short fine hair and a layer of longer thicker hairs '', these layers were separated and animated individually, removing the need to use "guide hairs '' to control the movements of thick sections of fur. Framestore and MPC worked closely sharing assets, to ensure shots of Rocket at MPC would match the Rocket created by Framestore, and vice versa for when Groot was needed by the other studio.
In order to give Thanos "the performance and the weight that he deserved '', Luma Pictures created a new facial animation system to re-create Josh Brolin as a fully CG character, using his "eyes, some of his cheek, how his muscles move when he talks ''. The character 's large jaw, and the deep groves that run down his face, had "to be carefully planned out with the movement of his face. ''
In August 2013, Gunn revealed that Tyler Bates would be composing the film 's score. Gunn stated that Bates would write some of the score first so that he can film to the music, as opposed to scoring to the film. In February 2014, Gunn revealed that the film would incorporate songs from the 1960s and 1970s, such as "Hooked on a Feeling '', on a mixtape in Quill 's Walkman, which acts as a way for him to stay connected to the Earth, home, and family he lost. In May 2014, Gunn added that using the songs from the 60s and 70s were "cultural reference points '', saying, "It 's striking the balance throughout the whole movie, through something that is very unique, but also something that is easily accessible to people at the same time. The music and the Earth stuff is one of those touchstones that we have to remind us that, yeah, (Quill) is a real person from planet Earth who 's just like you and me. Except that he 's in this big outer space adventure. ''
When choosing the songs, Gunn revealed he "started the process by reading the Billboard charts for all of the top hits of the ' 70s '', downloading "a few hundred '' songs that were "semi-familiar -- ones you recognize but might not be able to name off the top of your head '' and creating a playlist for all the songs that would fit the film tonally. He added that he "would listen to the playlist on my speakers around the house -- sometimes I would be inspired to create a scene around a song, and other times I had a scene that needed music and I would listen through the playlist, visualizing various songs, figuring out which would work the best. '' Most of the songs were played on set to help "the actors and the camera operators find the perfect groove for the shot '', with David Bowie 's "Moonage Daydream '' the only song chosen and added during post-production. Gunn also said that the opening scenes were designed with "Hooked on a Feeling '' in mind; however once Gunn discovered "Come and Get Your Love '', the song used in the sequence, Gunn felt it was a "better fit. ''
Three albums were released by Hollywood Records on July 29, 2014: The film 's score, Guardians of the Galaxy (Original Score), which features the music composed by Bates for the film; Guardians of the Galaxy: Awesome Mix Vol. 1 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack), which comprises the twelve songs from Quill 's mixtape; and a deluxe edition featuring both albums. By August 2014, the album which mirrored Quill 's mixtape had reached the top of the Billboard 200 chart, becoming the first soundtrack album in history consisting entirely of previously released songs to top the chart. Hollywood Records also released a cassette version of the Awesome Mix Vol. 1 soundtrack on November 28, 2014, as an exclusive to Record Store Day participants. The cassette, which is the first cassette Disney Music Group has released since 2003, comes with a digital download version of the album.
The world premiere of Guardians of the Galaxy was held on July 21, 2014, at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood. The film was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on July 31, 2014, and in the United States on August 1, in 3D and IMAX 3D. The film was released in 4,080 theaters in the United States, making it the widest August release, breaking the five year record held by G.I. Joe: The Rise of Cobra (4,007 theatres). The breakdown of venues was: 354 IMAX screens, 3,200 3D screens, 350 large format screens and 240 D - Box screens. In its sixth weekend, Guardians of the Galaxy was playing in 69 territories, its most.
In June 2014, Gunn stated that the film had always been planned as a 3D film, and "Unlike many directors, I 've been actively involved with converting every shot to 3D, making sure it works perfectly for the story and the film, making sure it 's spectacular and immersive without being silly, distracting, or overly showy. '' Gunn also revealed that the IMAX 3D version would include shifting aspect ratios, to make the viewing experience "even fuller and more encompassing. I 've personally chosen all the places where the changes occur... The changing aspect ratios in this case are actually a part of the storytelling. '' In July 2014, Gunn revealed that there were multiple scenes he had cut from the film, and he was investigating how to release them, either in an extended cut of the film, or as bonus features on the film 's home media release.
At Disney 's D23 Expo in August 2013, Feige presented footage first revealed at the San Diego Comic - Con in July 2013. The first trailer for the film debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on February 18, 2014, with a special introduction by Chris Pratt. The Los Angeles Times said the trailer delivered "some spirited alien action, with exploding spaceships and muscled bad guys, not to mention a few purely comedic moments, '' while spotlighting "a number of the offbeat characters. '' Total Film noted the similarity of the trailer 's opening clip to the 1981 film, Raiders of the Lost Ark, which Gunn stated was a big influence for Guardians, and made note of the "edgy '' humor used throughout. Total Film also noted the similarity of the trailer to the one debuted at Comic - Con and D23, with a few new shots featuring Nebula and the Collector. Social media response to the trailer was strong, with 88,000 mentions across Twitter, Facebook and various blogs in a 12 - hour period. Those numbers were comparable to trailers for other superhero films like Man of Steel and The Amazing Spider - Man 2, and noteworthy for the late night time period in which it premiered. The trailer received 22.8 million views in the 24 hours after it debuted. After the debut of the trailer, Blue Swede 's version of "Hooked on a Feeling '', which was prominently used throughout the trailer, went up 700 % in sales the following day. The line from Serafinowicz 's character, "What a bunch of A-holes. '', was only intended to be featured in the trailers, but due to its positive reception, was included in the final cut of the film. Gunn noted that a different teaser was almost released "that was very cheesy (and) sold the movie as something different than what it was '', as it tested better than the version that was ultimately released. Gunn credited the marketing teams at Marvel and Disney for having faith in the latter version, despite how it tested, over choosing the version that would have mis - marketed the film.
In March 2014, the Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "T.A.H.I.T.I. '' introduced the Kree race to the MCU, which began a storyline that recurs throughout the series and involves finding a hidden Kree city. Also in March, ABC aired a one - hour television special titled, Marvel Studios: Assembling a Universe, which included a sneak peek of Guardians of the Galaxy. Starting in April 2014, a two - part comic was released, titled Marvel 's Guardians of the Galaxy Prelude. Written by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning, with art by Wellington Alves, the first issue focused on the background of Nebula and her bond with Thanos; the second issue featured the adventures of Rocket and Groot before they join forces with the other Guardians. In June 2014, Mike Pasciullo, senior VP of Marvel Studios, described the marketing approach for Guardians of the Galaxy by saying that Marvel had "built a robust marketing program for the theatrical release that carefully integrates traditional advertising, social media, digital marketing, strategic promotional partnerships, organic entertainment integrations (and) publicity. ''
In July 2014, Marvel launched a viral marketing campaign for the film called "Galaxy Getaways '', a fictional travel website that allows users to book passage to some of the planets depicted in the film, including Xandar, Morag, and Knowhere. Beginning July 4, 2014, a sneak peek of the film was presented at Disneyland and Disney 's Hollywood Studios in the Magic Eye and ABC Sound Studio theaters, respectively. Approximately 14 minutes of the film was screened on July 7, 2014, in IMAX 3D in the United States, and 3D theaters and IMAX 3D in Canada, along with two trailers. The screening was met with positive reviews, praising the humor, the 3D and IMAX conversion, and Cooper 's portrayal of Rocket. However, it was criticized for beginning partway through the film, not allowing viewers to easily acclimate to the film 's tone, and for how the general audience might respond to a film within the MCU without established characters making appearances.
On July 12, 2014, Gunn and the actors from the film promoted Guardians of the Galaxy at the Lido 8 Cineplex in Singapore. On July 17, 2014, Disney Interactive released an action RPG video game titled Guardians of the Galaxy: The Universal Weapon for iOS, Android and Windows devices. The game 's original story was written by Dan Abnett, and was meant to complement the film. On July 21, Pratt, Saldana, Bautista, Diesel and Cooper appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! to promote the film and debut some additional exclusive content. On July 29, Pratt and Saldana rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange as part of the film 's marketing strategy.
On August 14, Marvel released the scene of Groot dancing, which was shortly followed by an announcement from Funko that they were releasing a toy "Dancing Groot ''. The Hollywood Reporter noted that the quick release of the scene from Marvel two weeks after the film 's theatrical release, along with the rush announcement from Funko, indicated the popularity of both the character and the scene. The scene also produced the word "grooting '', coined by Michael Rooker, in which a person dances similar to Groot, with the word entering the social media lexicon. Also in August, Marvel held a special screening of the film at Children 's Hospital Los Angeles, where Pratt dressed as Star - Lord to entertain the patients.
In June 2012, Marvel filed eleven trademark applications for Guardians of the Galaxy, covering a variety of consumer products, from video games to cosmetics. Disney Consumer Products partnered with Mad Engine, C - Life, New Era, Hasbro, Disguise, Rubies, Sideshow Collectibles, Lego, KIDdesigns, iHome, Funko, Freeze, Fast Forward, and Innovative Designs to produce merchandise for the film, with releases starting in June 2014. Mad Engine and C - Life were partnered as the core apparel outfitters, producing a line of T - shirts and fleece jackets, while New Era produced headwear and hats. Hasbro produced toys for the film; Disguise and Rubies produced the costumes; and Sideshow Collectibles was given charge of the collectibles. Lego announced three toy sets based on scenes from the film, while iHome created character speakers, Funko made vinyl bobble heads, Freeze crafted 1980s - inspired apparel, and backpacks and stationery were made by Fast Forward and Innovative Designs. Despite first films in a potential new franchise usually being off - limits to licensees, Marvel used Iron Man 's success as evidence of unknown characters becoming hits with audiences to attract partnerships. Licensees embraced Rocket as the film 's potential breakout character, with Drax and Gamora being used for older demographics; Star - Lord 's obsession with 1980s nostalgia, including his "Awesome Mix Vo. 1 '' cassette, has also served as a basis for tie - in products. In August 2014, Funko announced a toy based on "Dancing Groot '', while in October 2014, Marvel and KID designs announced a replica of dancing Groot, for release in December 2014.
In December 2014, Disney made a second marketing push, to coincide with the film 's home media release with additional merchandise. Merchandise partners included: KID designs with its replica dancing Groot; Funko 's Fabrikations line with a plush Rocket; Mattel 's Hot Wheels character cars; C - Life, Hybrid - Jem Sportswear, Freeze, MZ Berger, Accutime, AME and Her Universe with apparel; ThinkGeek with jewelry and watches; American Greetings with cards; Jay Franco with homegoods; and Vandor with drinkware. Additional partners included Mad Engine, Just Play and Dragon Models. Paul Gitter, senior vice president of Marvel licensing at Disney Consumer Products said, "The demand for Guardians of the Galaxy merchandise has been truly out of this world. Our merchandising and retail partners are doing a tremendous job of providing creative and innovative ways for fans to continue interacting with these popular characters and showcase their fandom year round. ''
Guardians of the Galaxy was released for digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on November 18, 2014 and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, and DVD on November 24, 2014, in the United Kingdom and on December 9 in the United States. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, a blooper reel, and an exclusive preview of Avengers: Age of Ultron. As of October 4, 2015, the film has earned over $118 million in sales in the US.
The film was also included in the 13 - disc box set, titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released on December 8, 2015.
Guardians of the Galaxy earned $333.2 million in North America and an estimated $440.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $773.3 million. The film became the third highest - grossing film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, behind The Avengers and Iron Man 3. It was the third highest - grossing 2014 film (behind Transformers: Age of Extinction and The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies) and the highest - grossing superhero film of 2014. It had a worldwide opening weekend of $160.7 million. Deadline.com calculated the net profit for the film to be $204.2 million, when factoring together "production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV, '' placing it fifth on their list of 2014 's "Most Valuable Blockbusters ''.
Guardians of the Galaxy earned $11.2 million on its Thursday night pre-opening, surpassing Captain America: The Winter Soldier 's gross ($10.2 million) for the biggest Thursday evening start for a movie in 2014. IMAX accounted for 17 % of the total gross ($1.9 million), which was the biggest August pre-release in IMAX format. On its opening day, the film earned $37.8 million, including the Thursday night earnings. Guardians of the Galaxy was the number one movie during its opening weekend and grossed $94.3 million, setting an August weekend record. During the opening weekend, IMAX earnings amounted to $11.7 million and 3 - D showings accounted for 45 % of ticket sales. The film 's success was partially attributed to its appeal to both genders: the opening weekend audience was 44 % female, which is the biggest proportion ever for a MCU film; 55 % of the opening - weekend audience was over the age of 25.
Although the film fell to second place in its second and third weekends, behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the film was number one in its fourth, fifth and sixth weekend. By doing so, it became the first film in 2014 to top the domestic box office in non-consecutive weeks, the first film of the summer (May -- August) to be the number one film in three weekends and the first MCU film to be the top film for four weeks, surpassing Captain America: The Winter Soldier and The Avengers, both of which were number one for three weeks, and tied The Dark Knight for the most weeks at number one among comic book - based films. Phil Contrino, vice president and chief analyst of BoxOffice.com felt Guardians success was "unconventional '' and was "shattering expectations ''. The film remained in the top 10 for ten weekends.
The film was the top grossing film of summer 2014 (ahead of Transformers: Age of Extinction), first of 2014 to pass $300 million for its domestic gross, and was the third highest - grossing domestic film of 2014 (behind American Sniper and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1). The film was said to have "injected life '' into an otherwise lower than normal summer box office.
Guardians of the Galaxy was released in 42 international markets and grossed $66.4 million on its opening weekend. The biggest debuts came from Russia ($13 million), the United Kingdom ($10.8 million), Mexico ($6.5 million), Brazil ($6.5 million) and South Korea ($4.7 million). The film topped the weekend box office two times, in its first and second weekends. In its eleventh weekend, the film opened in China, earning $29.8 million, its largest, and became the third highest opening in the country for any Disney release, behind Iron Man 3 and Captain America: The Winter Soldier, and was an all - time industry record opening in October. The following weekend saw an additional $21.3 million from China, making China the highest grossing market with $69 million. The film 's three biggest markets in total earnings were: China ($96.5 million); the UK ($47.4 million); and Russia ($37.5 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 91 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.8 / 10 based on 288 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Guardians of the Galaxy is just as irreverent as fans of the frequently zany Marvel comic would expect -- as well as funny, thrilling, full of heart, and packed with visual splendor. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100, based on 52 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. CinemaScore audiences gave Guardians of the Galaxy an "A '' grade rating on an A+ to F scale, while earning an "A + '' among under - 18 and 25 - to 34 - year - old viewers.
Scott Foundas of Variety said "James Gunn 's presumptive franchise - starter is overlong, overstuffed and sometimes too eager to please, but the cheeky comic tone keeps things buoyant -- as does Chris Pratt 's winning performance '', and praised the film 's look created by cinematographer Ben Davis, production designer Charles Wood, and special effects makeup designer David White. Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter also praised the film 's look, and felt "A well - matched ensemble rises to the challenge of launching a heroic origin film with distinctive style, abundant thrills and no shortage of humor. '' The Daily Telegraph 's Robbie Collin said, "A brand new summer family blockbuster this may be, but it plays by old, half - forgotten rules; trimming out the clutter and cross-referencing for snappy, streamlined, Saturday - cartoon fun ''. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said, "Blessed with a loose, anarchic B - picture soul that encourages you to enjoy yourself even when you 're not quite sure what 's going on, the scruffy Guardians is irreverent in a way that can bring the first Star Wars to mind, in part because it has some of the most unconventional heroes this side of the Mos Eisley Cantina. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said, "While Guardians takes you down one after another crazy narrative turn, it also pulls you into -- and, for the most part, keeps you in -- a fully realized other world. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times said, "Guardians of the Galaxy is a late summer treat -- a mostly lighthearted and self - referential comic - book movie with loads of whiz - bang action, some laugh - out - loud moments and a couple of surprisingly beautiful and touching scenes as well, '' calling it "a refreshing confection of entertainment. '' Jim Starlin, creator of Drax the Destroyer, Gamora, and Thanos, said it "might be Marvel 's best movie yet ''.
Jake Coyle of the Associated Press was more critical of the film, calling it "terribly overstuffed and many of the jokes get drowned out by the special effects... The pervasive movie references detract from the stab at freshness, and Guardians depends all too much on the whimsy of ' 70s anthems for an original beat. '' He also felt that Close, Reilly and del Toro were underused in the film. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said, "In place of wit, Guardians offers a sort of generalized willingness to be amusing, an atmosphere of high spirits that feels like lots of people pumping air into a tire that has a hole in it. Everyone is clearly working, but nothing is really happening -- and yet the effort is so evident that there 's an impulse to reward it. '' Kyle Smith of the New York Post also had a negative response to the film, comparing it to Howard the Duck and Green Lantern, and criticizing the dialogue, villains, soundtrack, lack of suspense, and the characters of Quill, Rocket, and Drax. The film received mixed reviews in China, where viewers complained that the film 's "poor subtitle translation not only spoiled the fun of watching it, but also made it difficult to understand its humor. ''
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 was released on May 5, 2017, again written and directed by James Gunn. Pratt, Saldana, Bautista, Diesel, Cooper, Rooker, Gillan, and Sean Gunn all reprise their roles in the film, and are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis, Elizabeth Debicki as Ayesha, Chris Sullivan as Taserface, and Kurt Russell as Quill 's father Ego.
In April 2017, Gunn announced he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. It is scheduled to be released in 2020.
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discouraged workers who want jobs but have stopped looking for jobs are | Discouraged worker - wikipedia
In economics, a discouraged worker is a person of legal employment age who is not actively seeking employment or who does not find employment after long - term unemployment. This is usually because an individual has given up looking or has had no success in finding a job, hence the term "discouraged ''.
In other words, even if a person is still looking actively for a job, that person may have fallen out of the core statistics of unemployment rate after long - term unemployment and is therefore by default classified as "discouraged '' (since the person does not appear in the core statistics of unemployment rate). In some cases, their belief may derive from a variety of factors including a shortage of jobs in their locality or line of work; discrimination for reasons such as age, race, sex, religion, sexual orientation, and disability; a lack of necessary skills, training, or experience; or, a chronic illness or disability.
As a general practice, discouraged workers, who are often classified as marginally attached to the labor force, on the margins of the labor force, or as part of hidden unemployment, are not considered part of the labor force, and are thus not counted in most official unemployment rates -- which influences the appearance and interpretation of unemployment statistics. Although some countries offer alternative measures of unemployment rate, the existence of discouraged workers can be inferred from a low employment - to - population ratio.
In the United States, a discouraged worker is defined as a person not in the labor force who wants and is available for a job and who has looked for work sometime in the past 12 months (or since the end of his or her last job if a job was held within the past 12 months), but who is not currently looking because of real or perceived poor employment prospects.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics does not count discouraged workers as unemployed but rather refers to them as only "marginally attached to the labor force ''. This means that the officially measured unemployment captures so - called "frictional unemployment '' and not much else. This has led some economists to believe that the actual unemployment rate in the United States is higher than what is officially reported while others suggest that discouraged workers voluntarily choose not to work. Nonetheless, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has published the discouraged worker rate in alternative measures of labor underutilization under U-4 since 1994 when the most recent redesign of the CPS was implemented.
The United States Department of Labor first began tracking discouraged workers in 1967 and found 500,000 at the time. Today, In the United States, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics as of April 2009, there are 740,000 discouraged workers. There is an ongoing debate as to whether discouraged workers should be included in the official unemployment rate. Over time, it has been shown that a disproportionate number of young people, blacks, Hispanics, and men make up discouraged workers. Nonetheless, it is generally believed that the discouraged worker is underestimated because it does not include homeless people or those who have not looked for or held a job during the past twelve months and is often poorly tracked.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the top five reasons for discouragement are the following:
In Canada, discouraged workers are often referred to as hidden unemployed because of their behavioral pattern, and are often described as on the margins of the labour force. Since the numbers of discouraged workers and of unemployed generally move in the same direction during the business cycle and the seasons (both tend to rise in periods of low economic activity and vice versa), some economists have suggested that discouraged workers should be included in the unemployment numbers because of the close association.
The information on the number and composition of the discouraged worker group in Canada originates from two main sources. One source is the monthly Labour Force Survey (LFS), which identifies persons who looked for work in the past six months but who have since stopped searching. The other source is the Survey of Job Opportunities (SJO), which is much closer in design to the approach used in many other countries. In this survey, all those expressing a desire for work and who are available for work are counted, irrespective of their past job search activity.
In Canada, while discouraged workers were once less educated than "average workers '', they now have better training and education but still tend to be concentrated in areas of high unemployment. Discouraged workers are not seeking a job for one of two reasons: labour market - related reasons (worker discouragement, waiting for recall to a former job or waiting for replies to earlier job search efforts) and personal and other reasons (illness or disability, personal or family responsibilities, going to school, and so on).
Unemployment statistics published according to the ILO methodology may understate actual unemployment in the economy. The EU statistical bureau EUROSTAT started publishing figures on discouraged workers in 2010. According to the method used by EUROSTAT there are 3 categories that make up discouraged workers;
The first group are contained in the employed statistics of the European Labour Force Survey while the second two are contained in the inactive persons statistics of that survey. In 2012 there were 9.2 million underemployed part - time workers, 2.3 million jobless persons seeking a job but not immediately available for work, and 8.9 million persons available for work but not seeking it, an increase of 0.6 million for underemployed and 0.3 million for the two groups making up discouraged workers.
If the discouraged workers and underemployed are added to official unemployed statistics Spain has the highest number real unemployed (8.4 Million), followed by Italy (6.4 Million), United Kingdom (5.5 Million), France (4.8 Million) and Germany (3.6 Million).
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who sang the song make you feel my love | Make You Feel My Love - wikipedia
"Make You Feel My Love '' is a song written by Bob Dylan that appeared on his album Time Out of Mind (1997). It was first released commercially by Billy Joel, under the title "To Make You Feel My Love '', before Dylan 's version appeared later that same year. It has since been covered by numerous performers and has proved to be a commercial success for recording artists such as Adele, Garth Brooks, Bryan Ferry, Kelly Clarkson and Ane Brun. Two covers of the song (one by Garth Brooks and one by Trisha Yearwood) were featured on the soundtrack of the 1998 film Hope Floats. Dylan eventually released the song as a single.
Additional musicians
In 1997, Billy Joel covered the song as "To Make You Feel My Love '' for his compilation album Greatest Hits Volume III. It was released as the first single from the album and reached number 50 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Joel 's single pre-dated Dylan 's release of the song by one month.
Garth Brooks covered the song as "To Make You Feel My Love '' in 1998. It appeared on the soundtrack of the 1998 film Hope Floats, along with a cover version by Trisha Yearwood as the first and last tracks. It was included first as the bonus track on Fresh Horses for Garth 's first Limited Series box set and then included on all later pressings of that album. Brooks ' version resulted in a nomination at 41st Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance and a nomination for Bob Dylan for Best Country Song.
In 2008, British singer Adele recorded "Make You Feel My Love '' for her debut studio album 19 (2008). It was released as the album 's fourth and final single on October 27, 2008, both on CD and vinyl, originally peaking at number 26. The largest sales of her recording, however, came during 2010 -- 11 when it peaked at number 4.
After the song was performed on the seventh series of The X Factor, it re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 24. The song then surged to number four after a second performance. Following a third X Factor performance and heavy use in the Comic Relief 2010 television, it spent three more non-consecutive weeks in the top 10. In early 2011 the song returned to the top 40 again, at number 34, after it appeared in the 2011 series of Britain 's Got Talent.
Adele 's version features in the soundtrack of the 2010 romantic comedy film When in Rome. Her cover version was also featured in the compilation album for the benefit of those affected by Supertyphoon Haiyan in the Philippines entitled Songs for the Philippines. In October 2013 the song was used in the third week of Strictly Come Dancing as part of the "Love Week '' theme. In January 2013, Heart Radio listed Adele 's recording as the UK 's number one song of all time in its Hall of Fame Top 500.
At a concert at London 's O2 Arena on March 22, 2016, the day of the Brussels bombings, Adele dedicated a performance of the song to the victims of the attacks.
According to Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy, the version expresses Adele 's affection for the song, "with just piano as backing, her dreamy, passionate vocals are allowed to shine ''. According to The Guardian 's Dave Simpson, with her "hushed delivery '', Adele makes the song "her own ''.
The song 's music video features Adele singing the song in her apartment.
In other television appearances in the UK and US, the song was used in:
In addition, Adele 's video of the song, directed by Mat Kirby, was released on music channels in late September 2008 and continues to be featured on her website.
The Adele version was used in the 2010 movie When in Rome.
Digital download (version 1)
Digital download (version 2)
CD single
19 version
19 Deluxe version
Chimes of Freedom live version
Live at the Royal Albert Hall live version
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
"Make You Feel My Love '' has also been recorded by:
Josh Kelley 's version appeared on A Cinderella Story: Original Soundtrack
The song was also covered by Lea Michele on the third episode of Glee 's fifth season, "The Quarterback '', in honor to Cory Monteith.
The song was covered by Maisy Stella in the ninth episode of the fifth season of Nashville as her character Daphne Conrad, who is singing to her mother Rayna Jaymes (Connie Britton) who had been in a car accident following the previous episode.
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who sang the song you dont know me | You Do n't Know Me (Eddy Arnold song) - wikipedia
"You Do n't Know Me '' is a song written by Cindy Walker based on a title and storyline given to her by Eddy Arnold in 1955. "You Do n't Know Me '' was first recorded by Arnold that year and released as a single on April 21, 1956 on RCA Victor. The first version of the song to make the Billboard charts was by Jerry Vale in 1956, peaking at # 14 on the pop chart. Arnold 's version charted two months later, released as an RCA Victor single, 47 - 6502, backed with "The Rockin ' Mockin ' Bird '', which reached # 10 on the Billboard country chart. Cash Box magazine, which combined all best - selling versions at one position, included a version by Carmen McRae that never appeared in the Billboard Top 100 Sides listing.
In his book Eddy Arnold: Pioneer of the Nashville Sound, author Michael Streissguth describes how the song came to be:
Cindy Walker, who had supplied Eddy with "Take Me in Your Arms and Hold Me '' (a number one country record in 1949 and Eddy 's first Cindy Walker release), recalled discussing the idea for "You Do n't Know Me '' with Eddy as she was leaving one of Nashville 's annual disc - jockey conventions. "I went up to the Victor suite to tell Steve Sholes good - bye, '' she explained, "and just as I was leaving, Eddy came in the door. ''
Walker remembered him saying, "I got a song title for you... ' You Do n't Know Me. ' ''
"But I know you, '' teased Walker.
"This is serious, replied Eddy, who proceeded to outline his idea.
The songwriter promised to let the idea stew in her head for a while. And soon, she remembered, the lyrics tumbled onto the page. "The song just started singing. It sort of wrote itself... ''
The best - selling version of the song is by Ray Charles, who took it to # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1962, after releasing the song on his # 1 album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music. This version also topped the "Easy listening '' chart for three weeks in 1962, and was used in the 1993 comedy film Groundhog Day. The song was the 12th number one country hit for Mickey Gilley in 1981.
The song has been performed or recorded by hundreds of artists, including Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, and Willie Nelson. Charles re-recorded the song with Diana Krall on his # 1 album of duets, Genius Loves Company, the only song common to both of Charles ' two # 1 albums. It was sung by Meryl Streep in the 1990 film Postcards from the Edge, by John Legend in the 2007 Curb Your Enthusiasm episode "The Bat Mitzvah '', by Robert Downey Jr. in the 1998 film Two Girls and a Guy, and by Lizzy Caplan in the 2013 Masters of Sex episode "Phallic Victories ''.
Artists that released song:
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the new episodes of keeping up with kardashians | List of Keeping up with the Kardashians episodes - wikipedia
Keeping Up with the Kardashians is an American reality television series that has aired on E! since October 14, 2007. The series has aired thirteen seasons, and focuses on the personal and professional lives of the Kardashian -- Jenner family. Its premise was originated with Ryan Seacrest, who additionally serves as an executive producer. The series focuses on sisters Kourtney, Kim, and Khloé Kardashian.
It additionally places emphasis on their brother Rob Kardashian, their mother Kris Jenner, their step - parent Caitlyn Jenner, their half - sisters Kendall and Kylie Jenner, and Kourtney 's now ex boyfriend, Scott Disick. Khloé 's ex husband Lamar Odom developed a major position as part of the supporting cast in the fourth season, though he was not a regular cast member in following seasons, and rarely appeared in season eight while attempting to fix his marriage with Khloé. In seasons eight and nine, Caitlyn 's children Brody and Brandon, and Brandon 's wife, Leah became recurring cast members.
Keeping Up with the Kardashians is often criticized for emphasizing the "famous for being famous '' concept and appearing to fabricate aspects of its storyline. The series has produced the spin - offs Kourtney and Kim Take Miami, Kourtney and Kim Take New York, Khloé & Lamar, Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons, Dash Dolls, I Am Cait, and Rob & Chyna.
As of June 11, 2017 (2017 - 06 - 11), 195 original episodes of Keeping Up with the Kardashians have aired concluding the thirteenth season.
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where did the name rouse hill come from | Rouse Hill, New South Wales - wikipedia
Rouse Hill is a suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. With a population of 7,482 Rouse Hill is located 42 kilometres north - west of the Sydney central business district in the local government area of the City of Blacktown and The Hills Shire. Rouse Hill is part of Greater Western Sydney and is in the Hills District.
Rouse Hill encompasses what was originally known as the Village of Aberdour along with the area originally known as Vinegar Hill following the convict rebellion of 1804. Rouse Hill was serviced by the first ferry service in the colony, the Rose Hill Packet. Vinegar Hill Post Office opened on 1 October 1857 and was renamed Rouse Hill on 13 April 1858. The new name was chosen after the estate of Richard Rouse (1774 - 1852), a prominent free settler who arrived in the colony in 1801. His first grant here was in 1802 and his second grant was in 1816. Governor Lachlan Macquarie suggested the estate be called Rouse Hill.
Rouse Hill is noteworthy in Australian history as the site of the main battle during an Irish rebellion, known as the Castle Hill rebellion or the second Battle of Vinegar Hill. On 4 March 1804, Irish convicts including political prisoners transported for participating in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, broke out of the Government Farm at Castle Hill, aiming to seize control of the area and to capture Parramatta. The uprising was crushed by the military authorities at Rouse Hill the following day with much loss of life. Many of the participants in the rebellion were summarily executed. The exact site of the Battle is uncertain but a monument with a plaque commemorating the event can be seen within Castlebrook Lawn Cemetery on Windsor Road in Kellyville Ridge.
Richard Rouse built his home, Rouse Hill House, from 1813 - 18. Service wings and an arcaded courtyard were added circa 1863. The simple, geometric layout of the garden is probably the oldest surviving in Australia. The house, its immediate surviving estate and outbuildings including stables designed by John Horbury Hunt, is now a house museum cared for by the Historic Houses Trust of New South Wales, and is on the Register of the National Estate.
Much of the family memorabilia has been preserved, including dolls, clothes and writings of the two girls, Nina (1875 - 1968) and Kathleen Rouse (1878 - 1932). These form a unique and fascinating record of late - Victorian Australian childhood, and inspired Ursula Dubosarsky 's prize - winning novel "Abyssinia ''.
Rouse Hill Town Centre built on the old golf course is a new town centre, owned and managed by The GPT Group, is located at the intersection of White Hart Drive and Windsor Roads. The first stage opened in September 2007 with the launch of the town centre on 6 March 2008. The first stage comprises Woolworths and Coles supermarkets, a food terrace, and 80 specialty stores. The second stage comprises Big W, Target, Reading Cinemas, an additional 130 specialty stores, a Community Centre, Library, Medical Centre, commercial and residential accommodation and the Secret Garden. The development has been integrated with the North - West T - way with provisions made for the proposed North West Rail Link.
Rouse Hill Village Centre which opened in 1999, is a small shopping centre located on Windsor Road. This complex features a major discount supermarket chain selling packaged groceries and perishables, as well as specialty shops and restaurants. The Terrace is another small shopping centre which was opened on Panmure Street in 2004.
Rouse Hill is bisected by Windsor Road, which is now a major 4 - lane road running from North Parramatta north - west to Windsor. Most residents of Rouse Hill are reliant on private cars for transport, with a high number of households having two or more cars.
Hillsbus provides services to Sydney CBD, North Sydney, Parramatta, Macquarie Park and Castle Hill, whilst Busways provides services to Blacktown, Riverstone and Castle Hill. Hillsbus also provides weekday services from Rouse Hill to Windsor. In September 2007 the North - West T - way opened, providing a bus rapid transit service to Parramatta railway station.
The Sydney Metro Northwest is a proposed railway line running from Rouse Hill to Epping, where it will connect to the existing Epping to Chatswood railway line. 2019
Cudgegong Road Station
Rouse Hill Station
At the 2011 census, the suburb of Rouse Hill recorded a population of 7,482 people. Of these:
Coordinates: 33 ° 40 ′ 54 '' S 150 ° 54 ′ 56 '' E / 33.68162 ° S 150.91552 ° E / - 33.68162; 150.91552
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which of the following anglo saxon roots most closely means guide | Anglo - Saxons - wikipedia
The Anglo - Saxons were a people who inhabited Great Britain from the 5th century. They comprise people from Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe, their descendants, and indigenous British groups who adopted some aspects of Anglo - Saxon culture and language. Historically, the Anglo - Saxon period denotes the period in Britain between about 450 and 1066, after their initial settlement and up until the Norman conquest.
The early Anglo - Saxon period includes the creation of an English nation, with many of the aspects that survive today, including regional government of shires and hundreds. During this period, Christianity was established and there was a flowering of literature and language. Charters and law were also established. The term Anglo - Saxon is popularly used for the language that was spoken and written by the Anglo - Saxons in England and eastern Scotland between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. In scholarly use, it is more commonly called Old English.
The history of the Anglo - Saxons is the history of a cultural identity. It developed from divergent groups in association with the people 's adoption of Christianity, and was integral to the establishment of various kingdoms. Threatened by extended Danish invasions and military occupation of eastern England, this identity was re-established; it dominated until after the Norman Conquest. The visible Anglo - Saxon culture can be seen in the material culture of buildings, dress styles, illuminated texts and grave goods. Behind the symbolic nature of these cultural emblems, there are strong elements of tribal and lordship ties. The elite declared themselves as kings who developed burhs, and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms. Above all, as Helena Hamerow has observed, "local and extended kin groups remained... the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo - Saxon period. '' The effects persist in the 21st century as, according to a study published in March 2015, the genetic make up of British populations today shows divisions of the tribal political units of the early Anglo - Saxon period.
Use of the term Anglo - Saxon assumes that the words Angles, Saxons or Anglo - Saxon have the same meaning in all the sources. Assigning ethnic labels such as "Anglo - Saxon '' is fraught with difficulties. This term began to be used only in the 8th century to distinguish the "Germanic '' groups in Britain from those on the continent (Old Saxony in Northern Germany). Catherine Hills summarised the views of many modern scholars in her observation that attitudes towards Anglo - Saxons, and hence the interpretation of their culture and history, have been "more contingent on contemporary political and religious theology as on any kind of evidence. ''
The Old English ethnonym "Angul - Seaxan '' comes from the Latin Angli - Saxones and became the name of the peoples Bede calls Anglorum and Gildas calls Saxones. Anglo - Saxon is a term that was rarely used by Anglo - Saxons themselves; it is not an autonym. It is likely they identified as ængli, Seaxe or, more probably, a local or tribal name such as Mierce, Cantie, Gewisse, Westseaxe, or Norþanhymbre. Also, the use of Anglo - Saxon disguises the extent to which people identified as Anglo - Scandinavian after the Viking age, or as Anglo - Norman after the Norman conquest in 1066.
The earliest historical references using this term are from outside Britain, referring to piratical Germanic raiders, ' Saxones ' who attacked the shores of Britain and Gaul in the 3rd century AD. Procopius states that Britain was settled by three races: the Angiloi, Frisones, and Britons. The term Angli Saxones seems to have first been used in continental writing of the 8th century; Paul the Deacon uses it to distinguish the English Saxons from the continental Saxons (Ealdseaxe, literally, ' old Saxons '). The name therefore seemed to mean "English '' Saxons.
The Christian church seems to have used the word Angli; for example in the story of Pope Gregory I and his remark, "Non Angli sed angeli '' (not English but angels). the terms ænglisc (' the language ') and Angelcynn (' the people ') were also used by West Saxon King Alfred to refer to the people; in doing so he was following established practice. The first use of the term Anglo - Saxon amongst the insular sources is in the titles for Athelstan: Angelsaxonum Denorumque gloriosissimus rex (most glorious king of the Anglo - Saxons and of the Danes) and rex Angulsexna and Norþhymbra imperator paganorum gubernator Brittanorumque propugnator (king of the Anglo - Saxons and emperor of the Northumbrians, governor of the pagans, and defender of the Britons). At other times he uses the term rex Anglorum (king of the English), which presumably meant both Anglo - Saxons and Danes. Alfred the Great used Anglosaxonum Rex. The term Engla cyningc (King of the English) is used by Æthelred. King Cnut in 1021 was the first to refer to the land and not the people with this term: ealles Englalandes cyningc (King of all England). These titles express the sense that the Anglo - Saxons were a Christian people with a king anointed by God.
The indigenous Common Brittonic speakers referred to Anglo - Saxons as Saxones or possibly Saeson (the word Saeson is the modern Welsh word for ' English people '); the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language, Sasanach. Catherine Hills suggests that it is no accident, "that the English call themselves by the name sanctified by the Church, as that of a people chosen by God, whereas their enemies use the name originally applied to piratical raiders ''.
The early Anglo - Saxon period covers the history of medieval Britain that starts from the end of Roman rule. It is a period widely known in European history as the Migration Period, also the Völkerwanderung ("migration of peoples '' in German). This was a period of intensified human migration in Europe from about 400 to 800. The migrants were Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Lombards, Suebi, Frisii and Franks; they were later pushed westwards by the Huns, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Alans.
By the year 400, southern Britain -- that is Britain below Hadrian 's Wall -- was a peripheral part of the western Roman Empire, occasionally lost to rebellion or invasion, but until then always eventually recovered. Around 410, Britain slipped beyond direct imperial control into a phase which has generally been termed "sub-Roman ''.
The traditional narrative of this period is one of decline and fall, invasion and migration; however, the archaeologist Heinrich Härke stated in 2011:
It is now widely accepted that the Anglo - Saxons were not just transplanted Germanic invaders and settlers from the Continent, but the outcome of insular interactions and changes.
Writing c. 540 Gildas mentions that, sometime in the 5th century, a council of leaders in Britain agreed that some land in the east of southern Britain would be given to the Saxons on the basis of a treaty, a foedus, by which the Saxons would defend the Britons against attacks from the Picts and Scoti in exchange for food supplies. The most contemporaneous textual evidence is the Chronica Gallica of 452 which records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule. '' This is an earlier date than that of 451 for the "coming of the Saxons '' used by Bede in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, written around 731. It has been argued that Bede misinterpreted his (scanty) sources, and that the chronological references in the Historia Britonnum yield a plausible date of around 428.
Gildas recounts how a war broke out between the Saxons and the local population -- Higham calls it the "War of the Saxon Federates '' -- which ended shortly after the siege at ' Mons Badonicus '. The Saxons go back to "their eastern home ''. Gildas calls the peace a "grievous divorce with the barbarians ''. The price of peace, Nick Higham argues, is a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain. The archaeological evidence agrees with this earlier timescale. In particular, the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before Bede 's date.
This vision of the Anglo - Saxons exercising extensive political and military power at an early date remains contested. The most developed vision of a continuation in sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who suggests that the sub-Roman elite survived in culture, politics and military power up to c. 570. However, Nick Higham seems to agree with Bede, who identified three phases of settlement: an exploration phase, when mercenaries came to protect the resident population; a migration phase, which was substantial as implied by the statement that Anglus was deserted; and an establishment phase, in which Anglo - Saxons started to control areas, implied in Bede 's statement about the origins of the tribes.
Scholars have not reached consensus on the number of migrants who entered Britain in this period. Heinrich Härke suggests that the figure is around 100,000, based on the molecular evidence. But, archaeologists such as Christine Hills and Richard Hodges suggest the number is nearer 20,000. By around 500 the Anglo - Saxon migrants were established in southern and eastern Britain.
What happened to the indigenous Brittonic people is also subject to question. Heinrich Härke and Richard Coates point out that they are invisible archaeologically and linguistically. But based on a fairly high Anglo - Saxon figure (200,000) and a low Brythonic one (800,000), Brythonic people are likely to have outnumbered Anglo - Saxons by at least four to one. The interpretation of such figures is that while "culturally, the later Anglo - Saxons and English did emerge as remarkably un-British,... their genetic, biological make - up is none the less likely to have been substantially, indeed predominantly, British ''. The development of Anglo - Saxon culture is described by two processes. One is similar to culture changes observed in Russia, North Africa and parts of the Islamic world, where a powerful minority culture becomes, over a rather short period, adopted by a settled majority.
The second process is explained through incentives. Nick Higham summarized in this way:
As Bede later implied, language was a key indicator of ethnicity in early England. In circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use and possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value.
By the middle of the 6th century, some Brythonic people in the lowlands of Britain had moved across the sea to form Brittany, and some had moved west, but the majority were abandoning their past language and culture and adopting the new culture of the Anglo - Saxons. As they adopted this language and culture, the barriers began to dissolve between peoples, who had earlier lived parallel lives. The archaeological evidence shows considerable continuity in the system of landscape and local governance, which was inherited from the indigenous community. There is evidence for a fusion of culture in this early period. Brythonic names appear in the lists of Anglo - Saxon elite. The Wessex royal line was traditionally founded by a man named Cerdic, an undoubtedly Celtic name ultimately derived from Caratacus. This may indicate that Cerdic was a native Briton, and that his dynasty became anglicised over time. A number of Cerdic 's alleged descendants also possessed Celtic names, including the ' Bretwalda ' Ceawlin. The last man in this dynasty to have a Brythonic name was King Caedwalla, who died as late as 689.
In the last half of the 6th century, four structures contributed to the development of society; they were the position and freedoms of the ceorl, the smaller tribal areas coalescing into larger kingdoms, the elite developing from warriors to kings, and Irish monasticism developing under Finnian (who had consulted Gildas) and his pupil Columba.
The Anglo - Saxon farms of this period are often falsely supposed to be "peasant farms ''. However, a ceorl, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo - Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms - owning male with the support of a kindred, access to law and the wergild; situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one hide of land. The farmer had freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord who provided only slight lordly input. Most of this land was common outfield arable land (of an outfield - infield system) that provided individuals with the means to build a basis of kinship and group cultural ties.
The Tribal Hidage lists thirty - five peoples, or tribes, with assessments in hides, which may have originally been defined as the area of land sufficient to maintain one family. The assessments in the Hidage reflect the relative size of the provinces. Although varying in size, all thirty - five peoples of the Tribal Hidage were of the same status, in that they were areas which were ruled by their own elite family (or royal houses), and so were assessed independently for payment of tribute. By the end of the sixth century, larger kingdoms had become established on the south or east coasts. They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the Humber) Deira and Bernicia. Several of these kingdoms may have had as their initial focus a territory based on a former Roman civitas.
By the end of the sixth century, the leaders of these communities were styling themselves kings, though it should not be assumed that all of them were Germanic in origin. The Bretwalda concept is taken as evidence of a number of early Anglo - Saxon elite families. What Bede seems to imply in his Bretwalda is the ability of leaders to extract tribute, overawe and / or protect the small regions, which may well have been relatively short - lived in any one instance. Ostensibly "Anglo - Saxon '' dynasties variously replaced one another in this role in a discontinuous but influential and potent roll call of warrior elites. Importantly, whatever their origin or whenever they flourished, these dynasties established their claim to lordship through their links to extended kin ties. As Helen Peake jokingly points out, "they all just happened to be related back to Woden ''.
The process from warrior to cyning -- Old English for king -- is described in Beowulf:
Oft Scyld Scéfing -- sceaþena þréatum monegum maégþum -- meodosetla oftéah egsode Eorle -- syððan aérest wearð féasceaft funde -- hé þæs frófre gebád wéox under wolcnum -- weorðmyndum þáh oð þæt him aéghwylc -- þára ymbsittendra ofer hronráde -- hýran scolde, gomban gyldan -- þæt wæs gód cyning.
There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many tribes, A wrecker of mead - benches, rampaging among foes. This terror of the hall - troops had come far. A foundling to start with, he would flourish later on As his powers waxed and his worth was proved. In the end each clan on the outlying coasts Beyond the whale - road had to yield to him And begin to pay tribute. That was one good king.
In 565, Columba, a monk from Ireland who studied at the monastic school of Moville under St. Finnian, reached Iona as a self - imposed exile. The influence of the monastery of Iona would grow into what Peter Brown has described as an "unusually extensive spiritual empire, '' which "stretched from western Scotland deep to the southwest into the heart of Ireland and, to the southeast, it reached down throughout northern Britain, through the influence of its sister monastery Lindisfarne. ''
In June 597 Columba died. At this time, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to King Æthelberht 's main town of Canterbury. He had been the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead the Gregorian mission to Britain to Christianise the Kingdom of Kent from their native Anglo - Saxon paganism. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the King of Paris, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Æthelberht was converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider - scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom. Æthelberht 's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. For the first time following the Anglo - Saxon invasion, coins began circulating in Kent during his reign.
In 635 Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona chose the Isle of Lindisfarne to establish a monastery and close to King Oswald 's main fortress of Bamburgh. He had been at the monastery in Iona when Oswald asked to be sent a mission to Christianise the Kingdom of Northumbria from their native Anglo - Saxon paganism. Oswald had probably chosen Iona because after his father had been killed he had fled into south - west Scotland and had encountered Christianity, and had returned determined to make Northumbria Christian. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian faith, and since Aidan could not speak English and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile, Oswald acted as Aidan 's interpreter when the latter was preaching. Later, Northumberland 's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was an abbot of the monastery, and then Bishop of Lindisfarne. An anonymous life of Cuthbert written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing. and in his memory a gospel (known as the St Cuthbert Gospel) was placed in his coffin. The decorated leather bookbinding is the oldest intact European binding.
In 664, the Synod of Whitby was convened and established Roman practice (in style of tonsure and dates of Easter) as the norm in Northumbria, and thus "brought the Northumbrian church into the mainstream of Roman culture. '' The episcopal seat of Northumbria was transferred from Lindisfarne to York. Wilfrid, chief advocate for the Roman position, later became Bishop of Northumbria, while Colmán and the Ionan supporters, who did not change their practices, withdrew to Iona.
By 660 the political map of Lowland Britain had developed with smaller territories coalescing into kingdoms, from this time larger kingdoms started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The development of kingdoms, with a particular king being recognised as an overlord, developed out of an early loose structure that, Higham believes, is linked back to the original feodus. The traditional name for this period is the Heptarchy, which has not been used by scholars since the early 20th century as it gives the impression of a single political structure and does not afford the "opportunity to treat the history of any one kingdom as a whole ''. Simon Keynes suggests that the 8th and 9th century was period of economic and social flourishing which created stability both below the Thames and above the Humber. Many areas flourished and their influence was felt across the continent, however in between the Humber and Thames, one political entity grew in influence and power and to the East these developments in Britain attracted attention.
Middle - lowland Britain was known as the place of the Mierce, the border or frontier folk, in Latin Mercia. Mercia was a diverse area of tribal groups, as shown by the Tribal Hidage; the peoples were a mixture of Brythonic speaking peoples and "Anglo - Saxon '' pioneers and their early leaders had Brythonic names, such as Penda. Although Penda does not appear in Bede 's list of great overlords it would appear from what Bede says elsewhere that he was dominant over the southern kingdoms. At the time of the battle of the river Winwæd, thirty duces regii (royal generals) fought on his behalf. Although there are many gaps in the evidence, it is clear that the seventh - century Mercian kings were formidable rulers who were able to exercise a wide - ranging overlordship from their Midland base.
Mercian military success was the basis of their power; it succeeded not only 106 kings and kingdoms by winning set - piece battles, but by ruthlessly ravaging any area foolish enough to withhold tribute. There are a number of casual references scattered throughout the Bede 's history to this aspect of Mercian military policy. Penda is found ravaging Northumbria as far north as Bamburgh and only a miraculous intervention from Aidan prevents the complete destruction of the settlement. In 676 Æthelred conducted a similar ravaging in Kent and caused such damage in the Rochester diocese that two successive bishops gave up their position because of lack of funds. In these accounts there is a rare glimpse of the realities of early Anglo - Saxon overlordship and how a widespread overlordship could be established in a relatively short period. By the middle of the 8th century, other kingdoms of southern Britain were also affected by Mercian expansionism. The East Saxons seem to have lost control of London, Middlesex and Hertfordshire to Æthelbald, although the East Saxon homelands do not seem to have been affected, and the East Saxon dynasty continued into the ninth century. The Mercian influence and reputation reached its peak when, in the late 8th century, the most powerful European ruler of the age, the Frankish king Charlemagne, recognised the Mercian King Offa 's power and accordingly treated him with respect, even if this could have been just flattery.
Michael Drout calls this period the "Golden Age '', when learning flourishes with a renaissance in classical knowledge. The growth and popularity of monasticism was not an entirely internal development, with influence from the continent shaping Anglo - Saxon monastic life. In 669 Theodore, a Greek - speaking monk originally from Tarsus in Asia Minor, arrived in Britain to become the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury. He was joined the following year by his colleague Hadrian, a Latin - speaking African by origin and former abbot of a monastery in Campania (near Naples). One of their first tasks at Canterbury was the establishment of a school; and according to Bede (writing some sixty years later), they soon "attracted a crowd of students into whose minds they daily poured the streams of wholesome learning ''. As evidence of their teaching, Bede reports that some of their students, who survived to his own day were as fluent in Greek and Latin as in their native language. Bede does not mention Aldhelm in this connection; but we know from a letter addressed by Aldhelm to Hadrian that he too must be numbered among their students.
Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent and very difficult Latin, which became the dominant style for centuries. Michael Drout states "Aldhelm wrote Latin hexameters better than anyone before in England (and possibly better than anyone since, or at least up until Milton). His work showed that scholars in England, at the very edge of Europe, could be as learned and sophisticated as any writers in Europe. '' During this period, the wealth and power of the monasteries increased as elite families, possibly out of power, turned to monastic life.
Anglo - Saxon monasticism developed the unusual institution of the "double monastery '', a house of monks and a house of nuns, living next to each other, sharing a church but never mixing, and living separate lives of celibacy. These double monasteries were presided over by abbesses, some of the most powerful and influential women in Europe. Double monasteries which were built on strategic sites near rivers and coasts, accumulated immense wealth and power over multiple generations (their inheritances were not divided) and became centers of art and learning.
While Aldhelm was doing his work in Malmesbury, far from him, up in the North of England, Bede was writing a large quantity of books, gaining a reputation in Europe and showing that the English could write history and theology, and do astronomical computation (for the dates of Easter, among other things).
The 9th century saw the rise of Wessex, from the foundations laid by King Egbert in the first quarter of the century to the achievements of King Alfred the Great in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, though the annals represent a West Saxon point of view. On the day of Egbert 's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the Hwicce had crossed the border at Kempsford, with the intention of mounting a raid into northern Wiltshire; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, "and the people of Wiltshire had the victory ''. In 829 Egbert went on, the chronicler reports, to conquer "the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber ''. It was at this point that the chronicler chose to attach Egbert 's name to Bede 's list of seven overlords, adding that "he was the eighth king who was Bretwalda ''. Simon Keynes suggests Egbert 's foundation of a ' bipartite ' kingdom is crucial as it stretched across southern England, and it created a working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians. In 860 the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the surviving sons of King Æthelwulf, though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler Æthelred, who in other circumstances might have been styled a king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the ' ealdorman ' of his people.
The wealth of the monasteries and the success of Anglo - Saxon society attracted the attention of people from continental Europe, mostly Danes and Norwegians. Due to the plundering raids that followed, the raiders attracted the name Viking -- from the Old Norse víkingr meaning an expedition -- which soon became used for the raiding activity or piracy reported in western Europe. In 793, Lindisfarne was raided and while this was not the first raid of its type it was the most prominent. A year later Jarrow, the monastery where Bede wrote, was attacked; in 795 Iona; and in 804 the nunnery at Lyminge Kent was granted refuge inside the walls of Canterbury. Sometime around 800, a Reeve from Portland in Wessex was killed when he mistook some raiders for ordinary traders.
Viking raids continued until in 850, then the Chronicle says: "The heathen for the first time remained over the winter ''. The fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known as the Danelaw. This was the "Great Army '', a term used by the Chronicle in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent. The invaders were able not only to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms, but to appoint puppet kings, Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873, ' a foolish king 's thane ' (ASC), and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870. The third phase was an era of settlement; however, the ' Great Army ' went wherever it could find the richest pickings, crossing the Channel when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892. By this stage the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change. They constituted the common enemy, making the English the more conscious of a national identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for the people 's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by ' conquering ' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people.
Danish settlement continued in Mercia in 877 and East Anglia in 879 -- 80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be a formidable fighting force. At first, Alfred responded by the offer of repeated tribute payments. However, after a decisive victory at Edington in 878, Alfred offered vigorous opposition. He established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, "so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs '' (A.SC s.a. 893), and in 896 ordered a new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking longships in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892, they found they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years, the Scandinavians therefore split up, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia, the remainder to try their luck again on the Continent.
More important to Alfred than his military and political victories were his religion, his love of learning, and his spread of writing throughout England. Simon Keynes suggests Alfred 's work laid the foundations for what really makes England unique in all of medieval Europe from around 800 until 1066. What is also unique is that we can discover some of this in Alfred 's own words:
Thinking about how learning and culture had fallen since the last century, he wrote:
... So completely had wisdom fallen off in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their rituals in English, or indeed could translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber. There were so few of them that I indeed can not think of a single one south of the Thames when I became king. (Preface: "Gregory the Great 's Pastoral Care '')
Alfred knew that literature and learning, both in English and in Latin, were very important, but the state of learning was not good when Alfred came to the throne. Alfred saw kingship as a priestly office, a shepherd for his people. One book that was particularly valuable to him was Gregory the Great 's Cura Pastoralis (Pastoral Care). This is a priest 's guide on how to care for people. Alfred took this book as his own guide on how to be a good king to his people; hence, a good king to Alfred increases literacy. Alfred translated this book himself and explains in the preface:
... When I had learned it I translated it into English, just as I had understood it, and as I could most meaningfully render it. And I will send one to each bishopric in my kingdom, and in each will be an æstel worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God 's name that no man may take the æstel from the book nor the book from the church. It is unknown how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks to God, are nearly everywhere. (Preface: "Gregory the Great 's Pastoral Care '')
What is presumed to be one of these "æstel '' (the word only appears in this one text) is the gold, rock crystal and enamel Alfred Jewel, discovered in 1693, which is assumed to have been fitted with a small rod and used as a pointer when reading. Alfred provided functional patronage, linked to a social programme of vernacular literacy in England, which was unprecedented.
Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we also translate certain books... and bring it about... if we have the peace, that all the youth of free men who now are in England, those who have the means that they may apply themselves to it, be set to learning, while they may not be set to any other use, until the time when they can well read English writings. (Preface: "Gregory the Great 's Pastoral Care '')
This set in train a growth in charters, law, theology and learning. Alfred thus laid the foundation for the great accomplishments of the tenth century and did much to make the vernacular was more important than Latin in Anglo - Saxon culture.
I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men who should come after me, the memory of me in good works. (Preface: "The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius '')
A framework for the momentous events of the 10th and 11th centuries is provided by the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle. However charters, law - codes and coins supply detailed information on various aspects of royal government, and the surviving works of Anglo - Latin and vernacular literature, as well as the numerous manuscripts written in the 10th century, testify in their different ways to the vitality of ecclesiastical culture. Yet as Simon Keynes suggests "it does not follow that the 10th century is better understood than more sparsely documented periods ''.
During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over Mercia, then into the southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance of political unity on peoples, who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and their separate pasts. The prestige, and indeed the pretensions, of the monarchy increased, the institutions of government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order. This process started with Edward the Elder -- who with his sister, Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, initially, charters reveal, encouraged people to purchase estates from the Danes, thereby to reassert some degree of English influence in territory which had fallen under Danish control. David Dumville suggests that Edward may have extended this policy by rewarding his supporters with grants of land in the territories newly conquered from the Danes, and that any charters issued in respect of such grants have not survived. When Athelflæd died, Mercia was absorbed by Wessex. From that point on there was no contest for the throne, so the house of Wessex became the ruling house of England.
Edward the Elder was succeeded by his son Æthelstan, who Simon Keynes calls the "towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century ''. His victory over a coalition of his enemies -- Constantine, King of the Scots, Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of the Cumbrians, and Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin -- at the battle of Brunanburh, celebrated by a famous poem in the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, opened the way for him to be hailed as the first king of England. Æthelstan 's legislation shows how the king drove his officials to do their respective duties. He was uncompromising in his insistence on respect for the law. However this legislation also reveals the persistent difficulties which confronted the king and his councillors in bringing a troublesome people under some form of control. His claim to be "king of the English '' was by no means widely recognised. The situation was complex: the Hiberno - Norse rulers of Dublin still coveted their interests in the Danish kingdom of York; terms had to be made with the Scots, who had the capacity not merely to interfere in Northumbrian affairs, but also to block a line of communication between Dublin and York; and the inhabitants of northern Northumbria were considered a law unto themselves. It was only after twenty years of crucial developments following Æthelstan 's death in 939 that a unified kingdom of England began to assume its familiar shape. However, the major political problem for Edmund and Eadred, who succeeded Æthelstan, remained the difficulty of subjugating the north. In 959 Edgar is said to have "succeeded to the kingdom both in Wessex and in Mercia and in Northumbria, and he was then 16 years old '' (ASC, version ' B ', ' C '), and is called "the Peacemaker ''. By the early 970s, after a decade of Edgar 's ' peace ', it may have seemed that the kingdom of England was indeed made whole. In his formal address to the gathering at Winchester the king urged his bishops, abbots and abbesses "to be of one mind as regards monastic usage... lest differing ways of observing the customs of one Rule and one country should bring their holy conversation into disrepute ''.
Athelstan 's court had been an intellectual incubator. In that court were two young men named Dunstan and Æthelwold who were made priests, supposedly at the insistence of Athelstan, right at the end of his reign in 939. Between 970 and 973 a council was held, under the aegis of Edgar, where a set of rules were devised that would be applicable throughout England. This put all the monks and nuns in England under one set of detailed customs for the first time. In 973, Edgar received a special second, ' imperial coronation ' at Bath, and from this point England was ruled by Edgar under the strong influence of Dunstan, Athelwold, and Oswald, the Bishop of Worcester.
The reign of King Æthelred the Unready witnessed the resumption of Viking raids on England, putting the country and its leadership under strains as severe as they were long sustained. Raids began on a relatively small scale in the 980s, but became far more serious in the 990s, and brought the people to their knees in 1009 -- 12, when a large part of the country was devastated by the army of Thorkell the Tall. It remained for Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, to conquer the kingdom of England in 1013 -- 14, and (after Æthelred 's restoration) for his son Cnut to achieve the same in 1015 -- 16. The tale of these years incorporated in the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle must be read in its own right, and set beside other material which reflects in one way or another on the conduct of government and warfare during Æthelred 's reign. It is this evidence which is the basis for Simon Keynes 's view that the king lacked the strength, judgement and resolve to give adequate leadership to his people in a time of grave national crisis; who soon found out that he could rely on little but the treachery of his military commanders; and who, throughout his reign, tasted nothing but the ignominy of defeat. The raids exposed tensions and weaknesses which went deep into the fabric of the late Anglo - Saxon state and it is apparent that events proceeded against a background more complex than the chronicler probably knew. It seems, for example, that the death of Bishop Æthelwold in 984 had precipitated further reaction against certain ecclesiastical interests; that by 993 the king had come to regret the error of his ways, leading to a period when the internal affairs of the kingdom appear to have prospered.
The increasingly difficult times brought on by the Viking attacks are reflected in both Ælfric 's and Wulfstan 's works, but most notably in Wulfstan 's fierce rhetoric in the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, dated to 1014. Malcolm Godden suggests that ordinary people saw the return of the Vikings, as the imminent "expectation of the apocalypse '', and this was given voice in Ælfric and Wulfstan writings, which is similar to that of Gildas and Bede. Raids were signs of God punishing his people, Ælfric refers to people adopting the customs of the Danish and exhorts people not to abandon the native customs on behalf of the Danish ones, and then requests a ' brother Edward ', to try to put an end to a ' shameful habit ' of drinking and eating in the outhouse, which some of the countrywomen practised at beer parties.
In April 1016 Æthelred died of illness, leaving his son and successor Edmund Ironside to defend the country. The final struggles were complicated by internal dissension, and especially by the treacherous acts of Ealdorman Eadric of Mercia, who opportunistically changed sides to Cnut 's party. After the defeat of the English in the battle of Assandun in October 1016, Edmund and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom so that Edmund would rule Wessex and Cnut Mercia, but Edmund died soon after his defeat in November 1016, making it possible for Cnut to seize power over all England.
In the 11th century, there were three conquests and some Anglo - Saxon people would live through it: one in the aftermath of the conquest of Cnut in 1016; the second after the unsuccessful attempt of battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066; the third after that of William of Normandy in 1066. The consequences of each conquest can only be assessed with hindsight. In 1016, no - one was to know that whatever cultural ramifications were felt then, they would be subsumed half a century later; and in 1066 there was nothing to predict that the effects of William 's conquest would be any greater or more lasting than those of Cnut 's.
In this period and beyond the Anglo - Saxon culture is changing. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not ' Anglo - Saxon '; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period) are moving away from the late West Saxon standard that is called ' Old English '. Yet neither are they ' Middle English '; moreover, as Treharne explains, for around three quarters of this period, "there is barely any ' original ' writing in English at all ''. These factors have led to a gap in scholarship implying a discontinuity either side of the Norman Conquest, however this assumption is being challenged.
At first sight, there would seem little to debate. Cnut appears to have adopted wholeheartedly the traditional role of Anglo - Saxon kingship. However an examination of the laws, homilies, wills, and charters dating from this period suggests that as a result of widespread aristocratic death and the fact that Cnut did not systematically introduce a new landholding class, major and permanent alterations occurred in the Saxon social and political structures. Eric John has remarked that for Cnut "the simple difficulty of exercising so wide and so unstable an empire made it necessary to practise a delegation of authority against every tradition of English kingship ''. The disappearance of the aristocratic families which had traditionally played an active role in the governance of the realm, coupled with Cnut 's choice of thegnly advisors, put an end to the balanced relationship between monarchy and aristocracy so carefully forged by the West Saxon Kings.
Edward became king in 1042, and given his upbringing might have been considered a Norman by those who lived across the English Channel. Following Cnut 's reforms, excessive power was concentrated in the hands of the rival houses of Leofric of Mercia and Godwine of Wessex. Problems also came for Edward from the resentment caused by the king 's introduction of Norman friends. A crisis arose in 1051 when Godwine defied the king 's order to punish the men of Dover, who had resisted an attempt by Eustace of Boulogne to quarter his men on them by force. The support of Earl Leofric and Earl Siward enabled Edward to secure the outlawry of Godwine and his sons; and William of Normandy paid Edward a visit during which Edward may have promised William succession to the English throne, although this Norman claim may have been mere propaganda. Godwine and his sons came back the following year with a strong force, and the magnates were not prepared to engage them in civil war but forced the king to make terms. Some unpopular Normans were driven out, including Archbishop Robert, whose archbishopric was given to Stigand; this act supplied an excuse for the Papal support of William 's cause.
The fall of England and the Norman Conquest is a multi-generational, multi-family succession problem caused in great part by Athelred 's incompetence. By the time William from Normandy, sensing an opportunity, landed his invading force in 1066, the elite of Anglo - Saxon England had changed, although much of the culture and society had stayed the same.
Ða com Wyllelm eorl of Normandige into Pefnesea on Sancte Michæles mæsseæfen, sona þæs hi fere wæron, worhton castel æt Hæstingaport. Þis wearð þa Harolde cynge gecydd, he gaderade þa mycelne here, com him togenes æt þære haran apuldran, Wyllelm him com ongean on unwær, ær þis folc gefylced wære. Ac se kyng þeah him swiðe heardlice wið feaht mid þam mannum þe him gelæstan woldon, þær wearð micel wæl geslægen on ægðre healfe. Ðær wearð ofslægen Harold kyng, Leofwine eorl his broðor, Gyrð eorl his broðor, fela godra manna, þa Frencyscan ahton wælstowe geweald.
Then came William, the Earl of Normandy, into Pevensey on the evening of St. Michael 's mass, and soon as his men were ready, they built a fortress at Hasting 's port. This was told to King Harold, and he gathered then a great army and come towards them at the Hoary Apple Tree, and William came upon him unawares before his folk were ready. But the king nevertheless withstood him very strongly with fighting with those men who would follow him, and there was a great slaughter on either side. Then Harald the King was slain, and Leofwine the Earl, his brother, and Gyrth, and many good men, and the Frenchmen held the place of slaughter.
Following the conquest, the Anglo - Saxon nobility were either exiled or joined the ranks of the peasantry. It has been estimated that only about 8 per cent of the land was under Anglo - Saxon control by 1087. Many Anglo - Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia. The Byzantine Empire became a popular destination for many Anglo - Saxon soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries. The Anglo - Saxons became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely North Germanic unit, from which the emperor 's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century. However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo - Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo - Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.
The chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 -- c. 1142), himself the product of an Anglo - Norman marriage, wrote: "And so the English groaned aloud for their lost liberty and plotted ceaselessly to find some way of shaking off a yoke that was so intolerable and unaccustomed ''. The inhabitants of the North and Scotland never warmed to the Normans following the Harrying of the North (1069 -- 1070), where William, according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle utterly "ravaged and laid waste that shire ''.
Many Anglo - Saxon people needed to learn Norman French to communicate with their rulers, but it is clear that among themselves they kept speaking Old English, which meant that England was in an interesting tri-lingual situation: Anglo - Saxon for the common people, Latin for the Church, and Norman French for the administrators, the nobility, and the law courts. In this time, and due to the cultural shock of the Conquest, Anglo - Saxon began to change very rapidly, and by 1200 or so, it was no longer Anglo - Saxon English, but what scholars call early Middle English. But this language had deep roots in Anglo - Saxon, which was being spoken a lot later than 1066. Research in the early twentieth century, and still continuing today, has shown that a form of Anglo - Saxon was still being spoken, and not merely among uneducated peasants, into the thirteenth century in the West Midlands. This was J.R.R. Tolkien 's major scholarly discovery when he studied a group of texts written in early Middle English called the Katherine Group, because they include the Life of St. Katherine (also, the Life of St. Margaret, the Life and the Passion of St. Juliana, Ancrene Wisse, and Hali Meithhad -- these last two teaching how to be a good anchoress and arguing for the goodness of virginity). Tolkien noticed that a subtle distinction preserved in these texts indicated that Old English had continued to be spoken far longer than anyone had supposed. In Old English there is a distinction between two different kinds of verbs.
The Anglo - Saxons had always been defined very closely to the language, now this language gradually changed, and although some people (like the famous scribe known as the Tremulous Hand of Worcester) could read Old English in the thirteenth century. Soon afterwards, it became impossible for people to read Old English, and the texts became useless. The precious Exeter Book, for example, seems to have been used to press gold leaf and at one point had a pot of fish - based glue sitting on top of it. For Michael Drout this symbolises the end of the Anglo - Saxons.
The larger narrative, seen in the history of Anglo - Saxon England, is the continued mixing and integration of various disparate elements into one Anglo - Saxon people. The outcome of this mixing and integration was a continuous re-interpretation by the Anglo - Saxons of their society and worldview, which Heinreich Härke calls a "complex and ethnically mixed society ''.
The development of Anglo - Saxon kingship is little understood but the model proposed by Yorke, considered the development of kingdoms and writing down of the oral law - codes to be linked to a progression towards leaders providing mund and receiving recognition. These leaders who developed in the sixth century, were able to seize the initiative and to establish a position of power for themselves and their successors. Anglo - Saxon leaders, unable to tax and coerce followers instead extracted surplus by raiding and collecting food renders and ' prestige goods '. The later sixth century saw the end of a ' prestige goods ' economy, as evidenced by the decline of accompanied burial, and the appearance of the first princely graves and high - status settlements. These centres of trade and production reflect the increased socio - political stratification and wider territorial authority which allowed seventh - century elites to extract and redistribute surpluses with far greater effectiveness than their sixth - century predecessors would have found possible. Anglo - Saxon society, in short, looked very different in 600 than it did a hundred years earlier.
By 600, the establishment of the first Anglo - Saxon ' emporia ' was in prospect. There seem to have been over thirty of such units, many of which were certainly controlled by kings, in the parts of Britain which the Anglo - Saxons controlled. Bede 's use of the term imperium has been seen as significant in defining the status and powers of the bretwaldas, in fact it is a word Bede used regularly as an alternative to regnum; scholars believe this just meant the collection of tribute. Oswiu 's extension of overlordship over the Picts and Scots is expressed in terms of making them tributary. Military overlordship could bring great short - term success and wealth, but the system had its disadvantages. Many of the overlords enjoyed their powers for a relatively short period. Foundations had to be carefully laid to turn a tribute - paying under - kingdom into a permanent acquisition, such as Bernician absorption of Deira. The smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once they were incorporated into larger polities; on the contrary their territorial integrity was preserved when they became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within their new kingdoms. An obvious example of this tendency for later boundaries to preserve earlier arrangements is Sussex; the county boundary is essentially the same as that of the West Saxon shire and the Anglo - Saxon kingdom. The Witan, also called Witenagemot, was the council of kings; its essential duty was to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, and helped him deal with rebels and persons suspected of disaffection.
By 800 only five Anglo - Saxon kingdoms are definitely known to have been still in existence, and a number of British kingdoms in the west of the country had disappeared as well. The major kingdoms had grown through absorbing smaller principalities and the means through which they did it and the character their kingdoms acquired as a result are one of the major themes of the Middle Saxon period. Beowulf, for all its heroic content, clearly makes the point that economic and military success were intimately linked. A ' good ' king was a generous king who through his wealth won the support which would ensure his supremacy over other kingdoms. King Alfred 's digressions in his translation of Boethius ' Consolation of Philosophy, provided these observations about the resources which every king needed:
In the case of the king, the resources and tools with which to rule are that he have his land fully manned: he must have praying men, fighting men and working men. You know also that without these tools no king may make his ability known. Another aspect of his resources is that he must have the means of support for his tools, the three classes of men. These, then, are their means of support: land to live on, gifts, weapons, food, ale, clothing and whatever else is necessary for each of the three classes of men.
This is the first written appearance of the division of society into the ' three orders '; the ' working men ' provided the raw materials to support the other two classes. The advent of Christianity saw the introduction of new concepts of land tenure. The role of churchmen was analogous with that of the warriors waging heavenly warfare. However what Alfred was alluding to was that in order for a king to fulfil his responsibilities towards his people, particularly those concerned with defence, he had the right to make considerable exactions from the landowners and people of his kingdom. The need to endow the church resulted in the permanent alienation of stocks of land which had previously only been granted out on a temporary basis and introduced the concept of a new type of hereditary land which could be freely alienated and was free of any family claims.
Probably no one living in the eighth century would have predicted that the great Mercian empire would be destroyed and that the West Saxons with their poor track record for feuds and infighting within the royal house would emerge as the dominant kingdom in the ninth century. The nobility under the influence of Alfred became involved with developing the cultural life of their kingdom. As the kingdom became one they brought the monastic and spiritual life of the kingdom under one rule and stricter control. However the Anglo - Saxons believed in ' luck ' as a random element in the affairs of man and so would probably have agreed that there is a limit to the extent one can understand why one kingdom failed while another succeeded. They also believed in ' destiny ' and interpreted the fate of the kingdom of England with Biblical and Carolingian ideology, with parallels, between the Israelites, the great European empires and the Anglo - Saxons. Danish and Norman conquests were just the manner in which God punished his sinful people and the fate of great empires.
The first of King Alfred 's three-fold Anglo - Saxon society are praying men; people who work at prayer. Although Christianity dominates the religious history of the Anglo - Saxons, life in the 5th / 6th centuries was dominated by ' pagan ' religious beliefs with a Scando - Germanic heritage.
Early Anglo - Saxon society attached great significance to the horse; a horse may have been an acquaintance of the god Wodan, and / or they may have been (according to Tacitus) confidants of the gods. Horses were closely associated with gods, especially Odin and Freyr. Horses played a central role in funerary practices as well as in other rituals. Horses were prominent symbols of fertility, and there were many horse fertility cults. The rituals associated with these include horse fights, burials, consumption of horse meat, and horse sacrifice. Hengist and Horsa, the mythical ancestors of the Anglo - Saxons, were associated with horses, and references to horses are found throughout Anglo - Saxon literature. Actual horse burials in England are relatively rare and "may point to influence from the continent ''. A well - known Anglo - Saxon horse burial (from the sixth / seventh century) is Mound 17 at Sutton Hoo, a few yards from the more famous ship burial in Mound 1. A sixth - century grave near Lakenheath, Suffolk, yielded the body of a man next to that of a "complete horse in harness, with a bucket of food by its head. '' Pagan Anglo - Saxons worshipped at a variety of different sites across their landscape, some of which were apparently specially built temples and others that were natural geographical features such as sacred trees, hilltops or wells. According to place name evidence, these sites of worship were known alternately as either hearg or as wēoh. Almost no poem from before the Norman Conquest, no matter how Christian its theme, is not steeped in pagan symbolism and their integration into the new faith goes beyond the literary sources. Thus, as Lethbridge reminds us, "to say, ' this is a monument erected in Christian times and therefore the symbolism on it must be Christian, ' is an unrealistic approach. The rites of the older faith, now regarded as superstition, are practised all over the country today. It did not mean that people were not Christian; but that they could see a lot of sense in the old beliefs also ''
Bede 's story of Cædmon, the cowherd who became the ' Father of English Poetry ' represents the real heart of the conversion of the Anglo - Saxons from paganism to Christianity. Bede wrote, "(t) here was in the Monastery of this Abbess (Streonæshalch -- now known as Whitby Abbey) a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God, who was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven. '' The story of Cædmon illustrates the blending of Christian and Germanic, Latin and oral tradition, monasteries and double monasteries, pre-existing customs and new learning, popular and elite, that characterizes the Conversion period of Anglo - Saxon history and culture. Cædmon does not destroy or ignore traditional Anglo - Saxon poetry. Instead, he converts it into something that helps the Church. Anglo - Saxon England finds ways to synthesize the religion of the Church with the existing "northern '' customs and practices. Thus the conversion of the Anglo - Saxons was not just their switching from one practice to another, but making something new out of their old inheritance and their new belief and learning.
Monasticism, and not just the church, was at the centre of Anglo Saxon Christian life. Western monasticism, as a whole, had been evolving since the time of the desert fathers, but, in the seventh century, monasticism in England confronted a dilemma that brought to question the truest representation of the Christian faith. The two monastic traditions were the Celtic and the Roman, and a decision was made to adopt the Roman tradition. Monasteria seem to describe all religious congregations other than those of the Bishop.
In the 10th century, Dunstan brought Athelwold to Glastonbury, where the two of them set up a monastery on Benedictine lines. For a number of years this was the only monastery in England that strictly followed the Benedictine Rule and observed complete monastic discipline. What Mechthild Gretsch calls an "Aldhelm Seminar '' developed at Glastonbury, and the effects of this seminar on the curriculum of learning and study in Anglo - Saxon England were enormous. Royal power was put behind the reforming impulses of Dunstan and Athelwold, helping them to enforce their reform ideas. This happened first at the Old Minster in Winchester, before the reformers built new foundations and refoundations at Thorney, Peterborough, and Ely, among other places. Benedictine Monasticism spread throughout England, these became centers of learning again, run by people trained in Glastonbury, with one rule, the works of Aldhelm at the center of their curricula but also influenced by the vernacular efforts of Alfred. From this mixture sprung a great flowering of literary production.
The second element of Alfred 's society is fighting men. The subject of war and the Anglo - Saxons is a curiously neglected one, however, it is an important element of the Anglo - Saxon society.
Firstly, the mustering of armies. For both offensive and defensive war, and whether armies consisted essentially of household bands, as seems to have been characteristic of the earlier period, or were recruited on a territorial basis, soldiers had to be summoned. The mustering of an army, annually at times, occupied an important place in Frankish history, both military and constitutional. The English kingdoms appear to have known no institution similar to this. The earliest reference is Bede 's account of the overthrow of the Northumbrian Æthelfrith by Rædwald overlord of the southern English. Rædwald raised a large army, presumably from among the kings who accepted his overlordship, and ' not giving him time to summon and assemble his whole army, Rædwald met him with a much greater force and slew him on the Mercian border on the east bank of the river Idle '. There is a more detailed account of raising an army in 878, when the Danes made a surprise attack on Alfred at Chippenham after Twelfth Night. Alfred retreated to Athelney ' after Easter ' and then seven weeks after Easter mustered an army at "Egbert 's stone ''. It is not difficult to imagine that Alfred sent out word to the ealdormen of Somerset, Wiltshire and Hampshire, and to the reeves, to call his men to arms. This may explain the delay, and it is probably no more than coincidence that the army mustered at the beginning of May, a time when there would have been sufficient grass for the horses. There is also information about the mustering of fleets in the eleventh Century. From 992 to 1066 fleets were assembled at London, or returned to the city at the end of their service, on several occasions. Where they took up Station depended on the quarter from which a threat was expected: Sandwich if invasion was expected from the north, or the Isle of Wight if it was from Normandy.
Once they left home these armies and fleets had to be supplied, not only with food and clothing for the men but also forage for the horses which gave them mobility and were fitting to their Station. Yet if armies of the seventh and eighth centuries were accompanied by servants and a supply train of lesser free men, Alfred found these arrangements insufficient to defeat the Vikings. One of his reforms, if he was responsible for them, was to divide his military resources into three. One part manned the burhs and found the permanent garrisons which would make it impossible for the Danes to overrun Wessex, although they would also take to the field when extra soldiers were needed. The remaining two would take it in turns to serve. They were allocated a fixed term of Service and brought the necessary provisions with them. This arrangement did not always function perfectly. On one occasion a division on Service went home in the middle of blockading a Danish army on Thorney Island, its provisions consumed and its term expired, before the king came to relieve them. This method of division and rotation remained in force right up to 1066. In 917, when armies from Wessex and Mercia were in the field from early April until November, one division went home and another took over. Again, in 1052 when Edward 's fleet was waiting at Sandwich to intercept Godwine 's return, the ships returned to London to take on new earls and crews. The importance of supply, vital to military success, was appreciated even if it was taken for granted and features only incidentally in the sources.
Military training and strategy are two important matters on which the sources are more than usually silent. There are no references in literature or laws to men training, and so it is necessary to fall back on inference. For the noble warrior, his childhood was of first importance in learning both individual military skills and the teamwork essential for success in battle. Perhaps the games the youthful Cuthbert played (' wrestling, jumping, running, and every other exercise ') had some military significance. Turning to strategy, of the period before Alfred the evidence gives the Impression that Anglo - Saxon armies fought battles frequently. If this is not solely due to the deficiencies of the sources, it would make England a special case. Battle was risky and best avoided unless all the factors were on your side. But if you were in a position so advantageous that you were willing to take the chance, it is likely that your enemy would be in such a weak position that he would avoid battle and pay tribute. Unless, of course, he was Bede 's Oswald and trusted in God. Anyway, battle put the princes ' lives at risk, as is demonstrated by the Northumbrian and Mercian overlordships brought to an end by a defeat in the field. Gillingham has shown how few pitched battles successful Charlemagne and Richard I chose to fight.
A defensive strategy becomes more apparent in the later part of Alfred 's reign. It was built around the possession of fortified places and the close pursuit of the Danes to harass them and impede their preferred occupation of plundering. Alfred and his lieutenants were able to fight the Danes to a standstill by their repeated ability to pursue and closely besiege them in fortified camps at Nottingham, Wareham, Exeter, Chippenham, Rochester, Milton, Appledore, Thorney, Buttington, Chester and Hertford. It was only in the later part of Edward the Elder 's reign that we see a type of war which a twelfth Century soldier would have recognised. In this phase of the war the West Saxons conquered land by building and holding burhs from which to threaten and dominate Danish territory. The fortification of sites at Witham, Buckingham, Towcester and Colchester persuaded the Danes of the surrounding regions to submit. The key to this warfare was sieges and the control of fortified places. It is clear that the new fortresses had permanent garrisons, and that they were supported by the inhabitants of the existing burhs when danger threatened. This is brought out most clearly in the description of the campaigns of 917 in the Chronicle, but throughout the conquest of the Danelaw by Edward and Æthelflæd it is clear that a sophisticated and coordinated strategy was being applied.
There was another means of dealing with military issues. In 973 a single currency was introduced into England in order to bring about political unification, but by concentrating bullion production at many coastal mints, the new rulers of England created a honey - pot which attracted a new wave of Viking invasions, which came close to breaking up the kingdom of the English. From 980 onwards the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle records renewed raiding against England. At first the raids were probing ventures by small numbers of ships ' crews, but soon grew in size and effect, until the only way of dealing with the Vikings appeared to be to pay protection money to buy them off: "And in that year (991) it was determined that tribute should first be paid to the Danish men because of the great terror they were causing along the coast. The first payment was 10,000 pounds. '' The payment of Danegeld had to be underwritten by a huge balance of payments surplus; this could only be achieved by stimulating exports and cutting imports, itself accomplished through currency devaluation. This affected everyone in the Kingdom.
The third aspect of Alfred 's society is the working man. Helena Hamerow suggest the prevailing model of working life and settlement, particularly for the early period, as one of shifting settlement and building tribal kinship. The mid-Saxon period saw diversification, the development of enclosures, the beginning of the toft system, closer management of livestock, the gradual spread of the mould - board plough, ' informally regular plots ' and a greater permanence, with further settlement consolidation thereafter foreshadowing post-Conquest villages. The later periods saw a proliferation of ' service features ' including barns, mills and latrines, most markedly on high - status sites. Throughout the Anglo - Saxon period as Helena Hamerow suggests: "local and extended kin groups remained... the essential unit of production ''. This is very noticeable in the early period. However, by the tenth and eleventh centuries, the rise of the manor and its significance in terms of both settlement and the management of land, which becomes very evident in the Domesday Book.
The collection of buildings discovered at Yeavering, formed part of an Anglo - Saxon royal vill or king 's tun. These ' tun ' consisted of a series of buildings designed to provide short - term accommodation for the king and his household. It is thought that the king would have travelled throughout his land dispensing justice and authority and collecting rents from his various estates. Such visits would be periodic and it is likely that he would visit each royal villa only once or twice a year. The Latin term villa regia which Bede used of the site suggests an estate centre as the functional heart of a territory held in the King 's demesne. The territory is the land whose surplus production is taken into the centre as food - render to support the king and his retinue on their periodic visits as part of a progress around the kingdom. This territorial model, known as a multiple estate or shire has been developed in a range of studies and Colm O'Brien, in applying this to Yeavering has proposed a geographical definition of the wider shire of Yeavering and also a geographical definition of the principal estate whose structures Hope - Taylor excavated. One characteristic that the king 's tun shared with some other groups of places is that it was a point of public assembly. People came together not only to give the king and his entourage board and lodging; they ' attended upon the king ' in order to have disputes settled, cases appealed, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, and ambassadors heard and replied to. People also assembled for other reasons, such as to hold fairs and to trade.
The first creations of towns are linked to a system of specialism at individual settlements, which is evidenced in studying place - names. Sutterton, ' shoe - makers ' tun ' (in the area of the Danelaw such places are Sutterby) was so - named because local circumstances allowed the growth of a craft recognised by the people of surrounding places. Similarly with Sapperton, the ' soap - makers ' tun. While Boultham, the ' meadow with burdock plants ', may well have developed a specialism in the production of burrs for wool - carding, since meadows with burdock merely growing in them must have been relatively numerous. From places named for their services or location within a single district, a category of which the most obvious perhaps are the Eastons and Westons, it is possible to move outwards to glimpse component settlements within larger economic units. Names betray some role within a system of seasonal pasture, Winderton in Warwickshire is the winter tun and various Somertons are self - explanatory. Hardwicks are dairy farms and Swinhopes the valleys where pigs were pastured.
Settlement patterns as well as village plans in England fall into two great categories: scattered farms and homesteads in upland and woodland Britain, nucleated villages across a swathe of central England. The chronology of nucleated villages is much debated and not yet clear. Yet there is strong evidence to support the view that nucleation occurred in the tenth century or perhaps the ninth, and was a development parallel to the growth of towns.
Alfred 's view of his society overlooks certain classes of people. The main division in Anglo - Saxon society was between slave and free. Both groups were hierarchically structured, with several classes of freemen and many types of slaves. These varied at different times and in different areas, but the most prominent ranks within free society were the king, the nobleman or thegn, and the ordinary freeman or ceorl. They were differentiated primarily by the value of their wergild or ' man price ', which was not only the amount payable in compensation for homicide (see above, section 2), but was also used as the basis for other legal formulations such as the value of the oath that they could swear in a court of law. Slaves had no wergild, as offences against them were taken to be offences against their owners, but the earliest laws set out a detailed scale of penalties depending both on the type of slave and the rank of owner.
A certain amount of social mobility is implied by regulations detailing the conditions under which a ceorl could become a thegn. Again these would have been subject to local variation, but one text refers to the possession of five hides of land (around 600 acres), a bell and a castle-gate, a seat and a special office in the king 's hall. In the context of the control of boroughs, Frank Stenton noted that, according to an 11th - century source, "a merchant who had carried out three voyages at his own charge (had also been) regarded as of thegnly status. '' Loss of status could also occur, as with penal slavery, which could be imposed not only on the perpetrator of a crime but on his wife and family. Some slaves may have been members of the native British population conquered by the Anglo - Saxons when they arrived from the continent; others may have been captured in wars between the early kingdoms, or have sold themselves for food in times of famine. However, slavery was not always permanent, and slaves who had gained their freedom would become part of an underclass of freedmen below the rank of ceorl.
Anglo - Saxon women appear to have enjoyed considerable independence, whether as abbesses of the great ' double monasteries ' of monks and nuns founded during the seventh and eighth centuries, as major land - holders recorded in Domesday Book (1086), or as ordinary members of society. They could act as principals in legal transactions, were entitled to the same wergild as men of the same class, and were considered ' oath - worthy ', with the right to defend themselves on oath against false accusations or claims. Sexual and other offences against them were penalised heavily. There is evidence that even married women could own property independently, and some surviving wills are in the joint names of husband and wife. Marriage comprised a contract between the woman 's family and the prospective bridegroom, who was required to pay a ' bride - price ' in advance of the wedding and a ' morning gift ' following its consummation. The latter became the woman 's personal property, but the former may have been paid to her relatives, at least during the early period. Widows were in a particularly favourable position, with inheritance rights, custody of their children and authority over dependants. However, a degree of vulnerability may be reflected in laws stating that they should not be forced into nunneries or second marriages against their will. The system of primogeniture (inheritance by the first - born male) was not introduced to England until after the Norman Conquest, so Anglo - Saxon siblings -- girls as well as boys -- were more equal in terms of status. The age of majority was usually either ten or twelve, when a child could legally take charge of inherited property, or be held responsible for a crime. It was common for children to be fostered, either in other households or in monasteries, perhaps as a means of extending the circle of protection beyond the kin group. Laws also make provision for orphaned children and foundlings.
Early Anglo - Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo - Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers or sited to serve as ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.
Only ten of the hundreds of settlement sites that have been excavated in England from this period have revealed masonry domestic structures and confined to a few quite specific contexts. The usual explanation for the tendency of Anglo -- Saxons to build in timber is one of technological inferiority or incompetence. However it is now accepted that technology and materials were part of conscious choices indivisible from their social meaning. Le Goff, suggests that the Anglo - Saxon period was defined by its use of wood, providing evidence for the care and craftsmanship that the Anglo -- Saxon invested into their wooden material culture, from cups to halls, and the concern for trees and timber in Anglo -- Saxon place -- names, literature and religion. Michael Shapland suggests:
The stone buildings imposed on England by the Romans would have been ' startling ' and ' exceptional ', and following the collapse of Roman society in the fifth century there was a widespread return to timber building, a ' cultural shift ' that it is not possible to explain by recourse to technological determinism.
Anglo -- Saxon building forms were very much part of this general building tradition. Timber was ' the natural building medium of the age ': the very Anglo -- Saxon word for ' building ' is ' timbe '. Unlike in the Carolingian world, late Anglo -- Saxon royal halls continued to be of timber in the manner of Yeavering centuries before, even though the king could clearly have mustered the resources to build in stone. Their preference must have been a conscious choice, perhaps an expression of ' deeply -- embedded Germanic identity ' on the part of the Anglo -- Saxon royalty.
The major rural buildings were sunken - floor (Grubenhäuser) or post-hole buildings, although Helena Hamerow suggest this distinction is less clear. Even the elite had simple buildings, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape and the largest of which rarely had more than one floor, and one room. Buildings vary widely in size, most were square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors; a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for winter insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design is found in towns, where the "basement '' may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor. Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Roofing materials varied, with thatch being the most common, though turf and even wooden shingles were also used.
Stone could be used, and was used, to build churches. Bede makes it clear in both his Ecclesiastical History and his Historiam Abbatum that the masonry construction of churches, including his own at Jarrow, was undertaken morem Romanorum, ' in the manner of the Romans, ' in explicit contrast to existing traditions of timber construction. Even at Canterbury, Bede believed that St Augustine 's first cathedral had been ' repaired ' or ' recovered ' (recuperavit) from an existing Roman church, when in fact it had been newly constructed from Roman materials. The belief was "the Christian Church was Roman therefore a masonry church was a Roman building ''.
The building of churches in Anglo - Saxon England essentially began with Augustine of Canterbury in Kent following 597; for this he probably imported workmen from Frankish Gaul. The cathedral and abbey in Canterbury, together with churches in Kent at Minster in Sheppey (c. 664) and Reculver (669), and in Essex at the Chapel of St Peter - on - the - Wall at Bradwell - on - Sea, define the earliest type in southeast England. A simple nave without aisles provided the setting for the main altar; east of this a chancel arch separated off the apse for use by the clergy. Flanking the apse and east end of the nave were side chambers serving as sacristies; further porticus might continue along the nave to provide for burials and other purposes. In Northumbria the early development of Christianity was influenced by the Irish mission, important churches being built in timber. Masonry churches became prominent from the late 7th century with the foundations of Wilfrid at Ripon and Hexham, and of Benedict Biscop at Monkwearmouth - Jarrow. These buildings had long naves and small rectangular chancels; porticus sometimes surrounded the naves. Elaborate crypts are a feature of Wilfrid 's buildings. The best preserved early Northumbrian church is Escomb Church.
From the mid-8th century to the mid-10th a number of important buildings survive. One group comprises the first evidenced aisled churches: Brixworth, the most ambitious Anglo - Saxon church to survive largely intact, Wareham St Mary 's, and Cirencester; also the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral. These buildings may be compared with aisled churches in the Carolingian empire. Other lesser churches may be dated to the late eighth and early ninth centuries on the basis of their elaborate sculptured decoration and have simple naves with side porticus. The tower of Barnack (near Peterborough) takes the picture forward to the West Saxon reconquest in the early 10th century, when decorative features that were to be characteristic of Late Anglo - Saxon architecture were already developed, such as narrow raised bands of stone (' pilaster strips ') to surround archways and to articulate wall surfaces, as at Barton - upon - Humber and Earls Barton. In plan, however, the churches remained essentially conservative.
From, the monastic revival of the second half of the tenth century only a few documented buildings survive or have been excavated, for example: the abbeys of Glastonbury; Old Minster, Winchester; Romsey; Cholsey; and Peterborough Cathedral. The majority of churches that have been described as Anglo - Saxon fall into the period between the late 10th century and the early 12th. During this period many settlements were first provided with stone churches, but timber also continued to be used; the best wooden survival is Greensted Church in Essex, no earlier than the 9th century, and no doubt typical of many parish churches. On the Continent during the eleventh century was developed a group of interrelated Romanesque styles, associated with the rebuilding of many churches on a grand scale, made possible by a general advance in architectural technology and mason - craft.
The first fully Romanesque church in England was Edward the Confessor 's rebuilding of Westminster Abbey (c. 1050s and following), while the main development of the style only followed the Norman Conquest. However, at Stow Minster the crossing piers of the early 1050s are clearly ' proto - Romanesque '. A more decorative interpretation of Romanesque in lesser churches can be dated only somewhere between the mid and late 11th century, e.g. Hadstock (Essex), Clayton and Sompting (Sussex); this style continued towards the end of the century as at Milborne Port (Somerset). At St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury c. 1048 -- 61 Abbot Wulfric aimed to retain the earlier churches while linking them with an octagonal rotunda: but the concept was still essentially Pre-Romanesque. Anglo - Saxon churches of all periods would have been embellished with a range of arts, including wall - paintings, some stained glass, metalwork and statues.
Early Anglo - Saxon art, as it survives, is seen mostly in decorated jewellery, like brooches, buckles, beads and wrist - clasps, some of outstanding quality. Characteristic of the 5th century is the quoit brooch with motifs based on crouching animals, as seen on the silver quoit brooch from Sarre, Kent. While the origins of this style are disputed, it is either an offshoot of provincial Roman art, Frank, or Jute art. One style flourished from the late 5th century, and continued throughout the 6th, and is on many square - headed brooches, it is characterised by chip - carved patterns based on animals and masks. A different style, which gradually superseded it is dominated by serpentine beasts with interlacing bodies.
By the later 6th century the best works from the south - east are distinguished by greater use of expensive materials, above all gold and garnets, reflecting the growing prosperity of a more organised society which had greater access to imported precious materials, as seen in the buckle from the Taplow burial and the jewellery from that at Sutton Hoo, c. 600 and c. 625 respectively. The possible symbolism of the decorative elements like interlace and beast forms that were used in these early works remains unclear, it is clear. These objects were the products of a society that invested its modest surpluses in personal display, who fostered craftsmen and jewellers of a high standard, and a society where the possession of a fine brooch or buckle was a valuable status symbol and possible tribal emblem -- in death as much as in life.
The Staffordshire Hoard is the largest hoard of Anglo - Saxon gold and silver metalwork yet found. Discovered in a field near the village of Hammerwich, near Lichfield, in Staffordshire, England, it consists of over 3,500 items that are nearly all martial in character and contains no objects specific to female uses. It demonstrates that considerable quantities of high - grade goldsmiths ' work were in circulation among the elite during the 7th century. It also shows that, superb though individual pieces may be in terms of craftsmanship, the value of such items as currency and their potential roles as tribute or the spoils of war could, in a warrior society, outweigh appreciation of their integrity and artistry.
The coming of Christianity revolutionised the visual arts, as well as other aspects of society. Art had to fulfil new functions, and whereas pagan art was abstract, Christianity required images clearly representing subjects. The transition between the Christian and pagan traditions is occasionally apparent in 7th century works; examples include the Crundale buckle and the Canterbury pendant. In addition to fostering metalworking skills, Christianity stimulated stone sculpture and manuscript illumination. In these Germanic motifs, such as interlace and animal ornament along with Celtic spiral patterns, are juxtaposed with Christian imagery and Mediterranean decoration, notably vine - scroll. The Ruthwell Cross, Bewcastle Cross and Easby Cross are leading Northumbrian examples of the Anglo - Saxon version of the Celtic high cross, generally with a slimmer shaft.
The jamb of the doorway at Monkwearmouth, carved with a pair of lacertine beasts, probably dates from the 680s; the golden, garnet - adorned pectoral cross of St Cuthbert was presumably made before 687; while his wooden inner coffin (incised with Christ and the Evangelists ' symbols, the Virgin and Child, archangels and apostles), the Lindisfarne Gospels, and the Codex Amiatinus all date from c. 700. The fact that these works are all from Northumbria might be held to reflect the particular strength of the church in that kingdom during the second half of the century. Works from the south were more restrained in their ornamentation than are those from Northumbria.
Lindisfarne was a very important centre of book production, along with Ripon and Monkwearmouth - Jarrow. The Lindisfarne Gospels might be the single most beautiful book produced in the Middle Ages, and the Echternach Gospels and (probably) the Book of Durrow are other products of Lindisfarne. A Latin gospel book, the Lindisfarne Gospels are richly illuminated and decorated in an Insular style that blends not only Irish and Western Mediterranean elements but, incorporates imagery from the Eastern Mediterranean, including Coptic Christianity as well. Produced in the north of England at the same time was the Codex Amiatinus, which has been called "the finest book in the world. '' It is certainly one of the largest, weighing 34 kilograms. It is a pandect, which was rare in the Middle Ages: all the books of the Bible in one volume. The Codex Amiatinus was produced at Monkwearmouth - Jarrow in 692 under the direction of Abbot Ceolfrith. Bede probably had something to do with it. The production of the Codex shows the riches of the north of England at this time. We have records of the monastery needing a new grant of land to raise two thousand more cattle to get the calf skins to make the vellum to make the manuscript. The Codex Amiatinus was meant to be a gift to the Pope, and Ceolfrith was taking it to Rome when he died on the way. The copy ended up in Florence, where it still is today -- a ninth - century copy of this book is even today the personal Bible of the Pope.
In the 8th century, Anglo - Saxon Christian art flourished with grand decorated manuscripts and sculptures, along with ' secular ' works which bear comparable ornament, like the Witham pins and the Coppergate helmet. The flourishing of sculpture in Mercia, occurred slightly later than in Northumbria and is dated to the second half of the 8th century. Some fine decorated southern books, above all the Bible fragment, can be securely assigned to the earlier 9th century, owing to the similarity of their script to that of charters from that period; The Book of Cerne is an early 9th century Insular or Anglo - Saxon Latin personal prayer book with Old English components. This manuscript was decorated and embellished with four painted full - page miniatures, major and minor letters, continuing panels, and litterae notibiliores. Further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such as hunched, triangular beasts, also appear on objects from the Trewhiddle hoard (buried in the 870s) and on the rings which bear the names of King Æthelwulf and Queen Æthelswith, which are the centre of a small corpus of fine ninth - century metalwork.
There was demonstrable continuity in the south, even though the Danish settlement represented a watershed in England 's artistic tradition. Wars and pillaging removed or destroyed much Anglo - Saxon art, while the settlement introduced new Scandinavian craftsmen and patrons. The result was to accentuate the pre-existing distinction between the art of the north and that of the south. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Viking dominated areas were characterised by stone sculpture in which the Anglo - Saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, and a distinctive Anglo - Scandinavian monument, the ' hogback ' tomb, was produced. The decorative motifs used on these northern carvings (as on items of personal adornment or everyday use) echo Scandinavian styles. The Wessexan hegemony and the monastic reform movement appear to have been the catalysts for the rebirth of art in southern England from the end of the 9th century. Here artists responded primarily to continental art; foliage supplanting interlace as the preferred decorative motif. Key early works are the Alfred Jewel, which has fleshy leaves engraved on the back plate; and the stole and maniples of Bishop Frithestan of Winchester, which are ornamented with acanthus leaves, alongside figures that bear the stamp of Byzantine art. The surviving evidence points to Winchester and Canterbury as the leading centres of manuscript art in the second half of the 10th century: they developed colourful paintings with lavish foliate borders, and coloured line drawings.
By the early 11th century, these two traditions had fused and had spread to other centres. Though manuscripts dominate the corpus, sufficient architectural sculpture, ivory carving and metalwork survives to show that the same styles were current in secular art, and became widespread in the south at parochial level. The wealth of England in the later tenth and eleventh century is clearly reflected in the lavish use of gold in manuscript art as well as for vessels, textiles and statues (now known only from descriptions). Widely admired, southern English art was highly influential in Normandy, France and Flanders from c. 1000. Indeed, keen to possess it, or recover its materials, the Normans appropriated it in large quantities in the wake of the Conquest. The Bayeux Tapestry, probably designed by a Canterbury artist for Bishop Odo of Bayeux, is arguably the swansong of Anglo - Saxon art. Surveying nearly 600 years of continuous change, three common strands stand out: lavish colour and rich materials; an interplay between abstract ornament and representational subject matter; and a fusion of art styles reflects England was linked in the 11th century.
Old English (Ænglisc, Anglisc, Englisc) or Anglo - Saxon is the early form of the English language that was spoken and written by the Anglo - Saxons and their descendants in parts of what are now England and southern and eastern Scotland between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. Old English is a West Germanic language closely related to Old Frisian and Old Saxon. It had a grammar similar in many ways to Classical Latin. In most respects, including its grammar, it was much closer to modern German and Icelandic than to modern English. It was fully inflected with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental), three grammatical numbers (singular, plural, and dual) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). The dual forms occurred in the first and second persons only and referred to groups of two.
Some of the characteristics of the language were: adjectives, pronouns and (sometimes) participles that agreed with their antecedent nouns in case, number and gender; finite verbs that agreed with their subject in person and number; and nouns that came in numerous declensions (with deep parallels in Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit). Verbs came in nine main conjugations (seven strong and two weak), each with numerous subtypes, as well as a few additional smaller conjugations and a handful of irregular verbs. The main difference from other ancient Indo - European languages, such as Latin, is that verbs can be conjugated in only two tenses (vs. the six "tenses '' -- really tense / aspect combinations -- of Latin), and have no synthetic passive voice (although it did still exist in Gothic). Gender in nouns was grammatical, as opposed to the natural gender that prevails in modern English.
Many linguists believe that Old English received little influence from the local insular languages especially Common Brittonic (the language that may have been the majority language in Lowland Britain). Linguists such as Richard Coates have suggested there could not have been meaningful contact between the languages, which is reasonable argued from the small amount of loanwords. Recently a number of linguists have argued that many of the grammar changes observed in English were due to a Brythonic influence. John McWhorter suggests that the language changes seen later in English were always there in vernacular speech and this was not written, especially since those who did the writing were educated individuals that most likely spoke a standard form of Old English. The speech of an illiterate ceorl, on the other hand, can not be reconstructed. The progressive nature of this language acquisition, and the ' retrospective reworking ' of kinship ties to the dominant group led, ultimately, to the "myths which tied the entire society to immigration as an explanation of their origins in Britain ''.
What survives through writing represents primarily the register of Anglo - Saxon, and this is most often in the West Saxon dialect. Little is known about the everyday spoken language of people living in the migration period. Old English is a contact language and it is hard to reconstruct the pidgin used in this period from the written language found in the West Saxon literature of some 400 years later. Two general theories are proposed regarding why people changed their language to Old English (or an early form of such): either, a person or household changed so as to serve an elite; or, a person or household changed through choice as it provided some advantage economically or legally. Over time, Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; Mercian, spoken in the Midlands; Kentish, spoken in Kent in the far southeastern part of the island; and West Saxon, spoken in the southwest. All of these dialects have direct descendants in modern England, and American regional dialects also have their roots in the dialects of Old English. "Standard '' Modern English (if there is such a thing), or at least modern English spelling, owes most to the Mercian dialect, since that was the dialect of London.
Near the end of the Old English period the English language underwent a third foreign influence, namely the Scandinavian influence of Old Norse. In addition to a great many place names, these consist mainly of items of basic vocabulary, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, which included extensive holdings all along the eastern coast of England and Scotland). The Scandinavians spoke Old Norse, a language related to Old English in that both derived from the same ancestral Proto - Germanic language. It is very common for the intermixing of speakers of different dialects, such as those that occur during times of political unrest, to result in a mixed language, and one theory holds that exactly such a mixture of Old Norse and Old English is thought to have accelerated the decline of case endings in Old English. The influence of Old Norse on the lexicon of the English language has been profound: responsible for such basic vocabulary items as sky, leg, the pronoun they, the verb form are, and hundreds of other words.
Nick Highham has provided a summary of the importance of language to the Anglo - Saxon culture:
As Bede later implied, language was a key indicator of ethnicity in early England. In circumstances where freedom at law, acceptance with the kindred, access to patronage, and the use of possession of weapons were all exclusive to those who could claim Germanic descent, then speaking Old English without Latin or Brittonic inflection had considerable value.
Helena Hamerow has made an observation that in Anglo - Saxon society "local and extended kin groups remained... the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo - Saxon period ''. "Local and extended kin groups '' was a key aspect of Anglo - Saxon culture. Kinship fueled societal advantages, freedom and the relationships to an elite, that allowed the Anglo - Saxons ' culture and language to flourish.
The ties of loyalty to a lord, were to the person of a lord, not to his station; there was no real concept of patriotism or loyalty to a cause. This explains why dynasties waxed and waned so quickly, a kingdom was only as strong as its leader - king. There was no underlying administration or bureaucracy to maintain any gains beyond the lifetime of a leader. An example of this was the leadership of Rædwald of East Anglia and how the East Anglian primacy did not survive his death. Kings could not, except in exceptional circumstances, make new laws. Their role instead was to uphold and clarify previous custom and to assure his subjects that he would uphold their ancient privileges, laws, and customs. Although the person of the king as a leader could be exalted, the office of kingship was not in any sense as powerful or as invested with authority as it was to become. One of the tools kings used was to tie themselves closely to the new Christian church; through the practice of having a church leader anoint and crown the king; God and king were joined in peoples ' minds.
The ties of kinship meant that the relatives of a murdered person were obliged to exact vengeance for his or her death. This led to bloody and extensive feuds. As a way out of this deadly and futile custom the system of ' wergilds ' was instituted. The ' wergild ' set a monetary value on each person 's life according to their wealth and social status. This value could also be used to set the fine payable if a person was injured or offended against. Robbing a thane called for a higher penalty than robbing a ceorl. On the other hand, a thane who thieved could pay a higher fine than a ceorl who did likewise. Men were willing to die for the lord and to support their ' comitatus '; their warrior band. Evidence of this behavior (though it may be more a literary ideal than an actual social practice), can be observed in the story, made famous in the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle entry for 755, of Cynewulf and Cyneheard, in which the followers of a defeated king decided to fight to the death rather than be reconciled after the death of their lord.
This emphasis on social standing affected all parts of the Anglo - Saxon world. The courts, for example did not attempt to discover the facts in a case; instead, in any dispute it was up to each party to get as many people as possible to swear to the rightness of their case; "oath - swearing ''. The word of a thane counted for that of six ceorls. It was assumed that any person of good character would be able to find enough people to swear to his innocence that his case would prosper. Anglo - Saxon society was also decidedly patriarchal, but women were in some ways better off than they would be in later times. A woman could own property in her own right. She could and did rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her consent and any personal goods, including lands, that she brought into a marriage remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage her relatives were expected to look after her interests.
The most noticeable feature of the Anglo - Saxon legal system is the apparent prevalence of legislation in the form of law codes. The early Anglo - Saxons were organised in various small kingdoms often corresponding to later shires or counties. The kings of these small kingdoms issued written Laws, one of earliest of which is that attributed to Ethelbert, king of Kent, ca. 560 -- 616. The Anglo - Saxon law codes follow a pattern found in continental Europe where other groups of the former Roman empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law and hastened to display the claims of their own native traditions by reducing them to writing. These legal systems should not be thought of as operating like modern legislation, rather they are educational and political tools designed to demonstrate standards of good conduct rather than act as criteria for subsequent legal judgment.
Although not themselves sources of law, Anglo - Saxon charters are a most valuable historical source for tracing the actual legal practices of the various Anglo - Saxon communities. A charter was a written document from a king or other authority confirming a grant either of land or some other valuable right. Their prevalence in the Anglo - Saxon state is a sign of sophistication. They were frequently appealed to and relied upon in litigation. Making grants and confirming those made by others was a major way in which Anglo - Saxon kings demonstrated their authority.
The royal council or witan played a central but limited role in the Anglo - Saxon period. The main feature of the system was its high degree of decentralisation. The interference by the king through his granting of charters and the activity of his witan in litigation are exceptions rather than the rule in Anglo - Saxon times. The most important court in the later Anglo - Saxon period was the Shire Court. It is of interest that many shires (such as Kent and Sussex) were in the early days of the Anglo - Saxon settlement the centre of small independent kingdoms. As the kings first of Mercia and then of Wessex slowly extended their authority over the whole of England they left the Shire Courts with overall responsibility for the administration of law. The Shire met in one or more traditional places, earlier in the open air and then later in a Moot or meeting hall. The meeting of the Shire Court was presided over by an officer, the shire reeve or sheriff, whose appointment came in later Anglo - Saxon times into the hands of the king but had in earlier times been elective. The sheriff was not the judge of the court, merely its president. The judges of the court were all those who had the right and duty of attending the court, the suitors. These were originally all free male inhabitants of the neighbourhood but, over time, suit of court became an obligation attached to particular holdings of land. The sessions of a Shire Court resembled more closely those of a modern local administrative body than a modern court. It could and did act judicially but this was not its prime function. In the Shire Court, charters and writs would be read out for all to hear.
Below the level of the shire each county was divided into areas known as hundreds (or wapentakes in the north of England). These were original groups of families rather than geographical areas. The Hundred Court was a smaller version of the shire, presided over by the hundred bailiff, formerly a sheriff 's appointment, but over the years many hundreds fell into the private hands of a local large landowner. We are not well - informed about Hundred Court business, which must have been a mix of the administrative and judicial, but they remained in some areas an important forum for the settlement of local disputes well into the post-Conquest period. The Anglo - Saxon system put an emphasis upon compromise and arbitration: litigating parties were enjoined to settle their differences if at all possible. If they persisted in bringing a case for decision before a Shire Court then it could be determined there. The suitors of the court would pronounce a judgment which fixed how the case would be decided: legal problems were considered to be too complex and difficult for mere human decision and so proof or demonstration of the right would depend upon some irrational, non-human criterion. The normal methods of proof were oath - helping or the ordeal.
Oath - helping involved the party undergoing proof swearing to the truth of his claim or denial and having that oath reinforced by five or more others, chosen either by the party or by the court. The numbers of helpers required and the form of their oath differed from place to place and upon the nature of the dispute. If either the party or any of the helpers failed in the oath, either refusing to take it or sometimes even making an error in the required formula, the proof failed and the case was adjudged to the other side. It appears surprising to moderns that so important a matter might be settled by one and his friends falsely swearing an oath. In a society in which each was known to his neighbour and in which religious emphasis was placed upon the sanctity of an oath, the system was probably more satisfactory. As ' wager of law ' it remained a way of determining cases in the common law until its abolition in the 19th century.
The ordeal offered an alternative for those unable or unwilling to swear an oath. The two most common methods were the ordeal by hot iron and by cold water. The former consisted in carrying a red - hot iron for five paces: the wound was immediately bound up and if, on unbinding, it was found to be festering the case was lost. In the ordeal by water the victim, usually an accused person, was cast bound into water: if he sunk he was innocent, if he floated, guilty. Although for perhaps understandable reasons the ordeals became associated with trials in criminal matters they were in essence tests of the truth of a claim or denial of a party and appropriate for trying any legal issue. The allocation of a mode of proof and who should bear it was the substance of the Shire Court 's judgment or doom and perhaps followed known customary rules of which we have no knowledge. Some measure of discretion must have existed in the determining of the outcome of an ordeal by hot iron but result of the cold water and the oath - helping would have been obvious to all.
Old English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, mainly the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The manuscripts use a modified Roman alphabet, but Anglo - Saxon runes or futhorc are used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, sometimes mixed with Roman letters.
This literature is remarkable for being in the vernacular (Old English) in the early medieval period: almost all other written literature was in Latin at this time, but due to Alfred 's programme of vernacular literacy, the oral traditions of Anglo - Saxon England ended up being converted into writing and preserved. We owe much of this preservation to the monks of the tenth century, who made -- at the very least -- the copies of most of the literary manuscripts that still exist. Manuscripts were not common items. They were expensive and hard to make. First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. Then people had to decide to use this leather for manuscripts rather than for any of the other things leather can be used for. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens. Every manuscript is slightly different from every other one, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. We can sometimes identify individual scribes from their handwriting, and we can often guess where manuscripts were written because different scriptoria (centres of manuscript production) wrote in different styles of hand.
There are four great poetic codices of Old English poetry (a codex is a book in modern format, as opposed to a scroll): the Junius Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Nowell Codex or Beowulf Manuscript; most of the well - known lyric poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Deor and The Ruin are found in the Exeter Book, while the Vercelli Book has the Dream of the Rood, some of which is also carved on the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket also has carved riddles, a popular form with the Anglo - Saxons. Old English secular poetry is mostly characterized by a somewhat gloomy and introspective cast of mind, and the grim determination found in The Battle of Maldon, recounting an action against the Vikings in 991. This is from a book that was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731, but it had been transcribed previously.
Rather than being organized around rhyme, the poetic line in Anglo - Saxon is organised around alliteration, the repetition of stressed sounds, any repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, could be used. Anglo - Saxon lines are made up of two half - lines (in old - fashioned scholarship, these are called hemistiches) divided by a breath - pause or caesura. There must be at least one of the alliterating sounds on each side of the caesura.
hreran mid hondum hrimcealde sæ
The line above illustrates the principle: note that there is a natural pause after ' hondum ' and that the first stressed syllable after that pause begins with the same sound as a stressed line from the first half - line (the first halfline is called the a-verse and the second is the b - verse).
There is very strong evidence that Anglo - Saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but, keeping with the cultural practices we have seen elsewhere in Anglo - Saxon culture, there was a blending between tradition and new learning. Thus while all Old English poetry has common features, we can also identify three strands: religious poetry, which includes poems about specifically Christian topics, such as the cross and the saints; Heroic or epic poetry, such as Beowulf, which is about heroes, warfare, monsters, and the Germanic past; and poetry about "smaller '' topics, including introspective poems (the so - called elegies), "wisdom '' poems (which communicate both traditional and Christian wisdom), and riddles. For a long time all Anglo - Saxon poetry was divided into three groups: Cædmonian (the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, and "Cynewulfian, '' named after Cynewulf, one of the only named poets in Anglo - Saxon. The most famous works from this period include the epic poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain.
There are about 30,000 surviving lines of Old English poetry and about ten times that much prose, and the majority of both is religious. The prose was influential and obviously very important to the Anglo - Saxons and more important than the poetry to those who came after the Anglo - Saxons. Homilies are sermons, lessons to be given on moral and doctrinal matters, and the two most prolific and respected writers of Anglo - Saxon prose, Ælfric and Wulfstan, were both homilists. Ælfric also wrote the ' Lives of Saints ' which very popular and were highly prized. Almost all surviving poetry is found in only one manuscript copy, but there are a number of different versions of some prose works, especially the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, which was apparently promulgated to monasteries by the royal court. Anglo - Saxon clergy also continued to write in Latin, the language of Bede 's works, monastic chronicles, and theological writing, although Bede 's biographer records that he was familiar with Old English poetry and gives a five line lyric which he either wrote or liked to quote -- the sense is unclear.
Symbolism was an essential element to Anglo - Saxon culture. Julian D. Richards suggested that in societies with strong oral traditions, material culture is used to store and pass on information and stand instead of literature in those cultures. This symbolism is less logical than literature and more difficult to read. Anglo - Saxons used symbolism, not just to communicate, but as tools to aid their thinking about the world. Symbols were also used to change the world, Anglo - Saxons used symbols to differentiate between groups and people, status and role in society.
The visual riddles and ambiguities of early Anglo - Saxon animal art, for example has been seen as emphasing the protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour and horse equipment, and its evocation of pre-Christian mythological themes. However Howard Williams and Ruth Nugent have suggest that the number of artefact categories that have animals or eyes; from pots to combs, buckets to weaponry was to make artefacts ' see ' by impressing and punching circular and lentoid shapes onto them. This symbolism of making the object seems to be more than decoration.
Conventional interpretations of the symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment for the hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) and social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). There was multiplicity of messages and variability of meanings characterised the deposition of objects in Anglo - Saxon graves. In Early Anglo - Saxon cemeteries, 47 % of male adults and 9 % of all juveniles were buried with weapons, some of which were very young. The proportion of adult weapon burials is much too high to suggest that they all represent a social élite. The usual assumption is that these are ' warrior burials ', and this term is used throughout the archaeological and historical literature. However, a systematic comparison of burials with and without weapons, using archaeological and skeletal data, suggests that this assumption is much too simplistic and even misleading. Anglo - Saxon weapon burial rite involved a complex ritual symbolism: it was multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, and age groups. This symbol continued until c. 700 when it ceased to have the symbolic power that it had before. Heinrich Härke suggests this change was due to the changing structure of society and especially in ethnicity and assimilation implying the lowering of ethnic boundaries in the Anglo - Saxon settlement areas of England, towards a common culture.
The word bead comes from the Anglo Saxon words bidden (to pray) and bede (prayer). The vast majority of early Anglo - Saxon female graves contain beads, which are often found in large numbers in the area of the neck and chest. Beads are also sometimes found in male burials, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass were available for Anglo - Saxon beads including; amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral and even metal. These beads are usually considered to have a social or ritual function. Anglo - Saxon glass beads show a wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours and decorations. Various studies have been carried out investigating the distribution and chronological change of bead types. The crystal beads which appear on bead strings in the pagan Anglo - Saxon period seems to have gone through various changes in meaning in the Christian period, which Gale Owen - Crocker suggests was linked to symbolism of the Virgin Mary, and hence to intercession. John Hines has suggested that the over 2000 different types of beads found at Lakenheath show that the beads symbolise identity, roles, status and micro cultures within the tribal landscape of the early Anglo - Saxon world.
Symbolism continued to have a hold on the minds of Anglo - Saxon people into the Christian eras. The interiors of churches would have glowed with colour, and the walls of the halls were painted with decorative scenes from the imagination telling stories of monsters and heroes like those in the poem Beowulf. Although nothing much is left of the wall paintings, evidence of their pictorial art is found in Bibles and Psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. The poem, ' The Dream of the Rood ', is an example how symbolism of trees was fused into Christian symbolism. Richard North suggests that the sacrifice of the tree was in accordance with pagan virtues and "the image of Christ 's death was constructed in this poem with reference to an Anglian ideology of the world tree ''. North suggests that the author of The Dream of the Rood "uses the language of the myth of Ingui in order to present the Passion to his newly Christianized countrymen as a story from their native tradition ''. Furthermore, the tree 's triumph over death is celebrated by adorning the cross with gold and jewels.
The most distinctive feature of coinage of the first half of the 8th century is its portrayal of animals, to an extent found in no other European coinage of the Early Middle Ages. Some animals, such as lions or peacocks, would have been known in England only through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable objects. The animals were not merely illustrated out of an interest in the natural world. Each was imbued with meanings and acted as a symbol which would have been understood at the time.
Anglo - Saxon in linguistics is still used as a term for the original West Germanic component of the modern English language, which was later expanded and developed through the influence of Old Norse and Norman French, though linguists now more often refer to it as Old English.
Throughout the history of the Anglo - Saxons studies producing a dispassionate narrative of the people has been difficult. In the early Middle Ages the views of Geoffrey of Monmouth produced a personally inspired history that was n't challenged for five hundred years. In the reformation, churchman looking for signs of an English church reinterpreted Anglo - Saxon Christianity. In the 19th century the term Anglo - Saxon was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present. In Victorian Britain, some writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley and Edward A. Freeman used the term Anglo - Saxon to justify racism and imperialism, claiming that the "Anglo - Saxon '' ancestry of the English made them racially superior to the colonised peoples. Similar racist ideas were advocated in the 19th - century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh. These views have influenced how versions of early English history are embedded in the sub-conscious of people "re-emerging in school textbooks and television programmes and still very congenial to some strands of political thinking. ''
The term Anglo - Saxon is sometimes used to refer to peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group, but there is no universal definition for the term. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside Britain, "Anglo - Saxon '' may be contrasted with "Celtic '' as a socioeconomic identifier, invoking or reinforcing historical prejudices against non-English British immigrants. "White Anglo - Saxon Protestant '', i.e. WASP, is a term especially popular in the United States that refers chiefly to old wealthy families with mostly English ancestors. As such, WASP is not a historical label or a precise ethnological term, but rather a (often derogatory) reference to contemporary family - based political, financial and cultural power -- e.g., The Boston Brahmin. The French often use "Anglo - Saxon '' to refer to the combined power of Britain and the US today.
Outside Anglophone countries, both in Europe and in the rest of the world, the term Anglo - Saxon and its direct translations are used to refer to the Anglophone peoples and societies of Britain, the United States, and other countries such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand -- areas which are sometimes referred to as the Anglosphere. The term Anglo - Saxon can be used in a variety of contexts, often to identify the English - speaking world 's distinctive language, culture, technology, wealth, markets, economy, and legal systems. Variations include the German "Angelsachsen '', French "Anglo - Saxon '', Spanish "anglosajón '', Portuguese "Anglo - saxão '', Russian "англосаксы '', Polish "anglosaksoński '', Italian "anglosassone '', Catalan "anglosaxó '' and Japanese "Angurosakuson ''. As with the English - language use of the term, what constitutes the "Anglo - Saxon '' varies from speaker to speaker.
Modern concepts:
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federal rules of civil procedure requests to admit | Request for admissions - wikipedia
A request for admissions (sometimes also called a request to admit) are a set of statements sent from one litigant to an adversary, for the purpose of having the adversary admit or deny the statements or allegations therein. Requests for admissions are part of the discovery process in a civil case. In the U.S. federal court system, they are governed by Rule 36 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
A request for admissions is a list of questions which are similar in some respects to interrogatories, but different in form and purpose. Each "question '' is in the form of a declarative statement which the answering party must then either admit, deny, or state in detail why he or she can neither admit nor deny the truthfulness of the statement (e.g. for lack of knowledge, etc.). This effectively puts the admissions in the form of true - false questions. For example, in a case involving an automobile accident, the plaintiff might include in his or her request a statement such as "Defendant Smith was driving a blue Dodge Caravan on the morning of the accident ''.
Under Rule 36 (a) (5) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, the answering party may also object to the request, and state the reason for his or her objection, so long as the objection is not solely because the request would present a genuine issue of fact for trial.
Rule 36 (a) (1) limits the types of requests to be limited to (A) facts, the application of law to fact, or opinions about either; and (B) the genuineness of any described documents. However, the rule places no limits on the amount of requests which may be made of either litigant. State court rules, however, may be stricter than this.
Notably, under Rule 36 (a) (3), requests for admissions are automatically deemed admitted in U.S. federal courts if the opponent fails to timely respond or object. The opponent bears the burden of moving for relief from its failure to respond and providing a legitimate excuse for why it did not respond earlier.
Some U.S. states have reversed the burden as set forth in the federal rules, such that the party propounding the RFAs must follow up with a motion to have RFAs deemed admitted.
Requests for admissions help narrow the scope of the controversy by getting certain admissions or denials of issues relevant to the lawsuit on record before a trial takes place. While evidence introduced at trial can be rebutted, admissions which are on record must be taken as true unless the judge permits them to be withdrawn or amended. Thus, requests for admission can obviate presentation of some evidence and make the actual trial shorter and more efficient. Admissions are also useful at summary judgment, as an admission will generally mean that there is no issue of material fact about the question the admission relates to.
Also, Federal Rules of Civil Procedure have placed twenty - five questions per party limitations on the use of interrogatories, but there is no numerical limit in FRCP on the request for admissions (unless specified differently in Local Rules of the state, which most states do have). In California, requests for admissions are generally limited to the numerical limit of 35. However, a party in California who wishes for additional requests for admissions may make a declaration for additional discovery.
Subrin, Stephen N.; Minow, Martha L.; Brodin, Mark S.; and Main, Thomas O. Civil Procedure: Doctrine, Practice, and Context, Second Edition. p. 332. Aspen Publishers, 2004. ISBN 0 - 7355 - 4086 - 1
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where is the first amendment in the constitution | First Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The First Amendment (Amendment I) to the United States Constitution prevents Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, prohibiting the free exercise of religion, or abridging the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, the right to peaceably assemble, or to petition for a governmental redress of grievances. It was adopted on December 15, 1791, as one of the ten amendments that constitute the Bill of Rights.
The Bill of Rights was originally proposed to assuage Anti-Federalist opposition to Constitutional ratification. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by the Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today. Beginning with Gitlow v. New York (1925), the Supreme Court applied the First Amendment to states -- a process known as incorporation -- through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th and 21st - century court decisions which protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech, however, is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
In 1776, the second year of the American Revolutionary War, the Virginia colonial legislature passed a Declaration of Rights that included the sentence "The freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic Governments. '' Eight of the other twelve states made similar pledges. However, these declarations were generally considered "mere admonitions to state legislatures '', rather than enforceable provisions.
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation, a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring among other changes a stronger chief executive. George Mason, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights, proposed that the Constitution include a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties. Other delegates -- including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison -- disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other, unnamed rights were unprotected. After a brief debate, Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations.
For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("Anti-Federalism '') was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights. The U.S. Constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states. In the 1st United States Congress, following the state legislatures ' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments, and his proposed draft of the First Amendment read as follows:
The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner, or on any pretext, infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good; nor from applying to the Legislature by petitions, or remonstrances, for redress of their grievances.
This language was greatly condensed by Congress, and passed the House and Senate with almost no recorded debate, complicating future discussion of the Amendment 's intent. The First Amendment, along with the rest of the Bill of Rights, was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, and adopted on December 15, 1791.
Thomas Jefferson wrote with respect to the First Amendment and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government in an 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the Congregational church in Connecticut):
Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof '', thus building a wall of separation between Church & State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.
In Reynolds v. United States (1878) the Supreme Court used these words to declare that "it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured. Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere (religious) opinion, but was left free to reach (only those religious) actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order. '' Quoting from Jefferson 's Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom the court stated further in Reynolds:
In the preamble of this act (...) religious freedom is defined; and after a recital ' that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion, and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency, is a dangerous fallacy which at once destroys all religious liberty ', it is declared ' that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officers to interfere (only) when (religious) principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order. ' In these two sentences is found the true distinction between what properly belongs to the church and what to the State.
Originally, the First Amendment applied only to the federal government, and some states continued official state religions after ratification. Massachusetts, for example, was officially Congregational until the 1830s. In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the U.S. Supreme Court incorporated the Establishment Clause (i.e., made it apply against the states):
The "establishment of religion '' clause of the First Amendment means at least this: Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion to another... in the words of Jefferson, the (First Amendment) clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect ' a wall of separation between church and State '... That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach.
In Torcaso v. Watkins (1961), the Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution prohibits states and the federal government from requiring any kind of religious test for public office. In the Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994), The Court concluded that "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to irreligion. '' In a series of cases in the first decade of the 2000s -- Van Orden v. Perry (2005), McCreary County v. ACLU (2005), and Salazar v. Buono (2010) -- the Court considered the issue of religious monuments on federal lands without reaching a majority reasoning on the subject.
Everson used the metaphor of a wall of separation between church and state, derived from the correspondence of President Thomas Jefferson. It had been long established in the decisions of the Supreme Court, beginning with Reynolds v. United States in 1879, when the Court reviewed the history of the early Republic in deciding the extent of the liberties of Mormons. Chief Justice Morrison Waite, who consulted the historian George Bancroft, also discussed at some length the Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments by James Madison, who drafted the First Amendment; Madison used the metaphor of a "great barrier ''.
In Everson, the Court adopted Jefferson 's words. The Court has affirmed it often, with majority, but not unanimous, support. Warren Nord, in Does God Make a Difference?, characterized the general tendency of the dissents as a weaker reading of the First Amendment; the dissents tend to be "less concerned about the dangers of establishment and less concerned to protect free exercise rights, particularly of religious minorities. ''
Beginning with Everson, which permitted New Jersey school boards to pay for transportation to parochial schools, the Court has used various tests to determine when the wall of separation has been breached. Everson laid down the test that establishment existed when aid was given to religion, but that the transportation was justifiable because the benefit to the children was more important. In the school prayer cases of the early 1960s, (Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), aid seemed irrelevant; the Court ruled on the basis that a legitimate action both served a secular purpose and did not primarily assist religion. In Walz v. Tax Commission (1970), the Court ruled that a legitimate action could not entangle government with religion; in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), these points were combined into the Lemon test, declaring that an action was an establishment if:
The Lemon test has been criticized by justices and legal scholars, but it remains the predominant means by which the Court enforces the Establishment Clause. In Agostini v. Felton (1997), the entanglement prong of the Lemon test was demoted to simply being a factor in determining the effect of the challenged statute or practice. In Zelman v. Simmons - Harris (2002), the opinion of the Court considered secular purpose and the absence of primary effect; a concurring opinion saw both cases as having treated entanglement as part of the primary purpose test. Further tests, such as the endorsement test and coercion test, have been developed to determine whether a government action violated the Establishment Clause.
In Lemon the Court stated that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable '', the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a ' wall ', is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship. ''
Accommodationists, in contrast, argue along with Justice William O. Douglas that "(w) e are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being ''. This group holds that the Lemon test should be applied selectively. As such, for many conservatives, the Establishment Clause solely prevents the establishment of a state church, not public acknowledgements of God nor "developing policies that encourage general religious beliefs that do not favor a particular sect and are consistent with the secular government 's goals. ''
"Freedom of religion means freedom to hold an opinion or belief, but not to take action in violation of social duties or subversive to good order. '' In Reynolds v. United States (1878), the Supreme Court found that while laws can not interfere with religious belief and opinions, laws can regulate some religious practices (e.g., human sacrifices, and the now obsolete Hindu practice of suttee). The Court stated that to rule otherwise, "would be to make the professed doctrines of religious belief superior to the law of the land, and in effect permit every citizen to become a law unto himself. Government would exist only in name under such circumstances. '' In Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940), the Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied the Free Exercise Clause to the states. While the right to have religious beliefs is absolute, the freedom to act on such beliefs is not absolute.
In Sherbert v. Verner (1963), the Supreme Court required states to meet the "strict scrutiny '' standard when refusing to accommodate religiously motivated conduct. This meant that a government needed to have a "compelling interest '' regarding such a refusal. The case involved Adele Sherbert, who was denied unemployment benefits by South Carolina because she refused to work on Saturdays, something forbidden by her Seventh - day Adventist faith. In Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972), the Court ruled that a law that "unduly burdens the practice of religion '' without a compelling interest, even though it might be "neutral on its face '', would be unconstitutional.
The need for a compelling governmental interest was narrowed in Employment Division v. Smith (1990), which held no such interest was required under the Free Exercise Clause regarding a neutral law of general applicability that happens to affect a religious practice, as opposed to a law that targets a particular religious practice (which does require a compelling governmental interest). In Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah (1993), the Supreme Court ruled Hialeah had passed an ordinance banning ritual slaughter, a practice central to the Santería religion, while providing exceptions for some practices such as the kosher slaughter. Since the ordinance was not "generally applicable '', the Court ruled that it needed to have a compelling interest, which it failed to have, and so was declared unconstitutional.
In 1993, the Congress passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA), seeking to restore the compelling interest requirement applied in Sherbert and Yoder. In City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), the Court struck down the provisions of RFRA that forced state and local governments to provide protections exceeding those required by the First Amendment, on the grounds that while the Congress could enforce the Supreme Court 's interpretation of a constitutional right, the Congress could not impose its own interpretation on states and localities. According to the court 's ruling in Gonzales v. UDV (2006), RFRA remains applicable to federal laws and so those laws must still have a "compelling interest ''.
The First Amendment bars Congress from "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press.... '' U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens commented about this phraseology in a 1993 journal article: "I emphasize the word ' the ' in the term ' the freedom of speech ' because the definite article suggests that the draftsmen intended to immunize a previously identified category or subset of speech. '' Stevens said that, otherwise, the clause might absurdly immunize things like false testimony under oath. Like Stevens, journalist Anthony Lewis wrote: "The word ' the ' can be read to mean what was understood at the time to be included in the concept of free speech. '' But what was understood at the time is not 100 % clear. In the late 1790s, the lead author of the speech and press clauses, James Madison, argued against narrowing this freedom to what had existed under English common law:
The practice in America must be entitled to much more respect. In every state, probably, in the Union, the press has exerted a freedom in canvassing the merits and measures of public men, of every description, which has not been confined to the strict limits of the common law.
Madison wrote this in 1799, when he was in a dispute about the constitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Laws, which was legislation enacted in 1798 by President John Adams ' Federalist Party to ban seditious libel. Madison believed that legislation to be unconstitutional, and his adversaries in that dispute, such as John Marshall, advocated the narrow freedom of speech that had existed in the English common law.
The Supreme Court declined to rule on the constitutionality of any federal law regarding the Free Speech Clause until the 20th century. For example, the Supreme Court never ruled on the Alien and Sedition Acts; three Supreme Court justices riding circuit presided over sedition trials without indicating any reservations. The leading critics of the law, Vice President Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, argued for the Acts ' unconstitutionality based on the First Amendment and other Constitutional provisions. Jefferson succeeded Adams as president, in part due to the unpopularity of the latter 's sedition prosecutions; he and his party quickly overturned the Acts and pardoned those imprisoned by them. In the majority opinion in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), the Court noted the importance of this public debate as a precedent in First Amendment law and ruled that the Acts had been unconstitutional: "Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history. ''
During the patriotic fervor of World War I and the First Red Scare, the Espionage Act of 1917 imposed a maximum sentence of twenty years for anyone who caused or attempted to cause "insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States ''. Specifically, the Espionage Act of 1917 states that if anyone allows any enemies to enter or fly over the United States and obtain information from a place connected with the national defense, they will be punished. Hundreds of prosecutions followed. In 1919, the Supreme Court heard four appeals resulting from these cases: Schenck v. United States, Debs v. United States, Frohwerk v. United States, and Abrams v. United States.
In the first of these cases, Socialist Party of America official Charles Schenck had been convicted under the Espionage Act for publishing leaflets urging resistance to the draft. Schenck appealed, arguing that the Espionage Act violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court unanimously rejected Schenck 's appeal and affirmed his conviction. This conviction continued to be debated over whether Schenck went against the right to freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., writing for the Court, explained that "the question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. '' One week later, in Frohwerk v. United States, the court again upheld an Espionage Act conviction, this time that of a journalist who had criticized U.S. involvement in foreign wars.
In Debs v. United States, the Court elaborated on the "clear and present danger '' test established in Schenck. On June 16, 1918, Eugene V. Debs, a political activist, delivered a speech in Canton, Ohio, in which he spoke of "most loyal comrades were paying the penalty to the working class -- these being Wagenknecht, Baker and Ruthenberg, who had been convicted of aiding and abetting another in failing to register for the draft. '' Following his speech, Debs was charged and convicted under the Espionage Act. In upholding his conviction, the Court reasoned that although he had not spoken any words that posed a "clear and present danger '', taken in context, the speech had a "natural tendency and a probable effect to obstruct the recruiting services ''. In Abrams v. United States, four Russian refugees appealed their conviction for throwing leaflets from a building in New York; the leaflets argued against President Woodrow Wilson 's intervention in Russia against the October Revolution. The majority upheld their conviction, but Holmes and Justice Louis Brandeis dissented, holding that the government had demonstrated no "clear and present danger '' in the four 's political advocacy.
The Supreme Court denied a number of Free Speech Clause claims throughout the 1920s, including the appeal of a labor organizer, Benjamin Gitlow, who had been convicted after distributing a manifesto calling for a "revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat ''. In Gitlow v. New York (1925), the Court upheld the conviction, but a majority also found that the First Amendment applied to state laws as well as federal laws, via the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Holmes and Brandeis dissented in several more cases in this decade, however, advancing the argument that the Free Speech Clause protected a far greater range of political speech than the Court had previously acknowledged. In Whitney v. California (1927), in which Communist Party USA organizer Charlotte Anita Whitney had been arrested for "criminal syndicalism '', Brandeis wrote a dissent in which he argued for broader protections for political speech:
Those who won our independence... believed that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth; that without free speech and assembly discussion would be futile; that with them, discussion affords ordinarily adequate protection against the dissemination of noxious doctrine; that the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people; that public discussion is a political duty; and that this should be a fundamental principle of the American government.
In Herndon v. Lowry (1937), the Court heard the case of African American Communist Party organizer Angelo Herndon, who had been convicted under the Slave Insurrection Statute for advocating black rule in the southern United States. In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court reversed Herndon 's conviction, holding that Georgia had failed to demonstrate that there was any "clear and present danger '' in Herndon 's political advocacy.
In 1940, Congress enacted the Smith Act, making it illegal to advocate "the propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force and violence ''. The statute provided law enforcement a tool to combat Communist leaders. Eugene Dennis was convicted in the Foley Square trial for attempting to organize a Communist Party. In Dennis v. United States (1951), the Court upheld the law, 6 -- 2. Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson relied on Holmes ' "clear and present danger '' test as adapted by Learned Hand: "In each case (courts) must ask whether the gravity of the ' evil ', discounted by its improbability, justifies such invasion of free speech as necessary to avoid the danger. '' Clearly, Vinson suggested, clear and present danger did not intimate "that before the Government may act, it must wait until the putsch is about to be executed, the plans have been laid and the signal is awaited. '' In a concurring opinion, Justice Felix Frankfurter proposed a "balancing test '', which soon supplanted the "clear and present danger '' test:
The demands of free speech in a democratic society as well as the interest in national security are better served by candid and informed weighing of the competing interests, within the confines of the judicial process.
In Yates v. United States (1957), the Supreme Court limited the Smith Act prosecutions to "advocacy of action '' rather than "advocacy in the realm of ideas ''. Advocacy of abstract doctrine remained protected while speech explicitly inciting the forcible overthrow of the government was punishable under the Smith Act.
During the Vietnam War, the Court 's position on public criticism of the government changed drastically. Though the Court upheld a law prohibiting the forgery, mutilation, or destruction of draft cards in United States v. O'Brien (1968), fearing that burning draft cards would interfere with the "smooth and efficient functioning '' of the draft system, the next year, the court handed down its decision in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), expressly overruling Whitney v. California. Now the Supreme Court referred to the right to speak openly of violent action and revolution in broad terms:
(Our) decisions have fashioned the principle that the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not allow a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or cause such action.
Brandenburg discarded the "clear and present danger '' test introduced in Schenck and further eroded Dennis. In Cohen v. California (1971), the Court voted 5 -- 4 to reverse the conviction of a man wearing a jacket reading "Fuck the Draft '' in the corridors of a Los Angeles County courthouse. Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote in the majority opinion that Cohen 's jacket fell in the category of protected political speech despite the use of an expletive: "one man 's vulgarity is another man 's lyric. ''
In Talley v. California (1960), the Court struck down a Los Angeles city ordinance that made it a crime to distribute anonymous pamphlets. Justice Hugo Black wrote in the majority opinion: "There can be no doubt that such an identification requirement would tend to restrict freedom to distribute information and thereby freedom of expression... Anonymous pamphlets, leaflets, brochures and even books have played an important role in the progress of mankind. '' In McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995), the Court struck down an Ohio statute that made it a crime to distribute anonymous campaign literature. However, in Meese v. Keene (1987), the Court upheld the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938, under which several Canadian films were defined as "political propaganda '', requiring their sponsors to be identified.
In Buckley v. Valeo (1976), the Supreme Court reviewed the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and related laws, which restricted the monetary contributions that may be made to political campaigns and expenditure by candidates. The Court affirmed the constitutionality of limits on campaign contributions, stating that they "serve (d) the basic governmental interest in safeguarding the integrity of the electoral process without directly impinging upon the rights of individual citizens and candidates to engage in political debate and discussion. '' However, the Court overturned the spending limits, which it found imposed "substantial restraints on the quantity of political speech. ''
The court again scrutinized campaign finance regulation in McConnell v. Federal Election Commission (2003). The case centered on the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA), a federal law that imposed new restrictions on campaign financing. The Supreme Court upheld provisions which barred the raising of soft money by national parties and the use of soft money by private organizations to fund certain advertisements related to elections. However, the Court struck down the "choice of expenditure '' rule, which required that parties could either make coordinated expenditures for all its candidates, or permit candidates to spend independently, but not both, which the Court agreed "placed an unconstitutional burden on the parties ' right to make unlimited independent expenditures. '' The Court also ruled that the provision preventing minors from making political contributions was unconstitutional, relying on Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.
In Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. (2007), the Court sustained an "as applied '' challenge to BCRA, holding that issue ads may not be banned from the months preceding a primary or general election. In Davis v. Federal Election Commission (2008), the Supreme Court declared the "Millionaire 's Amendment '' provisions of the BCRA to be unconstitutional. The Court held that easing BCRA restrictions for an opponent of a self - financing candidate spending at least $350,000 of his or her own money violated the freedom of speech of the self - financing candidate.
In Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010), the Court ruled that the BCRA 's federal restrictions on electoral advocacy by corporations or unions were unconstitutional for violating the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment. The Court overruled Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce (1990), which had upheld a state law that prohibited corporations from using treasury funds to support or oppose candidates in elections did not violate the First or Fourteenth Amendments. The Court also overruled the portion of McConnell that upheld such restrictions under the BCRA. In other words, the ruling was considered to hold that "political spending is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment ''.
In McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014), the Court ruled that federal aggregate limits on how much a person can donate to candidates, political parties, and political action committees, combined respectively in a two - year period known as an "election cycle, '' violated the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment.
The divisive issue of flag desecration as a form of protest first came before the Supreme Court in Street v. New York (1969). In response to hearing an erroneous report of the murder of civil rights activist James Meredith, Sidney Street burned a 48 - star U.S. flag. Street was arrested and charged with a New York state law making it a crime "publicly (to) mutilate, deface, defile, or defy, trample upon, or cast contempt upon either by words or act (any flag of the United States). '' In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court, relying on Stromberg v. California (1931), found that because the provision of the New York law criminalizing "words '' against the flag was unconstitutional, and the trial did not sufficiently demonstrate that he was convicted solely under the provisions not yet deemed unconstitutional, the conviction was unconstitutional. The Court, however, "resist (ed) the pulls to decide the constitutional issues involved in this case on a broader basis '' and left the constitutionality of flag - burning unaddressed.
The ambiguity with regard to flag - burning statutes was eliminated in Texas v. Johnson (1989). In that case, Gregory Lee Johnson burned an American flag at a demonstration during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas. Charged with violating a Texas law prohibiting the vandalizing of venerated objects, Johnson was convicted, sentenced to one year in prison, and fined $2,000. The Supreme Court reversed his conviction in a 5 -- 4 vote. Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. wrote in the decision that "if there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment, it is that government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea offensive or disagreeable. '' Congress then passed a federal law barring flag burning, but the Supreme Court struck it down as well in United States v. Eichman (1990). A Flag Desecration Amendment to the U.S. Constitution has been proposed repeatedly in Congress since 1989, and in 2006 failed to pass the Senate by a single vote.
While the unauthorized wear or sale of the Medal of Honor has been a punishable offense under federal law since the early 20th century, the Stolen Valor Act criminalized the act of not only wearing, but also verbally claiming entitlement to military awards that a person did not in fact earn. In United States v. Alvarez (2012), the Supreme Court struck down the Act, ruling that the First Amendment bars the government from punishing people for making false claims regarding military service or honors where the false claim was not "made to effect a fraud or secure moneys or other valuable considerations. '' The decision was a 6 -- 3 ruling, but the six justices in the majority could not agree on a single rationale for it.
The Supreme Court has determined that the First Amendment also protects citizens from being compelled to say or pay for certain speech. For example, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943), the Supreme Court ruled that school children could not be punished for refusing either to say the pledge of allegiance or salute the American flag.
Commercial speech is speech done on behalf of a company or individual for the purpose of making a profit. Unlike political speech, the Supreme Court does not afford commercial speech full protection under the First Amendment. To effectively distinguish commercial speech from other types of speech for purposes of litigation, the Court uses a list of four indicia:
Alone, each indicium does not compel the conclusion that an instance of speech is commercial; however, "(t) he combination of all these characteristics... provides strong support for... the conclusion that the (speech is) properly characterized as commercial speech. ''
In Valentine v. Chrestensen (1942), the Court upheld a New York City ordinance forbidding the "distribution in the streets of commercial and business advertising matter. '' Writing for a unanimous court, Justice Owen Roberts explained:
This court has unequivocally held that streets are proper places for the exercise of the freedom of communicating information and disseminating opinion and that, though the states and municipalities may appropriately regulate the privilege in the public interest, they may not unduly burden or proscribe its employment in their public thoroughfares. We are equally clear that the Constitution imposes no such restraint on government as respects purely commercial advertising.
In Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976), the Court overruled Valentine and ruled that commercial speech was entitled to First Amendment protection:
What is at issue is whether a State may completely suppress the dissemination of concededly truthful information about entirely lawful activity, fearful of that information 's effect upon its disseminators and its recipients... (W) e conclude that the answer to this one is in the negative.
In Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association (1978), the Court ruled that commercial speech was not protected by the First Amendment as much as other types of speech:
We have not discarded the "common - sense '' distinction between speech proposing a commercial transaction, which occurs in an area traditionally subject to government regulation, and other varieties of speech. To require a parity of constitutional protection for commercial and noncommercial speech alike could invite a dilution, simply by a leveling process, of the force of the (First) Amendment 's guarantee with respect to the latter kind of speech.
In Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission (1980), the Court clarified what analysis was required before the government could justify regulating commercial speech:
Six years later, the U.S. Supreme Court, applying the Central Hudson standards in Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico (1986), affirmed the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico 's conclusion that Puerto Rico 's Games of Chance Act of 1948, including the regulations thereunder, was not facially unconstitutional. The lax interpretation of Central Hudson adopted by Posadas was soon restricted under 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island (1996), when the Court invalidated a Rhode Island law prohibiting the publication of liquor prices.
In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969), the Supreme Court extended free speech rights to students in school. The case involved several students who were punished for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The Court ruled that the school could not restrict symbolic speech that did not "materially and substantially '' interrupt school activities. Justice Abe Fortas wrote:
First Amendment rights, applied in light of the special characteristics of the school environment, are available to teachers and students. It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate... (S) chools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism. School officials do not possess absolute authority over their students. Students... are possessed of fundamental rights which the State must respect, just as they themselves must respect their obligations to the State.
In Healy v. James (1972), the Court ruled that Central Connecticut State College 's refusal to recognize a campus chapter of Students for a Democratic Society was unconstitutional, reaffirming Tinker.
However, since 1969 the Court has also placed several limitations on Tinker interpretations. In Bethel School District v. Fraser (1986), the Court ruled that a student could be punished for his sexual - innuendo - laced speech before a school assembly and, in Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988), the Court found that schools need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with their basic educational mission. In Morse v. Frederick (2007), the Court ruled that schools could, consistent with the First Amendment, restrict student speech at school - sponsored events, even events away from school grounds, if students promote "illegal drug use ''.
In Packingham v. North Carolina (2017), the Supreme Court held that a North Carolina law prohibiting registered sex offenders from accessing various websites impermissibly restricted lawful speech in violation of the First Amendment. The Court held that "a fundamental principle of the First Amendment is that all persons have access to places where they can speak and listen, and then, after reflection, speak and listen once more. ''
The federal government and the states have long been permitted to limit obscenity or pornography. While the Supreme Court has generally refused to give obscenity any protection under the First Amendment, pornography is subject to little regulation. However, the definitions of obscenity and pornography have changed over time.
In Rosen v. United States (1896), the Supreme Court adopted the same obscenity standard as had been articulated in a famous British case, Regina v. Hicklin (1868). The Hicklin test defined material as obscene if it tended "to deprave or corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall ''. In the early twentieth century, literary works including An American Tragedy (Theodore Dreiser, 1925) and Lady Chatterley 's Lover (D.H. Lawrence, 1928) were banned for obscenity. In the federal district court case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses (1933), Judge John M. Woolsey established a new standard to evaluate James Joyce 's novel Ulysses (1922), stating that works must be considered in their entirety, rather than declared obscene on the basis of an individual part of the work.
The Supreme Court ruled in Roth v. United States (1957) that the First Amendment did not protect obscenity. It also ruled that the Hicklin test was inappropriate; instead, the Roth test for obscenity was "whether to the average person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest ''. This definition proved hard to apply, however, and in the following decade, members of the Court often reviewed films individually in a court building screening room to determine if they should be considered obscene. Justice Potter Stewart, in Jacobellis v. Ohio (1964), famously stated that, although he could not precisely define pornography, "I know it when I see it ''.
The Roth test was expanded when the Court decided Miller v. California (1973). Under the Miller test, a work is obscene if:
(a)... ' the average person, applying contemporary community standards ' would find the work, as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest... (b)... the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law, and (c)... the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
Note that "community '' standards -- not national standards -- are applied whether the material appeals to the prurient interest, leaving the question of obscenity to local authorities. Child pornography is not subject to the Miller test, as the Supreme Court decided in New York v. Ferber (1982) and Osborne v. Ohio (1990), ruling that the government 's interest in protecting children from abuse was paramount.
Personal possession of obscene material in the home may not be prohibited by law. In Stanley v. Georgia (1969), the Court ruled that "(i) f the First Amendment means anything, it means that a State has no business telling a man, sitting in his own house, what books he may read or what films he may watch. '' However, it is constitutionally permissible for the government to prevent the mailing or sale of obscene items, though they may be viewed only in private. Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition (2002) further upheld these rights by invalidating the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996, holding that, because the act "(p) rohibit (ed) child pornography that does not depict an actual child '' it was overly broad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment and that:
First Amendment freedoms are most in danger when the government seeks to control thought or to justify its laws for that impermissible end. The right to think is the beginning of freedom, and speech must be protected from the government because speech is the beginning of thought.
In United States v. Williams (2008), the Court upheld the PROTECT Act of 2003, ruling that prohibiting offers to provide and requests to obtain child pornography did not violate the First Amendment, even if a person charged under the Act did not possess child pornography.
In some states, there are Son of Sam laws prohibiting convicted criminals from publishing memoirs for profit. These laws were a response to offers to David Berkowitz to write memoirs about the murders he committed. The Supreme Court struck down a law of this type in New York as a violation of the First Amendment in the case Simon & Schuster v. Crime Victims Board (1991). That statute did not prohibit publication of a memoir by a convicted criminal. Instead, it provided that all profits from the book were to be put in escrow for a time. The interest from the escrow account was used to fund the New York State Crime Victims Board -- an organization that pays the medical and related bills of victims of crime. Similar laws in other states remain unchallenged.
American tort liability for defamatory speech or publications traces its origins to English common law. For the first two hundred years of American jurisprudence, the basic substance of defamation law continued to resemble that existing in England at the time of the Revolution. An 1898 American legal textbook on defamation provides definitions of libel and slander nearly identical to those given by William Blackstone and Edward Coke. An action of slander required the following:
An action of libel required the same five general points as slander, except that it specifically involved the publication of defamatory statements. For certain criminal charges of libel, such as seditious libel, the truth or falsity of the statements was immaterial, as such laws were intended to maintain public support of the government and true statements could damage this support even more than false ones. Instead, libel placed specific emphasis on the result of the publication. Libelous publications tended to "degrade and injure another person '' or "bring him into contempt, hatred or ridicule ''.
Concerns that defamation under common law might be incompatible with the new republican form of government caused early American courts to struggle between William Blackstone 's argument that the punishment of "dangerous or offensive writings... (was) necessary for the preservation of peace and good order, of government and religion, the only solid foundations of civil liberty '' and the argument that the need for a free press guaranteed by the Constitution outweighed the fear of what might be written. Consequently, very few changes were made in the first two centuries after the ratification of the First Amendment.
The Supreme Court 's ruling in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) fundamentally changed American defamation law. The case redefined the type of "malice '' needed to sustain a libel case. Common law malice consisted of "ill - will '' or "wickedness ''. Now, a public officials seeking to sustain a civil action against a tortfeasor needed to prove by "clear and convincing evidence '' that there was actual malice. The case involved an advertisement published in The New York Times indicating that officials in Montgomery, Alabama had acted violently in suppressing the protests of African - Americans during the civil rights movement. The Montgomery Police Commissioner, L.B. Sullivan, sued the Times for libel, stating that the advertisement damaged his reputation. The Supreme Court unanimously reversed the $500,000 judgment against the Times. Justice Brennan suggested that public officials may sue for libel only if the publisher published the statements in question with "actual malice '' -- "knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not. '' In sum, the court held that "the First Amendment protects the publication of all statements, even false ones, about the conduct of public officials except when statements are made with actual malice (with knowledge that they are false or in reckless disregard of their truth or falsity). ''
While actual malice standard applies to public officials and public figures, in Philadelphia Newspapers v. Hepps (1988), the Court found that, with regard to private individuals, the First Amendment does "not necessarily force any change in at least some features of the common - law landscape. '' In Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc. (1985) the Court ruled that "actual malice '' need not be shown in cases involving private individuals, holding that "(i) n light of the reduced constitutional value of speech involving no matters of public concern... the state interest adequately supports awards of presumed and punitive damages -- even absent a showing of ' actual malice. ' '' In Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. (1974), the Court ruled that a private individual had to prove actual malice only to be awarded punitive damages, but not to seek actual damages. In Hustler Magazine v. Falwell (1988), the Court extended the "actual malice '' standard to intentional infliction of emotional distress in a ruling which protected parody, in this case a fake advertisement in Hustler suggesting that evangelist Jerry Falwell 's first sexual experience had been with his mother in an outhouse. Since Falwell was a public figure, the Court ruled that "importance of the free flow of ideas and opinions on matters of public interest and concern '' was the paramount concern, and reversed the judgement Falwell had won against Hustler for emotional distress.
In Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. (1990), the Court ruled that the First Amendment offers no wholesale exception to defamation law for statements labeled "opinion '', but instead that a statement must be provably false (falsifiable) before it can be the subject of a libel suit. Nonetheless, it has been argued that Milkovich and other cases effectively provide for an opinion privilege. In consequence a significant number of states have enacted state opinion privilege laws.
State constitutions provide free speech protections similar to those of the U.S. Constitution. In a few states, such as California, a state constitution has been interpreted as providing more comprehensive protections than the First Amendment. The Supreme Court has permitted states to extend such enhanced protections, most notably in Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins. In that case, the Court unanimously ruled that while the First Amendment may allow private property owners to prohibit trespass by political speakers and petition - gatherers, California was permitted to restrict property owners whose property is equivalent to a traditional public forum (often shopping malls and grocery stores) from enforcing their private property rights to exclude such individuals. However, the Court did maintain that shopping centers could impose "reasonable restrictions on expressive activity ''. Subsequently, New Jersey, Colorado, Massachusetts and Puerto Rico courts have adopted the doctrine; California 's courts have repeatedly reaffirmed it.
The free speech and free press clauses have been interpreted as providing the same protection to speakers as to writers, except for wireless broadcasting which has been given less constitutional protection. The Free Press Clause protects the right of individuals to express themselves through publication and dissemination of information, ideas and opinions without interference, constraint or prosecution by the government. This right was described in Branzburg v. Hayes as "a fundamental personal right '' that is not confined to newspapers and periodicals. In Lovell v. City of Griffin (1938), Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes defined "press '' as "every sort of publication which affords a vehicle of information and opinion ''. This right has been extended to media including newspapers, books, plays, movies, and video games. While it is an open question whether people who blog or use social media are journalists entitled to protection by media shield laws, they are protected equally by the Free Speech Clause and the Free Press Clause, because both clauses do not distinguish between media businesses and nonprofessional speakers. This is further shown by the Supreme Court consistently refusing to recognize the First Amendment as providing greater protection to the institutional media than to other speakers. For example, in a case involving campaign finance laws the Court rejected the "suggestion that communication by corporate members of the institutional press is entitled to greater constitutional protection than the same communication by '' non-institutional - press businesses.
A landmark decision for press freedom came in Near v. Minnesota (1931), in which the Supreme Court rejected prior restraint (pre-publication censorship). In this case, the Minnesota legislature passed a statute allowing courts to shut down "malicious, scandalous and defamatory newspapers '', allowing a defense of truth only in cases where the truth had been told "with good motives and for justifiable ends ''. In a 5 -- 4 decision, the Court applied the Free Press Clause to the states, rejecting the statute as unconstitutional. Hughes quoted Madison in the majority decision, writing, "The impairment of the fundamental security of life and property by criminal alliances and official neglect emphasizes the primary need of a vigilant and courageous press ''.
However, Near also noted an exception, allowing prior restraint in cases such as "publication of sailing dates of transports or the number or location of troops ''. This exception was a key point in another landmark case four decades later: New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), in which the administration of President Richard Nixon sought to ban the publication of the Pentagon Papers, classified government documents about the Vietnam War secretly copied by analyst Daniel Ellsberg. The Court found, 6 -- 3, that the Nixon administration had not met the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint. Justice Brennan, drawing on Near in a concurrent opinion, wrote that "only governmental allegation and proof that publication must inevitably, directly, and immediately cause the occurrence of an evil kindred to imperiling the safety of a transport already at sea can support even the issuance of an interim restraining order. '' Justices Black and Douglas went still further, writing that prior restraints were never justified.
The courts have rarely treated content - based regulation of journalism with any sympathy. In Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo (1974), the Court unanimously struck down a state law requiring newspapers criticizing political candidates to publish their responses. The state claimed that the law had been passed to ensure journalistic responsibility. The Supreme Court found that freedom, but not responsibility, is mandated by the First Amendment and so it ruled that the government may not force newspapers to publish that which they do not desire to publish.
Content - based regulation of television and radio, however, have been sustained by the Supreme Court in various cases. Since there is a limited number of frequencies for non-cable television and radio stations, the government licenses them to various companies. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that the problem of scarcity does not allow the raising of a First Amendment issue. The government may restrain broadcasters, but only on a content - neutral basis. In Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation, the Supreme Court upheld the Federal Communications Commission 's authority to restrict the use of "indecent '' material in broadcasting.
State governments retain the right to tax newspapers, just as they may tax other commercial products. Generally, however, taxes that focus exclusively on newspapers have been found unconstitutional. In Grosjean v. American Press Co. (1936), the Court invalidated a state tax on newspaper advertising revenues, holding that the role of the press in creating "informed public opinion '' was vital. Similarly, some taxes that give preferential treatment to the press have been struck down. In Arkansas Writers ' Project v. Ragland (1987), for instance, the Court invalidated an Arkansas law exempting "religious, professional, trade and sports journals '' from taxation since the law amounted to the regulation of newspaper content. In Leathers v. Medlock (1991), the Supreme Court found that states may treat different types of the media differently, such as by taxing cable television, but not newspapers. The Court found that "differential taxation of speakers, even members of the press, does not implicate the First Amendment unless the tax is directed at, or presents the danger of suppressing, particular ideas. ''
In Branzburg v. Hayes (1972), the Court ruled that the First Amendment did not give a journalist the right to refuse a subpoena from a grand jury. The issue decided in the case was whether a journalist could refuse to "appear and testify before state and Federal grand juries '' basing the refusal on the belief that such appearance and testimony "abridges the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the First Amendment ''. The 5 -- 4 decision was that such a protection was not provided by the First Amendment. However, a concurring opinion by Justice Lewis F. Powell, in which he stated that a claim for press privilege "should be judged on its facts by the striking of a proper balance between freedom of the press and the obligation of all citizens to give relevant testimony with respect to criminal conduct. The balance of these vital constitutional and societal interests on a case - by - case basis accords with the tried and traditional way of adjudicating such questions. '', has been frequently cited by lower courts since the decision.
The Petition Clause protects the right "to petition the government for a redress of grievances ''. This includes the right to communicate with government officials, lobbying government officials and petitioning the courts by filing lawsuits with a legal basis. The Petition Clause first came to prominence in the 1830s, when Congress established the gag rule barring anti-slavery petitions from being heard; the rule was overturned by Congress several years later. Petitions against the Espionage Act of 1917 resulted in imprisonments. The Supreme Court did not rule on either issue.
In California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited, the Supreme Court stated that the right to petition encompass "the approach of citizens or groups of them to administrative agencies (which are both creatures of the legislature, and arms of the executive) and to courts, the third branch of Government. Certainly the right to petition extends to all departments of the Government. The right of access to the courts is indeed but one aspect of the right of petition. '' Today thus this right encompasses petitions to all three branches of the federal government -- the Congress, the executive and the judiciary -- and has been extended to the states through incorporation. According to the Supreme Court, "redress of grievances '' is to be construed broadly: it includes not solely appeals by the public to the government for the redressing of a grievance in the traditional sense, but also, petitions on behalf of private interests seeking personal gain. The right not only protects demands for "a redress of grievances '' but also demands for government action. The petition clause includes according to the Supreme Court the opportunity to institute non-frivolous lawsuits and mobilize popular support to change existing laws in a peaceful manner.
In Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri (2011), the Supreme Court stated regarding the Free Speech Clause and the Petition Clause:
It is not necessary to say that the two Clauses are identical in their mandate or their purpose and effect to acknowledge that the rights of speech and petition share substantial common ground... Both speech and petition are integral to the democratic process, although not necessarily in the same way. The right to petition allows citizens to express their ideas, hopes, and concerns to their government and their elected representatives, whereas the right to speak fosters the public exchange of ideas that is integral to deliberative democracy as well as to the whole realm of ideas and human affairs. Beyond the political sphere, both speech and petition advance personal expression, although the right to petition is generally concerned with expression directed to the government seeking redress of a grievance.
The right of assembly was originally distinguished from the right to petition. In United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court held that
the right of the people peaceably to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress of grievances, or for anything else connected with the powers or duties of the National Government, is an attribute of national citizenship, and, as such, under protection of, and guaranteed by, the United States. The very idea of a government, republican in form, implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress of grievances.
Justice Morrison Waite 's opinion for the Court carefully distinguished the right to peaceably assemble as a secondary right, while the right to petition was labeled to be a primary right. Later cases, however, paid less attention to these distinctions.
In two 1960s decisions collectively known as forming the Noerr - Pennington doctrine, the Court established that the right to petition prohibited the application of antitrust law to statements made by private entities before public bodies: a monopolist may freely go before the city council and encourage the denial of its competitor 's building permit without being subject to Sherman Act liability.
Although the First Amendment does not explicitly mention freedom of association, the Supreme Court ruled, in National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama (1958), that this freedom was protected by the Amendment and that privacy of membership was an essential part of this freedom. The U.S. Supreme Court decided in Roberts v. United States Jaycees (1984) that "implicit in the right to engage in activities protected by the First Amendment '' is "a corresponding right to associate with others in pursuit of a wide variety of political, social, economic, educational, religious, and cultural ends ''. In Roberts the Court held that associations may not exclude people for reasons unrelated to the group 's expression, such as gender.
However, in Hurley v. Irish - American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston (1995), the Court ruled that a group may exclude people from membership if their presence would affect the group 's ability to advocate a particular point of view. Likewise, in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000), the Court ruled that a New Jersey law, which forced the Boy Scouts of America to admit an openly gay member, to be an unconstitutional abridgment of the Boy Scouts ' right to free association.
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when does stefan turn his humanity off in season 3 | Stefan Salvatore - wikipedia
High school student (Seasons 1 - 4)
Stefan Salvatore is a fictional character from L.J. Smith 's novel series The Vampire Diaries. He is portrayed by Paul Wesley in the television series of the same name. Born on November 5, 1846, Stefan was turned into a vampire in 1864, at the age of 17, by Katherine Pierce, with his brother Damon Salvatore.
On March 27, 2009, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Paul Wesley had joined the cast of The Vampire Diaries as Stefan. He was the last main cast member whose casting was announced. Wesley has become popular with viewers. Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times noted that he spent "10 years as a successful but under - the - radar TV actor '' but shortly after the show premiered, he was "everywhere ''. MacKenzie wrote: "Last summer his face was on more than 30 "Vampire Diaries '' posters at the Century City / Westfield mall alone, not to mention billboards over seemingly every major boulevard in Hollywood ". In November 2011, Wesley 's ex-wife Torrey DeVitto joined the cast of The Vampire Diaries in the recurring role of Dr. Meredith Fell, who is "intrigued by '' Alaric Saltzman (Matt Davis).
Stefan was described as a "beautiful young man '' who turns out to be a Vampire 162 years old, who develops a "strong connection '' with "tragic heroine '' Elena Gilbert (Nina Dobrev). Wesley described the young Stefan as "naive and willing to ride whatever wave life threw '' him, because he was "easily manipulated '' and "innocent '' with a "beautiful young soul ''. However, Stefan at the age of 160 years has more wisdom in him. Stefan consumes animal blood, refusing to kill humans due to the guilt that he killed his own father. However, Damon on the other hand, does feed on humans.
Stefan has a love - hate relationship with his brother, Damon Salvatore (Ian Somerhalder). Wesley "adores '' Somerhalder, who he said he has "natural chemistry '' with. Wesley stated: "The dynamic of the characters is so interesting because they love each other, but they hate each other (...) There 's always this thing in Stefan 's head where he hopes that one day Damon can just be as normal and functioning as possible ''. However, he also described their relationship as "beautiful '' in their flashbacks from the past, because they "loved each other so much back then ''. Stefan begins a romance with Elena on the show 's first episode, without telling her he was a vampire. She was later shocked to find out that he was a vampire, and briefly ended their relationship before getting back together. As the show progressed, Elena began developing feelings for Damon as well. Wesley described Damon and Stefan as having a "silent understanding of the fact that they both are in love with the same girl '', and "that was Stefan 's girl, and now Damon is suddenly a real factor, he 's really in the picture ''. Wesley 's favorite episode of The Vampire Diaries is "The Turning Point '' because it was "really beautiful '' for Stefan and Elena as a couple. In the episode, Stefan turns around "because he 's ashamed of his face '' with blood rushing through his eyes and his veins popping out. Wesley said "he 's terrified, and he hates himself for it. He runs from that part of himself, but she turns him around and tells him not to be afraid. She touches his face, and she thinks he 's beautiful. It 's so intimate, that moment, because she accepts the darkest part of him. ''
When the original vampire Klaus Mikaelson (Joseph Morgan) is feared dead, it is revealed that everyone in his bloodline will die, including Stefan and Damon. In what International Business Times called "the moment Vampire Diaries fans have been waiting for '', Elena had to pick to say goodbye to Stefan or Damon. She ended up choosing Stefan. When Elena became a vampire, her feelings for Damon heightened, and it was later revealed that she had a sired bond to him. Elena and Stefan broke up, and she began a romance with Damon. Stefan became heartbroken, feeling angry and betrayed, and lashed out at Damon and Elena. Wesley urged fans of Stefan and Elena not to lose hope, stating: "The fans should definitely maintain some hope. The thing to remember is that Stefan and Elena have this love that is so strong, and it was sort of the core of Season 1 -- you ca n't entirely disregard that ''. The show 's head writer, Julie Plec, said "They love each other as deeply as two people can love each other, but that does n't mean that their relationship is infallible ''.
In 1864, Stefan "had n't yet learned the careful control that rules his life now '' and was an avid consumer of human blood, which was considered a "dark past '' by Zap2it. Of his blood addiction, Wesley said: "It 's awesome. It 's a drug. He 's a drug addict. I get to play a drug addict, which I love. I 'm going back to his days of usage, heavy usage. When I 'm in my lustful state, it 's so much fun. I felt like I got to play a role that I 'd never played before. I felt like I was doing something different. I just love it, and I hope it comes out the way that I envisioned. '' The show 's executive producer Kevin Williamson revealed that he was "looking forward to Stefan eventually falling off the wagon and drinking human blood again '' after spending decades of consuming only animal blood. Wesley said "everybody has a dark side, especially a vampire, and it 'd be unrealistic not to explore that ''. Stefan became addicted to human blood again, but got it under control with the help of Elena, who began letting him feed off her in small amounts to build up discipline.
However, in the show 's third season, Stefan 's addiction returned. His humanity was taken away by Klaus, and the audience met "The Ripper '', his "bloodthirsty, ruthless alter - ego who had previously only been legend '' according to Zap2it, who found "this sociopath version of our hero far more compelling than his usual compassionate martyr self ''. Wesley, who enjoyed "Ripper Stefan '' more, said it "bums me out '' when Stefan quit human blood again. He said "Good Stefan does n't feel as natural in terms of what I want to be doing on screen, and what I want to be saying. I feel a little stifled, myself, whenever he 's resisting the urge to do vampiresque things. ''
Stefan Salvatore was born on November 1, 1847 and raised in Mystic Falls, Virginia to Giuseppe Salvatore and Lily Salvatore. Stefan is the younger brother of Damon. When Stefan and Damon were human, they were very close and were best friends in life. Damon always confided and trusted in Stefan and they always defended each other, especially to their father, and was fiercely loyal to him. However, this all seemed to change when Stefan and Damon fell in love with the same girl, Katherine Pierce, who turned out to be a vampire. Stefan fell deeply in love with Katherine before finding out she was a vampire. Katherine, however, compelled Stefan to not be afraid, also to keep her secret and go on as they were. It was also revealed that Katherine compelled Stefan to drink her vampire blood against his will. Damon, on the other hand, drank Katherine 's blood willingly, wanting and desiring the immortal life in order to spend an eternity with Katherine. In 1864, Stefan was turned into a vampire after being shot by his father, Giuseppe, along with his brother, Damon with Katherine 's blood in his system, before accidentally killing his father during a visit to tell him that he was going to let himself die. Damon, who turned into a vampire as well, promised Stefan an eternity of misery as he was angry that Stefan had forced him to turn and jealous that Katherine had also turned Stefan. A newborn vampire with uncontrollable blood lust, Stefan was unable to resist the temptations of human blood and became severely out of control and addicted (later on known as the Ripper) to the blood, killing many people because of his lack of control and extreme bloodlust. However, Stefan learned to change his ways when he was taught to control it by a vampire named Alexia "Lexi '' Branson, who later on became Stefan 's best friend and companion. In 1942, Stefan enlisted in the Army to fight in World War II (4x08 "We 'll Always Have Bourbon Street ''). After decades of absence from the town he called home, Stefan returned to Mystic Falls to visit his home and Zach. On May 23, 2009, Stefan heard the Gilbert 's car accident at Wickery Bridge. It was then and there that Stefan fatefully encountered Elena Gilbert for the first time. After only being able to save Elena, Stefan noticed that she looked exactly like Katherine.
Stefan and Elena begin a relationship and he revealed to her that he is a vampire. However, Damon returns to Mystic Falls, too, and also falls in love with Elena. Further on in the series, Damon and Stefan start to bond as brothers again and it becomes apparent that they do love each other. Because of his addiction to human blood, Stefan only drank animal blood in the beginning of the series, which made him weaker than other vampires. In season two, Stefan starts to take small amounts of Elena 's blood each day to mitigate its effect on him and to increase his strength. When Katherine returns it is discovered that she had always loved Stefan and not Damon; however, Stefan is in love with Elena and not interested in Katherine. Stefan starts to build a friendship with Caroline Forbes after she is turned into a vampire. After Klaus gives Stefan his blood to save Damon from a werewolf bite, he turns Stefan into a Ripper again.
Stefan starts working for him as he agreed to do to save Damon, and hopes it might also protect Elena by making sure Klaus never returns to Mystic Falls, since he believes her to be dead. Klaus later finds out and compels Stefan to kill her, but when he is able to resist the compulsion, Klaus makes him turn his humanity and emotions off. However, he is later able to get his humanity back, which is seen when he saves Klaus 's life to protect Damon, but yet he pretends not to care about Elena anymore. He then takes it upon himself to kill Klaus. He steals Klaus 's family as retaliation, and uses them as blackmail, when that fails (the witches give Klaus the coffins when he threatens to end the Bennett line), Stefan threatens to drive Elena off Wickery Bridge with vampire blood in her system if Klaus does n't get his hybrids out of town, Klaus agrees at the last minute. He and Elena get into a fight. In the season three finale, he kisses Elena. In the end, Elena chooses Stefan over Damon, but when Rebekah causes Matt 's truck to drive off Wickery Bridge, she is trapped underwater. Stefan barely gets there in time, but Elena makes him save Matt first and she drowns. It is later revealed Dr. Fell gave Elena vampire blood, meaning she died with vampire blood in her system. Then she became a vampire.
In the season four premiere, Stefan tries to get Bonnie to save her from becoming a full vampire, however, she along with several other vampires are captured by the Founder 's Council. As Elena begins to die and out of desperation to keep Elena alive, Stefan kills a guard and uses his blood to allow Elena to feed and to complete her transition into a vampire. Stefan gives Elena a daylight ring, which was made by Bonnie, in order to protect Elena from the sun. Stefan tries to assure Elena that everything will be okay and that they 'll take Elena 's newborn vampirism one day at a time. During the second episode of season 4, Stefan tries to help Elena cope with her hunger for human blood. After his "bunny diet '' disagrees with Elena stomach she seeks help from Damon to find an alternative blood source. When blood bags and Damon 's own blood fails too, she ends up feeding on Matt under extreme circumstances. Stefan then discovers from Klaus and Rebekah that there is a possible cure for vampirism. Stefan "teams '' up with Klaus in order to find the possible cure, so that Stefan can give Elena the choice of becoming human again.
Unfortunately, Klaus needs the vampire hunter Connor to stay alive because he holds the map to the cure in his tattoo, and Stefan must keep him alive at all costs when everyone else wants him dead. When Connor kidnaps Jeremy, April, and Matt, and keeps them hostage at the Grill, Stefan must stop Damon from rashly walking in and killing his chance at curing Elena. After tranquilizing Damon with vervain and taking his daylight ring, Stefan tries to take matters into his own hands and infiltrates the Grille by himself. With Jeremy at gunpoint, Elena comes in and takes Connor by surprise. Stefan manages to get Connor out, but Elena later kills him and is consumed with grief at being a murderer.
When Elena begins to hallucinate because of Connor 's death, Klaus informs Stefan and Damon that she must be locked away to keep from killing herself, and kidnaps her before they can say no. Later, Stefan works with one of Klaus 's hybrids, Chris, to free Elena who stabs him in the neck and runs away. Stefan sends Damon to find her and goes with Bonnie to see if the Professor Shane knows how to end the hallucinations. He informs them that a potential hunter must kill a vampire so he may take the place of that dead hunter, which is virtually impossible. Luckily, Stefan realizes that Jeremy is a potential hunter, and tells him that to save his sister, he must kill a vampire. Jeremy kills the hybrid Chris who originally helped them free Elena, and in turn her hallucinations end, and she is safe, but only barely.
Later then, Stefan breaks up with Elena because of her feelings for Damon. Stefan goes to Caroline for support since she loathes Damon, and they become closer. During the Miss Mystic Falls Pageant, Stefan Turns a criminal in the hospital and convinces Jeremy to kill him to make the hunter 's mark on his arm grow. Afterward, Jeremy becomes anti-vampire and attempts to kill Elena. Stefan is there and saves her, but has to apologize for making him crazy. Elena tries to tell him that she does n't need the cure if it means it hurts Jeremy.
That night Elena comes to stay at the Salvatore house, and Stefan leaves to crash at Caroline 's. While there, he and Caroline realize that Elena is sired to Damon. When Stefan informs Damon of this, they go to New Orleans to find the witch that broke a sire bond years ago that Damon had. Stefan and Damon find that in order to break the bond, Damon has to convince Elena not to care about him, and leave her, which Damon agrees to do for Stefan. Post Jeremy 's death, Damon convinces Elena to switch off her humanity leading to her becoming brutal and ruthless. Stefan and Damon try constantly to make her feel something again. Later after Elena 's humanity comes back, she chooses Damon, leaving Stefan heartbroken. Then Stefan tries to dump Silas body in the river only to find that Silas is still alive. Silas then reveals that Stefan is his doppelganger. Silas was the one who created the immortality spell 2000 years ago however, as nature creates a balance for everything, it created a version of Silas that could be killed, a shadow - self which ends up being Stefan. Silas then locks Stefan into a vault and drowns him in the river. This incident tempts Stefan to turn his humanity off in order to escape. Stefan happens to be in the safe for 3 months where he keeps on hallucinating.
In season 5, Damon and Elena manage to figure out that Silas has taken Stefan 's place and that Stefan is in that safe. When they go to rescue him, Stefan is n't there. Instead, a very powerful witch (Qyetsiyah) had opened the safe for him and fried his brain due to which he suffers from amnesia. Qyetsiyah (or Tessa) loved Silas but on the day of their marriage, he cheated on her and took the immortality spell for the women he actually loved, Amara, the original doppelgänger of Elena. Stefan returns to his old ways but when he saves Elena from Tessa, she wants revenge so he gives Stefan his memories back which gives Stefan Hallucinations of the safe. Caroline tries to help him but when that does n't work, Katherine comes back in the picture and manages to cure Stefan but they have a one - night stand, which leads Katherine to believe that Stefan still loves her, however he rejects her. Later on, Katherine takes over Elena 's body and breaks up with Damon so that she can get Stefan. After trying to woo him and failing, Stefan realises that Katherine is pretending to be Elena and Elena is with Nadia, Katherine 's daughter. They rescue her somehow by killing Katherine and sending her to some sort of hell. Then Stefan volunteers himself to the travellers to give his blood as they needed doppelganger blood. Caroline and Enzo try to find and kill Tom Avery, Stefan 's last doppelganger in order to save Stefan and they succeed due to which Stefan and Caroline grow even closer. Near the end of the season, Stefan and Elena keep seeing dreams of the two being together and of them as humans. They work out that the travellers planted those dreams there as it was always meant to be Stefan and Elena not Damon and Elena. Through the fight, Stefan and Elena are kidnapped by the travellers as they need their blood to finish their spell. However, Enzo and Caroline save them by killing Tom Avery, Stefan 's doppelgänger. In 5x21, Stefan tries to save Caroline 's life from Tyler (while a passenger, Julian, is in his body), during which Tyler kills him, sending him to the disintegrating Other Side. In the episode ' Home ' he is Resseructed because Liv did a spell due to which he and his other friends can get back but Damon and Bonnie are left there leaving everyone broken.
In season 6, Stefan moves away from Mystic Falls because of Damon 's death and finds a new girlfriend called Ivy. However, Enzo and Caroline, find him and Caroline tells Stefan that he 's a coward and the worst friend ever. She starts crying so Enzo goes and kills Ivy. Stefan vows revenge. He comes back to Whitmore, and uses Elena 's help to find Enzo leaving him to be killed by a vampire hunter. However, Enzo survives. Ivy returns as a vampire and it is revealed that Enzo had fed her vampire blood against her will before killing her. Damon, then returns to Mystic Falls and meets Stefan first which brings Stefan back to his friends. To make things worse, Enzo tells the other vampire hunter about Ivy and all the other vampires and the vampire hunter kills Ivy but is killed by Damon before the vampire hunter would kill anyone else. Enzo, figures out that Stefan 's niece, Sarah is alive and that Damon had thought that he had killed Sarah before she was born but Sarah was born before her mother died however, Stefan kept this from Damon and Enzo uses this against Stefan. Meanwhile, the vampires have another threat, a psycho killer, Kai. Added on top of that, Sheriff Liz Forbes (Caroline 's mother) is diagnosed with cancer. Stefan supports Caroline through this in which they bond even more and share a passionate kiss however just then Liz dies. At the funeral, Stefan realises that he has fallen in love with Caroline but before he can confess, Caroline switches off her humanity switch after the funeral. Stefan and Elena try to bring Caroline back but it fails and Caroline vows revenge for them not giving her the year she wanted without any feelings. She kidnaps Stefan and Damon 's niece, Sarah Salvatore, and blackmails Stefan to turn off his humanity to save her. At the end of the episode ' The Downward Spiral ', he does and joins Caroline. Stefan decides to ruin Caroline 's life because she has done the same to him. He wants her to lose control and become a Ripper. He eventually is able to and they sleep together for the first time. When Lily, Stefan and Damon 's mother, is rescued from the 1903 prison world and turns out to be a vampire, she manages to turn on Stefan 's humanity again. However, it later is revealed that Lily lied to get him back and does n't love her sons any more and only wants her travelling companions back. Stefan then pretends to still have his emotions off to get Caroline back and somehow succeeds, but Caroline tries to avoid him as she feels guilty for everything she had done. Stefan then also tries to talk Damon out of being a human again only to be with Elena but Damon decides to take the cure.
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what is the plasma membrane and what does it do | Cell membrane - wikipedia
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space). It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles. In this way, it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.
While Robert Hooke 's discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the Cell Theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to suggest a universal mechanism for cell protection and development. By the second half of the 19th century, microscopy was still not advanced enough to make a distinction between cell membranes and cell walls. However, some microscopists correctly identified at this time that while invisible, it could be inferred that cell membranes existed in animal cells due to intracellular movement of components internally but not externally and that membranes were n't the equivalent of a cell wall to plant cell. It was also inferred that cell membranes were n't vital components to all cells. Many refuted the existence of a cell membrane still towards the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an update to the Cell Theory stated that cell membranes existed, but were merely secondary structures. It was n't until later studies with osmosis and permeability that cell membranes gained more recognition. In 1895, Ernest Overton proposed that cell membranes were made of lipids.
The lipid bilayer hypothesis, proposed in 1925 by Gorter and Grendel, created speculation to the description of the cell membrane bilayer structure based on crystallographic studies and soap bubble observations. In an attempt to accept or reject the hypothesis, researchers measured membrane thickness. In 1925 it was determined by Fricke that the thickness of erythrocyte and yeast cell membranes ranged between 3.3 and 4 nm, a thickness compatible with a lipid monolayer. The choice of the dielectric constant used in these studies was called into question but future tests could not disprove the results of the initial experiment. Independently, the leptoscope was invented in order to measure very thin membranes by comparing the intensity of light reflected from a sample to the intensity of a membrane standard of known thickness. The instrument could resolve thicknesses that depended on pH measurements and the presence of membrane proteins that ranged from 8.6 to 23.2 nm, with the lower measurements supporting the lipid bilayer hypothesis. Later in the 1930s, the membrane structure model developed in general agreement to be the paucimolecular model of Davson and Danielli (1935). This model was based on studies of surface tension between oils and echinoderm eggs. Since the surface tension values appeared to be much lower than would be expected for an oil -- water interface, it was assumed that some substance was responsible for lowering the interfacial tensions in the surface of cells. It was suggested that a lipid bilayer was in between two thin protein layers. The paucimolecular model immediately became popular and it dominated cell membrane studies for the following 30 years, until it became rivaled by the fluid mosaic model of Singer and Nicolson (1972).
Despite the numerous models of the cell membrane proposed prior to the fluid mosaic model, it remains the primary archetype for the cell membrane long after its inception in the 1970s. Although the fluid mosaic model has been modernized to detail contemporary discoveries, the basics have remained constant: the membrane is a lipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic exterior heads and a hydrophobic interior where proteins can interact with hydrophilic heads through polar interactions, but proteins that span the bilayer fully or partially have hydrophobic amino acids that interact with the non-polar lipid interior. The fluid mosaic model not only provided an accurate representation of membrane mechanics, it enhanced the study of hydrophobic forces, which would later develop into an essential descriptive limitation to describe biological macromolecules.
For many centuries, the scientists cited disagreed with the significance of the structure they were seeing as the cell membrane. For almost 2 centuries, the membranes were seen but mostly disregarded this as an important structure with cellular function. It was n't until the 20th century that the significance of the cell membrane as it was acknowledged. Finally, two scientists Gorter and Grendel (1925) made the discovery that the membrane is "lipid - based ''. From this, they furthered the idea that this structure would have to be in a formation that mimicked layers. Once studied further, it was found by comparing the sum of the cell surfaces and the surfaces of the lipids, a 2: 1 ratio was estimated; thus, providing the first basis of the bilayer structure known today. This discovery initiated many new studies that arose globally within various fields of scientific studies, confirming that the structure and functions of the cell membrane are widely accepted.
The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast (de Vries, 1885), Plasmahaut (plasma skin, Pfeffer, 1877, 1891), Hautschicht (skin layer, Pfeffer, 1886; used with a different meaning by Hofmeister, 1867), plasmatic membrane (Pfeffer, 1900), plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane, cell envelope and cell membrane. Some authors that did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma (coined by Mast, 1924) for the external region of the cell.
Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Composition is not set, but constantly changing for fluidity and changes in the environment, even fluctuating during different stages of cell development. Specifically, the amount of cholesterol in human primary neuron cell membrane changes, and this change in composition affects fluidity throughout development stages.
Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms:
The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant, often contributing for over 50 % of all lipids in plasma membranes. Glycolipids only account for a minute amount of about 2 % and sterols make up the rest. In RBC studies, 30 % of the plasma membrane is lipid. However, for the majority of eukaryotic cells, the composition of plasma membranes is about half lipids and half proteins by weight.
The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16 - and 18 - carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis ''. The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation.
The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present. However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol - enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell; it behaves as a part of protein complex.
In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane. Additionally, the amount of cholesterol in biological membranes varies between organisms, cell types, and even in individual cells. Cholesterol, a major component of animal plasma membranes, regulates the fluidity of the overall membrane, meaning that cholesterol controls the amount of movement of the various cell membrane components based on its concentrations. In high temperatures, cholesterol inhibits the movement of phospholipid fatty acid chains, causing a reduced permeability to small molecules and reduced membrane fluidity. The opposite is true for the role of cholesterol in cooler temperatures. Cholesterol production, and thus concentration, is up - regulated (increased) in response to cold temperature. At cold temperatures, cholesterol interferes with fatty acid chain interactions. Acting as antifreeze, cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol is more abundant in cold - weather animals than warm - weather animals. In plants, which lack cholesterol, related compounds called sterols perform the same function as cholesterol.
Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions.
Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). Carbohydrates are important in the role of cell - cell recognition in eukaryotes; they are located on the surface of the cell where they recognize host cells and share information, viruses that bind to cells using these receptors cause an infection For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing, and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles.
The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50 % of membrane volume These proteins are important for cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms. Membrane proteins consist of three main types: Integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid - anchored proteins.
As shown in the adjacent table, integral proteins are amphipathic transmembrane proteins. Examples of integral proteins include ion channels, proton pumps, and g - protein coupled receptors. Ion channels allow inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, or chlorine to diffuse down their electrochemical gradient across the lipid bilayer through hydrophilic pores across the membrane. The electrical behavior of cells (i.e. nerve cells) are controlled by ion channels. Proton Pumps are protein pumps that are embedded in the lipid bilayer that allow protons to travel through the membrane by transferring from one amino acid side chain to another. Processes such as electron transport and generating ATP use proton pumps. A G - protein coupled receptor is a single polypeptide chain that crosses the lipid bilayer seven times responding to signal molecules (i.e. hormones and neurotransmitters). G - protein coupled receptors are used in processes such as cell to cell signaling, the regulation of the production of cAMP, and the regulation of ion channels.
The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell -- cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell -- cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane.
Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane. For this to occur, an N - terminus "signal sequence '' of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to form tissues. Fungi, bacteria, most archaea, and plants also have a cell wall, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive '', occurring without the input of cellular energy, or "active '', requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:
1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO) and oxygen (O), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane. Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water. Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases.
2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Transmembrane proteins extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the membrane to transport molecules across it. Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance. Another example of a transmembrane protein is a cell - surface receptor, which allow cell signaling molecules to communicate between cells.
3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured. This invagination is caused by proteins on the outside on the cell membrane, acting as receptors and clustering into depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the cytosolic side of the membrane. The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating '' or phagocytosis), small molecules and ions ("cell drinking '' or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.
4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste - containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell
Prokaryotes are divided into two different groups, Archaea and Bacteria, with bacteria dividing further into gram - positive and gram - negative. Gram - negative bacteria have both a plasma membrane and an outer membrane separated by periplasm, however, other prokaryotes have only a plasma membrane. These two membranes differ in many aspects. The outer membrane of the gram - negative bacteria differ from other prokaryotes due to phospholipids forming the exterior of the bilayer, and lipoproteins and phospholipids forming the interior. The outer membrane typically has a porous quality due to its presence of membrane proteins, such as gram - negative porins, which are pore - forming proteins. The inner, plasma membrane is also generally symmetric whereas the outer membrane is asymmetric because of proteins such as the aforementioned. Also, for the prokaryotic membranes, there are multiple things that can affect the fluidity. One of the major factors that can affect the fluidity is fatty acid composition. For example, when the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus was grown in 37 C for 24h, the membrane exhibited a more fluid state instead of a gel - like state. This supports the concept that in higher temperatures, the membrane is more fluid than in colder temperatures. When the membrane is becoming more fluid and needs to become more stabilized, it will make longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acid chains in order to help stabilize the membrane. Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars). Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls, but none that are made of peptidoglycan. The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in lipopolysaccharides, which are combined poly - or oligosaccharide and carbohydrate lipid regions that stimulate the cell 's natural immunity. The outer membrane can bleb out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell, and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles. Bacterial cells provide numerous examples of the diverse ways in which prokaryotic cell membranes are adapted with structures that suit the organism 's niche. For example, proteins on the surface of certain bacterial cells aid in their gliding motion. Many gram - negative bacteria have cell membranes which contain ATP - driven protein exporting systems.
According to the fluid mosaic model of S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson (1972), which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes can be considered as a two - dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily. Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two - dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein - protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin - based cytoskeleton, and potentially lipid rafts.
Lipid bilayers form through the process of self - assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail '' regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic "head '' regions interact with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Hydrophobic interactions (also known as the hydrophobic effect) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers. An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds.
Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane.
Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.
The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces. It faces outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane '' and "lateral (side) membrane '', which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface.
Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane '' structures such as caveola, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, focal adhesion, and different types of cell junctions. These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion, communication, endocytosis and exocytosis. They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. They are composed of specific proteins, such as integrins and cadherins.
The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane. Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface -- for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut -- and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage - like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule - based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin - based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and / or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin - based finger - like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb.
The content of the cell, inside the cell membrane, is composed of numerous membrane - bound organelles, which contribute to the overall function of the cell. The origin, structure, and function of each organelle leads to a large variation in the cell composition due to the individual uniqueness associated with each organelle.
The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct types of cells and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types.
The permeability of a membrane is the rate of passive diffusion of molecules through the membrane. These molecules are known as permeant molecules. Permeability depends mainly on the electric charge and polarity of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule. Due to the cell membrane 's hydrophobic nature, small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH partition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body.
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what is the earliest form of african art known describe some of the subjects portrayed | History of painting - wikipedia
The history of painting reaches back in time to artifacts from pre-historic humans, and spans all cultures. It represents a continuous, though periodically disrupted, tradition from Antiquity. Across cultures, and spanning continents and millennia, the history of painting is an ongoing river of creativity, that continues into the 21st century. Until the early 20th century it relied primarily on representational, religious and classical motifs, after which time more purely abstract and conceptual approaches gained favor.
Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in Western painting, in general, a few centuries earlier. African art, Jewish art, Islamic art, Indian art, Chinese art, and Japanese art each had significant influence on Western art, and vice versa.
Initially serving utilitarian purpose, followed by imperial, private, civic, and religious patronage, Eastern and Western painting later found audiences in the aristocracy and the middle class. From the Modern era, the Middle Ages through the Renaissance painters worked for the church and a wealthy aristocracy. Beginning with the Baroque era artists received private commissions from a more educated and prosperous middle class. Finally in the West the idea of "art for art 's sake '' began to find expression in the work of the Romantic painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J.M.W. Turner. The 19th century saw the rise of the commercial art gallery, which provided patronage in the 20th century.
The oldest known paintings are approximately 40,000 years old. José Luis Sanchidrián at the University of Cordoba, Spain, believes the paintings are more likely to have been painted by Neanderthals than early modern humans. Images at the Chauvet cave in France are thought to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using red ochre and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, mammoth or humans often hunting. There are examples of cave paintings all over the world -- in France, India, Spain, Portugal, China, Australia etc.
Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the people that made them. Prehistoric men may have painted animals to "catch '' their soul or spirit in order to hunt them more easily or the paintings may represent an animistic vision and homage to surrounding nature. They may be the result of a basic need of expression that is innate to human beings, or they could have been for the transmission of practical information.
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, rock painting, Stone Age, India
Lascaux, Horse
Eland, rock painting, Drakensberg, South Africa
Lascaux, Bulls and Horses
Bison, in the great hall of policromes, Cave of Altamira, Spain
Spanish cave painting of Bulls
Petroglyphs, from Sweden, Nordic Bronze Age (painted)
Pictographs from the Great Gallery, Canyonlands National Park, Horseshoe Canyon, Utah, c. 1500 BCE
Cueva de las Manos (Spanish for Cave of the Hands) in the Santa Cruz province in Argentina, c. 7300 BC
In Paleolithic times, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare. Mostly, animals were painted, not only animals that were used as food but also animals that represented strength like the rhinoceros or large Felidae, as in the Chauvet Cave. Signs like dots were sometimes drawn. Rare human representations include handprints and stencils, and figures depicting human / animal hybrids. The Chauvet Cave in the Ardèche Departments of France contains the most important preserved cave paintings of the Paleolithic era, painted around 31,000 BC. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BC and show, among others, bisons. The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, is one of the best known cave paintings and dates to about 15,000 to 10,000 BC.
If there is meaning to the paintings, it remains unknown. The caves were not in an inhabited area, so they may have been used for seasonal rituals. The animals are accompanied by signs which suggest a possible magic use. Arrow - like symbols in Lascaux are sometimes interpreted as being used as calendars or almanacs, but the evidence remains inconclusive. The most important work of the Mesolithic era were the marching warriors, a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, Castellón, Spain dated to about 7000 to 4000 BC. The technique used was probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the rock. The paintings are quite naturalistic, though stylized. The figures are not three - dimensional, even though they overlap
The earliest known Indian paintings (see section below) were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, (see above) and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ajanta, Maharashtra state present a fine example of Indian paintings. The colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals.
The history of Eastern painting includes a vast range of influences from various cultures and religions. Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in Western painting, in general a few centuries earlier. African art, Jewish art, Islamic art, Indian art, Chinese art, Korean Art, and Japanese art each had significant influence on Western art, and, vice versa.
Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. The earliest paintings were not representational but ornamental; they consisted of patterns or designs rather than pictures. Early pottery was painted with spirals, zigzags, dots, or animals. It was only during the Warring States period (403 -- 221 B.C.) that artists began to represent the world around them. Japanese painting is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety of genre and styles. The history of Japanese painting is a long history of synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. Korean painting, as an independent form, began around 108 B.C., around the fall of Gojoseon, making it one of the oldest in the world. The artwork of that time period evolved into the various styles that characterized the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, most notably the paintings and frescoes that adorn the tombs of Goguryeo 's royalty. During the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo dynasty, Korean painting was characterized primarily by a combination of Korean - style landscapes, facial features, Buddhist - centered themes, and an emphasis on celestial observation that was facilitated by the rapid development of Korean astronomy.
See also Chinese painting, Japanese painting, Korean painting.
A lacquerware painting from the Jingmen Tomb (Chinese: 荊門 楚 墓; Pinyin: Jīngmén chǔ mù) of the State of Chu (704 -- 223 BC), depicting men wearing precursors to Hanfu (i.e. traditional silk dress) and riding in a two - horsed chariot
Detail of a fresco showing the Chinese philosopher Confucius, from a Western Han (202 BC - 9 AD) tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province
A Chinese woman in Hanfu attire, fresco from a Western Han (202 BC - 9 AD) tomb of Xi'an (ancient Chang'an), Shaanxi province
Paintings on tile of guardian spirits donned in Chinese robes, from the Han Dynasty (202 BC -- 220 AD)
Gentlemen in Conversation, tomb painting dated to the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 -- 220 AD).
Lacquerware basket from the Lelang Commandery, showing seated men wearing Hanfu robes, Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220 AD)
Female court attendants wearing Hanfu robes, a mural from an Eastern Han (25 - 220 AD) tomb in Zhengzhou, Henan province
Female court attendants wearing Hanfu robes, a mural from an Eastern Han (25 - 220 AD) tomb in Zhengzhou, Henan province
Male figure wearing Hanfu robes, from a lacquerware painting over wood, Northern Wei period, 5th century AD
Buddhist art of painted relief sculptures from the Yungang Grottoes, Northern Wei Dynasty (386 - 535 AD)
Emperor Sun Quan in the Thirteen Emperors Scroll and Northern Qi Scholars Collating Classic Texts, by Yan Liben (c. 600 -- 673 AD), Chinese
Eighty - Seven Celestials, by Wu Daozi (685 -- 758), Tang dynasty, Chinese
Portrait of Night - Shining White, by Han Gan, 8th century, Tang dynasty, Chinese
Spring Outing of the Tang Court, by Zhang Xuan, 8th century, Tang dynasty, Chinese
Servant, 8th century, Tang dynasty, Chinese
Ladies making silk, a remake of an 8th - century original by Zhang Xuan by Emperor Huizong of Song, early 12th century, Chinese
An illustrated sutra from the Nara period, 8th century, Japanese
Ladies Playing Double Sixes, by Zhou Fang (730 -- 800 AD), Tang dynasty, Chinese
A Palace Concert, Tang Dynasty, Chinese
The Xiao and Xiang Rivers, by Dong Yuan (c. 934 -- 962 AD), Chinese
Night Revels, a Song dynasty remake of a 10th - century original by Gu Hongzhong.
Court portrait of Emperor Shenzong of Song (r. 1067 -- 1085), Chinese
Golden Pheasant and Cotton Rose, by Emperor Huizong of Song (r. 1100 -- 1126 AD), Chinese
Listening to the Guqin, by Emperor Huizong of Song (1100 -- 1126 AD), Chinese
Children Playing, by Su Han Chen, c. 1150, Chinese
Chinese, anonymous artist of the 12th century Song dynasty
Portrait of the Zen Buddhist Wuzhun Shifan, 1238 AD, Chinese
Ma Lin, 1246 AD, Chinese
A Man and His Horse in the Wind, by Zhao Mengfu (1254 -- 1322 AD), Chinese
Shukei - sansui (Autumn Landscape), Sesshu Toyo (1420 -- 1506), Japanese
Kanō Masanobu, 15th - century founder of the Kanō school, Zhou Maoshu Appreciating Lotuses, Japanese
A White - Robed Kannon, Bodhisattva of Compassion, by Kanō Motonobu (1476 -- 1559), Japanese
Yi Ahm (1499 -?), Mother Dog, 15th century, National Museum of Korea
Tang Yin, A Fisher in Autumn, (1523), Chinese
Nanban ships arriving for trade in Japan, 16th century, Japanese
A screen painting depicting people playing Go, by Kanō Eitoku (1543 -- 1590), Japanese
Right panel of the Pine Trees screen (Shōrin - zu byōbu, 松林 図 屏風) by Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539 -- 1610), Japanese
Scroll calligraphy of Bodhidharma, "Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become Buddha '', Hakuin Ekaku (1686 to 1769), Japanese
Hanging scroll 1672, Kanō Tanyū (1602 -- 1674), Japanese
Peonies, by Yun Shouping (1633 -- 1690), Chinese
Genji Monogatari, by Tosa Mitsuoki (1617 -- 1691), Japanese
View of Geumgang, Jeong Seon (1676 -- 1759), 1734, Korean
Ike no Taiga (1723 -- 1776), Fish in Spring, Japanese
Maruyama school, Pine, Bamboo, Plum, six-fold screen, Maruyama Ōkyo (1733 -- 1795), Japanese
A Cat and a Butterly, Kim Hong - do (1745 -?), 18th century, Korean
A Boat Ride, Shin Yun - bok (1758 -?), 1805, Korean
Rimpa school, Autumn Flowers and Moon, Sakai Hoitsu (1761 -- 1828), Japanese
A tanuki (raccoon dog) as a tea kettle, by Katsushika Hokusai (1760 -- 1849), Japanese
A House amongst Apricot Trees, Jo Hee - ryong (1797 -- 1859), Korean
Katsushika Hokusai, The Dragon of Smoke Escaping from Mt Fuji, Japanese
Miyagawa Isshō, untitled Ukiyo - e painting, Japanese
Tomioka Tessai (1837 -- 1924), Nihonga style, Two Divinities Dancing, 1924, Japanese
Ogura Yuki (1895 -- 2000), Bathing Women, Nihonga style, 1938, Japanese
China, Japan and Korea have a strong tradition in painting which is also highly attached to the art of calligraphy and printmaking (so much that it is commonly seen as painting). Far east traditional painting is characterized by water based techniques, less realism, "elegant '' and stylized subjects, graphical approach to depiction, the importance of white space (or negative space) and a preference for landscape (instead of the human figure) as a subject. Beyond ink and color on silk or paper scrolls, gold on lacquer was also a common medium in painted East Asian artwork. Although silk was a somewhat expensive medium to paint upon in the past, the invention of paper during the 1st century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun provided not only a cheap and widespread medium for writing, but also a cheap and widespread medium for painting (making it more accessible to the public).
The ideologies of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism played important roles in East Asian art. Medieval Song dynasty painters such as Lin Tinggui and his Luohan Laundering (housed in the Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art) of the 12th century are excellent examples of Buddhist ideas fused into classical Chinese artwork. In the latter painting on silk (image and description provided in the link), bald - headed Buddhist Luohan are depicted in a practical setting of washing clothes by a river. However, the painting itself is visually stunning, with the Luohan portrayed in rich detail and bright, opaque colors in contrast to a hazy, brown, and bland wooded environment. Also, the tree tops are shrouded in swirling fog, providing the common "negative space '' mentioned above in East Asian Art.
In Japonisme, late 19th - century Post-Impressionists like Van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse - Lautrec, and tonalists such as James McNeill Whistler, admired early 19th - century Japanese Ukiyo - e artists like Hokusai (1760 -- 1849) and Hiroshige (1797 -- 1858) and were influenced by them.
The earliest surviving examples of Chinese painted artwork date to the Warring States Period (481 -- 221 BC), with paintings on silk or tomb murals on rock, brick, or stone. They were often in simplistic stylized format and in more - or-less rudimentary geometric patterns. They often depicted mythological creatures, domestic scenes, labor scenes, or palatial scenes filled with officials at court. Artwork during this period and the subsequent Qin Dynasty (221 -- 207 BC) and Han Dynasty (202 BC -- 220 AD) was made not as a means in and of itself or for higher personal expression; rather artwork was created to symbolize and honor funerary rites, representations of mythological deities or spirits of ancestors, etc. Paintings on silk of court officials and domestic scenes could be found during the Han Dynasty, along with scenes of men hunting on horseback or partaking in military parade. There was also painting on three dimensional works of art like figurines and statues, such as the original - painted colors covering the soldier and horse statues of the Terracotta Army. During the social and cultural climate of the ancient Eastern Jin Dynasty (316 -- 420 AD) based at Nanjing in the south, painting became one of the official pastimes of Confucian - taught bureaucratic officials and aristocrats (along with music played by the guqin zither, writing fanciful calligraphy, and writing and reciting of poetry). Painting became a common form of artistic self - expression, and during this period painters at court or amongst elite social circuits were judged and ranked by their peers.
The establishment of classical Chinese landscape painting is accredited largely to the Eastern Jin Dynasty artist Gu Kaizhi (344 -- 406 AD), one of the most famous artists of Chinese history. Like the elongated scroll scenes of Kaizhi, Tang dynasty (618 -- 907 AD) Chinese artists like Wu Daozi painted vivid and highly detailed artwork on long horizontal handscrolls (which were very popular during the Tang), such as his Eighty Seven Celestial People. Painted artwork during the Tang period pertained the effects of an idealized landscape environment, with sparse amount of objects, persons, or activity, as well as monochromatic in nature (example: the murals of Price Yide 's tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum). There were also figures such as early Tang - era painter Zhan Ziqian, who painted superb landscape paintings that were well ahead of his day in portrayal of realism. However, landscape art did not reach greater level of maturity and realism in general until the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907 -- 960 AD). During this time, there were exceptional landscape painters like Dong Yuan (refer to this article for an example of his artwork), and those who painted more vivid and realistic depictions of domestic scenes, like Gu Hongzhong and his Night Revels of Han Xizai.
During the Chinese Song dynasty (960 -- 1279 AD), not only landscape art was improved upon, but portrait painting became more standardized and sophisticated than before (for example, refer to Emperor Huizong of Song), and reached its classical age maturity during the Ming Dynasty (1368 -- 1644 AD). During the late 13th century and first half of the 14th century, Chinese under the Mongol - controlled Yuan Dynasty were not allowed to enter higher posts of government (reserved for Mongols or other ethnic groups from Central Asia), and the Imperial examination was ceased for the time being. Many Confucian - educated Chinese who now lacked profession turned to the arts of painting and theatre instead, as the Yuan period became one of the most vibrant and abundant eras for Chinese artwork. An example of such would be Qian Xuan (1235 -- 1305 AD), who was an official of the Song dynasty, but out of patriotism, refused to serve the Yuan court and dedicated himself to painting. Examples of superb art from this period include the rich and detailed painted murals of the Yongle Palace, or "Dachunyang Longevity Palace '', of 1262 AD, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Within the palace, paintings cover an area of more than 1000 square meters, and hold mostly Daoist themes. It was during the Song dynasty that painters would also gather in social clubs or meetings to discuss their art or others ' artwork, the praising of which often led to persuasions to trade and sell precious works of art. However, there were also many harsh critics of others art as well, showing the difference in style and taste amongst different painters. In 1088 AD, the polymath scientist and statesman Shen Kuo once wrote of the artwork of one Li Cheng, who he criticized as follows:
... Then there was Li Cheng, who when he depicted pavilions and lodges amidst mountains, storeyed buildings, pagodas and the like, always used to paint the eaves as seen from below. His idea was that ' one should look upwards from underneath, just as a man standing on level ground and looking up at the eaves of a pagoda can see its rafters and its cantilever eave rafters '. This is all wrong. In general the proper way of painting a landscape is to see the small from the viewpoint of the large... just as one looks at artificial mountains in gardens (as one walks about). If one applies (Li 's method) to the painting of real mountains, looking up at them from below, one can only see one profile at a time, and not the wealth of their multitudinous slopes and profiles, to say nothing of all that is going on in the valleys and canyons, and in the lanes and courtyards with their dwellings and houses. If we stand to the east of a mountain its western parts would be on the vanishing boundary of far - off distance, and vice versa. Surely this could not be called a successful painting? Mr. Li did not understand the principle of ' seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large '. He was certainly marvelous at diminishing accurately heights and distances, but should one attach such importance to the angles and corners of buildings?
Although high level of stylization, mystical appeal, and surreal elegance were often preferred over realism (such as in shan shui style), beginning with the medieval Song dynasty there were many Chinese painters then and afterwards who depicted scenes of nature that were vividly real. Later Ming Dynasty artists would take after this Song dynasty emphasis for intricate detail and realism on objects in nature, especially in depictions of animals (such as ducks, swans, sparrows, tigers, etc.) amongst patches of brightly colored flowers and thickets of brush and wood (a good example would be the anonymous Ming Dynasty painting Birds and Plum Blossoms, housed in the Freer Gallery of the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C.). There were many renowned Ming Dynasty artists; Qiu Ying is an excellent example of a paramount Ming era painter (famous even in his own day), utilizing in his artwork domestic scenes, bustling palatial scenes, and nature scenes of river valleys and steeped mountains shrouded in mist and swirling clouds. During the Ming Dynasty there were also different and rivaling schools of art associated with painting, such as the Wu School and the Zhe School.
Classical Chinese painting continued on into the early modern Qing Dynasty, with highly realistic portrait paintings like seen in the late Ming Dynasty of the early 17th century. The portraits of Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor, and Qianlong Emperor are excellent examples of realistic Chinese portrait painting. During the Qianlong reign period and the continuing 19th century, European Baroque styles of painting had noticeable influence on Chinese portrait paintings, especially with painted visual effects of lighting and shading. Likewise, East Asian paintings and other works of art (such as porcelain and lacquerware) were highly prized in Europe since initial contact in the 16th century.
Japanese painting (絵画) is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety of genres and styles. As with Japanese arts in general, Japanese painting developed through a long history of synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. Ukiyo - e, or "pictures of the floating world, '' is a genre of Japanese woodblock prints (or "woodcuts '') and paintings produced between the 17th and 20th centuries, featuring motifs of landscapes, theater, and courtesan districts. It is the main artistic genre of Japanese woodblock printing. Japanese printmaking, especially from the Edo period, exerted enormous influence on French painting over the 19th century.
Korean painting, as an independent form, began around 108 B.C., around the fall of Gojoseon, making it one of the oldest in the world. The artwork of that time period evolved into the various styles that characterized the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, most notably the paintings and frescoes that adorn the tombs of Goguryeo 's royalty. During the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo dynasty, Korean painting was characterized primarily by a combination of Korean - style landscapes, facial features, Buddhist - centered themes, and an emphasis on celestial observation that was facilitated by the rapid development of Korean astronomy. It was n't until the Joseon dynasty that Confucian themes began to take root in Korean paintings, used in harmony with indigenous aspects.
The history of Korean painting has been characterized by the use monochromatic works of black brushwork, often on mulberry paper or silk. This style is evident in "Min - Hwa '', or colorful folk art, tomb paintings, and ritual and festival arts, both of which incorporated an extensive use of colour.
A group of women from South India, Hindupur, c. 1540.
Krishna embraces Gopîs, Gîtâ - Govinda - manuscript, 1760 -- 1765.
Floating Figures Dancing, a mural of c. 850.
Wild Pig Hunt, c. 1540.
Chand Bibi hawking, Deccan style, 18th century
A Lady Listening to Music, c. 1750.
Rasamañjarî manuscript of the Bhânudatta (erotic treatise), 1720.
Bahsoli painting of Radha and Krishna in Discussion, c. 1730.
Bahsoli painting of Maharaja Sital Dev of Mankot in Devotion, c. 1690.
Portrait of Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580 -- 1626) of Bijapur, 1615.
The Throne of the Wealth, Nujûm - al - ' Ulûm - manuscript, 1570.
Elephant and cub out of the stable of the Moghul ruler, 17th century.
Mihrdukht Shoots an Arrow Through a Ring, 1564 -- 1579.
Portrait of the Govardhân Chand, Punjab style, c. 1750.
Ravana kills Jathayu; the captive Sita despairs, by Raja Ravi Varma
Akbar and Tansen Visit Haridas in Vrindavan, Rajasthan style, c. 1750.
A man with children, Punjab style, 1760.
Râdhâ arrests Krishna, Punjab style, 1770.
Rama and Sita in the Forest, Punjab style, 1780.
Indian paintings historically revolved around the religious deities and kings. Indian art is a collective term for several different schools of art that existed in the Indian subcontinent. The paintings varied from large frescoes of Ajanta to the intricate Mughal miniature paintings to the metal embellished works from the Tanjore school. The paintings from the Gandhar -- Taxila are influenced by the Persian works in the west. The eastern style of painting was mostly developed around the Nalanda school of art. The works are mostly inspired by various scenes from Indian mythology.
The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ajanta, Maharashtra state present a fine example of Indian paintings, and the colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals.
Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, India are rock - cut cave monuments dating back to the 2nd century BCE and containing paintings and sculpture considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art and universal pictorial art.
Madhubani painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state, India. The origins of Madhubani painting are shrouded in antiquity.
Rajput painting, a style of Indian painting, evolved and flourished, during the 18th century, in the royal courts of Rajputana, India. Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna 's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans. Miniatures were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but several manuscripts also contain Rajput paintings, and paintings were even done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelies, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawait.
The colors extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones, gold and silver were used. The preparation of desired colors was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were very fine.
Mughal painting is a particular style of Indian painting, generally confined to illustrations on the book and done in miniatures, and which emerged, developed and took shape during the period of the Mughal Empire 16th − 19th centuries.
Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. The art form dates back to the early 9th century, a period dominated by the Chola rulers, who encouraged art and literature. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colors, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought after souvenir during festive occasions in South India.
The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base. Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is mixed with water - soluble adhesive and applied on the base. To make the base smoother, a mild abrasive is sometimes used. After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones. Laces or threads are also used to decorate the jewellery. On top of this, the gold foils are pasted. Finally, dyes are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings.
During British rule in India, the crown found that Madras had some of the most talented and intellectual artistic minds in the world. As the British had also established a huge settlement in and around Madras, Georgetown was chosen to establish an institute that would cater to the artistic expectations of the royal family in London. This has come to be known as the Madras School. At first traditional artists were employed to produce exquisite varieties of furniture, metal work, and curios and their work was sent to the royal palaces of the Queen.
Unlike the Bengal School where ' copying ' is the norm of teaching, the Madras School flourishes on ' creating ' new styles, arguments and trends.
The Bengal school of art was an influential style of art that flourished in India during the British Raj in the early 20th century. It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was also promoted and supported by many British arts administrators.
The Bengal School arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the academic art styles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such as Raja Ravi Varma and in British art schools. Following the widespread influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art teacher Ernest Binfield Havel attempted to reform the teaching methods at the Calcutta School of Art by encouraging students to imitate Mughal miniatures. This caused immense controversy, leading to a strike by students and complaints from the local press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive move. Havel was supported by the artist Abanindranath Tagore, a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore painted a number of works influenced by Mughal art, a style that he and Havel believed to be expressive of India 's distinct spiritual qualities, as opposed to the "materialism '' of the West. Tagore 's best - known painting, Bharat Mata (Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India 's national aspirations. Tagore later attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as part of an aspiration to construct a pan-Asianist model of art.
The Bengal School 's influence in India declined with the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s. In the post-independence period, Indian artists showed more adaptability as they borrowed freely from european styles and amalgamated them freely with the Indian motifs to new forms of art. While artists like Francis Newton Souza and Tyeb Mehta were more western in their approach, there were others like Ganesh Pyne and Maqbool Fida Husain who developed thoroughly indigenous styles of work. Today after the process of liberalization of market in India, the artists are experiencing more exposure to the international art - scene which is helping them in emerging with newer forms of art which were hitherto not seen in India. Jitish Kallat had shot to fame in the late 1990s with his paintings which were both modern and beyond the scope of generic definition. However, while artists in India in the new century are trying out new styles, themes and metaphors, it would not have been possible to get such quick recognition without the aid of the business houses which are now entering the art field like they had never before.
Amrita Sher - Gil was an Indian painter, sometimes known as India 's Frida Kahlo, and today considered an important woman painter of 20th - century India, whose legacy stands at par with that of the Masters of Bengal Renaissance; she is also the ' most expensive ' woman painter of India.
Today, she is amongst Nine Masters, whose work was declared as art treasures by The Archaeological Survey of India, in 1976 and 1979, and over 100 of her paintings are now displayed at National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi.
During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact on Indian art. Some artists developed a style that used Western ideas of composition, perspective and realism to illustrate Indian themes. Others, like Jamini Roy, consciously drew inspiration from folk art.
By the time of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques and ideas. Galleries were established to showcase these artists. Modern Indian art typically shows the influence of Western styles, but is often inspired by Indian themes and images. Major artists are beginning to gain international recognition, initially among the Indian diaspora, but also among non-Indian audiences.
The Progressive Artists ' Group, established shortly after India became independent in 1947, was intended to establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. The founders were six eminent artists -- K.H. Ara, S.K. Bakre, H.A. Gade, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza and F.N. Souza, though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Almost all India 's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well - known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, V.S. Gaitonde, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, and Akbar Padamsee. Other famous painters like Jahar Dasgupta, Prokash Karmakar, John Wilkins, Narayanan Ramachandran, and Bijon Choudhuri enriched the art culture of India. They have become the icons of modern Indian art. Art historians like Prof. Rai Anand Krishna have also referred to those works of modern artistes that reflect Indian ethos. Geeta Vadhera has had acclaim in translating complex, Indian spiritual themes onto canvas like Sufi thought, the Upanishads and the Bhagwad Geeta.
Indian art got a boost with the economic liberalization of the country since the early 1990s. Artists from various fields now started bringing in varied styles of work. In post-liberalization India, many artists have established themselves in the international art market like the abstract painter Natvar Bhavsar, figurative artist Devajyoti Ray and sculptor Anish Kapoor whose mammoth postminimalist artworks have acquired attention for their sheer size. Many art houses and galleries have also opened in USA and Europe to showcase Indian artworks.
Filipino painting as a whole can be seen as an amalgamation of many cultural influences, though it tends to be more Western in its current form with Eastern roots.
Early Filipino painting can be found in red slip (clay mixed with water) designs embellished on the ritual pottery of the Philippines such as the acclaimed Manunggul Jar. Evidence of Philippine pottery - making dated as early as 6000 BC has been found in Sanga - sanga Cave, Sulu and Laurente Cave, Cagayan. It has been proven that by 5000 BC, the making of pottery was practiced throughout the country. Early Filipinos started making pottery before their Cambodian neighbors and at about the same time as the Thais as part of what appears to be a widespread Ice Age development of pottery technology. Further evidences of painting are manifested in the tattoo tradition of early Filipinos, whom the Portuguese explorer referred to as Pintados or the ' Painted People ' of the Visayas. Various designs referencing flora and fauna with heavenly bodies decorate their bodies in various colored pigmentation. Perhaps, some of the most elaborate painting done by early Filipinos that survive to the present day can be manifested among the arts and architecture of the Maranao who are well known for the Nāga Dragons and the Sarimanok carved and painted in the beautiful Panolong of their Torogan or King 's House.
Filipinos began creating paintings in the European tradition during the 17th - century Spanish period. The earliest of these paintings were Church frescoes, religious imagery from Biblical sources, as well as engravings, sculptures and lithographs featuring Christian icons and European nobility. Most of the paintings and sculptures between the 19th, and 20th century produced a mixture of religious, political, and landscape art works, with qualities of sweetness, dark, and light. Early modernist painters such as Damián Domingo was associated with religious and secular paintings. The art of Juan Luna and Félix Hidalgo showed a trend for political statement. Artist such as Fernando Amorsolo used post-modernism to produce paintings that illustrated Philippine culture, nature, and harmony. While other artists such as Fernando Zóbel used realities and abstract on his work.
Juan Luna, The Death of Cleopatra, 1881
Juan Luna, Spoliarium, c. 1884
Juan Luna, Odalisque, 1885.
Juan Luna, Blood Compact, 1886
Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, The Christian Virgins Being Exposed to the Populace, 1884
Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, La Barca de Aqueronte, 1887
Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, Self Portrait, c. 1901
Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, La Marina, 1911, private collection
Ancient Egypt, a civilization with very strong traditions of architecture and sculpture (both originally painted in bright colours) also had many mural paintings in temples and buildings, and painted illustrations on papyrus manuscripts. Egyptian wall painting and decorative painting is often graphic, sometimes more symbolic than realistic. Egyptian painting depicts figures in bold outline and flat silhouette, in which symmetry is a constant characteristic. Egyptian painting has close connection with its written language -- called Egyptian hieroglyphs. Painted symbols are found amongst the first forms of written language. The Egyptians also painted on linen, remnants of which survive today. Ancient Egyptian paintings survived due to the extremely dry climate. The ancient Egyptians created paintings to make the afterlife of the deceased a pleasant place. The themes included journey through the afterworld or their protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld. Some examples of such paintings are paintings of the gods and goddesses Ra, Horus, Anubis, Nut, Osiris and Isis. Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. In the New Kingdom and later, the Book of the Dead was buried with the entombed person. It was considered important for an introduction to the afterlife.
Sennedjem plows his fields with a pair of oxen, c. 1200 BC
Ancient Egypt, The Goddess Isis, wall painting, c. 1360 BC
Ancient Egypt, Queen Nefertari
Ancient Egypt, papyrus
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Knossos, Minoan civilization, Bronze Age Crete
Pitsa panels, one of the few surviving panel paintings from Archaic Greece, c. 540 -- 530 BC
Symposium scene in the Tomb of the Diver at Paestum, circa 480 BC Greek art
Mural of soldiers from Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Ancient Macedonia, 4th century BC
Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (thorakitai) wearing chainmail armor and bearing a thureos shield, 3rd century BC
Roman art, Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries, c. 60 - 50 BC
Roman art showing Hercules and Telephus
Roman art, Villa Boscoreale frescos, c. 40 BC
Roman art, Pompeii
Roman art, Pompeii
Roman art, Fayum mummy portraits from Roman Egypt
Roman art from the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, 1st century AD
Cupids playing with a lyre, Roman fresco from Herculaneum
Roman fresco with a seated Venus, the so - called "Dea Barberini '', 4th century AD
To the north of Egypt was the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. The wall paintings found in the palace of Knossos are similar to that of the Egyptians but much more free in style. Around 1100 BC, tribes from the north of Greece conquered Greece and the Greek art took a new direction.
Ancient Greece had skilled painters, sculptors (though both endeavours were regarded as mere manual labour at the time), and architects. The Parthenon is an example of their architecture that has lasted to modern days. Greek marble sculpture is often described as the highest form of Classical art. Painting on pottery of Ancient Greece and ceramics gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in Ancient Greece functioned. Black - figure vase painting and Red - figure vase painting gives many surviving examples of what Greek painting was. Some famous Greek painters on wooden panels who are mentioned in texts are Apelles, Zeuxis and Parrhasius, however no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written descriptions by their contemporaries or later Romans. Zeuxis lived in 5 -- 6 BC and was said to be the first to use sfumato. According to Pliny the Elder, the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes. Apelles is described as the greatest painter of Antiquity for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and modeling.
Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy. Such painting can be grouped into 4 main "styles '' or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe - l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape. Almost the only painted portraits surviving from the Ancient world are a large number of coffin - portraits of bust form found in the Late Antique cemetery of Al - Fayum. Although these were neither of the best period nor the highest quality, they are impressive in themselves, and give an idea of the quality that the finest ancient work must have had. A very small number of miniatures from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, and a rather larger number of copies of them from the Early Medieval period.
Cotton Genesis A miniature of Abraham Meeting Angels
Byzantine icon, 6th century
Byzantine art mosaics in Ravenna
Byzantine, 6th century
Book of Kells
Book of Kells
Limbourg Brothers
Limbourg Brothers
Book of Hours
The Capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, c. 1099
The Morgan Leaf, from the Winchester Bible 1160 -- 75, Scenes from the life of David
Yaroslavl Gospels c. 1220s
Carolingian
Carolingian Saint Mark
Evangelist portrait
Giottino
Vitale da Bologna
Simone Martini
Simone Martini
Cimabue
Giotto
Giotto
Giotto
Andrei Rublev
Andrei Rublev
Ambrogio Lorenzetti
Pietro Lorenzetti
Duccio
Bonaventura Berlinghieri, St Francis of Assisi, 1235
Chora Church
Cathedral of the Archangel
Voronet Monastery
The rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to painting styles. Byzantine art, once its style was established by the 6th century, placed great emphasis on retaining traditional iconography and style, and gradually evolved during the thousand years of the Byzantine Empire and the living traditions of Greek and Russian Orthodox icon - painting. Byzantine painting has a hieratic feeling and icons were and still are seen as a representation of divine revelation. There were many frescos, but fewer of these have survived than mosaics. Byzantine art has been compared to contemporary abstraction, in its flatness and highly stylised depictions of figures and landscape. Some periods of Byzantine art, especially the so - called Macedonian art of around the 10th century, are more flexible in approach. Frescos of the Palaeologian Renaissance of the early 14th century survive in the Chora Church in Istanbul.
In post-Antique Catholic Europe the first distinctive artistic style to emerge that included painting was the Insular art of the British Isles, where the only surviving examples are miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells. These are most famous for their abstract decoration, although figures, and sometimes scenes, were also depicted, especially in Evangelist portraits. Carolingian and Ottonian art also survives mostly in manuscripts, although some wall - painting remain, and more are documented. The art of this period combines Insular and "barbarian '' influences with a strong Byzantine influence and an aspiration to recover classical monumentality and poise.
Walls of Romanesque and Gothic churches were decorated with frescoes as well as sculpture and many of the few remaining murals have great intensity, and combine the decorative energy of Insular art with a new monumentality in the treatment of figures. Far more miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts survive from the period, showing the same characteristics, which continue into the Gothic period.
Panel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto. From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture. Cimabue, within the Byzantine tradition, used a more realistic and dramatic approach to his art. His pupil, Giotto, took these innovations to a higher level which in turn set the foundations for the western painting tradition. Both artists were pioneers in the move towards naturalism.
Churches were built with more and more windows and the use of colorful stained glass become a staple in decoration. One of the most famous examples of this is found in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. By the 14th century Western societies were both richer and more cultivated and painters found new patrons in the nobility and even the bourgeoisie. Illuminated manuscripts took on a new character and slim, fashionably dressed court women were shown in their landscapes. This style soon became known as International style and tempera panel paintings and altarpieces gained importance.
Robert Campin, c. 1425
Jan van Eyck, 1434
Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1435
Hugo van der Goes, c. 1470
Dieric Bouts, 1464 -- 1467
Hans Memling, c. 1466 -- 1473
Petrus Christus, c. 1470
Hieronymus Bosch, c. 1480 -- 1505
Fra Angelico, 1425 -- 1428
Paolo Uccello, c. 1470
Masaccio, 1426 -- 1427
Filippo Lippi, 1440 -- 1445
Andrea Mantegna, c. 1458 -- 1460
Piero della Francesca, 1463 -- 1465
Sandro Botticelli, 1483 -- 1485
Leonardo da Vinci, 1503 -- 1506
Raphael, 1505 -- 1506
Michelangelo, c. 1511
Lucas Cranach the Elder, c. 1530
Albrecht Dürer, 1500
Matthias Grünewald, 1512 -- 1516
Giovanni Bellini, c. 1480
Giorgione, c. 1505
Titian, 1520 -- 1523
Pontormo, 1526 -- 1528
Bronzino, 1540 -- 1545
Pieter Bruegel, 1565
Hans Holbein the Younger, 1527
Jacopo Tintoretto, 1582
Paolo Veronese, 1562 -- 1563
Joachim Wtewael, 1595
El Greco, 1596 -- 1600
The Renaissance (French for ' rebirth '), a cultural movement roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th century, heralded the study of classical sources, as well as advances in science which profoundly influenced European intellectual and artistic life. In the Low Countries, especially in modern day Flanders, a new way of painting was established in the beginning of the 15th century. In the footsteps of the developments made in the illumination of manuscripts, especially by the Limbourg Brothers, artists became fascinated by the tangible in the visible world and began representing objects in an extremely naturalistic way. The adoption of oil painting whose invention was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to Jan van Eyck, made possible a new verisimilitude in depicting this naturalism. The medium of oil paint was already present in the work of Melchior Broederlam, but painters like Jan van Eyck and Robert Campin brought its use to new heights and employed it to represent the naturalism they were aiming for. With this new medium the painters of this period were capable of creating richer colors with a deep intense tonality. The illusion of glowing light with a porcelain - like finish characterized Early Netherlandish painting and was a major difference to the matte surface of tempera paint used in Italy. Unlike the Italians, whose work drew heavily from the art of Ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages (especially its naturalism). The most important artist of this time was Jan van Eyck, whose work ranks among the finest made by artists who are now known as Early Netherlandish painters or Flemish Primitives (since most artists were active in cities in modern day Flanders). The first painter of this period was the Master of Flémalle, nowadays identified as Robert Campin, whose work follows the art of the International Gothic. Another important painter of this period was Rogier van der Weyden, whose compositions stressed human emotion and drama, demonstrated for instance in his Descent from the Cross, which ranks among the most famous works of the 15th century and was the most influential Netherlandish painting of Christ 's crucifixion. Other important artists from this period are Hugo van der Goes (whose work was highly influential in Italy), Dieric Bouts (who was among the first northern painters to demonstrate the use of a single vanishing point), Petrus Christus, Hans Memling and Gerard David.
In Italy, the art of Classical antiquity inspired a style of painting that emphasized the ideal. Artists such as Paolo Uccello, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques. A somewhat more naturalistic style emerged in Venice. Painters of the Venetian school, such as Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese, were less concerned with precision in their drawing than with the richness of color and unity of effect that could be achieved by a more spontaneous approach to painting.
Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as Hans Holbein the Younger, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, Matthias Grünewald, Hieronymous Bosch, and Pieter Bruegel represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that is more realistic and less idealized. Genre painting became a popular idiom amongst the Northern painters like Pieter Bruegel.
Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science (astronomy, geography) that occurred in this period, the Reformation, and the invention of the printing press. Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that painters are not mere artisans but thinkers as well. With the development of easel painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture. Easel paintings -- movable pictures which could be hung easily on walls -- became a popular alternative to paintings fixed to furniture, walls or other structures. Following centuries dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western painting. Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.
The High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco. Restless and unstable compositions, often extreme or disjunctive effects of perspective, and stylized poses are characteristic of Italian Mannerists such as Tintoretto, Pontormo, and Bronzino, and appeared later in the work of Northern Mannerists such as Hendrick Goltzius, Bartholomeus Spranger, and Joachim Wtewael.
Caravaggio, 1595 -- 1597
Artemisia Gentileschi, 1614 -- 1620
Peter Paul Rubens, 1632 -- 1635
Frans Hals, 1624
Judith Leyster, 1630
Rembrandt van Rijn, 1642
Pieter de Hooch, 1658
Johannes Vermeer, c. 1660
Jan Steen, c. 1665
Jacob van Ruisdael, 1670
Willem Claesz. Heda, 1631
Diego Velázquez, 1656 -- 1657
Jusepe de Ribera, 1620 -- 1624
Nicolas Poussin, c. 1637 -- 1638
Georges de La Tour, 1640s
Guido Reni, 1625
Salvator Rosa, c. 1645
Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, c. 1650 -- 1655
Claude Lorrain, 1648
Anthony van Dyck, 1635 -- 1636
Canaletto, 1723
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1752 -- 1753
Antoine Watteau, c. 1720
Jean - Honoré Fragonard, c. 1767 -- 1768
François Boucher, 1751
Élisabeth - Louise Vigée - Le Brun, after 1782
Maurice Quentin de La Tour, c. 1761
Thomas Gainsborough, c. 1770
Joshua Reynolds, 1769
Jean - Baptiste - Siméon Chardin, c. 1728
William Hogarth, c. 1757
Angelica Kauffman, c. 1780
Baroque painting is associated with the Baroque cultural movement, a movement often identified with Absolutism and the Counter Reformation or Catholic Revival; the existence of important Baroque painting in non-absolutist and Protestant states also, however, underscores its popularity, as the style spread throughout Western Europe.
Baroque painting is characterized by great drama, rich, deep color, and intense light and dark shadows. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance. During the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, painting is characterized as Baroque. Among the greatest painters of the Baroque are Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Rubens, Velázquez, Poussin, and Johannes Vermeer. Caravaggio is an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, Le Nain, La Tour, and Jusepe de Ribera.
In Italy, the Baroque style is epitomized by religious and mythological paintings in the Grand Manner by artists such as the Carracci, Guido Reni, and Luca Giordano. Illusionistic church ceiling frescoes by Pietro da Cortona seemed to open to the sky. A much quieter type of Baroque emerged in the Dutch Republic, where easel paintings of everyday subjects were popular with middle - class collectors, and many painters became specialists in genre, others in landscape or seascape or still life. Vermeer, Gerard ter Borch, and Pieter de Hooch brought great technical refinement to the painting of domestic scenes, as did Willem Claesz. Heda to still life. In contrast, Rembrandt excelled in painting every type of subject, and developed an individual painterly style in which the chiaroscuro and dark backgrounds derived from Caravaggio and the Utrecht Caravaggists lose their theatrical quality.
During the 18th century, Rococo followed as a lighter extension of Baroque, often frivolous and erotic. Rococo developed first in the decorative arts and interior design in France. Louis XV 's succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. Rococo still maintained the Baroque taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of diverse characteristics, including a taste for Oriental designs and asymmetric compositions.
The Rococo style spread with French artists and engraved publications. It was readily received in the Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia, and Austria, where it was merged with the lively German Baroque traditions. German Rococo was applied with enthusiasm to churches and palaces, particularly in the south, while Frederician Rococo developed in the Kingdom of Prussia.
The French masters Watteau, Boucher and Fragonard represent the style, as do Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Jean - Baptiste - Siméon Chardin who was considered by some as the best French painter of the 18th century -- the Anti-Rococo. Portraiture was an important component of painting in all countries, but especially in England, where the leaders were William Hogarth, in a blunt realist style, and Francis Hayman, Angelica Kauffman (who was Swiss), Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds in more flattering styles influenced by Anthony van Dyck. In France during the Rococo era Jean - Baptiste Greuze (the favorite painter of Denis Diderot), excelled in portraits and history paintings, and Maurice Quentin de La Tour and Élisabeth Vigée - Lebrun were highly accomplished portrait painters. La Tour specialized in pastel painting, which became a popular medium during this period.
William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty (1753) that the undulating lines and S - curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism). The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques - François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm - trees and plants '' in contemporary interiors.
By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques - Louis David.
Jacques - Louis David 1787
John Singleton Copley 1778
John Constable 1802
Antoine - Jean Gros, 1804
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres 1814
Francisco de Goya 1814
Théodore Géricault 1819
Caspar David Friedrich c. 1822
Eugène Delacroix 1830
J.M.W. Turner 1838
Gustave Courbet 1849 -- 1850
Ivan Aivazovsky 1850
Albert Bierstadt 1866
Camille Corot c. 1867
Ilya Repin 1870 -- 1873
Camille Pissarro 1872
Claude Monet 1872
Pierre - Auguste Renoir 1876
Edgar Degas 1876
Édouard Manet 1882
Thomas Eakins 1884 -- 1885
Georges Seurat 1884 -- 1886
Valentin Serov 1887
Vincent van Gogh 1889
Albert Pinkham Ryder 1890
Paul Gauguin 1897 -- 1898
Winslow Homer 1899
Paul Cézanne 1906
After Rococo there arose in the late 18th century, in architecture, and then in painting severe neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as David and his heir Ingres. Ingres ' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize Romanticism. This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind 's will. There is a pantheist philosophy (see Spinoza and Hegel) within this conception that opposes Enlightenment ideals by seeing mankind 's destiny in a more tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of Nature is in contradiction to Ancient Greek and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.
By the mid-19th - century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. The idea "art for art 's sake '' began to find expression in the work of painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J.M.W. Turner. Romantic painters saw landscape painting as an important genre to express the vanity of mankind in opposition to the grandeur of nature. Until then, landscape painting was n't considered the most important genre for painters (like portraiture or history painting). But painters like J.M.W. Turner and Caspar David Friedrich managed to elevate landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. Some of the major painters of this period are Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Géricault, J.M.W. Turner, Caspar David Friedrich and John Constable. Francisco de Goya 's late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work of Arnold Böcklin evokes mystery and the paintings of Aesthetic movement artist James McNeill Whistler evoke both sophistication and decadence. In the United States the Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the Hudson River School: exponents include Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Moran, and John Frederick Kensett. Luminism was a movement in American landscape painting related to the Hudson River School.
The leading Barbizon School painter Camille Corot painted in both a romantic and a realistic vein; his work prefigures Impressionism, as does the paintings of Eugène Boudin who was one of the first French landscape painters to paint outdoors. Boudin was also an important influence on the young Claude Monet, whom in 1857 he introduced to Plein air painting. A major force in the turn towards Realism at mid-century was Gustave Courbet. In the latter third of the century Impressionists like Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre - Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Mary Cassatt, and Edgar Degas worked in a more direct approach than had previously been exhibited publicly. They eschewed allegory and narrative in favor of individualized responses to the modern world, sometimes painted with little or no preparatory study, relying on deftness of drawing and a highly chromatic pallette. Manet, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt concentrated primarily on the human subject. Both Manet and Degas reinterpreted classical figurative canons within contemporary situations; in Manet 's case the re-imaginings met with hostile public reception. Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt turned to domestic life for inspiration, with Renoir focusing on the female nude. Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley used the landscape as their primary motif, the transience of light and weather playing a major role in their work. While Sisley most closely adhered to the original principals of the Impressionist perception of the landscape, Monet sought challenges in increasingly chromatic and changeable conditions, culminating in his series of monumental works of Water Lilies painted in Giverny.
Pissarro adopted some of the experiments of Post-Impressionism. Slightly younger Post-Impressionists like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, and Georges Seurat, along with Paul Cézanne led art to the edge of modernism; for Gauguin Impressionism gave way to a personal symbolism; Seurat transformed Impressionism 's broken color into a scientific optical study, structured on frieze - like compositions; Van Gogh 's turbulent method of paint application, coupled with a sonorous use of color, predicted Expressionism and Fauvism, and Cézanne, desiring to unite classical composition with a revolutionary abstraction of natural forms, would come to be seen as a precursor of 20th - century art. The spell of Impressionism was felt throughout the world, including in the United States, where it became integral to the painting of American Impressionists such as Childe Hassam, John Twachtman, and Theodore Robinson; and in Australia where painters of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Charles Conder painted en plein air and were particularly interested in the Australian landscape and light. It also exerted influence on painters who were not primarily Impressionistic in theory, like the portrait and landscape painter John Singer Sargent. At the same time in America at the turn of the 20th century there existed a native and nearly insular realism, as richly embodied in the figurative work of Thomas Eakins, the Ashcan School, and the landscapes and seascapes of Winslow Homer, all of whose paintings were deeply invested in the solidity of natural forms. The visionary landscape, a motive largely dependent on the ambiguity of the nocturne, found its advocates in Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Albert Blakelock.
In the late 19th century there also were several, rather dissimilar, groups of Symbolist painters whose works resonated with younger artists of the 20th century, especially with the Fauvists and the Surrealists. Among them were Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin - Latour, Arnold Böcklin, Edvard Munch, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop, and Gustave Klimt amongst others including the Russian Symbolists like Mikhail Vrubel.
Symbolist painters mined mythology and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul, seeking evocative paintings that brought to mind a static world of silence. The symbols used in Symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references. More a philosophy than an actual style of art, the Symbolist painters influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau movement and Les Nabis. In their exploration of dreamlike subjects, symbolist painters are found across centuries and cultures, as they are still today; Bernard Delvaille has described René Magritte 's surrealism as "Symbolism plus Freud ''.
The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild '', multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne 's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone.
Henri Matisse 1905, Fauvism
Pablo Picasso 1907, Proto - Cubism
Georges Braque 1910, Analytic Cubism
Henri Rousseau 1910 Primitive Surrealism
The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild '', multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism -- (as seen in the gallery above). Henri Matisse 's second version of The Dance signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting. It reflects Matisse 's incipient fascination with primitive art: the intense warm colors against the cool blue - green background and the rhythmical succession of dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne 's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, (see gallery) Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions. analytic Cubism (see gallery) was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, (seen above) from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.
Les Fauves (French for The Wild Beasts) were early - 20th - century painters, experimenting with freedom of expression through color. The name was given, humorously and not as a compliment, to the group by art critic Louis Vauxcelles. Fauvism was a short - lived and loose grouping of early - 20th - century artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities, and the imaginative use of deep color over the representational values. Fauvists made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and an interesting prescient prediction of the Fauves was expressed in 1888 by Paul Gauguin to Paul Sérusier,
"How do you see these trees? They are yellow. So, put in yellow; this shadow, rather blue, paint it with pure ultramarine; these red leaves? Put in vermilion. ''
The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain -- friendly rivals of a sort, each with his own followers. Ultimately Matisse became the yang to Picasso 's yin in the 20th century. Fauvist painters included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, the Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, and Picasso 's partner in Cubism, Georges Braque amongst others. Fauvism, as a movement, had no concrete theories, and was short lived, beginning in 1905 and ending in 1907, they only had three exhibitions. Matisse was seen as the leader of the movement, due to his seniority in age and prior self - establishment in the academic art world. His 1905 portrait of Mme. Matisse The Green Line, (above), caused a sensation in Paris when it was first exhibited. He said he wanted to create art to delight; art as a decoration was his purpose and it can be said that his use of bright colors tries to maintain serenity of composition. In 1906 at the suggestion of his dealer Ambroise Vollard, André Derain went to London and produced a series of paintings like Charing Cross Bridge, London (above) in the Fauvist style, paraphrasing the famous series by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet. Masters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard continued developing their narrative styles independent of any movement throughout the 20th century.
By 1907 Fauvism no longer was a shocking new movement, soon it was replaced by Cubism on the critics ' radar screen as the latest new development in Contemporary Art of the time. In 1907 Appolinaire, commenting about Matisse in an article published in La Falange, said, "We are not here in the presence of an extravagant or an extremist undertaking: Matisse 's art is eminently reasonable. '' Analytic cubism (see gallery) was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.
During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of cubism, several movements emerged in Paris. Giorgio De Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as Alberto Savinio). Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade a member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne, where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: Enigma of the Oracle, Enigma of an Afternoon and Self - Portrait. During 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to the early beginnings of Surrealism. (see gallery) During the first half of the 20th century in Europe masters like Georges Braque, André Derain, and Giorgio De Chirico continued painting independent of any movement.
André Derain, 1905, Le séchage des voiles (The Drying Sails), Fauvism
Henri Matisse, 1905, Woman with a Hat, Fauvism
Jean Metzinger, c. 1905, Two Nudes in an Exotic Landscape, Divisionism, Proto - Cubism
Edvard Munch, Death of Marat I (1907), an example of Expressionism
Gustav Klimt, expressionism, 1907 -- 1908
Pablo Picasso, 1908, Dryad, Proto - Cubism
Marc Chagall 1911, expressionism and surrealism
Marcel Duchamp, 1911 -- 1912, Cubism and Dada
Albert Gleizes, 1912, l'Homme au Balcon, Man on a Balcony (Portrait of Dr. Théo Morinaud), Cubism
Jean Metzinger, 1912, Danseuse au café (Dancer in a café), Cubism
Franz Marc 1912, Der Blaue Reiter
Robert Delaunay, 1911, Orphism
Francis Picabia, 1912, La Source (The Spring), Abstract art
Wassily Kandinsky 1913, birth of abstract art
Amedeo Modigliani, Portrait of Soutine 1916, example of Expressionism
Fernand Léger 1919, synthetic Cubism, tubism
In the first two decades of the 20th century and after Cubism, several other important movements emerged; futurism (Balla), abstract art (Kandinsky), Der Blaue Reiter), Bauhaus, (Kandinsky) and (Klee), Orphism, (Robert Delaunay and František Kupka), Synchromism (Morgan Russell), De Stijl (Mondrian), Suprematism (Malevich), Constructivism (Tatlin), Dadaism (Duchamp, Picabia, Arp) and Surrealism (De Chirico, André Breton, Miró, Magritte, Dalí, Ernst). Modern painting influenced all the visual arts, from Modernist architecture and design, to avant - garde film, theatre and modern dance and became an experimental laboratory for the expression of visual experience, from photography and concrete poetry to advertising art and fashion. Van Gogh 's painting exerted great influence upon 20th - century Expressionism, as can be seen in the work of the Fauves, Die Brücke (a group led by German painter Ernst Kirchner), and the Expressionism of Edvard Munch, Egon Schiele, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani, Chaim Soutine and others...
Wassily Kandinsky a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist, one of the most famous 20th - century artists is generally considered the first important painter of modern abstract art. As an early Modernist, in search of new modes of visual expression, and spiritual expression, he theorized as did contemporary occultists and theosophists, that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music. They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality. His earliest abstractions were generally titled as the example in the (above gallery) Composition VII, making connection to the work of the composers of music. Kandinsky included many of his theories about abstract art in his book Concerning the Spiritual in Art. Robert Delaunay was a French artist who is associated with Orphism, (reminiscent of a link between pure abstraction and cubism). His later works were more abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee. His key contributions to abstract painting refer to his bold use of color, and a clear love of experimentation of both depth and tone. At the invitation of Wassily Kandinsky, Delaunay and his wife the artist Sonia Delaunay, joined The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter), a Munich - based group of abstract artists, in 1911, and his art took a turn to the abstract.
Other major pioneers of early abstraction include Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, who after the Russian Revolution in 1917, and after pressure from the Stalinist regime in 1924 returned to painting imagery and Peasants and Workers in the field, and Swiss painter Paul Klee whose masterful color experiments made him an important pioneer of abstract painting at the Bauhaus. Still other important pioneers of abstract painting include the Swedish artist Hilma af Klint, Czech painter František Kupka as well as American artists Stanton MacDonald - Wright and Morgan Russell who, in 1912, founded Synchromism, an art movement that closely resembles Orphism.
Expressionism and Symbolism are broad rubrics that involve several important and related movements in 20th - century painting that dominated much of the avant - garde art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. Expressionist works were painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria. Expressionist artists are related to both Surrealism and Symbolism and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal. Fauvism, Die Brücke, and Der Blaue Reiter are three of the best known groups of Expressionist and Symbolist painters.
Artists as interesting and diverse as Marc Chagall, whose painting I and the Village, (above) tells an autobiographical story that examines the relationship between the artist and his origins, with a lexicon of artistic Symbolism. Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, Chaim Soutine, James Ensor, Oskar Kokoschka, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Max Beckmann, Franz Marc, Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz, Georges Rouault, Amedeo Modigliani and some of the Americans abroad like Marsden Hartley, and Stuart Davis, were considered influential expressionist painters. Although Alberto Giacometti is primarily thought of as an intense Surrealist sculptor, he made intense expressionist paintings as well.
Piet Mondrian, 1912, early De Stijl
Kasimir Malevich 1916, Suprematism
Theo van Doesburg 1917, De Stijl, Neo-Plasticism
Stanton MacDonald - Wright 1920, Synchromism
Piet Mondrian 's art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908 he became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrian 's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge.
De Stijl also known as neoplasticism, was a Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917. The term De Stijl is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands.
De Stijl is also the name of a journal that was published by the Dutch painter, designer, writer, and critic Theo van Doesburg propagating the group 's theories. Next to van Doesburg, the group 's principal members were the painters Piet Mondrian, Vilmos Huszár, and Bart van der Leck, and the architects Gerrit Rietveld, Robert van ' t Hoff, and J.J.P. Oud. The artistic philosophy that formed a basis for the group 's work is known as neoplasticism -- the new plastic art (or Nieuwe Beelding in Dutch).
Proponents of De Stijl sought to express a new utopian ideal of spiritual harmony and order. They advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white. Indeed, according to the Tate Gallery 's online article on neoplasticism, Mondrian himself sets forth these delimitations in his essay ' Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art '. He writes, "... this new plastic idea will ignore the particulars of appearance, that is to say, natural form and colour. On the contrary, it should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and the clearly defined primary colour. '' The Tate article further summarizes that this art allows "only primary colours and non-colours, only squares and rectangles, only straight and horizontal or vertical line. '' The Guggenheim Museum 's online article on De Stijl summarizes these traits in similar terms: "It (De Stijl) was posited on the fundamental principle of the geometry of the straight line, the square, and the rectangle, combined with a strong asymmetricality; the predominant use of pure primary colors with black and white; and the relationship between positive and negative elements in an arrangement of non-objective forms and lines. ''
De Stijl movement was influenced by Cubist painting as well as by the mysticism and the ideas about "ideal '' geometric forms (such as the "perfect straight line '') in the neoplatonic philosophy of mathematician M.H.J. Schoenmaekers. The works of De Stijl would influence the Bauhaus style and the international style of architecture as well as clothing and interior design. However, it did not follow the general guidelines of an "ism '' (Cubism, Futurism, Surrealism), nor did it adhere to the principles of art schools like Bauhaus; it was a collective project, a joint enterprise.
Francis Picabia 1916, Dada
Kurt Schwitters, 1919, painted collage, Dada
Max Ernst, 1921), Surrealism
André Masson, 1922, early Surrealism
Marcel Duchamp, came to international prominence in the wake of his notorious success at the New York City Armory Show in 1913, (soon after he denounced artmaking for chess). After Duchamp 's Nude Descending a Staircase became the international cause celebre at the 1913 Armory show in New York he created The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even, Large Glass. The Large Glass pushed the art of painting to radical new limits being part painting, part collage, part construction. Duchamp became closely associated with the Dada movement that began in neutral Zurich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature (poetry, art manifestoes, art theory), theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti war politic through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. Francis Picabia (see above), Man Ray, Kurt Schwitters, Tristan Tzara, Hans Richter, Jean Arp, Sophie Taeuber - Arp, along with Duchamp and many others are associated with the Dadaist movement. Duchamp and several Dadaists are also associated with Surrealism, the movement that dominated European painting in the 1920s and 1930s.
In 1924 André Breton published the Surrealist Manifesto. The Surrealist movement in painting became synonymous with the avant - garde and which featured artists whose works varied from the abstract to the super-realist. With works on paper like Machine Turn Quickly, (above) Francis Picabia continued his involvement in the Dada movement through 1919 in Zurich and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in Surrealist art. Yves Tanguy, René Magritte and Salvador Dalí are particularly known for their realistic depictions of dream imagery and fantastic manifestations of the imagination. Joan Miró 's The Tilled Field of 1923 -- 1924 verges on abstraction, this early painting of a complex of objects and figures, and arrangements of sexually active characters; was Miró 's first Surrealist masterpiece. Miró 's The Tilled Field also contains several parallels to Bosch 's Garden of Earthly Delights: similar flocks of birds; pools from which living creatures emerge; and oversize disembodied ears all echo the Dutch master 's work that Miró saw as a young painter in The Prado. The more abstract Joan Miró, Jean Arp, André Masson, and Max Ernst were very influential, especially in the United States during the 1940s. Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large. A Surrealist group developed in Britain and, according to Breton, their 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition was a high water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions. Surrealist groups in Japan, and especially in Latin America, the Caribbean and in Mexico produced innovative and original works.
Dalí and Magritte created some of the most widely recognized images of the movement. The 1928 / 1929 painting This Is Not A Pipe, by Magritte is the subject of a Michel Foucault 1973 book, This is not a Pipe (English edition, 1991), that discusses the painting and its paradox. Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935.
Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth by stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, in order to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, and perception, sometimes evoking empathy from the viewer, sometimes laughter and sometimes outrage and bewilderment.
1931 marked a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: in one example (see gallery above) liquid shapes become the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his The Persistence of Memory, which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting. Evocations of time and its compelling mystery and absurdity.
The characteristics of this style -- a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological -- came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the modernist period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be "made whole with one 's individuality. ''
Max Ernst whose 1920 painting Murdering Airplane, studied philosophy and psychology in Bonn and was interested in the alternative realities experienced by the insane. His paintings may have been inspired by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud 's study of the delusions of a paranoiac, Daniel Paul Schreber. Freud identified Schreber 's fantasy of becoming a woman as a castration complex. The central image of two pairs of legs refers to Schreber 's hermaphroditic desires. Ernst 's inscription on the back of the painting reads: The picture is curious because of its symmetry. The two sexes balance one another.
During the 1920s André Masson 's work was enormously influential in helping the newly arrived in Paris and young artist Joan Miró find his roots in the new Surrealist painting. Miró acknowledged in letters to his dealer Pierre Matisse the importance of Masson as an example to him in his early years in Paris.
Long after personal, political and professional tensions have fragmented the Surrealist group into thin air and ether, Magritte, Miró, Dalí and the other Surrealists continue to define a visual program in the arts. Other prominent surrealist artists include Giorgio de Chirico, Méret Oppenheim, Toyen, Grégoire Michonze, Roberto Matta, Kay Sage, Leonora Carrington, Dorothea Tanning, and Leonor Fini among others.
Egon Schiele, Symbolism and Expressionism 1912
Ernst Kirchner Die Brücke 1913
Amedeo Modigliani Symbolism and Expressionism 1917
Stuart Davis American Modernism 1922
Otto Dix, 1926, German Expressionism
Chaim Soutine, Expressionism, c. 1920
Der Blaue Reiter was a German movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, fundamental to Expressionism, along with Die Brücke which was founded the previous decade in 1905 and was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905. Founding members of Die Brücke were Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Karl Schmidt - Rottluff. Later members included Max Pechstein, Otto Mueller and others. The group was one of the seminal ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and created the style of Expressionism.
Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, whose psychically expressive painting of the Russian dancer Portrait of Alexander Sakharoff, 1909 is in the gallery above, Marianne von Werefkin, Lyonel Feininger and others founded the Der Blaue Reiter group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky 's painting Last Judgement from an exhibition. Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centered around Kandinsky and Marc. Artists Gabriele Münter and Paul Klee were also involved.
The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903 (see illustration). It is also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc 's enthusiasm for horses and Kandinsky 's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal.
In the USA during the period between World War I and World War II painters tended to go to Europe for recognition. Artists like Marsden Hartley, Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald Murphy and Stuart Davis, created reputations abroad. In New York City, Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Blakelock were influential and important figures in advanced American painting between 1900 and 1920. During the 1920s photographer Alfred Stieglitz exhibited Georgia O'Keeffe, Arthur Dove, Alfred Henry Maurer, Charles Demuth, John Marin and other artists including European Masters Henri Matisse, Auguste Rodin, Henri Rousseau, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso, at his gallery the 291.
George Grosz, 1920, Neue Sachlichkeit
Thomas Hart Benton 1920, Regionalism
George Bellows, 1924, American realism
Charles Demuth Spring, 1921, American Precisionism (proto Pop Art)
During the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, Surrealism, late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard characterized the European art scene. In Germany Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II. While in America American Scene painting and the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. In Latin America besides the Uruguayan painter Joaquín Torres García and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martinez Delgado and the Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo began a renaissance of the arts for the region, with a use of color and historic, and political messages. Frida Kahlo 's Symbolist works also relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement in literature. The psychological drama in many of Kahlo 's self portraits (above) underscore the vitality and relevance of her paintings to artists in the 21st century.
American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930. Portraying a pitchfork - holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th - century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting, like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small - town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson 's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis ' 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten 's The Tattooed Countess in literature. However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.
Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, "Man at the Crossroads '', in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller 's staff. The film Cradle Will Rock includes a dramatization of the controversy. Frida Kahlo (Rivera 's wife 's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Of her 143 paintings 55 are self - portraits, which frequently incorporate symbolic portrayals of her physical and psychological wounds. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings ' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition -- which were often bloody and violent -- with surrealist renderings. While her paintings are not overtly Christian -- she was, after all, an avowed communist -- they certainly contain elements of the macabre Mexican Christian style of religious paintings.
Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros ' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution, a violent and chaotic period in Mexican history in which various social and political factions fought for recognition and power. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. He briefly gave up painting to focus on organizing miners in Jalisco. He ran a political art workshop in New York City in preparation for the 1936 General Strike for Peace and May Day parade. The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for the parade. Between 1937 and 1938 he fought in the Spanish Civil War alongside the Spanish Republican forces, in opposition to Francisco Franco 's military coup. He was exiled twice from Mexico, once in 1932 and again in 1940, following his assassination attempt on Leon Trotsky.
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1935 -- 1937, German Expressionism
Max Beckmann 1938 -- 1940, Expressionism
Wassily Kandinsky Composition X 1939, Geometric abstraction
Arshile Gorky 1929 -- 1936, pre abstract expressionism
During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso. On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the scene of the "Bombing of Gernika '' by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany 's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.
In its final form, Guernica is an immense black and white, 3.5 metres (11 feet) tall and 7.8 metres (26 feet) wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The choice to paint in black and white contrasts with the intensity of the scene depicted and invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph. Picasso painted the mural sized painting called Guernica in protest of the bombing. The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia, then London in 1938 and finally in 1939 at Picasso 's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for safekeeping) at MoMA. The painting went on a tour of museums throughout the USA until its final return to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City where it was exhibited for nearly thirty years. Finally in accord with Pablo Picasso 's wish to give the painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981.
During the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American art was characterized by Social Realism and American Scene Painting (as seen above) in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper 's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. It is currently in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The scene was inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village, Hopper 's home neighborhood in Manhattan. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper 's work.
The Dynamic for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazi 's power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with Modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtually all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely.
Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the art. Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.
Arshile Gorky 's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning (above) is an example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky 's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.
Andrew Wyeth, 1948, American Figurative painting
Edward Hopper, 1953, American Scene painting
Lucian Freud 1951 -- 1952, British Figurative painting
Giorgio Morandi, 1956, Still Life
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse 's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim 's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors. The figurative work of Francis Bacon, Frida Kahlo, Edward Hopper, Lucian Freud, Andrew Wyeth and others served as a kind of alternative to abstract expressionism.
Post-Second World War American painting called Abstract expressionism included artists like Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Franz Kline, Adolph Gottlieb, Mark Tobey, Barnett Newman, James Brooks, Philip Guston, Robert Motherwell, Conrad Marca - Relli, Jack Tworkov, William Baziotes, Richard Pousette - Dart, Ad Reinhardt, Hedda Sterne, Jimmy Ernst, Esteban Vicente, Bradley Walker Tomlin, and Theodoros Stamos, among others. American Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic Robert Coates. It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self - denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as futurism, the Bauhaus and synthetic cubism. Abstract expressionism, action painting, and Color Field painting are synonymous with the New York School.
Technically Surrealism was an important predecessor for abstract expressionism with its emphasis on spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation. Jackson Pollock 's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work of André Masson. Another important early manifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his "white writing '' canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all over '' look of Pollock 's drip paintings.
Willem de Kooning 1952 -- 1953 Figurative abstract expressionism
Franz Kline 1954 action painting
Hans Hofmann 1959 -- 1960 abstract expressionism and Geometric abstraction
Mark Tobey, 1954, Canticle, abstract expressionism, calligraphy, Northwest School
Sam Francis, 1950 -- 1953, Black and Red, Honolulu Museum of Art
Robert Motherwell, Elegy to the Spanish Republic No. 110
Mark Rothko, No. 3 / No. 13 (Magenta, Black, Green on Orange), 1949, Color Field -- abstract expressionism
Additionally, Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock 's energetic "action paintings '', with their "busy '' feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque Women series of Willem de Kooning. As seen above in the gallery Woman V is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three - quarter - length female figure. He began the first of these paintings, Woman I collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished. The art historian Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning 's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist. De Kooning 's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; Woman II collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Woman III, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Woman IV, Nelson - Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. During the summer of 1952, spent at East Hampton, de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work on Woman I by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time. The Woman series are decidedly figurative paintings. Another important artist is Franz Kline, as demonstrated by his painting High Street, 1950 (see gallery) as with Jackson Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists, was labelled an "action painter '' because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas.
Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, (see above), Adolph Gottlieb, and the serenely shimmering blocks of color in Mark Rothko 's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from what Clement Greenberg termed the Color Field direction of abstract expressionism. Both Hans Hofmann (see gallery) and Robert Motherwell (gallery) can be comfortably described as practitioners of action painting and Color Field painting.
Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early 20th century such as Wassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or of the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. An exception might be the drip paintings of Pollock.
Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. American Social realism had been the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by the Great Depression but also by the Social Realists of Mexico such as David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera. The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of those painters. Abstract expressionism arose during World War II and began to be showcased during the early 1940s at galleries in New York like The Art of This Century Gallery. The late 1940s through the mid-1950s ushered in the McCarthy era. It was after World War II and a time of political conservatism and extreme artistic censorship in the United States. Some people have conjectured that since the subject matter was often totally abstract, Abstract expressionism became a safe strategy for artists to pursue this style. Abstract art could be seen as apolitical. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders. However, those theorists are in the minority. As the first truly original school of painting in America, Abstract expressionism demonstrated the vitality and creativity of the country in the post-war years, as well as its ability (or need) to develop an aesthetic sense that was not constrained by the European standards of beauty.
Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all - over '' approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges). The canvas as the arena became a credo of action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color Field painters. Many other artists began exhibiting their abstract expressionist related paintings during the 1950s including Alfred Leslie, Sam Francis, Joan Mitchell, Helen Frankenthaler, Cy Twombly, Milton Resnick, Michael Goldberg, Norman Bluhm, Ray Parker, Nicolas Carone, Grace Hartigan, Friedel Dzubas, and Robert Goodnough among others.
During the 1950s Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell and Adolph Gottlieb. It essentially involved abstract paintings with large, flat expanses of color that expressed the sensual, and visual feelings and properties of large areas of nuanced surface. Art critic Clement Greenberg perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The overall expanse and gestalt of the work of the early color field painters speaks of an almost religious experience, awestruck in the face of an expanding universe of sensuality, color and surface. During the early - to - mid-1960s, Color Field painting came to refer to the styles of artists like Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, and Helen Frankenthaler, whose works were related to second - generation abstract expressionism, and to younger artists like Larry Zox, and Frank Stella, -- all moving in a new direction. Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. In Mountains and Sea, from 1952, (see above) a seminal work of Color Field painting by Helen Frankenthaler the artist used the stain technique for the first time.
In Europe there was the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada and the works of Matisse. Also in Europe, Tachisme (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation. Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva, Jean Dubuffet, Yves Klein and Pierre Soulages among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting.
Eventually abstract painting in America evolved into movements such as Neo-Dada, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard - edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, Lyrical Abstraction, Neo-expressionism and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. As a response to the tendency toward abstraction imagery emerged through various new movements, notably Pop art.
Jasper Johns 1954 -- 55 pre-Pop Art
Andy Warhol, Marilyn Diptych 1962, Pop Art
Roy Lichtenstein, Whaam, 1963 Pop Art
Earlier in England in 1956 the term Pop Art was used by Lawrence Alloway for paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton Peter Blake and Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement.
Pop art in America was to a large degree initially inspired by the works of Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, and Robert Rauschenberg. Although the paintings of Gerald Murphy, Stuart Davis and Charles Demuth during the 1920s and 1930s set the table for pop art in America. In New York City during the mid-1950s Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns created works of art that at first seemed to be continuations of Abstract expressionist painting. Actually their works and the work of Larry Rivers, were radical departures from abstract expressionism especially in the use of banal and literal imagery and the inclusion and the combining of mundane materials into their work. The innovations of Johns ' specific use of various images and objects like chairs, numbers, targets, beer cans and the American flag; Rivers paintings of subjects drawn from popular culture such as George Washington crossing the Delaware, and his inclusions of images from advertisements like the camel from Camel cigarettes, and Rauschenberg 's surprising constructions using inclusions of objects and pictures taken from popular culture, hardware stores, junkyards, the city streets, and taxidermy gave rise to a radical new movement in American art. Eventually by 1963 the movement came to be known worldwide as pop art.
American pop art is exemplified by artists: Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Wayne Thiebaud, James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, Tom Wesselmann and Roy Lichtenstein among others. Lichtenstein 's most important work is arguably Whaam! (1963, Tate Modern, London), one of the earliest known examples of pop art, adapted a comic - book panel from a 1962 issue of DC Comics ' All - American Men of War. The painting depicts a fighter aircraft firing a rocket into an enemy plane, with a red - and - yellow explosion. The cartoon style is heightened by the use of the onomatopoeic lettering "Whaam! '' and the boxed caption "I pressed the fire control... and ahead of me rockets blazed through the sky... '' Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the mix. In October 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Sidney Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in the fall of 1962 an historically important and ground - breaking New Painting of Common Objects exhibition of pop art, curated by Walter Hopps at the Pasadena Art Museum sent shock waves across the Western United States.
While in the downtown scene in New York City 's East Village 10th Street galleries artists were formulating an American version of Pop Art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront and made painted objects, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited other American artists including the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a connection between the radical works of Duchamp, and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists -- with a sense of humor; and pop artists like Alex Katz (who became known for his parody 's of portrait photography and suburban life), Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and the others.
While throughout the 20th century many painters continued to practice landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, like Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Nicolas de Staël, Andrew Wyeth, Lucian Freud, Frank Auerbach, Philip Pearlstein, David Park, Nathan Oliveira, David Hockney, Malcolm Morley, Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, Vija Celmins and Richard Diebenkorn.
Edward Hopper, The El Station (1908) Cityscape
Balthus, 1934, figurative expressionism
Francis Bacon, Head VI, 1949, British expressionism
Edward Hopper, 1953, urban
Milton Avery, 1958, seascape
During the 1930s through the 1960s abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard - edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, and Lyrical Abstraction. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction, allowing figurative imagery to continue through various new contexts like the Bay Area Figurative Movement in the 1950s and new forms of expressionism from the 1940s through the 1960s. In Italy during this time, Giorgio Morandi was the foremost still life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements. Throughout the 20th century many painters practiced Realism and used expressive imagery; practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like still - life painter Giorgio Morandi, Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Andrew Wyeth, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Leon Kossoff, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Grace Hartigan, Robert De Niro, Sr., Elaine de Kooning and others. Along with Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Pierre Bonnard, Georges Braque, and other 20th - century masters. In particular Milton Avery through his use of color and his interest in seascape and landscape paintings connected with the Color field aspect of Abstract expressionism as manifested by Adolph Gottlieb and Mark Rothko as well as the lessons American painters took from the work of Henri Matisse.
Head VI, 1949 (see above) is a painting by the Irish born artist Francis Bacon and is an example of Post World War II European Expressionism. The work shows a distorted version of the Portrait of Innocent X painted by the Spanish artist Diego Velázquez in 1650. The work is one of a series of variants of the Velázquez painting which Bacon executed throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, over a total of forty - five works. When asked why he was compelled to revisit the subject so often, Bacon replied that he had nothing against the Popes, that he merely "wanted an excuse to use these colours, and you ca n't give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false fauve manner. '' The Pope in this version seethes with anger and aggression, and the dark colors give the image a grotesque and nightmarish appearance. The pleated curtains of the backdrop are rendered transparent, and seem to fall through the Pope 's face.
Italian painter Giorgio Morandi was an important 20th - century early pioneer of Minimalism. Born in Bologna, Italy in 1890, throughout his career, Morandi concentrated almost exclusively on still lives and landscapes, except for a few self - portraits. With great sensitivity to tone, color, and compositional balance, he would depict the same familiar bottles and vases again and again in paintings notable for their simplicity of execution. Morandi executed 133 etchings, a significant body of work in its own right, and his drawings and watercolors often approach abstraction in their economy of means. Through his simple and repetitive motifs and economical use of color, value and surface, Morandi became a prescient and important forerunner of Minimalism. He died in Bologna in 1964.
After World War II the term School of Paris often referred to Tachisme, the European equivalent of American Abstract expressionism and those artists are also related to Cobra. Important proponents being Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicholas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, and Georges Mathieu, among several others. During the early 1950s Dubuffet (who was always a figurative artist), and de Staël, abandoned abstraction, and returned to imagery via figuration and landscape. De Staël ' s work was quickly recognised within the post-war art world, and he became one of the most influential artists of the 1950s. His return to representation (seascapes, footballers, jazz musicians, seagulls) during the early 1950s can be seen as an influential precedent for the American Bay Area Figurative Movement, as many of those abstract painters like Richard Diebenkorn, David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Wayne Thiebaud, Nathan Oliveira, Joan Brown and others made a similar move; returning to imagery during the mid-1950s. Much of de Staël ' s late work -- in particular his thinned, and diluted oil on canvas abstract landscapes of the mid-1950s predicts Color Field painting and Lyrical Abstraction of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicolas de Staël 's bold and intensely vivid color in his last paintings predict the direction of much of contemporary painting that came after him including Pop art of the 1960s.
Jasper Johns, 1961, Neo-Dada
Robert Rauschenberg 1963, Neo-Dada
Richard Diebenkorn 1963, Bay Area Figurative Movement
John Baeder, Photorealism
Richard Estes, 1968, Photorealism
Fairfield Porter 1971 -- 1972, East Coast Figurative painting
Ralph Goings, 1982, Photorealism
During the 1950s and 1960s as abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as Color Field painting, post-painterly abstraction, op art, hard - edge painting, minimal art, shaped canvas painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction with art brut, as seen in Court les rues, 1962, by Jean Dubuffet, fluxus, neo-Dada, New Realism, allowing imagery to re-emerge through various new contexts like pop art, the Bay Area Figurative Movement (a prime example is Diebenkorn 's Cityscape I, (Landscape No. 1), 1963, Oil on canvas, 60 1 / 4 x 50 1 / 2 inches, collection: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art) and later in the 1970s Neo-expressionism. The Bay Area Figurative Movement of whom David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Nathan Oliveira and Richard Diebenkorn whose painting Cityscape 1, 1963 is a typical example (see above) were influential members flourished during the 1950s and 1960s in California. Although throughout the 20th century painters continued to practice Realism and use imagery, practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like Milton Avery, Edward Hopper, Jean Dubuffet, Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, and others. Younger painters practiced the use of imagery in new and radical ways. Yves Klein, Martial Raysse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Wolf Vostell, David Hockney, Alex Katz, Malcolm Morley, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, John Baeder and Vija Celmins were a few who became prominent between the 1960s and the 1980s. Fairfield Porter (see above) was largely self - taught, and produced representational work in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement. His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of them affiliated with the New York School of writers, including John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, and James Schuyler. Many of his paintings were set in or around the family summer house on Great Spruce Head Island, Maine.
Also during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting. Critics like Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the ' death of painting '. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: Postminimalism, Earth art, video art, installation art, arte povera, performance art, body art, fluxus, mail art, the situationists and conceptual art among others.
Neo-Dada is also a movement that started 1n the 1950s and 1960s and was related to Abstract expressionism only with imagery. Featuring the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, whose "combines '' in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. Robert Rauschenberg, (see untitled combine, 1963, above), Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art - making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art.
Helen Frankenthaler 1952, Color Field painting
Morris Louis 1960 Minimalism -- Color Field
Kenneth Noland, 1964, Post-Painterly Abstraction
Yves Klein, 1962, Monochrome painting
Josef Albers 1965, Geometric abstraction
Barnett Newman, 1966, Color Field -- Minimalism
Bridget Riley, 1967, Op art
Color Field painting clearly pointed toward a new direction in American painting, away from abstract expressionism. Color Field painting is related to post-painterly abstraction, suprematism, abstract expressionism, hard - edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction.
During the 1960s and 1970s abstract painting continued to develop in America through varied styles. Geometric abstraction, Op art, hard - edge painting, Color Field painting and minimal painting, were some interrelated directions for advanced abstract painting as well as some other new movements. Morris Louis was an important pioneer in advanced Color Field painting, his work can serve as a bridge between abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, and minimal art. Two influential teachers Josef Albers and Hans Hofmann introduced a new generation of American artists to their advanced theories of color and space. Josef Albers is best remembered for his work as an Geometric abstractionist painter and theorist. Most famous of all are the hundreds of paintings and prints that make up the series Homage to the Square, (see gallery). In this rigorous series, begun in 1949, Albers explored chromatic interactions with flat colored squares arranged concentrically on the canvas. Albers ' theories on art and education were formative for the next generation of artists. His own paintings form the foundation of both hard - edge painting and Op art.
Josef Albers, Hans Hofmann, Ilya Bolotowsky, Burgoyne Diller, Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Frank Stella, Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Larry Poons, Ronald Davis, Larry Zox, Al Held and some others like Mino Argento, are artists closely associated with Geometric abstraction, Op art, Color Field painting, and in the case of Hofmann and Newman Abstract expressionism as well.
In 1965, an exhibition called The Responsive Eye, curated by William C. Seitz, was held at the Museum of Modern Art, in New York City. The works shown were wide ranging, encompassing the Minimalism of Frank Stella, the Op art of Larry Poons, the work of Alexander Liberman, alongside the masters of the Op Art movement: Victor Vasarely, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Bridget Riley and others. The exhibition focused on the perceptual aspects of art, which result both from the illusion of movement and the interaction of color relationships. Op art, also known as optical art, is a style present in some paintings and other works of art that use optical illusions. Op art is also closely akin to geometric abstraction and hard - edge painting. Although sometimes the term used for it is perceptual abstraction.
Op art is a method of painting concerning the interaction between illusion and picture plane, between understanding and seeing. Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in only black and white. When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibration, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping.
Color Field painting sought to rid art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, John Hoyland, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction of modern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image.
Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Ronald Davis, Neil Williams, Robert Mangold, Charles Hinman, Richard Tuttle, David Novros, and Al Loving are examples of artists associated with the use of the shaped canvas during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and Hard - edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean - lined, brashly sharp - edged, or minimalist in character. The Andre Emmerich Gallery, the Leo Castelli Gallery, the Richard Feigen Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Color Field painting, shaped canvas painting and Lyrical Abstraction in New York City during the 1960s. There is a connection with post-painterly abstraction, which reacted against abstract expressionisms ' mysticism, hyper - subjectivity, and emphasis on making the act of painting itself dramatically visible -- as well as the solemn acceptance of the flat rectangle as an almost ritual prerequisite for serious painting. During the 1960s Color Field painting and Minimal art were often closely associated with each other. In actuality by the early 1970s both movements became decidedly diverse.
Gene Davis 1964, Washington Color School
Frank Stella 1967, Shaped Canvas
Ronald Davis 1968, Abstract Illusionism
Ronnie Landfield, 1968, Lyrical Abstraction
Another related movement of the late 1960s, Lyrical Abstraction (the term being coined by Larry Aldrich, the founder of the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum, Ridgefield Connecticut), encompassed what Aldrich said he saw in the studios of many artists at that time. It is also the name of an exhibition that originated in the Aldrich Museum and traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art and other museums throughout the United States between 1969 and 1971.
Lyrical Abstraction in the late 1960s is characterized by the paintings of Dan Christensen, Ronnie Landfield, Peter Young and others, and along with the fluxus movement and postminimalism (a term first coined by Robert Pincus - Witten in the pages of Artforum in 1969) sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting and minimalism by focusing on process, new materials and new ways of expression. Postminimalism often incorporating industrial materials, raw materials, fabrications, found objects, installation, serial repetition, and often with references to Dada and Surrealism is best exemplified in the sculptures of Eva Hesse. Lyrical Abstraction, conceptual art, postminimalism, Earth art, video, performance art, installation art, along with the continuation of fluxus, abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, hard - edge painting, minimal art, op art, pop art, photorealism and New Realism extended the boundaries of contemporary art in the mid-1960s through the 1970s. Lyrical Abstraction is a type of freewheeling abstract painting that emerged in the mid-1960s when abstract painters returned to various forms of painterly, pictorial, expressionism with a predominate focus on process, gestalt and repetitive compositional strategies in general.
Lyrical Abstraction shares similarities with color field painting and abstract expressionism, Lyrical Abstraction as exemplified by the 1968 Ronnie Landfield painting For William Blake, (above) especially in the freewheeling usage of paint -- texture and surface. Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen in abstract expressionism and color field painting. However, the styles are markedly different. Setting it apart from abstract expressionism and action painting of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama. As seen in action painting there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension. While in Lyrical Abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility.,
Robert Mangold 1981, Minimalism
Richard Tuttle, 1967, Postminimalism
Brice Marden, 1966 / 1986, Monochrome painting
Agnes Martin, Robert Mangold (see above), Brice Marden, Jo Baer, Robert Ryman, Richard Tuttle, Neil Williams, David Novros, Paul Mogenson, Charles Hinman are examples of artists associated with Minimalism and (exceptions of Martin, Baer and Marden) the use of the shaped canvas also during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and hard - edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean - lined, brashly sharp - edged, or minimalist in character. The Bykert Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Minimalism and shaped canvas painting in New York City during the 1960s.
During the 1960s and 1970s artists such as Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gottlieb, Phillip Guston, Lee Krasner, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Richard Diebenkorn, Josef Albers, Elmer Bischoff, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Sam Francis, Ellsworth Kelly, Morris Louis, Helen Frankenthaler, Gene Davis, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Joan Mitchell, Friedel Dzubas, and younger artists like Brice Marden, Robert Mangold, Sam Gilliam, John Hoyland, Sean Scully, Pat Steir, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others produced a wide variety of paintings.
During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against abstract painting. Some critics viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the ' death of painting '. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: postminimalism, Earth art, video art, installation art, arte povera, performance art, body art, fluxus, happening, mail art, the situationists and conceptual art among others.
However still other important innovations in abstract painting took place during the 1960s and the 1970s characterized by monochrome painting and hard - edge painting inspired by Ad Reinhardt, Barnett Newman, Milton Resnick, and Ellsworth Kelly. Artists as diverse as Agnes Martin, Al Held, Larry Zox, Frank Stella, Larry Poons, Brice Marden and others explored the power of simplification. The convergence of Color Field painting, minimal art, hard - edge painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and postminimalism blurred the distinction between movements that became more apparent in the 1980s and 1990s. The neo-expressionism movement is related to earlier developments in abstract expressionism, neo-Dada, Lyrical Abstraction and postminimal painting.
Philip Guston 1972, pre-Neo - expressionism
In the late 1960s the abstract expressionist painter Philip Guston helped to lead a transition from abstract expressionism to Neo-expressionism in painting, abandoning the so - called "pure abstraction '' of abstract expressionism in favor of more cartoonish renderings of various personal symbols and objects. These works were inspirational to a new generation of painters interested in a revival of expressive imagery. His painting Painting, Smoking, Eating 1973, seen above in the gallery is an example of Guston 's final and conclusive return to representation.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was also a return to painting that occurred almost simultaneously in Italy, Germany, France and Britain. These movements were called Transavantguardia, Neue Wilde, Figuration Libre, Neo-expressionism, the school of London, and in the late 1980s the Stuckists respectively. These painting were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination. All work in this genre came to be labeled neo-expressionism. Critical reaction was divided. Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries. This type of art continues in popularity into the 21st century, even after the art crash of the late 1980s. Anselm Kiefer is a leading figure in European Neo-expressionism by the 1980s, (see To the Unknown Painter 1983, in the gallery above) Kiefer 's themes widened from a focus on Germany 's role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general. His work became more sculptural and involves not only national identity and collective memory, but also occult symbolism, theology and mysticism. The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life.
During the late 1970s in the United States painters who began working with invigorated surfaces and who returned to imagery like Susan Rothenberg gained in popularity, especially as seen above in paintings like Horse 2, 1979. During the 1980s American artists like Eric Fischl, (see Bad Boy, 1981, above), David Salle, Jean - Michel Basquiat (who began as a graffiti artist), Julian Schnabel, and Keith Haring, and Italian painters like Mimmo Paladino, Sandro Chia, and Enzo Cucchi, among others defined the idea of Neo-expressionism in America.
Neo-expressionism was a style of modern painting that became popular in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s. It developed in Europe as a reaction against the conceptual and minimalistic art of the 1960s and 1970s. Neo-expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects, such as the human body (although sometimes in a virtually abstract manner), in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colours and banal colour harmonies. The veteran painters Philip Guston, Frank Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Gerhard Richter, A.R. Penck and Georg Baselitz, along with slightly younger artists like Anselm Kiefer, Eric Fischl, Susan Rothenberg, Francesco Clemente, Jean - Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, Keith Haring, and many others became known for working in this intense expressionist vein of painting.
Painting still holds a respected position in contemporary art. Art is an open field no longer divided by the objective versus non-objective dichotomy. Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract. What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past as an end goal.
At the beginning of the 21st century Contemporary painting and Contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of pluralism. The "crisis '' in painting and current art and current art criticism today is brought about by pluralism. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an anything goes attitude that prevails; an "everything going on '', and consequently "nothing going on '' syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit.
Hard - edge painting, geometric abstraction, appropriation, hyperrealism, photorealism, expressionism, minimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, pop art, op art, abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, monochrome painting, neo-expressionism, collage, intermedia painting, assemblage painting, digital painting, postmodern painting, neo-Dada painting, shaped canvas painting, environmental mural painting, traditional figure painting, landscape painting, portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century.
During the period before and after European exploration and settlement of the Americas, including North America, Central America, South America and the Islands of the Caribbean, the Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and other island groups, indigenous native cultures produced creative works including architecture, pottery, ceramics, weaving, carving, sculpture, painting and murals as well as other religious and utilitarian objects. Each continent of the Americas hosted societies that were unique and individually developed cultures; that produced totems, works of religious symbolism, and decorative and expressive painted works. African influence was especially strong in the art of the Caribbean and South America. The arts of the indigenous people of the Americas had an enormous impact and influence on European art and vice versa during and after the Age of Exploration. Spain, Portugal, France, The Netherlands, and England were all powerful and influential colonial powers in the Americas during and after the 15th century. By the 19th century cultural influence began to flow both ways across the Atlantic
Great Goddess mural from the site at Teotihuacán, Mexico
A portion of the actual mural from the Tepantitla compound which appears under the Great Goddess portrait, Mexico
Mural from the Tepantitla compound showing what has been identified as an aspect of the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan, from a reproduction in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City
Jaguar mural from the site at Teotihuacán, Mexico
A Mayan mural from Guatemala, Pre-Classical period (1 -- 250 AD)
Painting on the Lord of the jaguar pelt throne vase, a scene of the Maya court, 700 -- 800 AD.
A Mayan mural from Bonampak, Mexico, 580 -- 800 AD.
A Mayan mural from Bonampak, 580 -- 800 AD
Painting from a Maya codex
Painted pottery figurine of a drunkard from the burial site at Jaina Island, Mayan art, 400 -- 800 AD.
Painted relief of the Maya site Palenque, featuring the son of K'inich Ahkal Mo ' Naab ' III (678 -- 730s?, r. 722 -- 729).
Painting on a Maya vase from the Late Classical Period (600 -- 900), from Copán, Honduras
An Aztec painting from the Codex Borgia
An Aztec painting from the Codex Borbonicus
Detail from the Battle Mural, c. 600 -- 700, Cacaxtla, Mexico
A painting from Codex Mendoza showing elder Aztecs being given intoxicants, Mexico, c. 1553
Killer Whale, painted pottery, Nazca culture, 300 BC -- 800 AD, Larco Museum. Lima, Peru
Painted pottery from the Nazca culture of Peru, 300 BC -- 800 AD
A Moche mural of a decapitator from the Huaca de la Luna site, Peru, 100 -- 700 AD.
Moche murals from the Huaca de la Luna site, Peru, 100 -- 700 AD.
Painted pottery from the Huari culture of Peru, 500 -- 1200 AD
Body painting, Indigenous peoples in Brazil, a Brazilian Indian couple, c. 2000
The Great Gallery, Pictographs, Canyonlands National Park, Horseshoe Canyon, Utah, 15 by 200 feet (4.6 by 61.0 m), c. 1500 BCE
Pictograph, southeastern Utah, c. 1200 BC Pueblo culture
Painted pottery, Anasazi, North America: A canteen (pot) excavated from the ruins in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, c. 700 AD -- 1100 AD
Painted ceramic jug showing the underwater panther from the Mississippian culture, found at Rose Mound in Cross County, Arkansas, c. 1400 -- 1600.
A Haida wolf mask, 1880.
A Hopi jar by Nampeyo (c. 1860 -- 1942), made in Arizona, 1880.
A girl from the Zuni tribe of New Mexico with a painted pottery jar, photographed in c. 1903.
Edward S. Curtis, Navajo sandpainting, sepia photogravure c. 1907
Navajo man in ceremonial dress with mask and body paint, c. 1904
Ledger art of Haokah (ca. 1880) by Black Hawk (Lakota).
Kiowa ledger art, possibly of the 1874 Buffalo Wallow battle, Red River War.
Detail of ledger painting on muslin by Silver Horn (1860 -- 1940), ca. 1880, Oklahoma History Center
Work on Paper, by Arapaho painter, Carl Sweezy (1881 -- 1953), 1904
An Uncompaghre Ute, Shaved Beaver Hide Painting. The Northern Ute would trap beavers, shave images into the animals ' stretched and cured hides, and use them to decorate their personal and ceremonial dwellings, c. 19th century.
Tlingit totem pole in Ketchikan, Alaska, circa 1901.
The K'alyaan Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks. ádi Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of Sitka.
A totem pole in Ketchikan, Alaska, in the Tlingit style.
From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska
From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska
A totem pole in Totem Park, Victoria, British Columbia.
From Totem Park, Victoria, British Columbia.
Rock petroglyph overlaid with chalk, Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center. Utuado, Puerto Rico.
Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al - Wâsitî, Iraq, 1237
Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al - Wâsitî, Iraq, 1237
Syrischer Maler, 1315 Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ilkhanid Shahnameh, ca. 1330 -- 1340, Smithsonian
Kamal - ud - din Bihzad (c. 1450 -- c. 1535), The construction of castle Khavarnaq (الخورنق) in al - Hira, c. 1494 -- 1495 C.E. British Museum
Persian miniature painting, CE 1550
Reza Abbasi, 1609
Razmnama, 1616, British Museum
Two Lovers by Reza Abbasi, 1630
Persian miniature Harun al - Rashid in Thousand and One Nights
Reza Abbasi (1565 -- 1635), Prince Muhammad - Beik of Georgia, 1620
Adam and Eve, Safavid Iran, from a Falnama (book of Omens) c. 1550 AD.
A painting depicting Abû Zayd, 1335 AD.
A scene from the book of Ahmad ibn al - Husayn ibn al - Ahnaf, showing two galloping horsemen, 1210 AD.
The angel Isrâfîl, Iraq, 1280 AD.
The Clerk, Iraq, 1287.
An ornamental Qur'an, by al - Bawwâb, 11th century AD.
Mehmet II, from the Sarai Albums of Istanbul, Turkey, 15th century AD
Maiden in a fur cap, by Muhammad ' Alî, Isfahan, Iran, mid-17th century
Youth and Suitors, Mashhad, Iran, 1556 -- 1565 AD
The depiction of humans, animals or any other figurative subjects is forbidden within Islam to prevent believers from idolatry so there is no religiously motivated painting (or sculpture) tradition within Muslim culture. Pictorial activity was reduced to Arabesque, mainly abstract, with geometrical configuration or floral and plant - like patterns. Strongly connected to architecture and calligraphy, it can be widely seen as used for the painting of tiles in mosques or in illuminations around the text of the Koran and other books. In fact, abstract art is not an invention of modern art but it is present in pre-classical, barbarian and non-western cultures many centuries before it and is essentially a decorative or applied art. Notable illustrator M.C. Escher was influenced by this geometrical and pattern - based art. Art Nouveau (Aubrey Beardsley and the architect Antonio Gaudí) re-introduced abstract floral patterns into western art.
Note that despite the taboo of figurative visualization, some Muslim countries did cultivate a rich tradition in painting, though not in its own right, but as a companion to the written word. Iranian or Persian art, widely known as Persian miniature, concentrates on the illustration of epic or romantic works of literature. Persian illustrators deliberately avoided the use of shading and perspective, though familiar with it in their pre-Islamic history, in order to abide by the rule of not creating any lifelike illusion of the real world. Their aim was not to depict the world as it is, but to create images of an ideal world of timeless beauty and perfect order.
In present days, painting by art students or professional artists in Arab and non-Arab Muslim countries follows the same tendencies of Western culture art.
Oriental historian Basil Gray believes "Iran has offered a particularly unique (sic) art to the world which is excellent in its kind ''. Caves in Iran 's Lorestan province exhibit painted imagery of animals and hunting scenes. Some such as those in Fars Province and Sialk are at least 5,000 years old. Painting in Iran is thought to have reached a climax during the Tamerlane era, when outstanding masters such as Kamaleddin Behzad gave birth to a new style of painting.
Paintings of the Qajar period are a combination of European influences and Safavid miniature schools of painting such as those introduced by Reza Abbasi and classical works by Mihr ' Ali. Masters such as Kamal - ol - molk further pushed forward the European influence in Iran. It was during the Qajar era when "Coffee House painting '' emerged. Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the like.
Farrukh Beg (ca. 1545 -- ca. 1615), A Drunken Babur Returns to Camp at Night, Lahore, Pakistan, 1589
Mihr ' Ali (fl. 1795 -- 1830), Fat'h Ali Shah Qajar (1813 -- 14)
Kamal - ol - molk (1847 -- 1940), Predictor of the Future, 1892, Museum of Sadabad, Teheran
Lubna Agha, Star -- a painting inspired by the artisans of Morocco
AR Chughtai, Anarkali
Himba woman covered with traditional red ochre pigment. Traditional body paint symbolic of the earth and of blood, and also worn for protection from the sun.
A Kĩkũyũ woman in traditional dress. Ceremonial face painting.
Young Maasai Warrior, with head - dress and face painting.
Dogon, circumcision cave, with paintings Mali c. contemporary
African traditional culture and tribes do not seem to have great interest in two - dimensional representations in favour of sculpture and relief. However, decorative painting in African culture is often abstract and geometrical. Another pictorial manifestation is body painting, and face painting present for example in Maasai and Kĩkũyũ culture in their ceremony rituals. Ceremonial cave painting in certain villages can be found to be still in use. Note that Pablo Picasso and other modern artists were influenced by African sculpture and masks in their varied styles. Contemporary African artists follow western art movements and their paintings have little difference from occidental art works.
At the start of the 20th century, artists like Picasso, Matisse, Paul Gauguin and Modigliani became aware of, and were inspired by, African art. In a situation where the established avant garde was straining against the constraints imposed by serving the world of appearances, African Art demonstrated the power of supremely well organised forms; produced not only by responding to the faculty of sight, but also and often primarily, the faculty of imagination, emotion and mystical and religious experience. These artists saw in African art a formal perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power.
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ishq na ishq ho kisi se hd video download | List of songs recorded by Kishore Kumar - wikipedia
This is an alphabetical list of known Hindi songs performed by Kishore Kumar from 1946 til 1987. Over 1500 songs are listed here. He had also sung in several other different languages which are not included here.
bu Main Laya ''
Na Kal Tha ''
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i ''
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where does the first episode of supernatural take place | Pilot (Supernatural) - wikipedia
"Pilot '' is the first episode of the television series Supernatural. It premiered on The WB on September 13, 2005, and was written by series creator Eric Kripke and directed by David Nutter. The Supernatural pilot introduced the characters of Sam (Jared Padalecki) and Dean Winchester (Jensen Ackles), brothers who travel throughout the country hunting supernatural creatures, as they battled a ghostly Woman in White (Sarah Shahi) while searching for their missing father (Jeffrey Dean Morgan).
Kripke was developing the concept for ten years before it was greenlit as a television series. Before it could be filmed, the script underwent numerous revisions. The episode was produced in Los Angeles, though future episodes were filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, to save money. The episode established the series ' tradition of a rock - music soundtrack, and included background music scored by Kripke 's friend Christopher Lennertz. It received mixed reviews, with critics praising the horror elements but having varying opinions of the lead actors ' performances.
In 1983 in Lawrence, Kansas, Mary Winchester (Samantha Smith) investigates a sound coming from her infant son Sam 's nursery. She sees a figure standing over his crib, and confronts him. Her husband, John (Morgan), is awoken by her screams and finds her pinned to the ceiling with a slash across her stomach. She bursts into flames, and John is forced to evacuate the house with Sam and his older son, Dean, while the house erupts into flames.
Twenty - two years later, Sam (Jared Padalecki) and his girlfriend Jessica Moore (Adrianne Palicki) celebrate his high LSAT score. Later that night, Dean (Jensen Ackles) shows up at Sam 's home. Though the brothers have not spoken in years, Dean comes looking for help in finding their father, who disappeared while hunting a supernatural entity. After Sam hears a voicemail from his father that contains electronic voice phenomenon of a woman saying, "I can never go home, '' he agrees to help Dean in the search. The brothers head to John 's last known whereabouts -- the town of Jericho -- where he had been investigating the disappearances of young men along a single stretch of road over ten years. Sam and Dean discover a local legend of a murdered girl who has returned as a homicidal, hitchhiking ghost. Research points to Constance Welch (Shahi), who jumped to her death off a nearby bridge after drowning her children. While they stakeout the bridge that night, Sam tells Dean he does not want to return to hunting supernatural creatures. He points out that finding whatever creature killed their mother -- a task their father has dedicated his life to -- will not bring her back. The two are interrupted by a ghostly woman jumping off the bridge. Sam and Dean later check into a local motel, and discover their father is also renting a room there. They break into it and discover his research scattered all over the room; all his findings point to Constance being a woman in white.
When Dean leaves the room to get food, he is arrested by the police, who believe he is connected to the disappearances. At the police station, they show him John 's journal, and he notices the message "Dean 35 - 111 '' written inside it. As Dean is interrogated, Sam tracks down Constance 's husband (Steve Railsback), and learns the locations of both her grave site and the house in which she drowned their children. Sam then fakes a 911 call so Dean can escape the station. However, Constance targets Sam in his car; she attempts to seduce him and requests he take her home. Sam refuses, but she possesses the car so that it drives Sam to her home. She attacks him once they arrive at her old house. Dean forces her to temporarily dissipate by shooting her with rock salt, and Sam uses the opportunity to crash the car into the house. Constance reappears and attacks them, but the spirits of her children confront her. They embrace their mother, causing her to scream in pain as demonic like beings spawn from under her, dragging her down through the floor.
Dean deduces John 's message was coordinates to where he has headed. Sam still does not want to join the search, so Dean drops him off at his apartment. Lying alone in bed, Sam discovers Jessica pinned to the ceiling with a slash across her stomach. She ignites into flames as Dean breaks in and rescues Sam. While firefighters attempt to put out the inferno, Sam decides to join his brother in the search for their father and the creature that killed their mother and Jessica.
Series creator Eric Kripke had previously written for the WB series Tarzan, and was offered the chance to pitch show ideas to the network. He used the opportunity for Supernatural, a concept he had been developing for nearly ten years. Kripke envisioned Supernatural as a road trip series, deeming it the "best vehicle to tell these stories because it 's pure, stripped down and uniquely American... These stories exist in these small towns all across the country, and it just makes so much sense to drive in and out of these stories. '' Though the network rejected his initial pitch -- a tabloid reporter investigates supernatural occurrences throughout the country -- they were still interested in a series featuring urban legends. Kripke quickly suggested a Route 66 - style series, and the network loved it. Filming was greenlit after director David Nutter, who previously had worked with Kripke on Tarzan, signed on.
The pilot stars Jared Padalecki and Jensen Ackles as Sam and Dean Winchester, whom Kripke likened to Luke Skywalker and Han Solo of Star Wars. Padalecki knew executive producers McG and Nutter, the former convincing him to audition for the role. He was excited to play "the reluctant hero '', and compared Sam to The Matrix 's Neo. However, Nutter also asked Ackles to audition for the role of Sam. Nutter and Kripke found themselves in a predicament, as they felt both actors were great as Sam. To remedy the situation, Warner Bros. president Peter Roth suggested Ackles instead audition for Dean. Kripke agreed, believing Ackles ' "smart - ass attitude '' made him "born to play '' the Harrison Ford - like character, and Ackles preferred the character of Dean after reading the script. Both actors were the only ones to audition, and network executives instantly noticed a brotherly chemistry between them. Evil Dead - actor Bruce Campbell was Kripke 's first choice to portray John Winchester, father of Sam and Dean. However, Campbell was unavailable, and Jeffrey Dean Morgan eventually received the role. With Morgan 's scene taking place 22 years before the series, he expected to be replaced by an older actor for subsequent episodes, and was surprised when he was later asked to reprise the role.
For the role of Constance Welch -- the Woman in White -- production set out to find the "perfect actress ''. Nutter, a fan of The L Word, had watched an episode featuring actress Sarah Shahi one night during the casting process. He felt she was "really sharp '' and a "fine actress '', with a "seductive quality about her ''. Surprised when she came in to audition the following day, he knew she "had the job when she walked in the door ''. Because the scene involving Constance 's husband Joseph Welch merely discusses Constance 's backstory, the scene hinged on the actors ' performances. Seeking a "great actor '', Nutter recalled his previous experience working with Steve Railsback, and offered him the role. Other guest stars include Adrianne Palicki as Sam 's girlfriend Jessica Moore, and Samantha Smith as Mary Winchester. The latter felt she landed the part due to her joking around with Nutter during the audition.
The episode was written by series creator Eric Kripke, who described its creation as a "very difficult, birthing process '' due to the numerous rewrites required. The original version did not feature the Woman in White, and John Winchester died in the teaser. In the revised script, Sam and Dean Winchester were raised by their aunt and uncle instead of their father. Because of this, Sam is unaware that supernatural beings exist, and Dean must convince him of the truth when he asks for help. Kripke realized this made the backstory too complicated, and reworked it with co-executive producer Peter Johnson so that their father raised them to be hunters like him. This decision granted the brothers proficiency in both fighting and swindling people. Other revised concepts included Sam believing Dean to be a serial killer who murdered their father, and John dying instead of Sam 's girlfriend Jessica. The scene in which the brothers discuss their childhood and delve into their backstory was rewritten 20 to 30 times, and the final version was heavily trimmed.
A gas - station scene within the episode was meant to establish what the brothers and the series are about -- bantering, credit card scams, and classic rock; Kripke feared that it would be cut because it was character - based and did not further the episode 's plot. He also did not want the series to feature ballad music typical of The WB network, and forced the use of classic rock for the soundtrack by writing the music into the script. For the episode 's villain, Kripke used the well - known urban legend of the vanishing hitchhiker, but combined it with the Mexican legend of La Llorona to give the spirit more motivation and characterization. The ghost was younger in an earlier version of script, and murdered her parents instead of her children; this was revised to allow for the casting of an older actress.
Originally, the studio did not want Kripke to kill Jessica at the episode 's end, but rather keep her as a recurring character in the series. Kripke felt this would not fit the series 's format, and decided to have her revealed as a demon, with the revelation prompting Sam to join Dean in hunting. However, with only a short amount of screentime available to depict this, Kripke believed it would be a "tough aspect to sell ''. Because Luke Skywalker only begins his journey after the deaths of his aunt and uncle, Kripke found it more appropriate for Sam 's motivation to be Jessica 's death. Thus, the character is killed in the same manner as Sam 's mother, making the deaths the "right bookends ''.
Principal photography for the pilot took place in Los Angeles, though subsequent episodes of the series are filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia to save money. The bridge sequences were shot at Lake Piru, near a War of the Worlds filming location, and the library and phone booth scenes were filmed at an elementary school. Triplet babies portrayed Sam in the episode 's teaser, and production found it difficult to get them to cry on cue. Though a real house served as the first - story level in the teaser, the upstairs was constructed on a sound stage because of the special effects required for Mary 's fiery death. Script rewrites for the opening sequence -- a better introduction for Sam was needed -- required reshoots on the set of The O.C. two months after principal photography.
To depict the supernatural aspects of the show, the series makes use of visual, special, and make - up effects, as well as stuntwork. Businesses, such as visual effects company Entity FX, were contracted for production of the pilot episode. Subsequent episodes were filmed in Vancouver and required a new crew that works exclusively for the show. Mary Winchester 's death scene, which had the character pinned to the ceiling and burning to death, required actress Samantha Smith to lie on a floor with two propane pipes spouting fire approximately five feet away from her on either side. For the actual burning of the character, a fake body the crew named "Christina '' was made out of wire and papier - mâché, and was then ignited on a fake ceiling. However, the room quickly caught fire, forcing an evacuation. Green screen coincided with the visual effects for the ghostly Woman in White, and executive producer McG chose to make the imagery of her death sequence an homage to Chris Cunningham 's Aphex Twin video "Windowlicker ''. Japanese horror also influenced the scene, such as the school uniforms worn by the ghost children, the water cascading down the stairs, and the Dark Water elements.
The episode 's synthesized orchestral score was written by Christopher Lennertz, Kripke 's friend and next - door neighbor. The two attended USC School of Cinematic Arts together, and worked together on various projects afterwards. Lennertz described Supernatural as "one of those dream situations where you get to work with someone who you admire, but also have a relationship with already '', and noted he and Kripke "were already on the same page without even talking about (the series ' music) ''.
For the scenes involving Mary and Jessica 's deaths at the hands of the demon Azazel, Lennertz used a piano solo with discordant notes and reverberations to create a "really nasty '' sounding echo effect. He would later reuse this theme in the season one episode "Nightmare ''. The episode also included a number of rock songs, which would become a tradition for the series. Kripke wanted to feature the song "Enter Sandman '', but Metallica would not grant permission.
In its original broadcast, the pilot was viewed by an estimated 5.69 million viewers. The episode received mixed reviews from critics. Diana Steenbergen of IGN, who was "hooked right away '', gave the pilot episode a score of 8.5 out of 10. She felt it began "heartbreakingly '', and the "genuinely scary '' death scenes of Mary and Jess "will haunt... the viewers ''. Steenbergen praised both the writers and the lead actors for making the "(exposition scenes) still feel natural, for the most part '', and noted Ackles and Padalecki were "instantly convincing as brothers ''. Also credited for this "well paced '' episode was director David Nutter, who did an "excellent job of setting up the atmosphere and tone of the series ''. Likewise, BuddyTV 's Don Williams posited, "It 's about as good as a pilot can get. '' He ranked it ninth out of his favorite episodes of the first three seasons, believing it introduces the characters "in a memorable fashion '' and "wonderfully '' establishes the show 's universe. Robert Bianco of USA Today deemed the series as possibly "the simplest and the scariest '' of the season 's new dark shows, and wrote, "It wants nothing more than to frighten you -- and tonight, it does. '' He noted the episode "(pulls) off a few surprises '' and "works its way to an ending that lives up to Dean 's ' no chick - flick moments ' ''. However, Bianco criticized the "pauses for comic relief ''; he felt Ackles ' "comic touch '' was "not yet as skillful as it needs to be '', with Ackles ' attempts at being "humorously annoying '' leaving him "simply annoying ''. Despite the episode having a somewhat unoriginal villain and a "relatively simple '' solution, Brian Lowry of Variety deemed the series ' debut as "a promising plunge into the darkness ''. Lowry applauded Ackles, who "brings an easygoing charm and engaging wise - ass personality to the absurd notion of traveling the country with a trunk full of wooden stakes and holy water ''.
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times found the first half of the episode "quite effective '', with the "camera angles, spooky music and jumpy sequences... (being) as frightening as those found in any horror movie, with an added twist of suspense ''. However, she deemed the depiction of the ghostly villain as "pretty silly '', and noted the second half "stops building suspense and turns predictable ''. Calling the series "Ghostbusters ' Creek '', Stanley felt the episode "reverts to a WB family drama about the bonds between two mismatched brothers and their father ''. Similarly, Matthew Gilbert of the Boston Globe called Ackles and Padalecki "generic cuties who hold their lips together tightly, except to utter the word ' Dude ' ''. Although Gilbert noted there are a couple "moderately creepy '' twists, he found there to be "nothing about the central family story in Supernatural or its bland actors that makes it addictive ''.
Work on the pilot episode garnered two Emmy Award nominations in 2006. Lennertz was nominated in the category of "Outstanding Music Composition For A Series (Dramatic Underscore) '', and the sound editors for "Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series ''.
General Knight, Nicholas (2007). Supernatural: The Official Companion Season 1. Titan Books. ISBN 1 - 84576 - 535 - 4.
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why did the actress who played carol in friends change | Anita Barone - wikipedia
Anita Louise Barone (born September 25, 1964) is an American actress. She is best known for co-starring roles in sitcoms The Jeff Foxworthy Show, Daddio, Shake It Up and The War at Home.
Barone was born in St. Louis, Missouri. She earned her BFA from the University of Detroit Mercy, followed by an MFA from Wayne State University where she was taught by director / professor Robert T. Hazzard.
Barone appeared in the fourth - season Seinfeld episode "The Shoes '' as Gail Cunningham, a chef who wanted Elaine Benes ' shoes. In the early 1990s, she was a regular cast member of Carol & Company with actress Carol Burnett. Barone also played Carol Willick, Ross Geller 's ex-wife, in the character 's first appearance in Friends. She left the show as she wanted to pursue a more full - time role; she was replaced by Jane Sibbett. She starred on The Jeff Foxworthy Show for the first season (1995 -- 1996) and in The War at Home from 2005 to 2007. In 2000, Barone also co-starred in the sitcom Daddio.
Barone 's other television credits include Curb Your Enthusiasm, Quantum Leap, Empty Nest, Chicago Hope, Castle, Do Not Disturb, Ally McBeal, Caroline in the City, Party of Five and The Larry Sanders Show.
In 2004, she was the recipient of the 2005 Methodfest Best Supporting Actress Award for her work in feature film, One Last Ride.
In 2010, three years after The War at Home ended its run, Barone began her recurring role in the Disney Channel sitcom Shake It Up as Officer Georgia Jones, the mother of Bella Thorne 's character CeCe Jones. Barone 's husband, actor Matthew Glave, guest starred in two episodes of Shake It Up as J.J. Jones, the ex-husband of Barone 's character.
Barone is married to actor Matthew Glave, with whom she has two daughters, Madeline and Roxanne. She currently lives in Los Angeles with her family.
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where is light in the box com located | LightInTheBox - wikipedia
LightInTheBox Holding Co., Ltd. (simplified Chinese: 兰亭 集 势; traditional Chinese: 蘭亭 集 勢; pinyin: Lántíng jí shì) is an international online retail company that delivers products to consumers in over 200 countries and territories. It sells lifestyle products through LightInTheBox.com, MiniInTheBox.com, and its other websites, which are available in 26 major languages as of October 2013.
LightInTheBox was founded in June 2007 by Quji (Alan) Guo, Xin (Kevin) Wen, Liang Zhang, Jun Liu and Chit Jeremy Chau. The company operated as Light In The Box Limited until March 2008, when it was restructured and incorporated as LightInTheBox Holding Co., Ltd., acting as the ultimate holding company.
The founders of LightInTheBox took the opportunity to build a company that would take advantage of China 's manufacturing and supply chain. On June 6, 2013, LightInTheBox opened for trading on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) under the ticker symbol "LITB ''. In the three months leading up to June 30, 2013, LightInTheBox cleared $ 72.2 million in net revenue with 1.2 million customers served in the second quarter of 2013.
As of October 2013, LightInTheBox offers products in three core categories: apparel, small gadgets, and home and garden. As of March 31, 2013, LightInTheBox had more than 220,000 product listings, and added an average of 14,000 products each month in the preceding three months.
LightInTheBox uses global online marketing platforms such as Google and Facebook to reach consumers, accepts payments through major credit cards and electronic payment platforms such as PayPal, and delivers goods via major international couriers, including UPS, DHL and FedEx.
Net revenues in the second quarter of 2013 were $72.2 million, an increase of 52.6 % from $47.3 million in the same quarter of 2012, primarily driven by an increase of 140.0 % in total number of customers served in the second quarter of 2013, which increased to 1.2 million from 0.5 million. Net income for the second quarter of 2013 was $0.6 million, compared to a net loss of $1.4 million in the same quarter of 2012. Net income margin improved to 0.9 % from a negative 2.9 % in the prior year period.
Net revenues in the second quarter of 2013 increased by 52.6 % to $72.2 million from $47.3 million in the same quarter of 2012. The increase was primarily driven by growth in the number of customers and total orders.
https://www.thebalance.com/review-of-light-in-the-box-online-store-3515587 https://www.sitejabber.com/reviews/www.lightinthebox.com#5022 https://www.consumeraffairs.com/online/lightinthebox.html
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what is a pl tone on a radio | Continuous tone - Coded squelch system - wikipedia
In telecommunications, Continuous Tone - Coded Squelch System or CTCSS is a circuit that is used to reduce the annoyance of listening to other users on a shared two - way radio communications channel. It is sometimes referred to as tone squelch. It does this by adding a low frequency audio tone to the voice. Where more than one group of users is on the same radio frequency (called co-channel users), CTCSS circuitry mutes those users who are using a different CTCSS tone or no CTCSS. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a sub-channel because no additional channels are created. All users with different CTCSS tones on the same channel are still transmitting on the identical radio frequency, and their transmissions interfere with each other, however the interference is masked under most (but not all) conditions. The CTCSS feature also does not offer any security.
A receiver with just a carrier or noise squelch unmutes for any sufficiently strong signal; in CTCSS mode it unmutes only when the signal also carries the correct sub-audible audio tone. The tones are not actually below the range of human hearing, but are poorly reproduced by most communications - grade speakers and in any event are usually filtered out before being sent to the speaker or headphone. CTCSS can be regarded as a form of in - band signaling.
As a simple example, suppose a two - way radio frequency is shared by a pizza delivery service and a landscape maintenance service. Conventional radios without CTCSS would hear all transmissions from both groups. The landscapers have to listen to the pizza shop and the pizza shop has to hear about landscape activity. With CTCSS and a different tone for each group, radios only hear the activity from their own group. This is supposed to reduce missed messages and the distraction of unnecessary radio chatter for the other users.
Note that in the example above there are only two co-channel users. In dense two - way radio environments, many separate groups may co-exist on a single radio channel.
The disadvantage of using CTCSS in shared frequencies is that users can not hear transmissions from other groups. They may erroneously assume that the frequency is idle and then transmit at the same time as another user, thus interfering with the other group 's transmissions. For example, in the above situation, a landscaper might be communicating with another landscaper. Meanwhile, a pizza delivery driver -- not hearing any transmissions -- assumes that the frequency is clear and calls their dispatch office. The two simultaneous transmissions could interfere with each other -- resulting in one or both not being understood. The more groups that share a single frequency and the more frequently they transmit, the more likely that this accidental interference will occur. Radios equipped with the "Busy Channel Lockout '' feature will prevent transmitting in this case.
Radio transmitters using CTCSS always transmit their own tone code whenever the transmit button is pressed. The tone is transmitted at a low level simultaneously with the voice. This is called CTCSS encoding. CTCSS tones range from 67 to 257 Hz. The tones are usually referred to as sub-audible tones. In an FM two - way radio system, CTCSS encoder levels are usually set for 15 % of system deviation. For example, in a 5 kHz deviation system, the CTCSS tone level would normally be set to 750 Hz deviation. Engineered systems may call for different level settings in the 500 Hz to 1 kHz (10 -- 20 %) range.
The ability of a receiver to mute the audio until it detects a carrier with the correct CTCSS tone is called decoding. Receivers are equipped with features to allow the CTCSS "lock '' to be disabled. On USA licensed systems, Federal Communications Commission rules require CTCSS users on shared channels to disable their receiver 's CTCSS to check if co-channel users are talking before transmitting. On a base station console, a microphone may have a split push - to - talk button. Pressing one half of the button, (often marked with a speaker icon or the letters "MON '', short for "MONitor '') disables the CTCSS decoder and reverts the receiver to hearing any signal on the channel. This is called the monitor function. There is sometimes a mechanical interlock: the user must push down and hold the monitor button or the transmit button is locked and can not be pressed. This interlock option is referred to as compulsory monitor before transmit (the user is forced to monitor by the hardware design of the equipment itself). On mobile radios, the microphone is usually stored in a hang - up clip or a hang - up box containing a microphone clip. When the user pulls the microphone out of the hang - up clip to make a call, a switch in the clip (box) forces the receiver to revert to conventional carrier squelch mode ("monitor ''). Some designs relocate the switch into the body of the microphone itself. In hand - held radios, an LED indicator may glow green, yellow, or orange to indicate another user is talking on the channel. Hand - held radios usually have a switch or push - button to monitor. Some modern radios have a feature called "Busy Channel Lockout '', which will not allow the user to transmit as long as the radio is receiving another signal.
A CTCSS decoder is based on a very narrow bandpass filter which passes the desired CTCSS tone. The filter 's output is amplified and rectified, creating a DC voltage whenever the desired tone is present. The DC voltage is used to turn on, enable or unmute the receiver 's speaker audio stages. When the tone is present, the receiver is unmuted, when it is not present the receiver is silent.
In a communications receiver designed for CTCSS, a high - pass audio filter is supposed to block CTCSS tones (below 300 Hz) so they are not heard in the speaker. Since audio curves vary from one receiver to another, some radios may pass an audible level of the CTCSS tone to the speaker. Lower tone frequencies generally are less audible. If the magenta audio curve shown at right were plotted from a CTCSS - equipped receiver, it would drop nearly straight down below 300 Hz.
Because period is the inverse of frequency, lower tone frequencies can take longer to decode (depends on the decoder design). Receivers in a system using 67.0 Hz can take noticeably longer to decode than ones using 203.5 Hz, and they can take longer than one decoding 250.3 Hz. In some repeater systems, the time lag can be significant. The lower tone may cause one or two syllables to be clipped before the receiver audio is unmuted (is heard). This is because receivers are decoding in a chain. The repeater receiver must first sense the carrier signal on the input, then decode the CTCSS tone. When that occurs, the system transmitter turns on, encoding the CTCSS tone on its carrier signal (the output frequency). All radios in the system start decoding after they sense a carrier signal then recognize the tone on the carrier as valid. Any distortion on the encoded tone will also affect the decoding time.
Engineered systems often use tones in the 127.3 Hz to 162.2 Hz range to balance fast decoding with keeping the tones out of the audible part of the receive audio. Most amateur radio repeater controller manufacturers offer an audio delay option -- this delays the repeated speech audio for a selectable number of milliseconds before it is retransmitted. During this fixed delay period (the amount of which is adjusted during installation, then locked down), the CTCSS decoder has enough time to recognize the right tone. This way the problem with lost syllables at the beginning of a transmission can be overcome without having to use higher frequency tones.
In early systems, it was common to avoid the use of adjacent tones. On channels where every available tone is not in use, this is good engineering practice. For example, an ideal would be to avoid using 97.4 Hz and 100.0 Hz on the same channel. The tones are so close that some decoders may periodically false trigger. The user occasionally hears a syllable or two of co-channel users on a different CTCSS tone talking. As electronic components age, or through production variances, some radios in a system may be better than others at rejecting nearby tone frequencies.
CTCSS is an analog system. A later Digital - Coded Squelch (DCS) system was developed by Motorola under the trademarked name Digital Private Line (DPL). General Electric responded with the same system under the name of Digital Channel Guard (DCG). The generic name is CDCSS (Continuous Digital - Coded Squelch System). The use of digital squelch on a channel that has existing tone squelch users precludes the use of the 131.8 and 136.5 Hz tones as the digital bit rate is 134.4 bits per second and the decoders set to those two tones will sense an intermittent signal (referred to in the two - way radio field as "falsing '' the decoder).
CTCSS tones are standardized by the EIA / TIA. The full list of the tones can be found in their original standard RS - 220A, and the more recent EIA / TIA - 603D Standard; the CTCSS tones also may be listed in manufacturers instruction, maintenance or operational manuals. Some systems use non-standard tones. The NATO Military radios use 150.0 Hz, and this can be found in the user manuals for the radios. Some areas do not use certain tones. For example, the tone of 100.0 Hz is avoided in the United Kingdom since this is twice the UK mains power line frequency; an inadequately smoothed power supply may cause unwanted squelch opening (this is true in many other areas that use 50 Hz power). Squelch tones typically come from one of three series as listed below along with the two character PL code used by Motorola to identify tones. The most common set of supported squelch tones is a set of 38 tones including all tones with Motorola PL codes, except for the tones WZ, 8Z, 9Z, and 0Z (zero - Z). The lowest series has adjacent tones that are roughly in the harmonic ratio of 2 to 1 (≈ 1.035265), while the other two series have adjacent tones roughly in the ratio of 10 to 1 (≈ 1.035142). An example technical description can be found in a Philips technical information sheet about their CTCSS products.
CTCSS is often called PL tone (for Private Line, a trademark of Motorola), or simply tone. General Electric 's and Bendix King 's implementation of CTCSS is called Channel Guard (or CG). Vintage RCA radios called their implementation Quiet Channel. Icom radios call this feature C. Tone. Kenwood radios call the feature Quiet Talk or QT. E. F. Johnson Corp. used "TG '' for "ToneGuard '', and later "CG '' for "CallGuard ''. Zetron literature refers to "ToneLock '', and Ritron, Inc. labels their implementations "Quiet Call '' (QC) and "Digital Quiet Call '' (DQC). There are many other company - specific names used by radio vendors to describe compatible options. Any CTCSS system that has compatible tones and levels is interchangeable. Old and new radios with CTCSS and radios across manufacturers are compatible.
In amateur radio, the terms PL tone, PL and simply tone are still used somewhat commonly. Often, there is a distinction between the terms tone and tone squelch, in which the former refers to the use of transmitting a CTCSS tone while using standard carrier squelch on the receiver. Use of transmit - only CTCSS allows stations to communicate with repeaters and other stations using CTCSS while the link is marginal and the CTCSS tones may not be properly decoded. The term tone squelch most often includes tone and the radio will not only transmit a CTCSS tone to the distant station or repeater, but will squelch all incoming signals that do not also include the CTCSS tone. This is helpful in areas where multiple repeaters may be sharing the same output frequency but have different CTCSS tones, or where local interference is too strong for the front - end of your radio.
Some professional systems use a phase - reversal of the CTCSS tone at the end of a transmission to eliminate the squelch crash or squelch tail. This is common with General Electric Mobile Radio and Motorola systems. When the user releases his push - to - talk button the CTCSS tone does a phase shift for about 200 milliseconds. In older systems, the tone decoders used mechanical reeds to decode CTCSS tones. When audio at a resonant pitch was fed into the reed, it would resonate / vibrate, which would turn on the speaker audio. The end - of - transmission phase reversal (called "reverse burst '' by Motorola and "squelch tail elimination '' or "STE '' by GE) caused the reed to abruptly stop vibrating which would cause the receive audio to instantly mute. Initially, a phase shift of 180 degrees was used, but experience showed that a shift of ± 120 to 135 degrees was optimal in halting the mechanical reeds. These systems often have audio muting logic set for CTCSS only. If a transmitter without the phase reversal feature is used, the squelch can remain unmuted for as long as the reed continues to vibrate -- up to 1.5 seconds at the end of a transmission as it coasts to a stop (sometimes referred to as the "flywheel effect '' or called "freewheeling ''). Thus, there is one caveat about all CTCSS being interchangeable -- if the phase changing system exists then the shift angle must match. Note that the hardware used to implement the "reverse burst '' / "squelch tail elimination '' system is all contained in the transmitter.
In non-critical uses, CTCSS can also be used to hide the presence of interfering signals such as receiver - produced intermodulation. Receivers with poor specifications -- such as scanners or low - cost mobile radios -- can not reject the strong signals present in urban environments. The interference will still be present and may block the receiver, but the decoder will prevent it from being heard. It will still degrade system performance but the user will not have to hear the noises produced by receiving the interference.
CTCSS is commonly used in VHF and UHF amateur radio operations for this purpose. Wideband and extremely sensitive radios are common in the amateur radio field, which imposes limits on achievable intermodulation and adjacent - channel performance. Often all repeaters in a geographical region share the same CTCSS tone as a method of reducing co-channel interference from adjacent regions and increasing frequency reuse. This is a practice linked back to an old FCC practice of coordinating CTCSS tones for business services. In many rural areas of the USA where no coordination is necessary, a default of 100 Hz has become a de facto standard.
Family Radio Service (FRS), PMR446 and other consumer - grade "bubble pack '' radios often include a feature called "Interference Eliminator Codes '', "sub-channels '', or "privacy codes ''. These do not afford privacy or security, but serve only to reduce annoying interference by other users or other noise sources; a receiver with the tone squelch turned off will hear everything on the channel. GMRS / FRS radios offering CTCSS codes typically provide a choice of 38 tones, but the tone number and the tone frequencies used may vary from one manufacturer to another (or even within product lines of one manufacturer) and should not be assumed to be consistent (i.e. "Tone 12 '' in one set of radios may not be "Tone 12 '' in another). When a radio offers more than 50 codes (121 is becoming common), the higher ones (e.g. 39 -- 121) are usually DCS codes.
Adding tone or digital squelch to a radio system does n't solve interference issues, it just covers them up. Interfering signals masked by tone squelch will produce apparently random missed messages. The intermittent nature of interfering signals will make the problem difficult to reproduce and troubleshoot. Users will not understand why they can not hear a call, and will lose confidence in their radio system. In a worst - case scenario in a life safety environment a missed message, or a misunderstood message, may result in fatalities.
Using coded squelch systems can prevent weak signals from being received, for example, when the person transmitting or receiving is in an area obstructed by buildings or terrain or is a long distance away. A well tuned receiver that is n't configured to require CTCSS or DCS tones to open the squelch might still carry the weak message along with static noise, while a coded squelch enabled receiver may not perceive the tones and will ignore the message entirely.
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is the actor playing matt casey leaving chicago fire | Jesse Spencer - wikipedia
Jesse Gordon Spencer (born 12 February 1979) is an Australian actor and musician. He is best known for his roles as Billy Kennedy on the Australian soap opera Neighbours (1994 -- 2000, 2005), Dr. Robert Chase on the American medical drama House (2004 -- 2012) and Lt. Matthew Casey on the American drama Chicago Fire (2012 -- present).
Spencer was born in Melbourne. Growing up, he supported AFL team Western Bulldogs whilst attending Canterbury Primary School, Malvern Central School, and the private Scotch College. While there, he auditioned for the long - running soap opera Neighbours. He completed his VCE and had gained a place at Monash University but deferred to pursue acting.
Spencer starred as Billy Kennedy in the Australian soap opera Neighbours from 1994 to 2000. He later reprised his role in 2005, in an episode celebrating the show 's 20th anniversary. He has since co-starred in films such as Winning London, Uptown Girls and Swimming Upstream. From 2004 to 2012, he starred as Dr. Robert Chase on the Fox medical drama House. He played Chase for the show 's entire run, becoming the second longest - serving member of the title character 's team. In 2012, Spencer began starring as Lt. Matthew Casey in the NBC drama Chicago Fire.
Spencer began his musical career with the Australian Boys Choir, performing with them from 1986 to 1992. He plays the violin in Band from TV, a group which includes his former House co-star Hugh Laurie. They play at various events, giving the money they earn to the different charities. The band played on Idol Gives Back in April 2008.
For Neighbours, Spencer was nominated for "Most Popular Actor '' at the 1998 and 1999 Logie Awards. For House, he was nominated for "Choice TV Breakout Performance -- Male '' at the 2005 Teen Choice Awards and "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series '' at the 2008 Screen Actors Guild Awards. He received a "Golden Boomerang '' at the 2006 Australians in Film Breakthrough Awards for his work on House. In 2007, he was included in People Magazine 's 100 Most Beautiful People issue.
Spencer has two older brothers: Tarney, an oculo - plastic surgeon, and Luke, an orthopaedic surgeon. His younger sister, Polly, is an anaesthetist.
He and former House co-star, Jennifer Morrison, first met in March 2004 at Vancouver International Airport, when they were on their way to film the pilot episode of House. They started dating in July 2004 and were engaged while on vacation in Paris during Christmas 2006. In August 2007 Spencer and Morrison announced they had called off their engagement.
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how did the erie canal impact american history and peoples lives | History of Native Americans in the United States - wikipedia
The history of Native Americans in the United States began in ancient times tens of thousands of years ago with the settlement of the Americas by the Paleo - Indians. Anthropologists and archeologists have identified and studied a wide variety of cultures that existed during this era. Their subsequent contact with Europeans had a profound impact on their history.
According to the most generally accepted theory of the settlement of the Americas, migrations of humans from Eurasia to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The number and composition of the migrations is still being debated. Falling sea levels associated with an intensive period of Quaternary glaciation created the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to Alaska about 60 -- 25,000 years ago. The latest this migration could have taken place is 12,000 years ago; the earliest remains undetermined.
Three major migrations occurred, as traced by linguistic and genetic data; the early Paleoamericans soon spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. By 8000 BCE the North American climate was very similar to today 's. A study published in 2012 gives genetic backing to the 1986 theory put forward by linguist Joseph Greenberg that the Americas must have been populated in three waves, based on language differences.
Native American cultures are not included in characterizations of advanced stone age cultures as "Neolithic, '' which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia, Africa, and other regions. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips ' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases; see Archaeology of the Americas.
The Clovis culture, a megafauna hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, New Mexico. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear - point with a notched flute, by which it was insecarbon - dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years BP (roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE).
Numerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America, with some arrayed around the Great Plains and Great Lakes of the modern United States of America and Canada, as well as adjacent areas to the West and Southwest. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living on this continent since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation stories. Other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians. Archeological and linguistic data has enabled scholars to discover some of the migrations within the Americas.
The Folsom Tradition was characterized by use of Folsom points as projectile tips, and activities known from kill sites, where slaughter and butchering of bison took place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE.
Na - Dené - speaking peoples entered North America starting around 8000 BCE, reaching the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE, and from there migrating along the Pacific Coast and into the interior. Linguists, anthropologists and archeologists believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America, later than the first Paleo - Indians. They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada, south along the Pacific Coast, into the interior of Canada, and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest.
They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan - speaking peoples, including the present - day and historical Navajo and Apache. They constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used seasonally. People did not live there year - round, but for the summer to hunt and fish, and to gather food supplies for the winter. The Oshara Tradition people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE. They were part of the Southwestern Archaic Tradition centered in north - central New Mexico, the San Juan Basin, the Rio Grande Valley, southern Colorado, and southeastern Utah.
Since the 1990s, archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present - day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds; they were societies of hunter - gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods. The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana, whose 11 - mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE, making it the oldest, dated site in the Americas for such complex construction. It is nearly 2,000 years older than the Poverty Point site. Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until was abandoned about 2800 BCE, probably due to changing environmental conditions.
Poverty Point culture is a Late Archaic archaeological culture that inhabited the area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast. The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE, during the Late Archaic period. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, from the major complex at Poverty Point, Louisiana (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) across a 100 - mile (160 km) range to the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi.
Poverty Point is a 1 square mile (2.6 km) complex of six major earthwork concentric rings, with additional platform mounds at the site. Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region. This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as mound builders.
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1,000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE.
The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift - giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate special events, such as the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events.
The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, who were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area, societies participated in a high degree of exchange; most activity was conducted along the waterways that served as their major transportation routes. The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States.
The Great Kiva of Chetro Ketl at the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Taos Pueblo, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is an Ancient Pueblo belonging to a Native American tribe of Pueblo people, marking the cultural development in the region during the Pre-Columbian era.
White House Ruins, Canyon de Chelly National Monument
After 1492 European exploration and colonization of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves. One of the first major contacts, in what would be called the American Deep South, occurred when the conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed in La Florida in April 1513. He was later followed by other Spanish explorers, such as Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539. The subsequent European colonists in North America often rationalized their expansion of empire with the assumption that they were saving a barbaric, pagan world by spreading Christian civilization.
In the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the policy of Indian Reductions resulted in the forced conversions to Catholicism of the indigenous people in northern Nueva España. They had long - established spiritual and religious traditions and theological beliefs. What developed during the colonial years and since has been a syncretic Catholicism that absorbed and reflected indigenous beliefs; the religion changed in New Spain.
From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; violence and warfare at the hands of European explorers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare, enslavement; and a high rate of intermarriage. Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe. With the rapid declines of some populations and continuing rivalries among their nations, Native Americans sometimes re-organized to form new cultural groups, such as the Seminoles of Florida in the 19th century and the Mission Indians of Alta California. Some scholars characterize the treatment of Native Americans by the US as genocide or genocidal whilst others dispute this characterization.
Estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers has been the subject of much debate. While it is difficult to determine exactly how many Natives lived in North America before Columbus, estimates range from a low of 2.1 million (Ubelaker 1976) to 7 million people (Russell Thornton) to a high of 18 million (Dobyns 1983). A low estimate of around 1 million was first posited by the anthropologist James Mooney in the 1890s, by calculating population density of each culture area based on its carrying capacity. In 1965, the American anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns published studies estimating the original population to have been 10 to 12 million. By 1983, he increased his estimates to 18 million. Historian David Henige criticized higher estimates such as those of Dobyns ', writing that many population figures are the result of arbitrary formulas selectively applied to numbers from unreliable historical sources. By 1800, the Native population of the present - day United States had declined to approximately 600,000, and only 250,000 Native Americans remained in the 1890s.
Chicken pox and measles, endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans (long after being introduced from Asia), often proved deadly to Native Americans. Smallpox epidemics often immediately followed European exploration and sometimes destroyed entire village populations. While precise figures are difficult to determine, some historians estimate that at least 30 % (and sometimes 50 % to 70 %) of some Native populations died after first contact due to Eurasian smallpox. One element of the Columbian exchange suggests explorers from the Christopher Columbus expedition contracted syphilis from indigenous peoples and carried it back to Europe, where it spread widely. Other researchers believe that the disease existed in Europe and Asia before Columbus and his men returned from exposure to indigenous peoples of the Americas, but that they brought back a more virulent form.
In the 100 years following the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas, large disease epidemics depopulated large parts of the eastern United States in the 15th century. In 1618 -- 1619, smallpox killed 90 % of the Native Americans in the area of the Massachusetts Bay. Historians believe many Mohawk in present - day New York became infected after contact with children of Dutch traders in Albany in 1634. The disease swept through Mohawk villages, reaching the Onondaga at Lake Ontario by 1636, and the lands of the western Iroquois by 1679, as it was carried by Mohawk and other Native Americans who traveled the trading routes. The high rate of fatalities caused breakdowns in Native American societies and disrupted generational exchange of culture.
Through the mid 17th century the Beaver Wars were fought over the fur trade between the Iroquois and the Hurons, the northern Algonquians, and their French allies. During the war the Iroquois destroyed several large tribal confederacies -- including the Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock, and Shawnee, and became dominant in the region and enlarged their territory.
Between 1754 and 1763, many Native American tribes were involved in the French and Indian War / Seven Years ' War. Those involved in the fur trade in the northern areas tended to ally with French forces against British colonial militias. Native Americans fought on both sides of the conflict. The greater number of tribes fought with the French in the hopes of checking British expansion. The British had made fewer allies, but it was joined by some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties to preserve their territories. They were often disappointed when such treaties were later overturned. The tribes had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies.
After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30 % of Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next 80 to 100 years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region. Puget Sound area populations, once estimated as high as 37,000 people, were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century. The Spanish missions in California did not significantly affect the population of Native Americans, but the numbers of the latter decreased rapidly after California ceased to be a Spanish colony, especially during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th (see chart on the right).
Smallpox epidemics in 1780 -- 1782 and 1837 -- 1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. By 1832, the federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans.
With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were carried from one to the other, both deliberately and by chance, in what is called the Columbian Exchange. Sheep, pigs, horses, and cattle were all Old World animals that were introduced to contemporary Native Americans who never knew such animals.
In the 16th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to Mexico. Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The early American horse had been game for the earliest humans on the continent. It was hunted to extinction about 7000 BCE, just after the end of the last glacial period. Native Americans benefited from the reintroduction of horses, as they adopted the use of the animals, they began to change their cultures in substantial ways, especially by extending their nomadic ranges for hunting.
The reintroduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on Native American culture of the Great Plains. The tribes trained and used horses to ride and to carry packs or pull travois. The people fully incorporated the use of horses into their societies and expanded their territories. They used horses to carry goods for exchange with neighboring tribes, to hunt game, especially bison, and to conduct wars and horse raids.
King Philip 's War, also called Metacom 's War or Metacom 's Rebellion, was an armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present - day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies from 1675 to 1676. It continued in northern New England (primarily on the Maine frontier) even after King Philip was killed, until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678. According to a combined estimate of loss of life in Schultz and Tougias ' King Philip 's War, The History and Legacy of America 's Forgotten Conflict (based on sources from the Department of Defense, the Bureau of Census, and the work of Colonial historian Francis Jennings), 800 out of 52,000 English colonists of New England (1 out of every 65) and 3,000 out of 20,000 natives (3 out of every 20) lost their lives due to the war, which makes it proportionately one of the bloodiest and costliest in the history of America. More than half of New England 's 90 towns were assaulted by Native American warriors. One in ten soldiers on both sides were wounded or killed.
The war is named after the main leader of the Native American side, Metacomet (also known as Metacom or Pometacom) who was known to the English as King Philip. He was the last Massasoit (Great Leader) of the Pokanoket Tribe / Pokanoket Federation and Wampanoag Nation. Upon their loss to the Colonists, many managed to flee to the North to continue their fight against the British (Massachusetts Bay Colony) by joining with the Abanaki Tribes and Wabanaki Federation.
Some Europeans considered Native American societies to be representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history. The political theorist Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote that the idea of freedom and democratic ideals was born in the Americas because "it was only in America '' that Europeans from 1500 to 1776 knew of societies that were "truly free. ''
Natural freedom is the only object of the policy of the (Native Americans); with this freedom do nature and climate rule alone amongst them... (Native Americans) maintain their freedom and find abundant nourishment... (and are) people who live without laws, without police, without religion.
In the 20th century, some writers have credited the Iroquois nations ' political confederacy and democratic government as being influences for the development of the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. In October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois Constitution upon the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.
However, leading historians of the period note that historic evidence is lacking to support such an interpretation. Gordon Wood wrote, "The English colonists did not need the Indians to tell them about federalism or self - government. The New England Confederation was organized as early as 1643. '' The historian Jack Rakove, a specialist in early American history, in 2005 noted that the voluminous documentation of the Constitutional proceedings "contain no significant reference to Iroquois. '' Secondly, he notes: "All the key political concepts that were the stuff of American political discourse before the Revolution and after, had obvious European antecedents and referents: bicameralism, separation of powers, confederations, and the like. ''
During the American Revolution, the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River. Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, based both on their trading relationships and hopes that colonial defeat would result in a halt to further colonial expansion onto Native American land. Many native communities were divided over which side to support in the war and others wanted to remain neutral. The first native community to sign a treaty with the new United States Government was the Lenape. For the Iroquois Confederacy, based in New York, the American Revolution resulted in civil war. The only Iroquois tribes to ally with the colonials were the Oneida and Tuscarora.
Frontier warfare during the American Revolution was particularly brutal, and numerous atrocities were committed by settlers and native tribes alike. Noncombatants suffered greatly during the war. Military expeditions on each side destroyed villages and food supplies to reduce the ability of people to fight, as in frequent raids by both sides in the Mohawk Valley and western New York. The largest of these expeditions was the Sullivan Expedition of 1779, in which American colonial troops destroyed more than 40 Iroquois villages to neutralize Iroquois raids in upstate New York. The expedition failed to have the desired effect: Native American activity became even more determined.
American Indians have played a central role in shaping the history of the nation, and they are deeply woven into the social fabric of much of American life... During the last three decades of the 20th century, scholars of ethnohistory, of the "new Indian history, '' and of Native American studies forcefully demonstrated that to understand American history and the American experience, one must include American Indians.
The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans. The Northwest Indian War was led by Native American tribes trying to repulse American settlers. The United States initially treated the Native Americans who had fought as allies with the British as a conquered people who had lost their lands. Although most members of the Iroquois tribes went to Canada with the Loyalists, others tried to stay in New York and western territories to maintain their lands. The state of New York made a separate treaty with Iroquois nations and put up for sale 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km) of land that had previously been their territories. The state established small reservations in western New York for the remnant peoples.
The Indians presented a reverse image of European civilization which helped America establish a national identity that was neither savage nor civilized.
The United States was eager to expand, to develop farming and settlements in new areas, and to satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy.
European nations sent Native Americans (sometimes against their will) to the Old World as objects of curiosity. They often entertained royalty and were sometimes prey to commercial purposes. Christianization of Native Americans was a charted purpose for some European colonies.
Whereas it hath at this time become peculiarly necessary to warn the citizens of the United States against a violation of the treaties... I do by these presents require, all officers of the United States, as well civil as military, and all other citizens and inhabitants thereof, to govern themselves according to the treaties and act aforesaid, as they will answer the contrary at their peril.
United States policy toward Native Americans had continued to evolve after the American Revolution. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing '' process. Washington had a six - point plan for civilization which included:
Robert Remini, a historian, wrote that "once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans. '' The United States appointed agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Native Americans and to teach them how to live like whites.
How different would be the sensation of a philosophic mind to reflect that instead of exterminating a part of the human race by our modes of population that we had persevered through all difficulties and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and the arts, to the Aboriginals of the Country by which the source of future life and happiness had been preserved and extended. But it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America -- This opinion is probably more convenient than just.
In the late 18th century, reformers starting with Washington and Knox, supported educating native children and adults, in efforts to "civilize '' or otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the larger society (as opposed to relegating them to reservations). The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies (mostly religious) who worked on Native American improvement.
I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families. Be assured you will support them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and a little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt; and a woman will clothe more by spinning and weaving, than a man by hunting. Compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, and the exercise of that reason which you possess in common with us. Follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure...
As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted settlers ' encroachment in several regions of the new nation (and in unorganized territories), from the Northwest to the Southeast, and then in the West, as settlers encountered the tribes of the Great Plains.
East of the Mississippi River, an intertribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811 -- 12, known as Tecumseh 's War. In the latter stages, Tecumseh 's group allied with the British forces in the War of 1812 and was instrumental in the conquest of Detroit. Conflicts in the Southeast include the Creek War and Seminole Wars, both before and after the Indian Removals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes beginning in the 1830s under President Andrew Jackson 's policies.
Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the United States throughout the 19th century, through what were called generally "Indian Wars. '' The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) was one of the greatest Native American victories. Defeats included the Sioux Uprising of 1862, the Sand Creek Massacre (1864) and Wounded Knee in 1890. Indian Wars continued into the early 20th century.
According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894),
"The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate... ''
In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase, "Manifest Destiny, '' as the "design of Providence '' supporting the territorial expansion of the United States. Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans, since continental expansion for the United States took place at the cost of their occupied land. Manifest Destiny was a justification for expansion and westward movement, or, in some interpretations, an ideology or doctrine that helped to promote the progress of civilization. Advocates of Manifest Destiny believed that expansion was not only good, but that it was obvious and certain. The term was first used primarily by Jacksonian Democrats in the 1840s to promote the annexation of much of what is now the Western United States (the Oregon Territory, the Texas Annexation, and the Mexican Cession).
What a prodigious growth this English race, especially the American branch of it, is having! How soon will it subdue and occupy all the wild parts of this continent and of the islands adjacent. No prophecy, however seemingly extravagant, as to future achievements in this way (is) likely to equal the reality.
The age of Manifest Destiny, which came to be associated with extinguishing American Indian territorial claims and removing them to reservations, gained ground as the United States population explored and settled west of the Mississippi River. Although Indian Removal from the Southeast had been proposed by some as a humanitarian measure to ensure their survival away from Americans, conflicts of the 19th century led some European - Americans to regard the natives as "savages ''.
Many Native Americans served in the military during the Civil War, on both sides. By fighting with the whites, Native Americans hoped to gain favor with the prevailing government by supporting the war effort.
General Ely S. Parker, a member of the Seneca tribe, created the articles of surrender which General Robert E. Lee signed at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Gen. Parker, who served as Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's military secretary and was a trained attorney, was once rejected for Union military service because of his race. At Appomattox, Lee is said to have remarked to Parker, "I am glad to see one real American here, '' to which Parker replied, "We are all Americans. '' General Stand Watie, a leader of the Cherokee Nation and Confederate Indian cavalry commander, was the last Confederate General to surrender his troops.
In the 19th century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the Hopewell Treaty of 1785. Under President Andrew Jackson, United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river.
As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian Removal policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties.
The most egregious violation of the stated intention of the removal policy took place under the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a dissident faction of Cherokees but not the principal chief. The following year, the Cherokee conceded to removal, but Georgia included their land in a lottery for European - American settlement before that. President Jackson used the military to gather and transport the Cherokee to the west, whose timing and lack of adequate supplies led to the deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees on the Trail of Tears. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 enslaved blacks held by Cherokees, were taken by force migration to Indian Territory.
Tribes were generally located to reservations where they could more easily be separated from traditional life and pushed into European - American society. Some southern states additionally enacted laws in the 19th century forbidding non-Native American settlement on Native American lands, with the intention to prevent sympathetic white missionaries from aiding the scattered Native American resistance.
In 1817, the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U.S. citizens. Under Article 8 of the 1817 Cherokee treaty, "Upwards of 300 Cherokees (Heads of Families) in the honest simplicity of their souls, made an election to become American citizens. '' The next earliest recorded date of Native Americans ' becoming U.S. citizens was in 1831, when some Mississippi Choctaw became citizens after the United States Congress ratified the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek.
Article 22 sought to put a Choctaw representative in the U.S. House of Representatives. Under article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move with the Choctaw Nation could become an American citizen when he registered and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. Through the years, Native Americans became U.S. citizens by:
1. Treaty provision (as with the Cherokee) 2. Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8, 1887 3. Issuance of Patent in Fee simple 4. Adopting Habits of Civilized Life 5. Minor Children 6. Citizenship by Birth 7. Becoming Soldiers and Sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces 8. Marriage to a U.S. citizen 9. Special Act of Congress.
In 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney expressed the opinion of the court that since Native Americans were "free and independent people, '' they could become U.S. citizens. Taney asserted that Native Americans could be naturalized and join the "political community '' of the United States.
(Native Americans), without doubt, like the subjects of any other foreign Government, be naturalized by the authority of Congress, and become citizens of a State, and of the United States; and if an individual should leave his nation or tribe, and take up his abode among the white population, he would be entitled to all the rights and privileges which would belong to an emigrant from any other foreign people.
After the American Civil War, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 states, "that all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States ''. This was affirmed by the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. But the concept of Native Americans as U.S. citizens fell out of favor among politicians at the time. Senator Jacob Howard of Michigan commented, "I am not yet prepared to pass a sweeping act of naturalization by which all the Indian savages, wild or tame, belonging to a tribal relation, are to become my fellow - citizens and go to the polls and vote with me ''. (Congressional Globe, 1866, 2895) In a Senate floor debate regarding the Fourteenth Amendment, James Rood Doolittle of Wisconsin stated, "... all those wild Indians to be citizens of the United States, the Great Republic of the world, whose citizenship should be a title as proud as that of king, and whose danger is that you may degrade that citizenship (Congressional Globe, 1866, 2892). ''
In 1871 Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties.
That hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty: Provided, further, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to invalidate or impair the obligation of any treaty heretofore lawfully made and ratified with any such Indian nation or tribe.
After the Indian wars in the late 19th century, the United States established Native American boarding schools, initially run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries. At this time American society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the general society. The boarding school experience often proved traumatic to Native American children, who were forbidden to speak their native languages, taught Christianity and denied the right to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities and adopt European - American culture.
Since the late 20th century, investigations have documented cases of sexual, physical and mental abuse occurring at such schools. While problems were documented as early as the 1920s, some of the schools continued into the 1960s. Since the rise of self - determination for Native Americans, they have generally emphasized education of their children at schools near where they live. In addition, many federally recognized tribes have taken over operations of such schools and added programs of language retention and revival to strengthen their cultures. Beginning in the 1970s, tribes have also founded colleges at their reservations, controlled and operated by Native Americans, to educate their young for jobs as well as to pass on their cultures.
On August 29, 1911 Ishi, generally considered to have been the last Native American to live most of his life without contact with European - American culture, was discovered near Oroville, California after a forest fire drove him from nearby mountains. He was the last of his tribe, the rest having been massacred by a party of White "Indian fighters '' in 1865 when he was a boy. After being jailed in protective custody, Ishi was released to anthropologists led by Alfred L. Kroeber at the University of California. They studied his Southern Yahi language and culture, and provided him a home until his death from tuberculosis five years later.
On June 2, 1924 U.S. Republican President Calvin Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act, which made citizens of the United States of all Native Americans born in the United States and its territories and who were not already citizens. Prior to passage of the act, nearly two - thirds of Native Americans were already U.S. citizens.
American Indians today have all the rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution, can vote in elections, and run for political office. There has been controversy over how much the federal government has jurisdiction over tribal affairs, sovereignty, and cultural practices.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all noncitizen Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of the United States: Provided, That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Native American to tribal or other property.
Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the United States military during World War II: at the time, one - third of all able - bodied Indian men from 18 to 50 years of age. The entry of young men into the United States military during World War II has been described as the first large - scale exodus of indigenous peoples from the reservations. It involved more people than any migration since the removals from areas east of the Mississippi River of the early 19th century.
The men 's service with the US military in the international conflict was a turning point in Native American history. The overwhelming majority of Native Americans welcomed the opportunity to serve; they had a voluntary enlistment rate that was 40 % higher than those who were drafted. War Department officials said that if the entire population had enlisted in the same proportion as the Native Americans, the response would have rendered the draft unnecessary.
Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward Native American comrades by calling them "chief ''. Native American cultures were profoundly changed after their young men returned home, because of their wide contact with the world outside of the reservation system. "The war '', said the U.S. Indian Commissioner in 1945, "caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the reservation era '', affecting the habits, views, and economic well - being of tribal members.
The most significant of these changes was the opportunity -- as a result of wartime labor shortages -- to find well - paying work in cities. After the war many Native Americans relocated to urban areas, particularly on the West Coast with the buildup of the defense industry. In the 1950s the federal government had a relocation policy encouraging them to do so because of economic opportunity in cities. But Native Americans struggled with discrimination and the great cultural changes in leaving their reservations behind.
There were also losses as a result of the war. For instance, a total of 1,200 Pueblo men served in World War II; only about half came home alive. In addition many more Navajo served as Code talkers for the military in the Pacific. The code they made, although cryptologically very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese.
Military service and urban residency contributed to the rise of American Indian activism, particularly after the 1960s and the occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969 -- 1971) by a student Indian group from San Francisco. In the same period, the American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in Minneapolis, and chapters were established throughout the country, where American Indians combined spiritual and political activism. Political protests gained national media attention and the sympathy of the American public.
Through the mid-1970s, conflicts between governments and Native Americans occasionally erupted into violence. A notable late 20th - century event was the Wounded Knee incident on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. Upset with tribal government and the failures of the federal government to enforce treaty rights, about 300 Oglala Lakota and American Indian Movement (AIM) activists took control of Wounded Knee on February 27, 1973.
Indian activists from around the country joined them at Pine Ridge, and the occupation became a symbol of rising American Indian identity and power. Federal law enforcement officials and the national guard cordoned off the town, and the two sides had a standoff for 71 days. During much gunfire, one United States Marshal was wounded and paralyzed. In late April a Cherokee and local Lakota man were killed by gunfire; the Lakota elders ended the occupation to ensure no more lives were lost.
In June 1975, two FBI agents seeking to make an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation were wounded in a firefight, and killed at close range. The AIM activist Leonard Peltier was sentenced in 1976 to two consecutive terms of life in prison in the FBI deaths.
In 1968 the government enacted the Indian Civil Rights Act. This gave tribal members most of the protections against abuses by tribal governments that the Bill of Rights accords to all U.S. citizens with respect to the federal government. In 1975 the U.S. government passed the Indian Self - Determination and Education Assistance Act, marking the culmination of 15 years of policy changes. It resulted from American Indian activism, the Civil Rights Movement, and community development aspects of President Lyndon Johnson 's social programs of the 1960s. The Act recognized the right and need of Native Americans for self - determination. It marked the U.S. government 's turn away from the 1950s policy of termination of the relationship between tribes and the government. The U.S. government encouraged Native Americans ' efforts at self - government and determining their futures. Tribes have developed organizations to administer their own social, welfare and housing programs, for instance. Tribal self - determination has created tension with respect to the federal government 's historic trust obligation to care for Indians, however, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has never lived up to that responsibility.
By this time, tribes had already started to establish community schools to replace the BIA boarding schools. Led by the Navajo Nation in 1968, tribes started tribal colleges and universities, to build their own models of education on reservations, preserve and revive their cultures, and develop educated workforces. In 1994 the U.S. Congress passed legislation recognizing the tribal colleges as land - grant colleges, which provided opportunities for funding. Thirty - two tribal colleges in the United States belong to the American Indian Higher Education Consortium. By the early 21st century, tribal nations had also established numerous language revival programs in their schools.
In addition, Native American activism has led major universities across the country to establish Native American studies programs and departments, increasing awareness of the strengths of Indian cultures, providing opportunities for academics, and deepening research on history and cultures in the United States. Native Americans have entered academia; journalism and media; politics at local, state and federal levels; and public service, for instance, influencing medical research and policy to identify issues related to American Indians.
In 1981, Tim Giago founded the Lakota Times, an independent Native American newspaper, located at the Pine Ridge Reservation but not controlled by tribal government. He later founded the Native American Journalists Association. Other independent newspapers and media corporations have been developed, so that Native American journalists are contributing perspective on their own affairs and other policies and events.
In 2004 Senator Sam Brownback (Republican of Kansas) introduced a joint resolution (Senate Joint Resolution 37) to "offer an apology to all Native Peoples on behalf of the United States '' for past "ill - conceived policies '' by the U.S. government regarding Indian Tribes. President Barack Obama signed the historic apology into law in 2009, as section Section 8113 of the 2010 defense appropriations bill.
After years of investigation and independent work by Native American journalists, in 2003 the U.S. government indicted suspects in the December 1975 murder of Anna Mae Aquash at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. A Mi'kmaq, Aquash was the highest - ranking woman activist in the American Indian Movement (AIM) at the time. She was killed several months after two FBI agents had been killed at the reservation. Many Lakota believe that she was killed by AIM on suspicion of having been an FBI informant, but she never worked for the FBI. Arlo Looking Cloud was convicted in federal court in 2004. In 2007 the United States extradited AIM activist John Graham from Canada to stand trial for her murder. He was also convicted and sentenced to life.
The Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 (P.L. 101 - 644) is a truth - in - advertising law that prohibits misrepresentation in marketing of American Indian or Alaska Native arts and crafts products within the United States, including dreamcatchers. It is illegal to offer or display for sale, or sell any art or craft product in a manner that falsely suggests it is Indian produced. Though this law has been in effect for 27 years -- it is still widely unknown and rarely enforced due to the difficulty in proving the heritage of anyone found to be in violation of the law.
Native American tribes and individuals began to file suits against the federal government over a range of issues, especially land claims and mismanagement of trust lands and fees. A number of longstanding cases were finally settled by the administration of President Barack Obama, who made a commitment to improve relations between the federal government and the tribes. Among these was Cobell v. Salazar, a class action suit settled in 2009, with Congress appropriating funds in 2010. Another was Keepseagle v., settled in April 2011. The $760 million settlement "designated $680 million for Native American farmers who had faced discrimination from the U.S. Department of Agriculture over a period of several years in the past.
By 2012, "the Justice and Interior departments had reached settlements totaling more than $1 billion with 41 tribes for claims of mismanagement. '' The Navajo Nation gained the largest settlement with a single tribe, of $554 million. It is the largest tribe in the United States.
In 2013 under renewal of the Violence Against Women Act, the federal government strengthened protection of Native American women, as it established authority for tribes to prosecute non-Natives who commit crimes on Indian land. Domestic and sexual abuse of Native American women has been a problem in many areas, but previous laws prevented arrest or prosecution by tribal police or courts of non-native abusive partners.
Native American migration to urban areas continued to grow: 70 % of Native Americans lived in urban areas in 2012, up from 45 % in 1970, and 8 % in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Rapid City, Minneapolis, Oklahoma City, Denver, Phoenix, Tucson, Seattle, Chicago, Houston, and New York City. Many have lived in poverty and struggled with discrimination. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs were common problems which Indian social service organizations, such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis, have attempted to address.
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where are the vocal and vestibular folds located | Vestibular fold - wikipedia
1 hyoid bone 2 epiglottis 3 vestibular fold, false vocal fold / cord, (Plica vestibularis) 4 vocal fold, true vocal fold, (Plica vocalis) 5 Musculus ventricularis 6 ventricle of larynx (Ventriculus laryngis) 7 Musculus vocalis 8 Adam 's apple (thyroid cartilage) 9 rings of cartilage (cricoid cartilage) 10 Cavum infraglotticum 11 first tracheal cartilage
The vestibular fold (ventricular fold, superior or false vocal cord) is one of two thick folds of mucous membrane, each enclosing a narrow band of fibrous tissue, the vestibular ligament, which is attached in front to the angle of the thyroid cartilage immediately below the attachment of the epiglottis, and behind to the antero - lateral surface of the arytenoid cartilage, a short distance above the vocal process.
The lower border of this ligament, enclosed in mucous membrane, forms a free crescentic margin, which constitutes the upper boundary of the ventricle of the larynx.
The vestibular folds of the larynx play a significant role in the maintenance of the laryngeal functions of breathing and preventing food and drink from entering the airway during swallowing. They aid phonation (speech) by suppressing dysphonia. In some ethnic singing and chanting styles, such as in Tibet and Mongolia, the vestibular folds may be used in co-oscillation with the vocal folds, producing very low pitched sounds. Conversely, people who have had their epiglottis removed because of cancer do not choke any more than when it was present.
They have a minimal role in normal phonation but, are often used to produce deep sonorous tones in Tibetan chant and Tuvan throat singing, as well as in musical screaming and the death growl singing style used in various forms of metal. Simultaneous voicing with the vocal and vestibular folds is diplophonia. Some voice actors occasionally employ small amounts of this phonation for its dark, growling quality while portraying a "villainous '' or antagonistic voice.
They are lined with respiratory epithelium, while true vocal cords have stratified squamous epithelium.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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what letters have your national insurance number on | National identification number - wikipedia
A national identification number, national identity number, or national insurance number is used by the governments of many countries as a means of tracking their citizens, permanent residents, and temporary residents for the purposes of work, taxation, government benefits, health care, and other governmentally - related functions. The number appears on identity documents issued by several of the countries.
The ways in which such a system is implemented vary among countries, but in most cases citizens are issued an identification number upon reaching legal age, or when they are born. Non-citizens may be issued such numbers when they enter the country, or when granted a temporary or permanent residence permit.
Many countries issued such numbers for a singular purpose, but over time, they become a de facto national identification number. For example, the United States developed its Social Security number system as a means of organizing disbursing of Social Security benefits. However, due to function creep, the number has become used for other purposes to the point where it is almost essential to have one to, among other things, open a bank account, obtain a credit card, or drive a car. Although some countries are required to collect TIN / SSN information for overseas payment procedures, some countries, like the US, are not required to collect other nations ' TIN if other requirements are met, such as date of birth. Authorities use databases and they need a unique identifier in order to be that data actually refer to the searched person. In countries where there is no established nationwide number, authorities need to create their own number for each person, though there is a risk of mismatching people.
In The Gambia, the National Identification Number (NIN) consists of 11 digits in the form DDMMYY - PG - # # CS. DD MM YY indicates date of birth, PG indicates place of issuance and nationality, # # is a serial number and also indicates sex and CS is a check sum.
The Nigerian National Identification Number (NIN) is issued and managed by National Identity Management Commission (NIMC), and it 's a set of eleven digits (e.g.: 134789009), assigned to 16 + years old Nigerians and legal residents by the Government.
In the Republic of South Africa every citizen must apply for an Identity Document from the age of 16 years. The ID number is already allocated at the time the birth certificate is generated and required for child passport applications. This passport - size document contains only 8 pages - the first page containing the national identification number (also in barcoded format), name of bearer, district or country of birth, as well as a photograph of the bearer. The other pages are used for recording of voting participation, a page for driver 's license information (although it is no longer used since the introduction of plastic card type licenses), as well as pages for fire arms licenses (also plastic card type now). The document is required to apply for a passport, car learner 's license (over 17), motorcycle learner 's license (over 16), driving license (over 18), motorcycle license (over 16 or 18 depending on cc) and to vote (over 18). The Identity Document is not used for international travel purposes (a separate passport is issued) but usually is acceptable photographic identification for internal flights, and mainly serves as proof of identification. Some authorities may accept the driver 's license as proof of identity, but the Identity Document is the only universally accepted form of identification. The government has started issuing ID cards which contains a biometric chip which, in turn, holds biographical information which is unique to the holder of that specific card. The South African government wishes to phase out the old Green Barcoded ID book and replace it with the Identity Card. The Identity number is also used when the holder applies for a grant from the South African Social Security Agency (SASSA).
A South African person identification number is a 13 - digit number containing only numeric characters, and no whitespace, punctuation, or alpha characters. It is defined as YYMMDDSSSSCAZ:
Using ID Number 8001015009087 as an example, it would read as follows:
The ID indicates that a male citizen was born on 1 January 1980; he was the 10th male to be registered (assuming that the first male to be registered on that day would be assigned the sequence number 5000).
The checksum digit is calculated using the Luhn algorithm:
During the apartheid era the next to last digit, "A '', denoted "race ''. Since these documents were not then issued to the majority population, the "race '' code does not include those classified as Black. i.e. 7605300675088
"A '' Classification:
After about 1987, the racial classification was eliminated, and all existing numbers were reissued with new digits in the last two fields (AZ).
In contrast to other countries the South African ID number is not unique, at least because of the use of a two - digit year. Other issues with duplications exist: however the Department of Home Affairs HANIS Project has planned to rectify that with ID smart cards. The timeline for that is undetermined as the last budget request for 08 / 09 and 09 / 10 included requests for budget for it despite the project being active since 1997.
Upon reaching the age of 16 the applicant then has to go to the registrar generals offices in their district to obtain a national ID. Foreigners in Zimbabwe have their ID number with the district of origin as 00 meaning they are foreigners so their ID number would look like 12 345678 A00. Zimbabweans who are not of black race also get a district of origin shown as 00, even those who are of mixed race.
In Argentina the only nationally issued identification is the DNI, Documento Nacional de Identidad (National Identity Document). It is a number not related to anything in particular about the person (except for immigrants who get assigned numbers starting at 92,000,000). It is assigned at birth by the Registro Nacional de las Personas (National Registry for People), but parents need to sign up their children, and because of this there are some people, especially the poor, who do not have a DNI.
The ID is required for applying for credit, opening a bank account, and for voting. Law requires a person to show his or her DNI when using a credit card. Prior to the DNI the LC (Libreta Cívica, for women), and LE (Libreta de Enrolamiento, for men) were used. This was later unified in the DNI.
For taxpaying purposes, the CUIT and CUIL (Código Único de Identificación Tributaria, Unique Code for Taxpaying Identification and Código Único de Identificación Laboral, Unique Code for Laboral Identification). An example of the ID is 20 - 10563145 - 8. It is based on the DNI and appends 2 numbers at the beginning and one at the end. For example, 20 and 23 for men, 27 for women, and one control digit at the end. Employees have a CUIL (assigned at the moment the DNI is created), and employers have a CUIT. The first two digits to identify the CUIT for companies are for instance: 30 or 33. If a person decides to open a company of its own, his CUIL usually becomes his CUIT. The CUIT was needed because a different identification is required for companies, who can not be identified by a DNI number.
In Brazil there are two systems. The first, the Registro Geral (RG) is a number associated to the official ID card. Although the ID cards are supposedly national, the RG numbers are assigned by the states and a few other organizations, such as the armed forces. So, not only is it possible for a person to have the same RG number as a person from other state (which is usually dealt with by specifying the state which issued the ID card), but it is also possible to (legally) have more than one RG, from different states.
The other system, the Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas (CPF) is federal and supposedly unique (barring fraud), but it was created originally for purposes of taxation (a related system is used for companies, which is called Cadastro Nacional de Pessoas Jurídicas - CNPJ). One, the other or both numbers are required for many common tasks in Brazil, such as opening a bank account or getting a driver 's license. The RG system is more widespread, but its shortcomings have led to debate about merging both systems into a new one, which would be based around the CPF.
Another type of registration is the Social Security Number, which is originated when a person creates one in the National Social Security Institute 's site or starts to work for a company, when this one has to register the employee in the Social Integration Program.
There is another number for elections, which are mandatory participation for citizens from 18 to 70 years old.
The use of the Social Insurance Number (SIN) as a "de facto '' ID number ended in 2004 with passage of The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act. There are only certain instances where an organization may ask for a SIN (namely for tax or retirement benefit related issues). The SIN must be guarded as confidential personal information, and therefore can not be used as a general ID number. Nevertheless, the SIN is still used as a unique identifier for the Canada Revenue Agency to track individuals who are filing their income tax returns.
In Chile the National Identification Number is called RUN (Rol Único Nacional), but is usually called RUT (Rol Único Tributario) since the number is the same as the one used for tax purposes. The main difference between them is that RUN is only assigned to natural persons, while juristic persons can only get a RUT number.
In the case of natural persons, RUN / RUT number is used as a national identification number, tax payer number, social insurance number, driver 's license number, for employment, etc. It is also commonly used as a customer number in banks, retailers, insurance companies, airlines, etc. Until the end of August 2013, the RUN was also used as the passport number. After this date, Chilean passports have had unique numbers.
Since well before 1990, every baby born is given a RUN number; previously it was assigned at the moment of applying to get the ID card. Non-Chilean residents also get a RUN and an identification card. Every company or organization also must have a RUT for taxation purposes.
The RUN or RUT has 7 or 8 digits (for people alive today; in the past, there were persons with a 5 - or 6 - digit one, but have died off) plus a check digit or letter (xx. xxx. xxx - z, z is (0 - 9, K)).
Some open source libraries have been already written for Java and Clojure.
Another good resource and implementation example in C# it 's available here
In Colombia, each person is issued a basic ID card during childhood (Tarjeta de Identidad). The ID number includes the date of birth and a short serial number. Upon reaching the age of 18, every citizen is reissued a citizenship card (Cédula de Ciudadanía), and the ID number on it is used and required in all instances, public and private.
Every Colombian national traveling abroad is issued a passport document (which includes a passport number related to the national identification number); in this manner foreign governments can track Colombian nationals with their consulates.
There is as well a number assigned to companies: NIT (Número de Identificación Tributaria). Tributary Identification Number (for its Spanish acronym). Among other things, it is used for tax reports.
RUT (Registro único tributario) (taxpayer identification number) (10)
As of 2003 created the NUIP (Número Único de Identificación Personal), starting the numbering per billion (1,000,000,000).
In Mexico, the ID number is called the CURP (Clave Única de Registro de Población) although the most important and accepted ID card would be the election card ("credencial de elector '' or else "credencial del INE, '' as per the initials of "Instituto Nacional Electoral / National Institute of Elections, the institution responsible for electoral procedures). There are, however, other important ID numbers in Mexico: for instance, the social security number, which is the number assigned by Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Institute of Social Security, or IMSS) to every citizen who starts working, or the RFC (Registro Federal del Contribuyente) which is assigned by the Treasury and has the same format as the CURP but a shorter length.
In the United States, a Selective Service Number must be applied for by all male citizens turning age 18. An optional national identity number is the Social Security number (SSN), a nine - digit number issued to U.S. citizens, permanent residents, and temporary (working) residents. Its purpose was to identify individuals for the purposes of Social Security, but it is now also used to track individuals for taxation purposes. There is no legal requirement to have a SSN if it is not required for Social Security or taxation purposes, but in practice one is required for many other purposes, for example to open a bank account or apply for a driving license, so that nearly all U.S. citizens and permanent residents have one. The SSN has therefore become a de facto national identification number, despite the fact that originally it was expressly not for this purpose. In fact, a valid SSN can be easily guessed, as they were issued serially prior to June 25, 2011.
In Venezuela, the SAIME (DIEX) issues an ID card for individuals in their teens (Cédula de Identidad). The ID card includes date of birth, a correlative number (population continuous number for nationals, greater than 80,000,000 for foreign - born residents), a photo, marital status, expiration date (an expired ID card is still valid for nationals), and a fingerprint. Newly issued ID cards are valid for 10 years.
Companies are assigned an RIF (Fiscal Information Registry) number for taxable purposes. For physical persons, it is their ID number + checksum digit.
In Bahrain every citizen and resident must hold an Identification Card (Arabic: بطاقة الهوية ) and thus has a Personal Number (Arabic: الرقم الشخصي ) which consists of 8 digits followed by a check digit (Total: 9 digits). In general, it has the following format: YYMMNNNNC, where YYMM is the year and month of birth, NNNN is a random number, C is the check digit. However, a minority of citizens and residents have Personal Numbers that do not follow that format.
It is possible to obtain a Distinctive Personal Number (Arabic: الرقم الشخصي المميز ), only for newborn infants and it is optional and not compulsory, for a fee (US $130, 200, or 260 depending on the category).
Another local name for the Personal number is Central Population Registration (CPR) Number (Arabic: الرقم السكاني ) which was used before the inception of the Central Informatics Organization (CIO) (Arabic: الجهاز المركزي للمعلومات ).
In Bangladesh national ID card is issued by Election Commission.
In the PRC, an ID card is mandatory for all citizens who are over 16 years old. The ID number has 18 digits and is in the format RRRRRRYYYYMMDDSSSC, which is the sole and exclusive identification code for the holder (an old ID card only has 15 digits in the format RRRRRRYYMMDDIII). RRRRRR is a standard code for the administrative division where the holder is born (county or a district of a city), YYYYMMDD is the birth date of the holder, and SSS is a sequential code for distinguishing people with identical birthdates and birthplaces. The sequential code is odd for males and even for females. The final character, C, is a checksum value over the first 17 digits. To calculate the checksum, each digit in order is multiplied by a weight in the ordered set (7 9 10 5 8 4 2 1 6 3 7 9 10 5 8 4 2) and summed together. The sum modulus 11 is used as an index into the ordered set (1 0 X 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2), with the first index being zero. The indexed value is the checksum digit. In 15 digit IDs, III is an identification number created through certain mathematical methods (the last digit might be an English letter, such as X). The ID card is used for residential registration, army enrollment registration, registration of marriage / divorce, going abroad, taking part in national exams, and other social or civil matters.
In Hong Kong, a Hong Kong Identity Card (HKID) is mandatory for all residents aged over 11, subject to limited exceptions. HKID cards contain the bearer 's HKID number, of which the standard format is X123456 (A). X represents one or two letters of the alphabet. The numerals may represent any Arabic number. A is the check digit, which has 11 possible values from 0 to 9 and A. The letters and numbers are not assigned arbitrarily. Additionally, one can view the international securities identification numbers organization that helps assign ISIN codes to securities.
As World 's biggest Biometric ID Programme, the Indian Government on 28 January 2009, established an Authority called the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) to issue a Unique Identification Number to all citizens and residents of India. UIDAI 's Aadhaar card project gives each Indian citizen a unique 12 digit identification number, along with recording their biometrics such as iris scan and fingerprints on a UIDAI database and the card is being rolled out to all eligible citizens. The first Aadhaar number was launched in Maharashtra in the village of Tembli, on 29 September 2010. So far up to February 2016, 984 million (98 crores) Aadhaar Numbers have been issued. In October 2015, 93 percent of adult Indians have an Aadhaar card. There is no Aadhaar smart card but UID information of a card can be printed on a piece of paper or on a plastic card. After the recent order by the supreme court of India Aadhar card is not mandatory for availing public services. Government has also authorised printing of Aadhar like Pan cards i.e. in PVC cards.
Before Aadhaar, the closest India has come to this is the Permanent account number (PAN), issued by the Income Tax Office, for purposes of tracking income and income taxes. It has gained use as a means of identification for activities like getting a phone connection. A total of 24.37 crore (243.7 million) PANs have been allotted as of 24 February 2016.
In Indonesia, 16 digit number is used as a unique number for each citizens. It is known as Nomor Induk Kependudukan. The number is given to all Indonesian citizen. The format is PPRRSSDDMMYYXXXX where PP is two digits province code, RR is two digits regency or city code, SS is two digits sub-district code, DDMMYY is date of birth (DD is added by 40 for female), and XXXX is a four digits computerized number. The number is stated in Indonesian identity card. Add with individual state code as per issue state a unique no of district. and its no to be reflected from (like District no + state No + India National N
This program is designed on the basis of UIDAI of India. Though Indonesia started late, Indonesia National ID program is growing at much rapid pace and assumed to complete earlier than India due to smaller population.
Since 2012, the government rolls out e-KTP ("Elektronik Kartu Tanda Penduduk '', "Electronic Citizen ID Card '') which is an RFID card containing encrypted information of the electronic signature, iris scan, ten - finger fingerprint scan and a high - resolution passport photo.
In Iran ID card named (کارت ملی) Iranian national identity card karte - meli, ID card is mandatory for all citizens who are over 15 years old and National Identification Number is a 10 - digit number in the format of XXX - XXXXXX - X; (e.g. 012 - 345678 - 9). The government started NIDs and 10 - digit postal codes in 1989.
Every Iraqi citizen must have a Nationality Certificate (شهادة الجنسية) and a civil Identification Document (هوية الأحوال المدنية). In 2016, both documents were replaced with National Card (البطاقة الوطنية), a biometric ID card.
An Identity Number (Hebrew: מספר זהות Mispar Zehut) is issued to all Israeli citizens at birth by the Ministry of the Interior. It is composed of nine digits: a one - digit prefix, seven digits, and a final check digit. Blocks of numbers are distributed to hospitals, and individual numbers are issued to babies upon discharge from hospital. Temporary residents (category A-5) are assigned a number when they receive temporary resident status.
An Identity Card, (Hebrew: Teudat Zehut), bearing an Identity Number, is issued to all residents over 16 years old who have legal temporary or permanent residence status, including non-citizens.
Japan 's national identification number system, known within the country as "My Number '' (Japanese: マイ ナンバー), went into effect from 2016. The number consists of 12 digits, and one is assigned to each resident of Japan, including non-Japanese long - term residents with valid residency permits.
In Kazakhstan there is a 12 - digit Individual Identification Number for natural persons (abbreviated in Kazakh: ЖСН, ZhSN; in Russian: ИИН, IIN, with first six digits representing person 's date of birth in the YYMMDD format) and a 12 - digit Business Identification Number ru: Бизнес - идентификационный номер for legal entities (companies).
Until its abolishment on 1 January 2013, the 12 - digit Taxpayer 's Registration Number (Kazakh: Салық төлеушінің тіркеу нөмірі; Russian: Регистрационный номер налогоплательщика, usually abbreviated as РНН, RNN) was more popular in dealings with authorities as well as with businesses.
In Kuwait, the 12 - digit national identification number is the Civil Number (Arabic: الرقم المدني ), it follows the format (NYYMMDDNNNNN), and is issued and put on the Civil ID and managed by Public Agency for Civil Information (PACI) Arabic: الهيئة العامة للمعلومات المدنية .
The Civil ID contains holder 's name in Arabic and English, picture, gender, date of birth, current address and a digital memory.
The Civil Number is issued for citizens and residents, and it 's used for a lot of tasks like opening a bank account, getting free medical care or even for taking some tests like the IELTS exam. Passports can be used instead for those who do n't have Civil IDs like tourists.
In Macau, there are two types of ID cards: Permanent Resident Identity Card (BIRP) and Non-Permanent Resident Identity Card (BIRNP). The identification number has 8 - digit standard format: NNNNNNN (N), where N is a numeric digit 0 - 9. The first numeric digit N has special meaning, and it can be one of the following digits: ' 1 ', ' 5 ' or ' 7 '.
During Portuguese rule, Macau had no unified identification system, and several departments had the authority to issue identity cards to Macau citizens and residents. Since 1992, the Identification Department (once known as SIM, now called DSI) has become the unitary authority to issue identity cards. It has adopted the above - mentioned numbering policy.
Macau 's Finance Department has also adopted identification number as a tax reporting number, for tax filing purposes.
In Malaysia, a 12 - digit number (format: YYMMDD - SS - # # # G, since 1991) known as the National Registration Identification Card Number (NRIC No.) is issued to citizens and permanent residents on a MyKad. Prior to January 1, 2004, a separate social security (SOCSO) number (also the old IC number in format ' S # # # # # # # # # ', S denotes state of birth or country of origin (alphabet or number), # is a 9 - digit serial number) was used for social security - related affairs.
The first group of numbers (YYMMDD) are the date of birth. The second group of numbers (SS) represents the place of birth of the holder - the states (01 - 13), the federal territories (14 - 16) or the country of origin (60 - 85). The last group of numbers (# # # G) is a serial number in an unidentified pattern which is randomly generated. The last digit (G) is an odd number for a male, while an even number is given for a female.
In Nepal, there is no national identification but needs to for the process of development.
After the independence of Pakistan, Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan launched the Personal Identity System (PIS) program to issue national identification cards to the citizens of Pakistan and Muslim refugees settling in Pakistan. Since the 1960s, Pakistan has been issuing National Identity Card (commonly known by the acronym, NIC) numbers to its citizens. These numbers are assigned at birth when the parents complete the child 's birth registration form (B - Form), and then a National Identity Card (NIC) with the same number is issued at the age of 18. Until, 2001 NIC numbers were 11 digits long. In 2001 -- 2002, the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA), started issuing 13 - digit NIC numbers along with their new biometric ID cards. The first 5 digits are based on the applicant 's locality, the next 7 are serial numbers, and the last digit is a check digit. The last digit also indicates the gender of the applicant; an even number indicates a female and an odd number indicates a male. The old numbers are invalid as of 2004.
As of 2012, NADRA has started to issue SMART ID cards which include an encrypted chip. The SMART card plan is to be extended to disburse social benefits as well as to allow the heirs of the card to get life insurance at the death of the card holder.
Every citizen has an NIC number for activities such as paying taxes, opening a bank account, getting a utility connection (phone, cell phone, gas, electricity). However, since a majority of births in the country are not registered, and a large number of Pakistanis do not conduct any of the activities described above, most do not have ID cards. Obtaining an NIC card costs 100 rupees (US $1.66 - almost the average daily income), and this reduces the number of people who can afford it. In 2006, NADRA announced that it had issued 50 million CNIC (the C standing for Computerized) numbers, which is approximately one - third of the population. In June 2008, the federal government announced it would start issuing CNIC cards for free.
In addition to NIC / CNIC companies and individuals in business and employment with taxable income are required to register with Central Board of Revenue and have their National Tax Number (commonly known as NTN). The tax number is mainly used only for taxation purposes and is rarely used otherwise as compared to other countries. New NTN certificates are being issued with computerized NIC numbers and old NTN certificates bearing old NIC numbers will become invalid.
In Singapore the National Registration Identity Card (NRIC) is issued to Singapore citizens and permanent residents. Permanent residents (PR) are issued with NRIC number similar to citizens.
The NRIC contains a unique number that identifies the person holding it, and is used for almost all identification purposes in Singapore, including authentication when accessing the Singapore government 's web portal. Citizens and permanent residents are issued with identity number starts with prefix S (born before 2000) and T (born in or after year 2000), followed with a 7 - digit number and a checksum alphabet. For citizens and permanent residents born after 1968, the first two digits of the 7 - digit number indicate their birth year.
Long - term pass holders (e.g. people holding work permits, employment passes or student passes) are issued a similarly formatted Foreign Identification Number (FIN) on their long - term passes, with prefix F (registered before year 2000) and G (registered in or after year 2000).
In South Korea, every Korean resident is assigned a Resident 's Registration Number (주민등록번호), which has the form 000000 - 0000000. The last seven digits have his / her birthday and gender, where the first six digits are in the format YYMMDD. The first digit of the last seven digits is determined by the century and the gender as follows:
(For example, a male citizen who was born on 27 May 2001 is assigned the number 010527 ‒ 3 * * * * * *, and a female citizen which was born on 24 March 1975 is assigned the number 750324 ‒ 2 * * * * * *.)
The next four digits mean the region of his / her birth registration, and the next 1 digit is a serial number of registration within the date and the region. The last digit is a check digit.
In Sri Lanka, all citizens over the age of 16 need to apply for a National Identity Card (NIC). Each NIC has a unique 10 digit number, in the format 000000000A (where 0 is a digit and A is a letter). The first two digits of the number are your year of birth (e.g.: 88xxxxxxxx for someone born in 1988). Add 500 to middle 3 numbers after first two numbers for females. The final letter is generally a ' V ' or ' X '. An NIC number is required to apply for a passport (over 16), driving license (over 18) and to vote (over 18). In addition, all citizens are required to carry their NIC on them as proof of identity. NICs are not issued to non-citizens, but they too are required to carry some form of photo identification (such as a photocopy of their passport or foreign driving license).
In Taiwan, an ID card is mandatory for all citizens who are over 14 years old. Every citizen has a unique ID number. The ID card has been uniformly numbered since 1965. A valid National Identification number consists of one letter and nine - digits, in the format A# # # # # # # # C. The letter ("A '') records the card holder 's first location of household registration, which is usually where they were born. The first digit depends on gender; 1 for male, 2 for female. The last digit ("C '') is a checksum. Thus the total number of IDs is 208,000,000.
The letter usage (i.e., indicating the household registration location) is as follows:
In Thailand, the Population Identification Code has been issued by the Department of Provincial Administration of the Ministry of Interior since 1976. It consists of a 13 - digit string in the format N - NNNN - NNNNN - NN - N, which is assigned at birth or upon receiving citizenship. The first digit signifies type of citizenship, the second to fifth the office where the number was issued, the sixth to twelfth are group and sequence numbers, and the last digit acts as a check digit.
The Emirates Identity Authority (Arabic: هيئة الإمارات للهوية ) issues an Identity Card (Arabic: بطاقة الهوية ) to each citizen and resident. The cardholder 's name, nationality, gender and date of birth are printed on the card. The card also bears a unique 15 - digit Identification Number (Arabic: رقم الهوية ), which is used for identity verification by the government and some private entities. Inside the card is an electronic chip which contains personal and biometric data about the cardholder.
The Identification Number has the following format: 784 - YYYY - NNNNNNN - C, where 784 is the ISO 3166 - 1 numeric code for the UAE, YYYY is the year of birth, NNNNNNN is a random 7 - digit number, and C is a check digit.
In Vietnam, a Vietnam ID card (Vietnamese: Thẻ căn cước công dân), is issued by Provincial Police Department for Vietnamese citizens. The ID card number is a combination of 12 digits.
The expiry date of the ID card is 15 years.
In Albania, the Identity Number (Albanian: Numri i Identitetit (NID)) is issued by the Central Civic Registry Service (Ministry of Interior). The coding structure and algorithm is regulated by a decision of the Council of Ministers of Albania (No. 827, Dated 11.12. 2003). From 2004 to 2007, the Identity Number was referred to as the Citizen Identity Number (Albanian: Numri i Identitetit të Shtetasit (NISH)). As of 2007, with the introduction the new legislation regarding the new biometric ID cards and biometric passports, it is referred to as the Identity Number. The Albanian national identification number appears in the Albanian national ID cards and biometric passports under the ' personal no. ' section.
The Albanian Identity Number is a unique personal identification number of 10 characters in the format YYMMDDSSSC, where YYMMDD indicates the date of birth and sex (for males MM is 01 - 12, for females 50 is added to the month of birth so that MM is 51 - 62), SSS is a sequence number of persons born on the same date (001 -- 999), and C is a checksum letter (A -- W). The YY part of the date of birth is calculated from the following table:
e.g. For people born in the year 2003, YY would be K3.
In Austria there are two schemes to identify individuals:
The Sector - Specific Personal Identifier (ssPIN) tries to do away with the problems of the SSN. Its legal foundation is the Austrian E-Government Act, and it is derived from the Central Register of Residents (CRR). Its specification is related with the Austrian Citizen Card.
Its computation (specification) is a two - stage process: The CCR ID is encoded into the Source Identification Number (Source PIN) with a symmetrical crypto - function. This is again one - way encoded into the ssPIN per sector of governmental activity. For the storage of SourcePINs is not limited to citizen cards, and an application can not convert a ssPIN from one sector to the ssPIN from applications of other sectors, the link - up of data of sectors by PINs is constricted. However, there is a legal exception to this rule: applications may query for and store ssPINs from other sectors if they are encrypted in a way that makes them only usable in the target application. This enables the application to communicate across sectors.
In Belgium every citizen has a National Register Number, which is created by using the citizen 's date of birth (encoded in six digits), followed by a serial number (three digits) and a checksum (two digits). The serial number is used so that men get the odd numbers, while women get the even numbers; thus, there can be only 500 men or women on each day.
The national number is unique to each person and in that capacity used by most government institutions; however, because one can immediately read the date of birth and the sex of the numbers ' holder and because it is the key in most government databases (including that of the tax administration, the social security, and others), it is considered a privacy - sensitive number. For that reason, although it is put on the identity card by default, with the old ID cards a citizen could request that this would not be done. With the newer Digital ID cards that Belgium is rolling out, this is no longer possible, since the National Number is used as the serial number for the private cryptography keys on the card...
Each citizen receives 13 number Unique Master Citizen Number (Bosnian: Jedinstveni matični broj građana) upon birth. Unique Master Citizen Number comprises 13 digits in DDMMYYY RR XXX C format. DD / MM / YYY represents citizens birth date. RR indicates one of 10 Bosnian regions (10: Banja Luka, 11: Bihać, 12: Doboj, 13: Goražde, 14: Livno, 15: Mostar, 16: Prijedor, 17: Sarajevo, 18: Tuzla, 19: Zenica) where the citizen was born. XXX is a unique sequential number where 000 - 499 is used for males and 500 - 999 for females. The final number is a check - sum.
Foreign citizens born or residing in Bosnia & Herzegovina can also receive a Unique Master Citizen Number (UMCN). The RR sequence foreign nationals is 01. Upon gaining Bosnian citizenship, a former foreign national can request new UMCN where the RR part is represented by the region where they were first registered.
Every citizen or permanent resident of Bulgaria has a unique 10 - digit Uniform Civil Number (Bulgarian: Единен граждански номер, Edinen grazhdanski nomer, usually abbreviated as ЕГН, EGN), generated from the person 's date of birth (encoded in six digits in the form YYMMDD), followed by a three - digit serial number and a single - digit checksum. The last digit of serial number indicates gender: odd numbers are used for females and even numbers for males.
For persons born prior to 1900, the month identifier (third and fourth digits) is increased by 20 (e.g. 952324XXXX denotes a person born on 24 March 1895). Similarly, 40 is added to denote that a person was born after 1999 (e.g. 054907XXXX denotes a person born on 7 September 2005).
EGNs were introduced in 1977 and are used in virtually all dealings with public service agencies, and often with private businesses. EGNs are also printed on Bulgarian identity cards and passports, under the heading "ЕГН / Personal number ''.
In Croatia, the Personal Identification Number (Croatian: Osobni identifikacijski broj (OIB)), is used for identifying the citizens and legal persons in many government and civilian systems. The OIB - system was introduced on January 1, 2009 and replaced the old JMBG system, renamed to Master Citizen Number (Croatian: Matični broj građana (MBG)) in 2002, that was used in former Yugoslavia. The OIB consists of eleven random digits and the last number is a control number. Although the OIB is in use, the MBG is still issued and used for data coordination among government registries.
Czech Republic and Slovakia uses a system called Birth Number (Czech / Slovak: rodné číslo (RČ)). The system was introduced in the former Czechoslovakia.
The form is YYXXDD / SSSC, where XX = MM (month of birth) for male (numbers 01 - 12) and XX = MM + 50 for female (numbers 51 - 62), SSS is a serial number separating persons born on the same date and C is a check digit, but for people born before 1 January 1954 the form is without the check digit - YYXXDD / SSS. This enables the system to work until the year 2054. The whole number must be divisible by 11.
The system is raising privacy concerns, since the age and the gender of the bearer can be decoded from the number. Therefore, the birth number is considered a sensitive piece of personal information.
A Personal Identification Number (Da. CPR, Det Centrale Personregister) in Denmark is used in dealings with public agencies, from health care to the tax authorities. It is also used as a customer number in banks and insurance companies. People must be registered with a CPR number if they reside in Denmark, if they own property or if they pay tax.
In Denmark, there has been a systematic registration since 1924, however it was in 1968 that the electronic CPR register was established.
In the 1980s, the electronic system was exported to Kuwait, Jamaica, Malaysia, Thailand, Romania, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Slovakia, and Saint Petersburg.
The CPR number is a ten - digit number with the format DDMMYY - SSSS, where DDMMYY is the date of birth and SSSS is a sequence number. The first digit of the sequence number encodes the century of birth (so that centenarians are distinguished from infants, 0 - 4 in odd centuries, 5 - 9 in even centuries), and the last digit of the sequence number is odd for males and even for females.
Prior to 2007, the last digit was also a check digit such that less than 240 SSSS values were available for any given combination of gender and date of birth, but due to an administrative practice of assigning Jan 1 and similar dates for immigrants with unknown date of birth, any SSSS value consistent with gender and century of birth may now be issued, even for birth dates prior to 2007.
Companies and other taxable non-humans are issued an eight - digit "CVR '' number which is a mostly sequential number, there is no defined rule preventing the issuance of a CVR number with the same digits as a CPR number of an unrelated person, so the type of number must always be indicated, but CPR are always 10 - digit and CVR 8 - digit. VAT registration numbers for Danish companies are simply "DK '' followed by the CVR number, but far from all CVR numbered entities are VAT registered (companies with no need for a VAT number, such as holding companies, typically do not request a VAT registration for their CVR).
Government entities are numbered in a variety of ways, but since 2003 all government entities (however small) now have EAN numbers for billing purposes. Some Government entities also have CVR numbers. Only one Government Entity (the Queen) has a CPR number.
The CPR number gives government agencies access to state - controlled databases with information about the person. The information includes: The person 's marital status and spouse, parents, children, current and former addresses, the cars the person has owned, the criminal record and other information about the person.
Foreigners who are not eligible to get a CPR - number, but who need one, includes persons who have witnessed a crime, persons who have been charged with a crime, or are victims of a crime. These persons are registered with a CPR - number with the format: DDMMYY - XXXX where XXXX are four letters instead of four numbers.
In Estonia, a Personal Identification Code (Estonian: isikukood (IK)) is defined as a number formed on the basis of the sex and date of birth of a person which allows the identification of the person and used by government and other systems where identification is required, as well as by digital signatures using the nation ID - card and its associated certificates. An Estonian Personal identification code consists of 11 digits, generally given without any whitespace or other delimiters. The form is GYYMMDDSSSC, where G shows sex and century of birth (odd number male, even number female, 1 - 2 19th century, 3 - 4 20th century, 5 - 6 21st century), SSS is a serial number separating persons born on the same date and C a checksum.
Within the European Economic Area and Switzerland, a card known as the European Health Insurance Card is issued to any resident who so wishes, proving the right of health care anywhere in the area. This card lists a code called "Identification Number '', quite simply the national identification number of the residence country, for Germany the health insurance number.
In Finland, the Personal Identity Code (Finnish: henkilötunnus (HETU), Swedish: personbeteckning), also known as Personal Identification Number, was introduced in 1964 and it is used for identifying the citizens in government and many corporate and other transactions. It consists of eleven characters of the form DDMMYYCZZZQ, where DDMMYY is the date of birth, C the century sign, ZZZ the individual number and Q the control character (checksum). The sign for the century is either + (1800 -- 1899), - (1900 -- 1999), or A (2000 -- 2099). The individual number ZZZ is odd for males and even for females and for people born in Finland its range is 002 - 899 (larger numbers may be used in special cases). An example of a valid code is 311280 - 888Y.
The control character is calculated as the remainder of DDMMYYZZZ divided by 31, i.e. drop the century sign and divide the resulting nine digit number by 31. For remainders below ten, the remainder itself is the control character, otherwise pick the corresponding character from string "0123456789ABCDEFHJKLMNPRSTUVWXY ''. For example, 311280888 divided by 31 gives the remainder as 30, and since A = 10, B = 11, etc. ending up with Y = 30.
A Personal Identity Code is given to every Finnish citizen born in Finland. Foreign citizens whose residence in Finland is permanent or exceeds one year are also issued a personal identity code by law. The Personal Identity Code is a means to distinguish between individuals having the same name. It can be found in some public documents (such as the deed of purchase of real estate). Therefore, knowing the code should not be used as a proof of identity, although this sometimes happens in the commercial sector. Employers need the personal identity code to report payment of wages to Finnish Tax Administration, the pension funds, etc.
The number is shown in all forms of valid identification:
During 1964 -- 1970 the personal identity code was known as sosiaaliturvatunnus (SOTU, Social Security number). The term is still widely in use unofficially (and incorrectly).
In France, the INSEE code is used as a social insurance number, a national identification number, for taxation purposes, for employment, etc. It was invented under the Vichy regime.
In Germany, there is no national identification number in the full meaning of the term. Until 2007 only decentralized databases were kept by social insurance companies, who allocate a social insurance number to almost every person.
Since 2008 new Taxpayer Identification Numbers (German: Steuerliche Identifikationsnummer or Steuer - IdNr) replace the former Tax File Number. Persons who are both employees and self - employed at the same time may receive two taxpayer identification numbers. The corresponding number for organizations, also issued by the tax administration, is named economy identification number (Wirtschafts - Identifikationsnummer). These numbering concepts are national systems, organized by the Federal Central Tax Office. For special purpose further value - added tax identification numbers are issued for persons and organizations that are subject to paying VAT as a deduct from their revenues. This is a Europe - wide unified concept. Additionally for all persons joining the military service, a Service Number is issued.
None of these numbers are commonly used for other than their specific purpose, nor is such (ab) use legal. German identity documents do not contain any of the mentioned numbers, only a document number. People are not expected to know their number when dealing with an authority, so there are some troubles about people being mismatched.
For some time, the West German government intended to create a 12 - digit personal identification number (Personenkennzeichen, PKZ) for all citizens, registered alien residents on its territory, as well as for all non-resident Nazi victims entitled to compensation payments. The system, which was to be implemented by the 1973 federal law on civil registry, was rejected in 1976, when the Bundestag found the concept of an identification system for the entire population to be incompatible with the existing legal framework. In East Germany, a similar system named Personenkennzahl (PKZ) was set up in 1970 and remained in use until the state ceased to exist in 1990.
As Germany is part of the Visa Waiver Program German citizens can enter the USA for up to 90 days without the need of a visa. In order to participate in this program it is required to fill out an online form called ESTA. This formular specifically asks German citizens about a national identification number. US authorities expect to provide the document number of the German identity card.
In Greece, there are a number of national identification numbers.
The ID card number is not unique and changes if the person gets a new identity card. The tax identity number is unique for every citizen and company. Social security number is also unique.
In Hungary, there is no national identification number. The Constitutional Court decided in 1991: "A general, uniform personal identification code which may be used without restriction (i.e. a personal number) distributed to every citizen and to every resident of the country based on an identical principle is unconstitutional. ''
Although the universal use of national identification number (known as "Personal Identification Number '') is considered to be unconstitutional, it is still used in many places. The structure of such number is GYYMMDDXXXC, whereas G is the gender (1 - male, 2 - female, other numbers are also possible for citizens born before 1900 or citizens with double citizenship), YYMMDD is the birth date year, month, day, XXX is the serial number, and C is a checksum digit.
The meanings of the first number:
Until 1997 also were used the following first numbers:
As the "Personal Identification Number '' is considered to be unconstitutional, another identification form, the ID - card number is in use.
So an average Hungarian has these identifiers: personal identification number, ID card identification number, social security number ("TAJ '' number), tax identification number. They may also have passport identification number, driving license number.
All Icelanders, as well as foreign citizens residing in Iceland and corporations and institutions, have a kennitala ' (lit. identification number) identifying them in the National Register. The number is composed of 10 digits, of which the first six are the individual 's birth date or corporation 's founding date in the format DDMMYY. The next two digits are chosen at random when the kennitala is allocated, the ninth digit is a check digit, and the last digit indicates the century in which the individual was born (for instance, ' 9 ' for the period 1900 -- 1999, or ' 0 ' for the period 2000 -- 2099). An example would be 120174 - 3399, the person being born on the twelfth day of January 1974. The Icelandic system is similar to that in other Scandinavian and European countries, but the use of the identification number is unusually open and extensive in Iceland. Businesses and universities use the kennitala as a customer or student identifier, and all banking transactions include it. The National Registry (Icelandic: Þjóðskrá) oversees the system. A database matching names to numbers is freely accessible (after login) on all Icelandic online banking sites. Given this openness, the kennitala is never used as an authenticator. It is worth noting that the completeness of the National Register eliminates any need for Iceland to take censuses.
In Ireland the Personal Public Service Number (PPS No) is gaining the characteristics of a national identification number as it is used for a variety of public services - although it is stated that it is not a national identifier and its use is defined by law. The PPS No. is in the basic form of 1234567T (PPS Numbers allocated from 1 January 2013 will have the format 1234567TA) and is unique to every person.
For certain public services the collection or retention of numbers of the general public is not allowed, thus Garda Síochána (Irish police) is only given an exemption for its own employees or other people defined under the Immigration Act, 2003 - the latter who are people who are not European Union nationals. Similarly the Irish Defence Forces may only collect and retain the number for their own employees.
The PPS Number can not be used for private or commercial transactions. The number is used in the private sector, but is limited to a few procedures that lawfully required the production of a number, for transactions with public services and in this regard the private sector will be acting as the agent of a public body entitled to collect and retain the number. Thus, for instance, students who attend college or university will have their number (or other personal data) collected at registration - this will then be sent to Department of Social Protection to ensure that a student is not simultaneously claiming social welfare. Banks may collect the number for the administration of accounts that give interest or tax reliefs which the state funds, through the Revenue Commissioners. A bank may not use the number as a customer identification number.
In Italy, the fiscal code (Italian: Codice fiscale) is issued to Italians at birth. It is in the format "SSSNNNYYMDDZZZZX '', where: SSS are the first three consonants in the family name (the first vowel and then an X are used if there are not enough consonants); NNN is the first name, of which the first, third and fourth consonants are used -- exceptions are handled as in family names; YY are the last digits of the birth year; M is the letter for the month of birth -- letters are used in alphabetical order, but only the letters A to E, H, L, M, P, R to T are used (thus, January is A and October is R); DD is the day of the month of birth -- in order to differentiate between genders, 40 is added to the day of birth for women (thus a woman born on May 3 has... E43...); ZZZZ is an area code specific to the municipality where the person was born -- country - wide codes are used for foreign countries; X is a parity character as calculated by adding together characters in the even and odd positions, and dividing them by 26. Numerical values are used for letters in even positions according to their alphabetical order. Characters in odd positions have different values.
A letter is then used which corresponds to the value of the remainder of the division in the alphabet. An exception algorithm exists in case of perfectly matching codes for two persons. Issuance of the code is centralized to the Ministry of Treasure. The fiscal code uniquely identifies an Italian citizen or permanently resident alien, and is thus used. However, since it can be calculated from personal information (whether real, or not), it is not generally regarded as an extremely reserved piece of information, nor as official proof of identity / existence of an individual.
In Latvia the Personal Code (Latvian: Personas kods) consists of 11 digits in form DDMMYY - XNNNC where the first six digits are person 's date of birth, the next one stands for a century person was born in (0 for XIX, 1 for XX and 2 for XXI), NNN is birth serial number in that day, and C is checksum digit. From July 1, 2017 Personal Codes are issued without indication to date of birth.
In Lithuania the Personal Code (Lithuanian: Asmens kodas) consists of 11 digits, and currently is in the form G YYMMDD NNN C, where G is gender & birth century, YYMMDD is the birthday, NNN is a serial number, C is a checksum digit. In this scheme, the first number (G) shows both the person 's gender (odd if male, even if female) and birth century. For example, 4 would mean female, born between 1900 -- 1999. This number can be calculated as:
The checksum is calculated using this formula (provided here as JavaScript code):
Recently (as of May 2015) there are plans to start issuing opaque codes instead, keeping the same overall format and checksum, but containing no personal information.
Macedonia uses a 13 - number identification code Unique Master Citizen Number ((Единствен матичен број на граѓанинот) error: ((lang - xx)): text has italic markup (help), acronym ЕМБГ).
The Unique Master Citizen Number is composed of 13 digits (DDMMYYYRRSSSC) arranged in six groups: two digits (DD) for the citizen 's day of birth, two digits (MM) for the month of birth, last three digits (YYY) of the year of birth, two digits (RR) as a registry number, three digits (SSS) as a combination of the citizen 's sex and ordinal number of birth, and one digit (C) as a control number.
The two digit registry number depends on the citizens place of birth. There are nine registry codes that define the place of birth: 41 for the municipalities of Bitola, Demir Hisar and Resen; 42 for the municipalities of Kumanovo, Kratovo and Kriva Palanka; 43 for the municipalities of Ohrid, Struga, Debar and Kičevo; 44 for the municipalities of Prilep, Kruševo and Makedonski Brod; 45 for the City of Skopje; 46 for the municipalities of Strumica, Valandovo and Radoviš; 47 for the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar; 48 for the municipalities of Veles, Gevegelija, Kavadarci and Negotino; and 49 for the municipalities of Štip, Berovo, Vinica, Delčevo, Kočani, Probištip and Sveti Nikole.
The combination of the citizen 's sex and ordinal number of birth is presented as a 3 digit number - from 000 to 499 for the male, and from 500 to 999 for the female citizens.
The last digit is a computer generated control digit.
In the Republic of Moldova, all citizens receive at birth a Personal Code (IDNP - Numarul de Identificare), which is composed of 13 digits. This code is shown on all identity documents:
Montenegro uses a 13 - number identification code Jedinstveni matični broj građana / Јединствени матични број грађана (JMBG) - Unique Master Citizen Number.
In the Netherlands, all people receive a Burgerservicenummer (BSN) (Citizen Service Number) when they are born. It is printed on driving licenses, passports and international ID cards, under the header Personal Number. Before 2007, the BSN was known as sofinummer (the acronym sofi stands for so - ciaal (social) fi - scaal (fiscal)). The number is unique. However, initially it was issued by regionally operating branches of the tax department which were all assigned ranges; in densely populated areas the assigned ranges would overflow thus causing duplicate numbers. This mistake was corrected during the transition from SOFI to BSN by issuing a new number to people having a duplicate one. The number does not contain any information about the person to whom it is assigned (i.e. no information, such as gender or date of birth, can be derived from a BSN).
Norway 's eleven - digit birth number (fødselsnummer) is assigned at birth, or on migration into the country. The register is maintained by the Norwegian Tax Office. The number has been in use since the 1960s and was first introduced to the public in 1968. The number is not as widely and openly used as in some other Scandinavian countries, and a 2007 report criticized the common misperception by the Norwegian public that the number is suitable for use as a PIN code.
Historically, the number has been composed of the date of birth (DDMMYY), a three digit individual number, and two check digits. The individual number and the check digits are collectively known as the Personal Number.
In 2017, the Norwegian Ministry of Finance approved changes to the numbering system. After the changes, the number will no longer indicate gender, and the first check digit will be ' released ' to become part of the individual number.
In Poland, a Public Electronic Census System (Polish Powszechny Elektroniczny System Ewidencji Ludności - PESEL) number is mandatory for all permanent residents of Poland and for temporary residents living in Poland for over 2 months. It has the form YYMMDDZZZXQ, where YYMMDD is the date of birth (with century encoded in month field), ZZZ is the personal identification number, X denotes sex (even for females, odd for males) and Q is a parity number.
The Constitution of Portugal - in its 35th Article - expressly prohibits the assignment of a national single number to the citizens. This prohibition is related with the protection of the personal rights, liberties and guaranties. As such, a national identification number does not exist, but instead each citizen has several different identification numbers for use in the different single purposes.
The existing main identification numbers are:
The NIC and the NIF are the mostly commonly used identification numbers in Portugal. These two numbers are used for a broad number of purposes - both in the public and the private sectors - and not only for the specific purposes for which they were originally conceived.
In the past, to each of the above identification numbers corresponded a separate identification document. However, in 2006, the single Citizen Card was implemented. This card includes the civil identification, the tax identification, the Social Security and the Healthcare user numbers, replacing the old corresponding identification cards. Besides this, the Citizen Card also replaced the previous Voter 's Card, although not including the voter 's number. The replacing of the previous separate identification documents by the single Citizen Card is a gradual process, only being mandatory for a citizen, when one of his / her old documents expires. The driver 's license continues to be an entirely separate document.
In Romania each citizen has a Personal Numerical Code (Cod Numeric Personal, CNP), which is created by using the citizen 's gender and century of birth (1 / 3 / 5 / 7 for male, 2 / 4 / 6 / 8 for female and 9 for foreign citizen), date of birth (six digits, YYMMDD), the country zone (two digits, from 01 to 52, or 99), followed by a serial number (3 digits), and finally a checksum digit.
The first digit encodes the gender of person as follows:
The country zone is a code of Romanian county in alphabetical order. For Bucharest the code is 4 followed by the sector number.
To calculate the checksum digit, every digit from CNP is multiplied with the corresponding digit in number 279146358279; the sum of all these multiplications is then divided by 11. If the remainder is 10 then the checksum digit is 1, otherwise it 's the remainder itself.
In San Marino there exists the Codice ISS (Istituto Sicurezza Sociale), which is composed of 5 digits. It is given to all San Marino citizens and permanent residents.
Serbia uses a 13 - number identification code Unique Master Citizen Number (Serbian: Јединствени матични број грађана / Jedinstveni matični broj građana, acronym JMBG).
In Slovakia there are two kinds of National identification numbers. The first one is the Birth Number (Slovak: Rodné číslo (RČ)), issued at birth by the civic records authority (Slovak: matrika) and recorded on the birth certificate. Its format is YYMMDD / XXXX with YYMMDD being the date of birth and XXXX being a semi-unique identifier. For females, the month of the date of birth is advanced by 50. Full identification number in the form YYMMDDXXXX must be divisible by 11. Since this system does not provide a truly unique identifier (the numbers are repeated every century) and contains what might be considered private information, it may be updated in the future.
The second system is the Citizen 's Identification Card Number (Slovak: Číslo občianskeho preukazu (ČOP)) which is in the form AA XXXXXX (A-alphabetic, X-numeric) and is used on Slovak identity cards. Identification Cards are issued by the state authority (police) for every citizen who reaches 15 years of age. In contrast to the Birth Number, this identifier can change over the citizen 's lifetime if a new ID card is issued, for reasons such as expiration, loss or change of residence. The ID number is used, among other things, for voter registration (because of the domicile record verification provided by the ID). A similar system, with both types of identification numbers, is used in the Czech Republic.
Slovenia uses a 13 - number identification code Enotna matična številka občana (EMŠO) - Unique Master Citizen Number.
It is composed of 13 digits as follows DDMMYYYRRSSSX.
DD - day of birth > MM - month of birth YYY - year of birth, last three digits RR - a constant value 50 This is a remnant of Yugoslavia, a registry number that marked the birth zone: - 00 - 09 -- foreigners - 10 - 19 -- Bosnia and Herzegovina - 20 - 29 -- Montenegro - 30 - 39 -- Croatia (33 - Zagreb) - 40 - 49 -- Macedonia - 50 - 59 -- Slovenia (only 50 is used) - 60 - 69 -- (not in use) - 70 - 79 -- Central Serbia (71 - Belgrade) - 80 - 89 -- Province of Vojvodina (80 -- Novi Sad) - 90 - 99 -- Province of Kosovo SSS - serial number or combination of sex and serial numbers for persons born on the same day (000 - 499 for men and 500 - 999 for women) X - checksum of first 12
In Spain, all resident Spanish citizens can obtain (mandatorily after 14 years old) a National Identity Document (Spanish: Documento Nacional de Identidad (DNI)), with a unique number, in the format 00000000 - A, where 0 is a digit and A is a checksum letter. Since 2010, foreign residents are no longer issued with identity cards, although they are assigned a number in the format X-0000000 - A (again, 0 is a digit, A is a checksum letter, and X is a letter, generally X but lately also Y), called an NIE Number (Número de Identificación de Extranjeros, Foreigner 's Identification Number). The DNI is required for all transactions related with tax authority, as well as to access the ubiquitous Spanish National Health System (although it has its own insured identification document), apply for marriage licences, receive unemployment compensation, and in general all interactions with law enforcement and any government or government - supervised institution.
Foreign residents are required to use their passports together with the document containing their NIE number
In Sweden a Personal Identity Number (Swedish: personnummer) is used in dealings with public agencies, from health care to the tax authorities. Public record. It appears on all approved identity documents. It is also used as a customer code by banks, insurance companies, and landlords. Most companies that keep records of their customers store it. The number uses ten digits, YYMMDD - NNGC. The first six give the birth date in YYMMDD format. Digits seven to nine (NNG) are used to make the number unique, where digit nine (G) is odd for men and even for women. For numbers issued before 1990, the seventh and eighth digit identify the county of birth or foreign - born people, but privacy - related criticism caused this system to be abandoned for new numbers. The tenth digit (C) is created using the Luhn, or "mod 10 '', checksum algorithm.
Registration numbers of Swedish corporations and other legal entities follow the same ten - digit format, but are not based on dates.
Since the introduction of a national pension scheme in 1948, most persons resident in Switzerland are allocated a Social Security Number (AHV - Nr. (de) / No AVS (fr)), which is also used for other governmental purposes. The eleven - digit format in use since 1968 is of the form AAA. BB. CCC. DDD and encodes information about the name, birth date and sex of its holder:
As of 2008, an anonymous thirteen - digit number is being issued to all Swiss residents. It is of the form 756. XXXX. XXXX. XY, where 756 is the ISO 3166 - 1 code for Switzerland, XXXX. XXXX. X is a random number and Y is an EAN - 13 check digit.
During the application for a national ID card, every Turkish citizen is assigned a unique personal identification number called Turkish Identification Number (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kimlik Numarası or abbreviated as T.C. Kimlik No.), an 11 - digit number with two trailing check digits. This assignment is organized through the MERNIS (abbreviation for English: Central Personal Registration Administration System) project that started on 28 October 2000. The national ID card is compulsory for every citizen and is issued at birth. Parents need to register to the authorities with the child 's birth certificate.
The identification number is used by public institutions in their certificates and documents like identity card, passport, international family book, driving license, form and manifesto they issue to citizens. It is used by services such as taxation, security, voting, education, social security, health care, military recruitment, and banking.
Individual Identification Number is a 10 digit number issued by the tax administration. The first 5 digits represent birthday as the number of days since 01 / 01 / 1900 (more numbers can be assigned to the same day, this additional or alternative numbers have greate first digit, typically 8). The next four digits is a serial number, it is used so that men get the odd numbers, and women get the even numbers. The last digit is a check digit. The algorithm is not publicly revealed. Similar numbers are issued to residents and foreigners. A person can opt out of receiving an Individual Identification Number based on religious or other beliefs, however it is associated with minor tax disadvantages. The Individual Identification Numbers are issued according to a Law of Ukraine 320 / 94 - BP passed on December 22, 1994. Since 2016, identification no. is one details of Ukrainian identity card (compared to being a separate paper document (still in force during transition period) in the past). It takes up to 5 days to obtain taxpayer identification number or tax ID in Ukraine.
There is no legal requirement in UK to obtain or carry any identification document or other proof of identity, however some form of identification is required for many things like renting a flat.
A National Insurance number, generally called an NI Number (NINO), is used to administer state benefits, but has not gained the ubiquity of its US equivalent, and is, quite rightly, not considered proof of identity. As it is the only number that is unique to each individual, does not change during the course of the person 's lifetime, and is issued to virtually every adult throughout the UK, it is used by Her Majesty 's Revenue and Customs (HMRC) to track individuals for income tax purposes. The number is stylised as LL NN NN NN L, for example AA 01 23 44 B.
Each baby born in the England and Wales is issued a National Health Service number, taking the form NNN - NNN - NNNN, for example 122 - 762 - 9257 (the last number being a check digit). They were formerly of the style "LLLNNL NNN '', for example KWB91M 342, which continued patterns used in World War II identity cards. However, due to the decentralized nature of local NHS organizations issuing the numbers, some patients have been allocated several numbers, the ratio is more often more (one person: many numbers) than (one person: one number). The National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) has also shown that one person can have many numbers, although measures are being undertaken to fix duplicates in the data.
Babies born in Scotland are issued a CHI (Community Health Index) number, taking the form DDMMYY - NNNN, with the DDMMYY representing their date of birth and a four digit unique number thereafter (e.g. someone born on 1 January 2010, would have the number 010110 - NNNN, with the four digit number allocated upon entering newborn details on to the local health board 's patient administration system). The second last N is even for females and odd for males.
In Australia, the Tax File Number (TFN) is issued by the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) to individuals and businesses to track them for income tax purposes. Similar to the Social Security Number (SSN) in the US, each individual 's TFN is unique, and does not change throughout their lifetime. However, unlike its U.S. counterpart, Australian law specifically prohibits the use of the TFN as a national identification number, and restricts the use of the TFN to tracking individuals for filing income taxes, superannuation contributions and receiving state welfare benefits.
In New Zealand, an Inland Revenue Department (IRD) number is issued by the IRD to every taxpayer (a natural or juristic person), and is needed with dealings with the IRD. It must be given to any employer or bank responsible for charging withholding tax, and to apply for or use a student loan. Driver 's licences carry a unique number, often recorded when providing them as identification.
The social security and student support services of the Ministry of Social Development (Work and Income, and StudyLink) issue a Work and Income client number, assigned at the occurrence of a person 's first contact with either service. A general letter of enquiry about a service appears to be sufficient for one to be logged and may be assigned without the letter writer 's knowledge.
A National Health Index (NHI) number is assigned to all newborn New Zealanders at birth, and those who use a health and disability support service that do not already have one.
The small population means a name and date of birth can usually uniquely identify someone, though identity theft is easily possible when two people share a name and birthdate.
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where was the first abercrombie and fitch store | History of Abercrombie & Fitch - wikipedia
The history of Abercrombie & Fitch began in the nineteenth century and extends into the twenty - first century. Key figures who changed and influenced the course of Abercrombie & Fitch 's history include co-founders David T. Abercrombie and Ezra Fitch, Limited Brands and Michael Jeffries, the former Chairman and CEO.
David Abercrombie founded A&F in 1892 as an upscale sporting goods store. Forming a partnership with Ezra Fitch, the company continued to expand in the new 20th century. After Abercrombie left the company, Fitch became sole owner and ushered in the "Fitch Years '' of continued success. Shortly after his retirement, the company continued to develop under a succession of other leaders until its financial fall and closing in 1977. Limited Brands purchased the ailing brand in 1988 and brought in Mike Jeffries, who revolutionized the image of Abercrombie & Fitch to become an upscale youthful fashion retailer. Today, the company is a multibillion - dollar entity continuing to experience economic expansion through the business continuance of three offshoot growing concepts and cautious international expansion into key luxury markets.
Prominent figures who patronized the company in its excursion goods days of the early 20th century include Teddy Roosevelt, Amelia Earhart, Greta Garbo, Katharine Hepburn, Clark Gable, John Steinbeck, John F. Kennedy, Ernest Shackleton, Cole Porter, and Dwight Eisenhower.
The company was originally established as Abercrombie Co. by David Abercrombie on June 4, 1892, in a small waterfront shop at 36 South Street in downtown Manhattan, New York. Wealthy New York businessman Ezra Fitch became one of the store 's regular customers. In 1900, Fitch bought a major share in the growing Abercrombie Company and thus joined as co-founder. Abercrombie Co. later moved into larger quarters at 314 Broadway, and Fitch began to implement experimental ideas to renovate the store. In 1904, Fitch 's surname was added to Abercrombie 's and so the official name became Abercrombie & Fitch Co.
The partnership between Abercrombie and Fitch did not end happily. The two men, with different visions for the future of A&F, quarreled frequently, although the company continued to prosper. Fitch wished to expand the company 's appeal to the general public, while Abercrombie wanted to continue selling professional gear to professional outdoorsmen. As a result of the disagreement, Abercrombie sold his share in the company to Fitch in 1907 and returned to manufacturing outdoor goods. Fitch continued the business with other partners and directed the company as he pleased.
In 1909, Abercrombie & Fitch Co. mailed over 50,000 copies of its 456 - page catalog worldwide (a staggering and costly amount of publication at that time, since each cost a dollar to produce). The catalog featured outdoor clothing, camping gear, articles, and advice columns. The cost of the catalog nearly bankrupted the company, but the catalog proved to be a profitable marketing device. Within the store, the catalog was available to customers for free. By 1910, the company began selling women 's clothing, and became the first store in New York to supply clothing to women as well as men. In 1913, after moving into Reade Street, which was not a convenient shopping location for women, the store relocated to a more fashionable and easily accessible midtown address near Fifth Avenue at 55 / 57 West 36th Street, expanding its inventory to include sportswear. In 1917, the store moved again into a twelve - story building at the corner of Madison Avenue and East 45th Street. The store occupied the entire available space (12 stories). Mr. Abercrombie was a farmer who thought clothes during the 19th century were boring. He became famous with his best friend Mr. Fitch. They then created Abercrombie and Fitch.
The Madison Avenue store included many different amenities. The basement housed a shooting range while on the mezzanine (main floor) paraphernalia for skiing, archery, free diving, and lawn games were sold. The second through fifth floors were reserved for clothing that was suitable for different climate or terrains. On the sixth floor were a picture gallery, a bookstore (focused on sporting themes), a watch repair facility and a golf school (fully equipped with a resident professional). The seventh floor included a gun room with hundreds of shotguns and rifles, decorated with stuffed game heads, as well as a kennel for dogs and cats. The eighth floor contained fishing, camping, and boating equipment and included a desk for a fly - and bait - casting instructor who gave lessons at the pool, which was located on the roof. The fishing section alone was stocked with over 48,000 flies and over 18,000 fishing lures.
Abercrombie & Fitch Co. became the first American store to import Mahjong. Ezra Fitch imported the game after a female customer looked for the game that she had played in China. He went to China for the game and translated the instructions into English. Mahjong became a fast selling product, and Abercrombie & Fitch became the epicenter of the Mahjong craze. The company sent emissaries to Chinese villages to buy as many Mahjong sets as possible and eventually sold over 12,000 sets.
In 1927, Abercrombie & Fitch outfitted Charles Lindbergh for his historic flight across the Atlantic Ocean. It also attracted the business of other prominent figures.
In 1928, Fitch retired from the company and sold to his brother - in - law, James S. Cobb. Under Cobb, A&F acquired Von Lengerke & Detmold, a well - respected New York dealer of fine European - made sporting guns and fishing tackle, as well as that company 's Chicago branch, Von Lengerke & Antoine. Cobb also acquired Griffin & Howe, another gunsmith company. Merchandise from both Von Lengerke & Detmold and Griffin & Howe was carried at A&F 's Madison Avenue store. By this time, A&F was also selling equipment for polo, golf, and tennis. By 1929, sales of US $6.3 million were reported with net profits of US $548,000.
During the Great Depression, the company 's revenue decreased and it stopped paying dividends. Sales plunged to $2,598,925 in 1933. A&F recovered in the following years and resumed paying dividends in 1938. During that year, guns accounted for 40 % of sales at the Madison Avenue store. Clothing, shoes, and furnishings accounted for 45 %, while inventory was valued at about 40 % of annual sales (reflecting A&F 's readiness to meet customer demands). Ten percent of the business was attributed to mail orders from the catalog. Abercrombie & Fitch Co. continued to expand. As early as 1913, A&F had adopted the slogan, "The Greatest Sporting Goods Store in the World ''.
A&F 's record net profit was $682,894 in 1947. The company opened a large branch in San Francisco in 1958. It soon added small winter - only shops open from November through May each season in Palm Beach and Sarasota, Florida and summer - only shops in Bay Head, New Jersey, and Southampton, New York. to complement a shop in Hyannis, Massachusetts it had operated since the end of World War II. Guernsey succeeded Cobb as president. He remarked, "The Abercrombie & Fitch type does not care about the cost; he wants the finest quality. '' With so many locations now under the control of Abercrombie & Fitch, the Madison Avenue store remained the flagship store. In the 1950s, the main floor of the flagship was remodeled to include heads of buffalo, caribou, moose, elk, and other big game, stuffed fish of spectacular size, and elephant 's - foot wastebaskets.
In 1960, net sales rose to $16.5 million, but net profit fell for the fourth straight year to $185,649. By 1961, net sales dropped to $15.5 million, and net profit to $124,097. Guernsey 's successor as president, John H. Ewing, paid little attention to the decline in sales. In 1961, he told an interviewer of Business Week that Abercrombie & Fitch enjoyed a special niche "by sticking to our knitting; by not trying to be all things to all people. '' A&F would open a year - round resort shop at The Broadmoor resort in Colorado Springs (1962) and its first suburban store at the Mall in Short Hills, New Jersey (1963). Under the leadership of Earle K. Angstadt, Jr., Abercrombie 's continued to expand in upscale locations such as the Bal Harbour Shops near Miami Beach, Florida (1966), the Somerset Mall in Troy, Michigan, outside Detroit (1969) and in boutique - style shops in other department stores.
In 1964, Abercrombie and Fitch achieved a notable early example of the "brand integration '' form of product placement by providing the venue for part of the Rock Hudson / Paula Prentiss romantic comedy film Man 's Favorite Sport?.
Abercrombie and Fitch held a warehouse sale in 1968 and early 1970 and presented offbeat newspaper advertisements that reflected a measure of desperation. The company 's revenue continued decline, with a loss of about $500,000 in its previous fiscal year. Noticing the effect that the ads and sale - days had upon the Abercrombie & Fitch customer base, the next president William Humphreys, a former Lord & Taylor executive, halted the measures. He focused on improving A&F 's inventory control and credit practices and cutting the company 's expenses.; changed the store design to present a different image, focused on expansion into the suburbs in 1972 with a location in Oak Brook, Illinois 1972 in hopes of recapturing customers who no longer patronized its store in downtown Chicago 's Loop. Noticing that the offbeat advertisements were bringing in customers that management considered "not of classic Abercrombie & Fitch material, '' A&F ceased its mis - directing ads and sale - days in October 1970. Presentation within the flagship changed as well to provide a newer look. Expensive sailboats were moved from the main floor to an upper floor, a discount clothing section was introduced on the tenth floor, sportswear lines were expanded, and new buyers for woman 's apparel were hired. However, the changes did not improve sales and the company continued to decline financially under Humphreys and his successor Hal Haskell, who was a major stockholder of the company. After losing $1 million in 1975, Abercrombie & Fitch Co. filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy in August 1976 and finally closed its doors in November 1977.
Oshman 's, a sporting goods retailer, acquired Abercrombie & Fitch Co. in 1978 for $1.5 million ($5.2 million in 2013 dollars). It opened an Abercrombie & Fitch store in 1979 in Beverly Hills, California, and another in Dallas, Texas, which was bigger and sported $40,000 USD elephant guns and an "Abercrombie Runabout sports convertible '' worth $20,775 USD. Stores continued to open in South Street Seaport and Trump Tower and catered towards contemporary interests of golf, exercise, and tennis. Clothing collections for men and women carried business and casual dress, and sportswear. Forbes described the merchandise as "a hodgepodge of unrelated items '' and that "sometimes it is better to bury the dead than to try reviving them. '' Abercrombie & Fitch continued to struggle as Oshman 's struggled itself to develop a strong identity for the company.
In 1988, Limited Brands acquired the ailing company for $47 million after having success in popularizing Express and Victoria 's Secret. Headquarters was moved to Columbus, Ohio, and all inventory was cleared out. The new president of Abercrombie & Fitch, Sally Frame - Kasaks, placed a strong emphasis on apparel. Michael S. Jeffries, a clothing executive, took over as president in 1992. He popularized the brand to a teen apparel merchandiser from an ailing sports brand. He believed that focusing the A&F brand towards the American teen market would be financially beneficial as that sector of retail economy was said to be growing at a record rate at the time.
The new Abercrombie & Fitch reopened shortly afterwords with a preppy outdoors theme reminiscent of the company 's original roots. Jeffries desired to have Bruce Weber, known for his sexual beefcake photography, as the photographer for the brand, but could not do so until the company gained financial success. The apparel consisted of woven shirts, denim, miniskirts, cargo shorts, wool sweaters, polo shirts, and t - shirts. Its prices were unprecedentedly high in the teen apparel industry. Sales rose $85 million in 1992, $111 million in 1993, and to $165 million in 1994. 49 stores were opened by 1994, and a 102 store count was aimed by the end of 1995. In 1994, new records for merchandise margin rate and profitability were established by Abercrombie & Fitch for its parent, The Limited. To maintain popularity and to keep up with teen trends, Jeffries hired executives to keep up on popular teenage clothing, music, and entertainment.
By the mid-1990s, there were dozens of Abercrombie & Fitch stores in the United States. On September 26, 1996, The Limited, Inc. took Abercrombie & Fitch public on the New York Stock Exchange with the ticker symbol "ANF '' and with the per share offering as $16. In late 1990s, the company began to opt building stores only averaging between 8,000 and 20,000 square feet (700 to 2,000 m2) in high - volume retail centers around the country. It also launched the canoe store prototype of white facade and interior gray walls to accommodate the growth of its brand.
In 1997, Abercrombie & Fitch launched A&F Quarterly. The publication included photography, interviews and articles about sex, pop culture, and other teen interests. In 1998, the company introduced its first subsidiary, abercrombie. The concept was designed as the Abercrombie & Fitch for a younger clientele between the ages on 7 - 14. In 1999 began a 3 - year - long class action lawsuit in which Abercrombie & Fitch was one of several American retailers involved for its sweatshops in Saipan. Revenue recorded for Abercrombie & Fitch at the end of fiscal 1998 was at $805.2 million USD. By 1998, Abercrombie & Fitch became an independent company, and Mike Jeffries assumed the position of Chairman and Chief Executive Officer. As the brand regained its prominence, industry analysts began to speculate how long Abercrombie and Fitch would be able to retain its popularity.
Analysts predicted that A&F would fall from popularity, but sales continued escalating after a provocative Christmas 1999 in which the A&F Quarterly issue of the season featured sexually explicit content that drew angry complaints. In 1999, the A&F also launched "A&F TV '', which featured young people engaged in sports and leisure activities. A&F TV was originally developed to run on cable television and on monitors in Abercrombie & Fitch stores. It was soon removed. Revenue for fiscal 1999 was at $1.030 billion USD.
The overall approach of Abercrombie & Fitch, by the end of the decade, to its customers seemed to please male shoppers more than females, who shopped more frequently at competitor shops. Throughout the 1990s, Abercrombie & Fitch Co. enjoyed sales of over $400 / ft ($4300 / m). By December 1999, Abercrombie & Fitch operated a total of 212 stores nationwide.
Entering into the 21st century, Abercrombie & Fitch was rated as the sixth most popular brand before Nintendo and Levi 's by teenagers. The company introduced its third brand, Hollister Co., in July 2000. The third concept was based on Southern California surf lifestyle, and was targeted towards high school students. After Hollister lowered the revenue of Abercrombie & Fitch, the company launched the Ezra Fitch collection, and began producing A&F clothing with higher grade materials, increasing the prices. In 2001, the company moved into a new 300 - acre (1.2 km) home office in New Albany, Ohio. Headquarters were further expanded by 2003. Also in 2003, the company released its last issue of A&F Quarterly after amounting complaints.
After successfully launching Hollister, the company introduced its fourth brand RUEHL No. 925 for older consumers, 22 through 35, on September 24, 2004. Revenue continued to escalate as sales are reported at $2.021 billion for 2004. In November 2005, the company opened doors to its first ever flagship store (located in Fifth Avenue). By this time, the company begins to uplift its image to near - luxury status after introducing the trademark Casual Luxury for promotion. Revenue reported for 2005 was $2.021 billion.
Abercrombie & Fitch began its Canadian expansion in January 2006 when the company opened two A&F stores and three Hollister Co. stores in Toronto and Edmonton. By fall 2006, a third Canadian Abercrombie & Fitch store opened in the Toronto Eaton Centre. Also in the year, the brand opened a west coast flagship in The Grove. Revenue reported for 2006 is $3.318 billion, an increase of over $1.297 billion from 2005.
Beginning 2007, the canoe stores were revamped with dark louvers (see right image). On 22 March 2007, Abercrombie & Fitch opened its first European flagship in London at 7 Burlington Gardens in Savile Row. The store generated a volume of $280,000 (around £ 140,000 GBP) in its first 6 hours of operation. The flagship remains one of the most profitable A&F locations. Revenue reached record heights in 2007 with an overall sales of $3.749 billion.
On 21 January 2008, Abercrombie & Fitch introduced its fifth concept, the intimate apparel brand Gilly Hicks. Inspired by "Down Under '', it is officially labeled as the "Cheeky cousin of Abercrombie & Fitch. '' In April 2008, A&F relaunched A&F Quarterly for release in the UK flagship. On August 31, 2008, the "bright and insightful '' company director Allan A. Tuttle died. By December 22, corporate announced that it had produced a new employment agreement with Mike Jeffries set to expire in 2014. For the first time in its recent history, A&F suffered a financial decrease to $3.540 billion revenue for fiscal 2008. The blame was to the current economic recession, and also to the fact that the company refused to lower price points and offer sales citing brand image - protection that doing so would "cheapen '' its near - luxury image.
As the late - 2000s recession continued, A&F noticeably suffered financially for its refusal to lower prices or offer discounts. Early in January 2009, the company reported its worst drop in sales and shares. By the end of the month, 50 employees lost their jobs and many positions were still unoccupied. 170 more employees were dismissed in May. A&F announced on 17 June 2009 the closure of its ailing Ruehl No. 925 brand by January 2010. By October, A&F launched its official Facebook page. Despite financial downturns, A&F opened its second European location, a flagship store, in Milan on October 29. On its official Facebook page, A&F called it the biggest consumer reception for a flagship opening in A&F history: "like nothing the world has seen before ''. On December 15, another flagship store opened in Tokyo, Japan. Marking the first ever A&F location in Asia, the opening became the biggest retail event in history, was noted as a "spectacle of consumerism '' by the Japanese, and made around JP ¥ 50 million (US $550,000) that day alone.
In January 2010, A&F launched its A&F Cares feature highlighting its philanthropic efforts. Keeping to its commitment, the company shut down ruehl.com on January 22, and closed doors to all final Ruehl stores by the end of the month. Analysts began noting encouraging signs of financial progress, in March, for the company, citing A&F 's successful international expansion and better inventory management. Also around that time, a historical fishing line dryer, made by A&F in the early 1900s, was sold to an A&F model for $590 USD. As a marketing move, A&F announced the relaunch of the A&F Quarterly on 17 July 2010 as a part of its "Screen Test '' Back - to - School marketing campaign designed to attract more consumer attention and sales. In August, CEO Mike Jeffries announced that Abercrombie & Fitch would close roughly 60 stores in 2010. Later that month, CFO Jonathan Ramsden said another 50 stores could close in 2011. Profits began to pick up by September 2010 to larger than predicted results (attributted to the result of the major "Screen Test '' campaign and numerous sales held throughout the season). By October, the company was stated as being well ahead its competitors (a first since the economic turndown). The brand opened a flagship in Copenhagen and Fukuoka in November 2010, and another one in Paris by May 2011.
On February 15, 2012, A&F announced plans to close 180 more underperforming U.S. stores by 2015 while continuing to expand in Europe and Asia.
In 2013, the company 's trendy, upscale image took a hit when comments made by Jeffries in 2006 that disparaged customers with body types that do not resemble Abercrombie & Fitch models resurfaced. The resulting backlash launched a viral internet campaign called "Fitch the Homeless '', which aimed to subvert and mock the company 's carefully manicured image of "exclusionary '' style by distributing used Abercrombie & Fitch clothes to homeless and needy persons.
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short summary of tiger tiger by pratibha nath | Tiger! Tiger! (Kipling short story) - wikipedia
"Tiger! Tiger! '' is a short story by Rudyard Kipling. A direct sequel to "Mowgli 's Brothers '', it was published in magazines in 1893 -- 94 before appearing as the third story in The Jungle Book (1894), following "Kaa 's Hunting ''. The title is derived from William Blake 's poem "The Tyger ''.
After driving out the tiger Shere Khan, Mowgli leaves the wolf pack that has raised him and makes his way to a human village to be with his own (biological) kind. There he is adopted by a bereaved couple, Messua and her husband, who believe he is their long - lost son Nathoo. The village priest agrees to this because it will keep Messua 's rich husband happy.
For three months Mowgli learns human language and customs such as wearing clothes, ploughing, money and caste divisions, few of which impress him. He is also disrespectful to the village elders when they tell fanciful tales of the jungle, since he has first - hand experience of what the jungle is really like. This earns him the particular contempt of Buldeo, the village 's chief hunter who claims that the tiger is the reincarnation of a lame money - lender. What is not fanciful is the 100 - rupee reward for the tiger 's skin.
During this period, Mowgli regularly sneaks out of the village to meet his wolf friend Grey Brother who brings him news of the jungle.
To keep Mowgli out of trouble the village elders decide to put him to work herding buffalo. One day while taking a break from this task he meets Grey Brother again. The wolf tells him that Shere Khan has returned and is planning to kill Mowgli.
For the next few weeks Grey Brother keeps watch on Shere Khan while Mowgli goes about his tasks in the village. Eventually he meets Mowgli again and tells him that Shere Khan is hiding in a nearby ravine in preparation to attack. Mowgli learns that Grey Brother obtained this information from Shere Khan 's accomplice Tabaqui the jackal, before killing him.
With the aid of Akela, Mowgli and Grey Brother divide the buffalo herd in two and stampede them from opposite ends of the ravine, trampling the tiger to death between them.
Mowgli, who has promised to lay Shere Khan 's skin on the wolf pack 's Council Rock, sets about skinning the tiger. Buldeo has been told of the stampede by the other village boys, and soon arrives to chastise Mowgli. Buldeo demands that Mowgli hand the skin over to him for the reward. Mowgli refuses, and summons Akela to restrain him.
When Mowgli and Akela let him go, the hunter returns to the village and tells the villagers Mowgli is a shapeshifting sorcerer. By the time the unsuspecting Mowgli returns with the buffalo, Buldeo has turned the entire village except Messua against him and they drive him away.
Confused and disgusted by their behaviour, Mowgli fulfils his promise to lay out Shere Khan 's hide on Council Rock and dances upon it, singing of his emotional confusion. The pack offers to take Mowgli back, but he refuses to forgive them for casting him out earlier. Instead he decides that from now on he will hunt alone, except for his four wolf - brothers who refuse to be parted from him.
The story is continued in "Letting in the Jungle '', collected in The Second Jungle Book.
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what came first mortal kombat or street fighter | Mortal Kombat - Wikipedia
Currently
Currently
Mortal Kombat is a video game franchise originally developed by Midway Games ' Chicago studio in 1992. Following Midway 's bankruptcy, the Mortal Kombat development team was acquired by Warner Bros. and turned into NetherRealm Studios. Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment currently owns the rights of the franchise and rebooted it in 2011.
The development of the first game was originally based on an idea that Ed Boon and John Tobias had of making a video game starring Jean - Claude Van Damme, but as that idea fell through, a fantasy - horror themed fighting game titled Mortal Kombat was created instead. The original game has spawned many sequels and has spun a media franchise consisting of several action - adventure games, films (animated and live - action with its own sequel), and television series (animated and live - action). Other spin - offs include comic book series, a card game and a live - action tour. Along with Capcom 's Street Fighter and Bandai Namco 's Tekken, Mortal Kombat has become one of the most successful fighting franchises in the history of video games. As of June 2000, the franchise had generated $5 billion in revenue, making it one of the highest - grossing media franchises of all time.
The series has a reputation for high levels of bloody violence, including, most notably, its Fatalities (finishing moves, requiring a sequence of button inputs to perform). The Fatalities, in part, led to the creation of the ESRB video game rating system. The series name itself is also known for using the letter "K '' in place of "C '' for the hard C sound, thus intentionally misspelling the word "combat '', as well as other words with the hard C sound within later games in the series. Early games in the series were also noted for its realistic digitized sprites (which differentiated it from its contemporaries ' hand - drawn sprites) and an extensive use of palette swapping to create new characters.
The original three games and their updates, Mortal Kombat, Mortal Kombat II, Mortal Kombat 3, Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 and Mortal Kombat Trilogy, were styled in a 2D fighting fashion. The first two of them were played in the arcades with a joystick and five buttons: high punch, low punch, high kick, low kick, and block. Mortal Kombat 3 and its updates added a sixth "run '' button. Characters in the early Mortal Kombat games play virtually identically to one another, with the only major differences being their special moves. Through the 1990s, the developer and publisher Midway Games would keep their single styled fighting moves with four attack buttons for a different array of punches and kicks and blocks. Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance changed this by differentiating characters normal moves and even giving them multiple fighting styles. Beginning in Deadly Alliance and until Mortal Kombat: Deception, the characters would have three fighting styles per character: two unarmed styles, and one weapon style. Few exceptions to this arose in Mortal Kombat: Armageddon, such as monster - like boss characters like Moloch and Onaga who would have only one fighting style. While most of the styles used in the series are based on real martial arts, some are entirely fictitious. Goro 's fighting styles, for example, are designed to take advantage of the fact that he has four arms. For Armageddon, fighting styles were reduced to a maximum of two per character (generally one hand - to - hand combat style and one weapon style) due to the sheer number of playable characters. Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe dropped the multiple fighting style trend altogether in favor of giving each character a much wider variety of special moves, but some characters still use multiple fighting styles. 2011 's Mortal Kombat returned to a single 2D fighting plane although characters are rendered in 3D; unlike previous MK games, each of four buttons on the game controller represents an attack linked to a corresponding limb.
According to Mortal Kombat co-creator Ed Boon, "since the beginning, one of the things that 's separated us from other fighting games is the crazy moves we 've put in it, like fireballs and all the magic moves, so to speak. '' When asked if Capcom 's Street Fighter series would ever do a crossover game with Mortal Kombat, Street Fighter producer Yoshinori Ono called Mortal Kombat a very different game from Street Fighter. Capcom 's senior director of communications compared Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat by asking if the interviewer preferred the "precision and depth '' of Street Fighter or the "gore and comedy '' of Mortal Kombat; he also stated that the Street Fighter and Mortal Kombat rivalry was considered similar to the Coke and Pepsi rivalry in the 1990s. Senior producer of Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, Hans Lo, himself also called Street Fighter "a little more cartoonic fantasy '' in comparison to Mortal Kombat. In 2013, Boon named the hypothetical "MKvsSF '' as his dream crossover game. In 2014, Boon said his team has remained in touch with Capcom, but no one could resolve the incompatibility problem of Mortal Kombat being much more brutal than Street Fighter.
Mortal Kombat: Deception and Mortal Kombat: Armageddon feature "Konquest '', a free - roaming action - adventure mode that significantly expanded on the single - player experience. Both games also include distinct minigame modes such "Chess Kombat '', an action - strategy game similar to Archon. Two other bonus minigames, "Puzzle Kombat '' inspired by Puzzle Fighter and "Motor Kombat '' inspired by Mario Kart, feature super deformed versions of Mortal Kombat characters. The games also contain various unlockable content and hidden "cheats ''.
A defining and best - known feature of the Mortal Kombat series is its finishing move system called Fatality. An original idea behind it was to give gamers a free hit at the end of the fight. The basic Fatalities are finishing moves that allow the victorious characters to end a match in a special way by murdering their defeated, defenseless opponents in a gruesome manner, usually in the predefined ways exclusive for the given character. The only exception from this is Mortal Kombat: Armageddon, which instead features the Kreate - A-Fatality, allowing the players to perform their own Fatalities by conducting a series of violent moves chosen from a pool that is common for all characters.
Other finishing moves in the various Mortal Kombat games include Animalities (introduced in Mortal Kombat 3) turning a victor into an animal to violently finish off the opponent; Brutality (introduced in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3) which is bashing an opponent into pieces with a long combo of hits; and Stage Fatalities / Death Traps (introduced in the original Mortal Kombat Pit Stage where the victor can uppercut their opponent off of the platform into a bed of spikes below, and later made more difficult in Mortal Kombat II by requiring specific and different button sequences to be pressed) utilizing parts of certain stages to execute a lethal finishing move (such as a pool of acid). Mortal Kombat: Deception added the Hara - Kiri, a self - Fatality allowing the losers to engage in a suicide - based finishing move (enabling a possible race between both players to see if the winning player can finish off the losing player before the losing character can kill himself or herself first).
There are also some non-violent finishing moves in the series. Friendship moves, introduced in Mortal Kombat II and resulting in displays of friendship towards the enemy instead of slaughter, were made as a comical response to the attention the series gathered due to its violent content. Also introduced in MKII was the Babality, which turns the opponent into a baby and is humorous in the same vein. Mortal Kombat 3 marked the first appearance of the Mercy, where the victor restores a minimal amount of the opponent 's health bar and the fight then resumes; the player must perform a Mercy to be able to perform an Animality.
The series takes place in a fictional universe consisting of eighteen surviving realms which, according to in - game backstories, were created by the Elder Gods. The Mortal Kombat: Deception manual described six of the realms as: "Earthrealm, home to such legendary heroes as Liu Kang, Kung Lao, Sonya Blade, Johnny Cage, and Jax, and also under the protection of the Thunder God Raiden; Netherrealm, the fiery depths of which are inhospitable to all but the most vile, a realm of demons and shadowy warriors such as Quan Chi and Noob Saibot; Outworld, a realm of constant strife which Emperor Shao Kahn claims as his own; Seido, the Realm of Order, whose inhabitants prize structure and order above all else; the Realm of Chaos, whose inhabitants do not abide by any rules whatsoever, and where constant turmoil and change are worshipped; and Edenia, which is known for its beauty, artistic expression, and the longevity of its inhabitants. '' The Elder Gods decreed that the denizens of one realm could only conquer another realm by defeating the defending realm 's greatest warriors in ten consecutive Mortal Kombat tournaments.
The first Mortal Kombat game takes place in Earthrealm (Earth) where seven different warriors with their own reasons for entering participated in the tournament with the eventual prize being the continued freedom of their realm, threatened with a takeover by Outworld. Among the established warriors were Liu Kang, Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade. With the help of the thunder god Raiden, the Earthrealm warriors were victorious and Liu Kang became the new champion of Mortal Kombat. In Mortal Kombat II, unable to deal with his minion Shang Tsung 's failure, Outworld Emperor Shao Kahn lures the Earthrealm warriors to the Outworld where the Earthrealm warriors eventually defeat Shao Kahn. By the time of Mortal Kombat 3, Shao Kahn revives Edenia 's (now a part of his Outworld domain) former queen Sindel in Earthrealm, combining it with Outworld as well. He then attempts to invade Earthrealm but is ultimately defeated by the Earthrealm warriors again. After Kahn 's defeat, Edenia was freed from Kahn 's grasp and returned to a peaceful realm, ruled by Princess Kitana. The following game, Mortal Kombat 4, features the former elder god Shinnok attempting to conquer the realms and attempting to kill the thunder god Raiden. However, he is also defeated by the Earthrealm warriors.
In Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, the evil sorcerers Quan Chi and Shang Tsung join forces to conquer the realms. By Mortal Kombat: Deception, after several fights, the sorcerers emerge victorious having killed most of Earthrealms ' warriors until Raiden steps forth to oppose them. The Dragon King Onaga, who had been freed by Reptile at the end of Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, had deceived Shujinko into searching for six pieces of Kamidogu, the source of Onaga 's power. Onaga then confronted the alliance of Raiden, Shang Tsung, and Quan Chi and thus obtained Quan Chi 's amulet, the final piece of his power. Only a few warriors remained to combat against the Dragon King and his forces. Shujinko eventually triumphed over the Dragon King and removed his threat to the Mortal Kombat universe.
In Mortal Kombat: Armageddon the catastrophe known as Armageddon starts. Centuries before the first Mortal Kombat, Queen Delia foretold the realms would be destroyed because the power of all warriors from all the realms would rise to such greatness it would overwhelm and destabilize the realms, triggering an all - destructive chain of events. King Argus had his sons, Taven, and Daegon, put into incubation who would one day be awakened to save the realms from Armageddon by defeating a firespawn known as Blaze. In the end, however, Shao Kahn is the one who defeats Blaze, causing Armageddon.
In Mortal Kombat (2011), it is revealed that the battle between the warriors of the six realms culminated into only two survivors: Shao Kahn and Raiden. Badly beaten, Raiden had only one last move he could make to prevent Shao Kahn from claiming the power of Blaze. He sends last - ditch visions of the entire course of the Mortal Kombat timeline to himself in the past right before the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament (first game). This transfer of information to his former self causes a rift in time, causing a new "reboot '' timeline to be introduced that splits off from the original Armageddon timeline, with a new outcome of Mortal Kombat history to be written. But this story leads to even worse unforeseen events. It ends with many of the main game characters dying at the hands of Queen Sindel and Raiden accidentally killing Liu Kang in self - defense. Eventually, the Elder Gods aid Raiden in killing Shao Kahn and saving Earthrealm. But as the scene goes on it is later revealed that this was all a plan by Shinnok and Quan Chi.
Mortal Kombat X sees Shinnok and Quan Chi enacting their plan, leading an army of undead revenants of those that were killed in Shao Kahn 's invasion against the realms. A team of warriors led by Raiden, Johnny Cage, and Sonya Blade oppose Shinnok, and in the ensuing battle, Shinnok is imprisoned, Quan Chi escapes, and various warriors are resurrected and freed from Shinnok 's thrall. Twenty - five years later, Quan Chi resurfaces and allies himself with the insect - like D'Vorah in manipulating events that lead to Shinnok 's release. Though Quan Chi is killed by a vengeful Scorpion in the process, Shinnok resumes his assault against the realms. After a grueling, protracted battle, Shinnok is defeated by Cassandra Cage representing the next generation of Earthrealm 's warriors. With both Quan Chi and Shinnok gone, the undead revenants of Liu Kang and Kitana assume control of the Netherrealm and Lord Raiden now protects the Earthrealm not defensively but offensively with the help of the remaining revenants.
The series features scores of player characters (64 as of 2012), including Baraka, Cassie Cage, Cyrax, Ermac, Goro, Jade, Jax Briggs, Johnny Cage, Kabal, Kano, Kenshi, Kitana, Kung Lao, Kurtis Stryker, Liu Kang, Mileena, Motaro, Nightwolf, Noob Saibot, Quan Chi, Raiden, Rain, Reptile, Scorpion, Sektor, Shang Tsung, Shao Kahn, Sheeva, Shinnok, Sindel, Smoke, Sonya Blade, and Sub-Zero. Among them are Earth 's humans and cyborgs, good and evil deities, and denizens of Outworld and other realms. There are also some guest and crossover characters, such as several DC Universe heroes and villains, as well as Alien (Xenomorph) from Alien, Freddy Krueger from A Nightmare on Elm Street, Jason Voorhees from Friday the 13th, Kratos from God of War, Leatherface from Texas Chainsaw Massacre, and the Predator from Predator.
Mortal Kombat started development in 1991 with only four people: Ed Boon, John Tobias, John Vogel and Dan Forden. In 2009, Boon said: "The first Mortal Kombat game was 4 guys, literally, one programmer, myself (Boon), two graphics guys (Tobias and Vogel), and a sound guy (Forden) was the entire team, literally. '' Originally, Boon and Tobias were approached to create a video game adaptation of the 1992 film Universal Soldier starring martial arts film actor Jean - Claude Van Damme, with a digitized version of the action star fighting villains. Intending to make a game "a lot more hard edge, a little bit more serious, a little bit more like Enter the Dragon or Bloodsport '' than Street Fighter II 's cartoon fantasy style, Boon and Tobias decided to continue their project even after the deal to use the Bloodsport license fell through. One of their own characters, Johnny Cage, became "a spoof on the whole Van Damme situation ''.
John Tobias said that his inspirations for the game 's story and characters came from the Chinese mythology and some of the stories and rumored events about the Shaolin monks. Regarding the film Big Trouble in Little China, Tobias wrote that although this movie "kind of Americanized my obsession for supernatural kung fu films from China, it was not my biggest influence. My biggest influences came from Tsui Hark films -- Zu Warriors & The Swordsman. We had to get them from bootleggers in Chicago 's Chinatown. '' Tobias ' writing and artistic input on the series ended in 1997. Fifteen years later, he said: "I knew exactly what I was going to do with a future story. A few years ago I (wrote) a sort of sequel to the first MK film and an advancement to the game 's mythological roots. The goal was to not runaway from what came before with a retelling, but to move the themes forward. I did it for fun as an exercise in screenwriting, but it felt good to get that out of my system. ''
Ed Boon recalled that for six out of the eight months while they were in production of the original Mortal Kombat, "nobody could come up with a name nobody did n't hate ''. Some of the names suggested included "Kumite '', "Dragon Attack '', "Death Blow '' and just "Fatality ''. Someone had written down "combat '' on the drawing board for the names in Boon 's office and then someone wrote a K over the C, according to Boon, "just to be kind of weird ''. Steve Ritchie, a pinball designer at that time, was sitting in Boon 's office and saw the word "Kombat '' and said to Boon, ' Why do n't you name it Mortal Kombat? ' and that name "just stuck ''. Since then, the series uses the letter "K '' in place of "C '' for various words containing the hard C sound. According to Boon, during the MK games ' development they usually spell the words correctly and only "korrect it '' when one of the developers points out they should do it.
The characters of the original Mortal Kombat and its initial sequels were created using digitized sprites mostly based on filmed actors, as opposed to drawn graphics. Early Mortal Kombat games were known for their extensive use of palette swap, a practice of re-coloring certain sprites to appear as different characters which was used for the ninja characters. In fact, many of the most popular characters have originated as simple palette swaps. In the very first game, the male ninja fighters were essentially the same character; only the colors of their attire, fighting stance, and special techniques indicated the difference. Later games added other ninjas based on the same model, as well as several female ninja color swap characters initially also using just one base model (beginning with Kitana in Mortal Kombat II). All of them gradually became very different characters in the following installments of the series.
Mortal Kombat 4 brought the series into 3D, replacing the digitized fighters of previous games with polygon models. The team switched from digitized actors to motion capture technology.
Mortal Kombat included secret characters, secret games, and other Easter eggs. For example, Mortal Kombat 3 includes a hidden game of Galaga and there is a hidden game of Pong in Mortal Kombat II. Many extras in the series have only been accessible through very challenging, demanding, and sometimes coincidental requirements. The Sega Mega Drive / Genesis versions contains some unique eggs, such as "Fergality ''. The Sega Mega-CD version also contained an additional code (known as the "Dad 's Code ''), which changed the names of the fighters to that of characters from the classic comedy series Dad 's Army. Popular characters of Reptile and Jade were originally introduced as hidden enemies, becoming playable after returning in subsequent games.
Some Easter eggs originated from in - jokes between members of the development team. One example is "Toasty '', which found its way into the game in the form of a small image of sound designer Dan Forden, who would appear in the corner of the screen during gameplay (after performing an uppercut) and yell the phrase "Toasty! '' This egg was also the key to unlocking the hidden character Smoke when it happened in the Portal stage. In Mortal Kombat 4, Forden would say "Toasty! 3D! '' after Scorpion did his burn Fatality, a reference to the fact that it is the first 3D game of the series. "Toasty! '' is also found in Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks, appearing randomly after the character pulls off a chain of hits, though the picture of Forden was removed for that title, but brought back for the 2011 Mortal Kombat game.
Yet another private joke was the hidden character Noob Saibot, who has appeared in various versions of the game starting with Mortal Kombat II. The character 's name derived from two of the series ' creators ' surnames, Ed Boon and John Tobias, spelled backwards. In addition, a counter for ERMACS on the game 's audits screen (ERMACS being short for error macros), was generally considered by some players to be a reference to a hidden character. The development team decided to turn the rumor into reality, introducing Ermac in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 as an unlockable secret character. The character Mokap, introduced in Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance, is a tribute to Carlos Pesina, who played Raiden in MK and MKII and has served as a motion capture actor for subsequent titles in the series.
The original Mortal Kombat game was released for arcade machines during October 1992, having since been ported to several console and home computer systems by Probe Software and released by Acclaim Entertainment. The sequel, Mortal Kombat II, was released for arcades in 1993, featuring an increased roster and improved graphics and gameplay, then ported to the numerous home systems in 1993 - 1995 by Probe Entertainment and Sculptured Software, released again by Acclaim; it was rereleased in 2007 for the PlayStation 3. Mortal Kombat 3 followed in 1995 in both arcade and home versions. MK3 got two updates which expanded the number of characters and other features from the game: Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3, published that same year, and Mortal Kombat Trilogy the next year. The following game, Mortal Kombat 4, was released in 1997, marked the jump of the series to 3D rendered graphics instead of the series ' previously staple digitized 2D graphics. Mortal Kombat 4 was ported to the PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and PC. An update of MK4 titled Mortal Kombat Gold was released exclusively for the Dreamcast in 1999.
While to this point Mortal Kombat games were only titled with their installment number, starting with Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance in 2002, the series ' naming scheme changed to favor the use of sub-titles instead. It was also at this point that the series started being targeted at consoles only, with Mortal Kombat 4 being the last game in the series to ever be released for the arcades. Deadly Alliance was released initially for the Xbox, PlayStation 2 (PS2) and GameCube. Deadly Alliance was also the first Mortal Kombat game to feature fully 3D gameplay, where up to Mortal Kombat 4 the gameplay had stayed in a 2D plane; this trend would continue for the following two games. The next sequel was the 2004 Mortal Kombat: Deception, released for the PS2, Xbox and GameCube. Its port for the PlayStation Portable, Mortal Kombat: Unchained, was developed by Just Games Interactive in 2006. Mortal Kombat: Armageddon was published in the same year for the PS2, Xbox, and in 2007 on the Wii. In 2008, Midway released the Mortal Kombat Kollection, an anthology of the three then-most recent titles to the main franchise: Mortal Kombat: Deception, Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks, and Mortal Kombat: Armageddon. Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, a crossover between the Mortal Kombat franchise and DC Universe released in 2008 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.
A ninth game in the series, a reboot titled simply Mortal Kombat, was developed by former Midway Games Chicago, now owned by Warner Bros. Games and renamed as NetherRealm Studios. It was first released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011, and was ported for the PlayStation Vita in 2012 and for the PC Windows in 2013. A sequel, Mortal Kombat X was released in April 2015 on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows. Ed Boon has stated that he would like to do an Mortal Kombat / Killer Instinct crossover game for the Xbox One.
Besides the fighting games, there are three action titles that work as spin - offs from the Mortal Kombat storyline. Mortal Kombat Mythologies: Sub-Zero was released in 1997 for the PlayStation and Nintendo 64; its story is focused on the first incarnation character of Sub-Zero and is focused in the timeline of before the first Mortal Kombat game. The next action game was Mortal Kombat: Special Forces released in 2000 for the PlayStation; it is an action game starring Major Jackson Briggs in his mission to destroy the Black Dragon. Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks was released in 2005 for the PS2 and the Xbox; starring Liu Kang and Kung Lao and telling an alternate version of the events between the first and second Mortal Kombat games. A similar game titled Mortal Kombat: Fire & Ice, which would star Scorpion and again Sub-Zero, was canceled when Paradox Development (Midway Studios -- Los Angeles), the creators of Shaolin Monks, "could n't do it in time and under budget ''.
Mortal Kombat was adapted into two major motion pictures, Mortal Kombat (1995), and Mortal Kombat: Annihilation (1997), both co-developed by Threshold Entertainment and released by New Line Cinema (eventual corporate sibling, and later label, of Mortal Kombat rights holder Warner Bros.). Neither film was screened for critics prior to theatrical release. The first movie was released on August 18, 1995, grossing $23 million on its first weekend. Mortal Kombat, despite mixed reviews from critics, became a financial success, eventually grossing $70 million in the U.S. (and over $122 million worldwide) and gaining a cult following from fans of the series while jump starting the Hollywood career of its director Paul W.S. Anderson. That momentum did not carry over into John R. Leonetti 's Annihilation, however, which suffered from a poor reception by critics and fans alike, grossing only $36 million in the U.S. and $51 million worldwide, compared to the first movie 's worldwide intake of $122 million.
In 2010, director Kevin Tancharoen released an eight - minute Mortal Kombat short film titled Mortal Kombat: Rebirth, made as a proof of concept for Tancharoen 's pitch of a reboot movie franchise to Warner Brothers. Tancharoen later confirmed that while the short is entirely unofficial, it does feature the writing of Oren Uziel, who was rumored to be writing the screenplay for the third Mortal Kombat movie. In 2011, New Line Cinema and Warner Bros. announced that Tancharoen has signed on to direct the reboot from a screenplay written by Uziel. In October 2013, however, Tancharoen left the project to pursue "other creative opportunities ''. In 2015, James Wan signed - on to produce the reboot film; Wan said he would not rush the it. In 2016, Simon McQuoid was reported to be in talks to direct the reboot.
Several Mortal Kombat comic books were based on the video game series, including the official Mortal Kombat and Mortal Kombat II comic books created by Tobias and advertised in the attract modes on early versions of the first two games. In 1994, Malibu Comics launched an official MK comic book series, spawning two six - issue series ("Blood and Thunder '' and "Battlewave ''), along with several miniseries and one - shot special issues dedicated to specific characters, until its publication ended in August 1995. Two more comics were also made as tie - ins for Mortal Kombat 4 and the DC Universe crossover game and a new miniseries was published prior to the release of Mortal Kombat X in 2015. Jeff Rovin penned a novelization of the first Mortal Kombat game, which was published in June 1995 in order to coincide with the release of the movie. Novelizations of both Mortal Kombat movies were written by Martin Delrio and Jerome Preisler.
Mortal Kombat: The Album, a techno album based on the first game was created for Virgin America by Lords of Acid members Praga Khan and Oliver Adams as The Immortals in 1994. Its iconic theme "Techno Syndrome '', incorporating the "Mortal Kombat! '' yell first shown in the Mortal Kombat commercial for home systems, was first released in 1993 as a single and was also used as a theme music for the Mortal Kombat film series. Each movie had their own soundtracks (including the hit and award - winning compilation album Mortal Kombat: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack), as had the second video game (Mortal Kombat II: Music from the Arcade Game Soundtrack). The 2011 video game saw the release of Mortal Kombat: Songs Inspired by the Warriors, a new soundtrack album featuring electronic music by various artists.
The franchise sparked two television series by New Line Television: the 1996 cartoon Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm and the 1998 live - action series Mortal Kombat: Conquest, both of them co-developed by Threshold Entertainment. Neither series ran for more than one season. In 2010, Warner Premiere ordered a web series inspired by the Rebirth short, titled Mortal Kombat: Legacy and also directed by Kevin Tancharoen. The series ' first season was released for free on YouTube starting in April 2011, promoted by Machinima.com, and the second season arrived in 2013. In 2014, Warner Bros and Blue Ribbon are developing a live - action untitled Mortal Kombat series that was to tie in with Mortal Kombat X for a planned 2016 release.
An animated prequel to the first movie, titled Mortal Kombat: The Journey Begins, was released direct - to - video in 1995. The stage show Mortal Kombat: Live Tour was launched at the end of 1995, expanded to 1996, and featured Mortal Kombat characters in a theatrical display on stage. Brady Games produced the collectible card game Mortal Kombat Kard Game in 1996. Score Entertainment 's 2005 collectible card game Epic Battles also used some of the Mortal Kombat characters.
Ed Boon reported that the Mortal Kombat games have sold 26 million copies by 2007, and the number has reportedly reached over 30 million by 2012. As of April 2015, after the release of Mortal Kombat X, the franchise had sold 35 million units. A particularly successful game was Mortal Kombat II, which had unprecedented opening week sales figures never seen before in the video game industry, for the first time beating the box office numbers of summer hit films. The Franchise generated more than 4 billion by the late 1990s. The 2008 edition of Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition awarded the Mortal Kombat series with seven world records, including "most successful fighting game series ''. The franchise holds ten world records in the 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition, including the "largest promotional campaign for a fighting video game '' (Mortal Kombat 3), "highest grossing film based on a beat ' em up video game '' (Mortal Kombat 1996), and "most successful video game spin - off soundtrack album '' (Mortal Kombat: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack).
Numerous publications described it as one of the most important and also most violent series in the history of video games; in 2011, the staff of GameSpy wrote "its place in fighting game history is undeniable ''. In 2009, GameTrailers ranked Mortal Kombat as the ninth top fighting game franchise as well as the seventh bloodiest series of all time. In 2012, Complex ranked Mortal Kombat as 37th best video game franchise overall, commenting on its "legendary status in video game history ''. Mortal Kombat as a series was also ranked as the goriest video game ever by CraveOnline in 2009 and by G4tv.com in 2011; including it on their list of the goriest games, Cheat Code Central commented that "Mortal Kombat had enough gore to simultaneously offend a nation and change gaming forever. ''
According to IGN, during the 1990s "waves of imitators began to flood the market, filling arcades with a sea of blood from games like Time Killers, Survival Arts, and Guardians of the Hood. Mortal Kombat had ushered in an era of exploitation games, both on consoles and in arcades, all engaging in a battle to see who can cram the most blood and guts onto a low - res screen. '' Notable Mortal Kombat clones, featuring violent finishing moves and / or digitized sprites, included Bio F.R.E.A.K.S., BloodStorm, Cardinal Syn, Catfight, Eternal Champions, Kasumi Ninja, Killer Instinct, Mace: The Dark Age, Primal Rage, Street Fighter: The Movie, Tattoo Assassins, Thrill Kill, Ultra Vortek, Way of the Warrior, and Midway 's own War Gods.
In a 2009 poll by GamePro, 21 % of voters chose Mortal Kombat as their favorite fighting game series, ranking it third after Street Fighter and Tekken. In 2012, Capcom 's Street Fighter producer Yoshinori Ono said he is getting a lot of requests for Street Fighter vs. Mortal Kombat and understands why people want it, "but it 's easier said than done. Having Chun Li getting her spine ripped out, or Ryu 's head bouncing off the floor... it does n't necessarily match. '' In 2014, martial artist Frankie Edgar opined Mortal Kombat has been far superior to Street Fighter.
The series and its characters are also referenced in the various other works of popular culture, such as in the title of Powerglove 's debut album Metal Kombat for the Mortal Man and the Workaholics episode "Model Kombat ''. According to Complex in 2012, "Years ago, MK became a phenomenon far outside gaming circles alone. Its name has become recognizable enough to be name dropped on sitcoms (Malcolm in the Middle and Married... with Children), found in movies (Christian Slater plays MK4 in Very Bad Things), and used as part of cultural studies (see Justine Cassell and Henry Jenkins ' book From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games). '' It was also featured in the film Doom Generation. The name "Mortal Kombat '' was even given to a dangerous illegal recreational drug that was introduced and caused multiple fatalities in early 2014.
In 2012, John Tobias said: "If you look at any other pop culture phenomenon -- like if you look at the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, for instance -- it became popular at the time right around when Mortal Kombat became popular, and it had its highs and lows, and here they are once again talking about a major motion picture. That 's because of its place in pop culture. It 's always there for someone to pick up, polish off, blow the dust off of it, and re-release it. And Mortal Kombat will always be that way. It 'll be around 50 years from now. ''
The series was subject of a major video game controversy and several court cases, largely related to its extremely violent content, especially in relation to the original game which paved a way for the introduction of the ESRB (Entertainment Software Rating Board) game rating system in 1994 as well as Australian Classification Board. Various games in the series have been banned in a number of countries. SuperData Research CEO Joost van Dreunen said, "Because of the obvious rift between gamers on the one hand and adult society on the other, Mortal Kombat set the tone for what constituted gamer culture. ''
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where do wild turkeys live in the us | Wild turkey - wikipedia
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The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an upland ground bird native to North America and is the heaviest member of the diverse Galliformes. It is the same species as the domestic turkey, which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey (not the related ocellated turkey). Although native to North America, the turkey probably got its name from the domesticated variety being imported to Britain in ships coming from the Levant via Spain. The British at the time therefore associated the wild turkey with the country Turkey and the name prevails.
Adult wild turkeys have long reddish - yellow to grayish - green legs. The body feathers are generally blackish and dark, sometimes grey brown overall with a coppery sheen that becomes more complex in adult males. Adult males, called toms or gobblers, have a large, featherless, reddish head, red throat, and red wattles on the throat and neck. The head has fleshy growths called caruncles. Juvenile males are called jakes; the difference between an adult male and a juvenile is that the jake has a very short beard and his tail fan has longer feathers in the middle. The adult male 's tail fan feathers will be all the same length. When males are excited, a fleshy flap on the bill expands, and this, the wattles and the bare skin of the head and neck all become engorged with blood, almost concealing the eyes and bill. The long fleshy object over a male 's beak is called a snood. Each foot has three toes in front, with a shorter, rear - facing toe in back; males have a spur behind each of their lower legs.
Male turkeys have a long, dark, fan - shaped tail and glossy bronze wings. As with many other species of the Galliformes, turkeys exhibit strong sexual dimorphism. The male is substantially larger than the female, and his feathers have areas of red, purple, green, copper, bronze, and gold iridescence. The preen gland (uropygial gland) is also larger in male turkeys compared to female ones. In contrast to the majority of other birds, they are colonized by bacteria of unknown function (Corynebacterium uropygiale). Females, called hens, have feathers that are duller overall, in shades of brown and gray. Parasites can dull coloration of both sexes; in males, coloration may serve as a signal of health. The primary wing feathers have white bars. Turkeys have 5000 to 6000 feathers. Tail feathers are of the same length in adults, different lengths in juveniles. Males typically have a "beard '', a tuft of coarse hair (modified feathers) growing from the center of the breast. Beards average 230 mm (9.1 in) in length. In some populations, 10 to 20 % of females have a beard, usually shorter and thinner than that of the male. The adult male (or "tom '') normally weighs from 5 to 11 kg (11 to 24 lb) and measures 100 -- 125 cm (39 -- 49 in) in length. The adult female (or "hen '') is typically much smaller at 2.5 -- 5.4 kg (5.5 -- 11.9 lb) and is 76 to 95 cm (30 to 37 in) long. Per two large studies, the average weight of adult males is 7.6 kg (17 lb) and the average weight of adult females is 4.26 kg (9.4 lb). The wings are relatively small, as is typical of the galliform order, and the wingspan ranges from 1.25 to 1.44 m (4 ft 1 in to 4 ft 9 in). The wing chord is only 20 to 21.4 cm (7.9 to 8.4 in). The bill is also relatively small, as adults measure 2 to 3.2 cm (0.79 to 1.26 in) in culmen length. The tarsus of the wild turkey is quite long and sturdy, measuring from 9.7 to 19.1 cm (3.8 to 7.5 in). The tail is also relatively long, ranging from 24.5 to 50.5 cm (9.6 to 19.9 in). The record - sized adult male wild turkey, according to the National Wild Turkey Federation, weighed 16.85 kg (37.1 lb), with records of tom turkeys weighing over 13.8 kg (30 lb) uncommon but not rare. While it is usually rather lighter than the waterfowl, after the trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator), the turkey has the second heaviest maximum weight of any North American bird. Going on average mass, several other birds on the continent, including the American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), the tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus columbianus) and the very rare California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) and whooping crane (Grus americana) surpass the mean weight of turkeys. On one hand, none of these other species are as sexually dimorphic in size as the wild turkey, but on the other, they are also far less numerous and are not legally hunted unlike the turkey, thousands of which are weighed every year during hunting season.
Wild turkeys prefer hardwood and mixed conifer - hardwood forests with scattered openings such as pastures, fields, orchards and seasonal marshes. They seemingly can adapt to virtually any dense native plant community as long as coverage and openings are widely available. Open, mature forest with a variety of interspersion of tree species appear to be preferred. In the Northeast of North America, turkeys are most profuse in hardwood timber of oak - hickory (Quercus - Carya) and forests of red oak (Quercus rubra), beech (Fagus grandifolia), cherry (Prunus serotina) and white ash (Fraxinus americana). Best ranges for turkeys in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont sections have an interspersion of clearings, farms, and plantations with preferred habitat along principal rivers and in cypress (Taxodium distichum) and tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) swamps. In Appalachian and Cumberland plateaus, birds occupy mixed forest of oaks and pines on southern and western slopes, also hickory with diverse understories. Bald cypress and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) swamps of s. Florida; also hardwood of Cliftonia (a heath) and oak in north - central Florida. Lykes Fisheating Creek area of s. Florida has up to 51 % cypress, 12 % hardwood hammocks, 17 % glades of short grasses with isolated live oak (Quercus virginiana); nesting in neighboring prairies. Original habitat here was mainly longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) with turkey oak (Quercus laevis) and slash pine (Pinus caribaea) "flatwoods, '' now mainly replaced by slash pine plantations.
Despite their weight, wild turkeys, unlike their domesticated counterparts, are agile fliers. In ideal habitat of open woodland or wooded grasslands, they may fly beneath the canopy top and find perches. They usually fly close to the ground for no more than 400 m (a quarter mile).
Turkeys have many vocalizations: "gobbles '', "clucks '', "putts '', "purrs '', "yelps '', "cutts '', "whines '', "cackles '', and "kee - kees ''. In early spring, males older than 1 - year - old (sometimes called gobblers or toms) and, occasionally to a lesser extent, males younger than 1 - year - old (sometimes called jakes) gobble to announce their presence to females and competing males. The gobble can carry for up to a mile. Males also emit a low - pitched "drumming '' sound; produced by the movement of air in the air sack in the chest, similar to the booming of a prairie chicken. In addition they produce a sound known as the "spit '' which is a sharp expulsion of air from this air sack. Hens "yelp '' to let gobblers know their location. Gobblers often yelp in the manner of females, and hens can gobble, though they rarely do so. Immature males, called jakes, often yelp.
Wild turkeys are omnivorous, foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed. They prefer eating acorns, nuts and other hard mast of various trees, including hazel, chestnut, hickory, and pinyon pine as well as various seeds, berries such as juniper and bearberry, roots and insects. Turkeys also occasionally consume amphibians and small reptiles such as lizards and snakes. Poults have been observed eating insects, berries, and seeds. Wild turkeys often feed in cow pastures, sometimes visit back yard bird feeders, and favor croplands after harvest to scavenge seeds on the ground. Turkeys are also known to eat a wide variety of grasses.
Turkey populations can reach large numbers in small areas because of their ability to forage for different types of food. Early morning and late afternoon are the desired times for eating.
Males are polygamous, mating with as many hens as they can. Male wild turkeys display for females by puffing out their feathers, spreading out their tails and dragging their wings. This behavior is most commonly referred to as strutting. Their heads and necks are colored brilliantly with red, blue and white. The color can change with the turkey 's mood, with a solid white head and neck being the most excited. They use gobbling, drumming / booming and spitting as signs of social dominance, and to attract females. Courtship begins during the months of March and April, which is when turkeys are still flocked together in winter areas.
Males may be seen courting in groups, often with the dominant male gobbling, spreading their tail feathers (strutting), drumming / booming and spitting. In a study, the average dominant male that courted as part of a pair of males fathered six more eggs than males that courted alone. Genetic analysis of pairs of males courting together shows that they are close relatives, with half of their genetic material being identical. The theory behind the team - courtship is that the less dominant male would have a greater chance of passing along shared genetic material than if it were courting alone.
When mating is finished, females search for nest sites. Nests are shallow dirt depressions engulfed with woody vegetation. Hens lay a clutch of 10 -- 14 eggs, usually one per day. The eggs are incubated for at least 28 days. The poults are precocial and nidifugous, leaving the nest in about 12 -- 24 hours.
Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), groundhogs (Marmota monax), other rodents and spotted skunks (Spilogale ssp.). Predators of poults in addition to nestlings and eggs also include several snakes, namely rat snakes (Elaphe ssp.), gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer) and pinesnakes (Pituophis ssp.), and predators mainly on poults include raptors such as bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), barred owl (Strix varia), red - shouldered (Buteo lineatus), red - tailed (Buteo jamaicensis), white - tailed (Geranoaetus albicaudatus) and Harris 's hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus) and even the smallish Cooper 's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and broad - winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) (both likely of very small poults). Mortality of poults is greatest in the first 14 days of life, especially of those roosting on the ground, decreasing most notably after half a year, when they attain near adult sizes.
Predators of both adults and poults include coyotes (Canis latrans), gray wolves (Canis lupus), bobcats (Lynx rufus), cougars (Puma concolor), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and possibly American black bears (Ursus americanus). In addition to poults, hens and adult - sized fledglings (but not, as far as is known, adult male toms) are vulnerable to predation by great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), domestic cats (Felis catus), and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Humans are now the leading predator of adult turkeys. When approached by potential predators, turkeys and their poults usually run away rather than fly away from potential predators, though they may also fly short distances if pressed.
Occasionally, if cornered, adult turkeys may try to fight off predators and large male toms can be especially aggressive in self - defense. When fighting off predators, turkeys may kick with their legs, using the spurs on their back of the legs as a weapon, bite with their beak and ram with their relatively large bodies and may be able to deter predators up to the size of mid-sized mammals. Hen turkeys have been seen to chase off at least two species of hawks in flight when their poults are threatened. Occasionally, turkeys may behave aggressively towards humans, especially in areas where natural habitats are scarce. They also have been seen to chase off humans as well. However, attacks can usually be deterred and minor injuries can be avoided by giving turkeys a respectful amount of space and keeping outdoor spaces clean and undisturbed.
The wild turkey in the United States in 1957 ranged from Arizona to southeastern Oklahoma and thence through Tennessee, West Virginia, and New York, and south to Florida and Texas. It formerly ranged north to southeastern South Dakota, southern Wisconsin, southern Ontario, and southwestern Maine. The A.O.U. Checklist also described Upper Pliocene fossils in Kansas, and Pleistocene fossils widely from New Mexico to Pennsylvania and Florida. The Californian turkey, Meleagris californica, is an extinct species of turkey indigenous to the Pleistocene and early Holocene of California. It became extinct about 10,000 years ago. The present Californian wild turkey population derives from wild birds re-introduced during the 1960s and 70s from other areas by game officials. They proliferated after 2000 to become an everyday sight in the East Bay Area by 2015.
At the beginning of the 20th century the range and numbers of wild turkeys had decreased due to hunting and loss of habitat. Game managers estimate that the entire population of wild turkeys in the United States was as low as 30,000 by the late 1930s. By the 1940s, it was almost totally extirpated from Canada and had become localized in pockets in the United States, in the north - east effectively restricted to the Appalachians, only as far north as central Pennsylvania. Game officials made efforts to protect and encourage the breeding of the surviving wild population, and some trapped birds were relocated to new areas, including some in the western states where it was not native. There is evidence that the bird does well when near farmland, which provides grain and also berry - bearing shrubs at its edges. As wild turkey numbers rebounded, hunting became legal in 49 U.S. states (excluding Alaska). In 1973, the total U.S. population was estimated to be 1.3 million, and current estimates place the entire wild turkey population at 7 million individuals. In recent years, "trap and transfer '' projects have reintroduced wild turkeys to several provinces of Canada as well, sometimes from across the border in the United States.
Attempts to introduce the wild turkey to Britain as a game bird in the 18th century were not successful. George II is said to have had a flock of a few thousand in Richmond Park near London, but they were too easy for local poachers to destroy, and the fights with poachers became too dangerous for the gamekeepers. They were hunted with dogs and then shot out of trees where they took refuge. Several other populations, introduced or escaped, have survived for periods elsewhere in Britain and Ireland, but seem to have died out, perhaps from a combination of lack of winter feed and poaching. Small populations, probably descended from farm as well as wild stock, in the Czech Republic and Germany have been more successful, and there are wild populations of some size following introductions in Hawaii and New Zealand.
There are subtle differences in the coloration, habitat, and behavior of the different subspecies of wild turkeys. The six subspecies are:
This was the turkey species Europeans first encountered in the wild: by the Puritans, the founders of Jamestown, and by the Acadians. Its range is one of the largest of all subspecies, covering the entire eastern half of the United States from Maine in the north to northern Florida and extending as far west as Michigan, Illinois, and into Missouri. In Canada, its range extends into Southeastern Manitoba, Ontario, Southwestern Quebec (including Pontiac, Quebec and the lower half of the Western Quebec Seismic Zone), and the Maritime Provinces. They number from 5.1 to 5.3 million birds. They were first named ' forest turkey ' in 1817, and can grow up to 4 ft (1.2 m) tall. The upper tail coverts are tipped with chestnut brown. Males can reach 30 lb (14 kg) in weight. The eastern wild turkey is heavily hunted in the Eastern USA and is the most hunted wild turkey subspecies.
Most common in the Florida peninsula, they number from 80,000 to 100,000 birds. This bird is named for the famous Seminole leader Osceola, and was first described in 1890. It is smaller and darker than the eastern wild turkey. The wing feathers are very dark with smaller amounts of the white barring seen on other subspecies. Their overall body feathers are an iridescent green - purple color. They are often found in scrub patches of palmetto and occasionally near swamps, where amphibian prey is abundant. Osceola turkeys are the smallest subspecies weighing 16 to 18 pounds.
The Rio Grande wild turkey ranges through Texas to Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado, Oregon, Utah, and was introduced to central and western California, as well as parts of a few northeastern states. It was also introduced to Hawai ʻi in the late 1950s. Population estimates for this subspecies range from 1,022,700 to 1,025,700. This subspecies, native to the central plain states, was first described in 1879, and has relatively long legs, better adapted to a prairie habitat. Its body feathers often have a green - coppery sheen. The tips of the tail and lower back feathers are a buff - to - very light tan color. Its habitats are brush areas next to streams, rivers or mesquite, pine and scrub oak forests. The Rio Grande turkey is gregarious.
The Merriam 's wild turkey ranges through the Rocky Mountains and the neighboring prairies of Wyoming, Montana and South Dakota, as well as much of the high mesa country of New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah and The Navajo Nation, with number from 334,460 to 344,460 birds. The subspecies has also been introduced into Oregon. The initial releases of Merriam 's turkeys in 1961 resulted in establishing a remnant population of Merriam 's turkeys along the east - slope of Mt. Hood and natural immigration of turkeys from Idaho has established Merriam 's flocks along the eastern border of Oregon. Merriam 's wild turkeys live in ponderosa pine and mountainous regions. The subspecies was named in 1900 in honor of Clinton Hart Merriam, the first chief of the U.S. Biological Survey. The tail and lower back feathers have white tips and purple and bronze reflections.
Native from the central valleys to the northern mountains of Mexico and the southernmost parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Gould 's wild turkeys are heavily protected and regulated. The subspecies was first described in 1856. They exist in small numbers in the U.S. but are abundant in northwestern portions of Mexico. A small population has been established in southern Arizona. Gould 's are the largest of the six subspecies. They have longer legs, larger feet, and longer tail feathers. The main colors of the body feathers are copper and greenish - gold. This subspecies is heavily protected owing to its skittish nature and threatened status.
The south Mexican wild turkey is considered the nominate subspecies, and the only one that is not found in the United States or Canada. In central Mexico, archaeological M. gallopavo bones have been identified at sites dating to 800 -- 100 BC (10), (11). It is unclear whether these early specimens represent wild or domestic individuals, but domestic turkeys were likely established in central Mexico by the first half of the Classic Period (c. AD 200 -- 1000). Late Preclassic (300 BC -- AD 100) turkey remains identified at the archaeological site of El Mirador (Petén, Guatemala) represent the earliest evidence of the export of the south Mexican wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo) to the ancient Maya world. The south Mexican wild subspecies, M. g. gallopavo, was domesticated either in Mexico or by Preclassic peoples in Mesoamerica, giving rise to the domestic turkey. The Spaniards brought this tamed subspecies back to Europe with them in the mid-16th century; from Spain it spread to France and later Britain as a farmyard animal, usually becoming the centerpiece of a feast for the well - to - do. By 1620 it was common enough so that Pilgrim settlers of Massachusetts could bring turkeys with them from England, unaware that it had a larger close relative already occupying the forests of Massachusetts. It is one of the smallest subspecies and is best known in Spanish from its Aztec - derived name, guajolote. This wild turkey subspecies is thought to be critically endangered, as of 2010.
The idea that Benjamin Franklin preferred the turkey as the national bird of the United States comes from a letter he wrote to his daughter Sarah Bache on January 26, 1784. The main subject of the letter is a criticism of the Society of the Cincinnati, which he likened to a chivalric order, which contradicted the ideals of the newly founded American republic. In one section of the letter, Franklin remarked on the appearance of the bald eagle on the Society 's crest:
With all this Injustice, he is never in good Case but like those among Men who live by Sharping & Robbing he is generally poor and often very lousy. Besides he is a rank Coward: The little King Bird not bigger than a Sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the District. He is therefore by no means a proper Emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America who have driven all the King birds from our Country... I am on this account not displeased that the Figure is not known as a Bald Eagle, but looks more like a Turkey. For in Truth the Turkey is in Comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America... He is besides, though a little vain & silly, a Bird of Courage, and would not hesitate to attack a Grenadier of the British Guards who should presume to invade his Farm Yard with a red Coat on.
Franklin never publicly voiced opposition to the bald eagle as a national symbol.
The wild turkey, throughout its range, plays a significant role in the cultures of many Native American tribes all over North America. Outside of the Thanksgiving feast, it is a favorite meal in eastern tribes. Eastern Native American tribes consumed both the eggs and meat, sometimes turning the latter into a type of jerky to preserve it and make it last through cold weather. They provided habitat by burning down portions of forests to create meadows which would attract mating birds, and thus give a clear shot to hunters. The feathers of turkeys also often made their way into the rituals and headgear of many tribes. Many leaders, such as Catawba chiefs, traditionally wore turkey feather headdresses. Significant peoples of several tribes, including Muscogee Creek and Wampanoag, wore turkey feather cloaks. The turkey clan is one of the three Lenape clans. Movements of wild turkeys inspired the Caddo tribe 's turkey dance. The Navajo people of Southeastern Arizona, New Mexico and Utah call the turkey Tązhii and relate the bird to the corn and seeds which The Turkey in Navajo folklore brought from the Third Navajo World. It is one of the Navajos ' sacred birds, with the Navajo people using the feathers and parts in multiple traditional ceremonies.
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when do snow and emma return to storybrooke | Once Upon a Time (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of the ABC television series Once Upon a Time was announced on May 10, 2012. It premiered on September 30, 2012 and concluded on May 12, 2013.
The season 's plot follows the introduction of magic by Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold into Storybrooke, leaving the fate of both the real world and the Fairytale Land that was intertwined, resulting in new threats emerging. Furthermore, Rumplestiltskin locates his son, only to find he is Henry Mills ' father, and outsiders Greg Mendell and a woman named Tamara arrive in Storybrooke with the intention to remove magic and the town. They eventually fail to destroy Storybrooke, though they kidnap Henry and take him to Neverland to the unknown Peter Pan, leading the main characters to follow them to retrieve him, setting the premise for the third season. New characters introduced in the season include Baelfire (the son of Rumplestiltskin) under his new alias Neal Cassidy - who is also the father of Henry Mills - Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones, Princess Aurora, Mulan, Prince Phillip, Robin Hood, and the Darling Family.
The season premiere was watched by 11.36 million viewers, achieving an adult 18 - 49 rating / share of 3.9 / 10.0. These numbers sunk to a low of 7.08 million viewers in February 2013, but remained stable above 7 million throughout the remainder of the season with a season finale viewership of 7.33 million and a 2.3 / 7 adult 18 -- 49 rating / share.
With the curse broken, the residents of Storybrooke struggle between their original memories and cursed memories, and are left wondering of the fate of their land. After Emma and Mary Margaret survive the trip back to the Enchanted Forest by accident, they find that part of the realm was spared from the curse which kept the remaining inhabitants frozen during the twenty - eight years. Among them are the cunning Cora and the ruthless Captain Hook, who follow Emma and Mary Margaret to Storybrooke to get even with Regina and Rumplestiltskin. People outside of Storybrooke are also allowed in, including Greg Mendel and Tamara, who both have a secretive past involving magic which leads to Henry 's captivity in Neverland.
On May 10, 2012, ABC renewed Once Upon a Time for a second season, which premiered on September 30, 2012.
Co-creators Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis spoke about the repercussions of the first season finale 's events, stating, "Magic as we know always comes with a price and we are introducing it to a world where it has never been before and I think that 's going to have unpredictable results. It 's going to affect everybody this season because that 's what 's more fun. '' said Kitsis. On everyone in Storybrooke 's memories returning Horowitz commented, "One of the things that 's interesting to us to explore is this notion that just because the memories have returned does not mean that the past 28 years did not happen. Those memories, the Davids, the Mary Margarets, the Mr. Golds, all those people, who they were existed and what they did actually happened and those are the things that will have to be dealt with. ''
The show still bounced back - and - forth between the fairy - tale world and Storybrooke, although there were slight differences compared to season one. It was hinted that another form of narrative was introduced during the season.
In June 2012, it was reported that season one recurring actresses Meghan Ory (Red Riding Hood / Ruby) and Emilie de Ravin (Belle / Lacey) had both been promoted to series regulars for the second season. In July 2012, it was announced that Pretty Little Liars star Julian Morris would be guest starring as Prince Phillip, an altruistic hero and adept warrior, while Teen Wolf actor Sinqua Walls was cast as Sir Lancelot, a former member of the round table. In the same month, it was announced that The Tudors star Sarah Bolger and The Hangover Part II actress Jamie Chung had joined the recurring cast as Princess Aurora (Sleeping Beauty) and Chinese warrior Mulan. On August 3, 2012, The Rite actor Colin O'Donoghue booked the recurring role of Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones, the prime antagonist of J.M. Barrie 's Peter Pan. O'Donoghue joined the main cast during the second half of the season. The same day, it was reported that True Blood 's Michael Raymond - James had joined the season 's recurring cast in an unknown role, described only as "mysterious ''. This was later revealed to be Neal Cassidy (Rumplestiltskin 's son Baelfire, Emma Swan 's ex-boyfriend and Henry Mills ' father). Lost alum Jorge Garcia recurs as Anton the Giant, referenced from Jack and the Beanstalk. Garcia was originally scheduled to appear in only one episode, but his character was later expanded. Actor Raphael Sbarge, who portrays Jiminy Cricket, was made part of the recurring guest cast this season, as opposed to being included in the first season 's main cast. The L Word actress Rachel Shelley played the recurring role of Milah, Rumplestiltskin 's wife. Eureka actor Christopher Gauthier is recurring throughout the season as Mr. William Smee, Captain Hook 's right - hand - man. In October 2012, Ca n't Hardly Wait star Ethan Embry joined the recurring cast as an unknown visitor to Storybrooke. Eion Bailey (Pinocchio / August Booth) made guest appearances in episodes six and 18. Tony Perez (Prince Henry) and Alan Dale (King George / Albert Spencer) both made recurring appearances in some capacity throughout the season.
Actor Noah Bean reprised his role as Daniel, the Evil Queen 's love - interest, during episode five, "The Doctor ''. The X-Files actress Annabeth Gish guest starred as Anita, the leader of a pack of werewolves, in Child of the Moon. The Christmas Card actor Chad Michael Collins and 24 veteran Gregory Itzin appeared in In the Name of the Brother as Gerhardt / Frankenstein 's Monster, Dr. Frankenstein 's younger brother and as Alphonse, the boys ' father, respectively. Scream and Charmed actress Rose McGowan portrayed a young Cora in The Miller 's Daughter. Lesley Nicol, of Downton Abbey fame, was cast as Johanna in The Queen is Dead which also featured Heroes vet Rena Sofer as Queen Eva, Snow White 's mother. It was implicated that the role has the potential to become recurring. Caprica actor John Pyper - Ferguson guest starred in Welcome to Storybrooke as Kurt Flynn, a widower who longs to aid his son after experiencing the loss of his mother. Season one co-star Jamie Dornan also reprised his role as Sheriff Graham Humbert in the episode.
Since the first season, Kings actor Sebastian Stan had portrayed Jefferson / The Mad Hatter in a recurring role; he has since departed from the show with obligations to the Broadway play Picnic and the feature film Captain America: The Winter Soldier. It was reported that ABC was set to recast the role with the potential for a possible spin - off based on the character. However, Stan 's recasting was repudiated by series co-creator Adam Horowitz, saying that Stan "is a very busy man, I do n't know when he will be making his way back toward us ''. He later confirmed that Stan would definitely not be re-appearing in 2013.
Principal photography for the season began in Vancouver, British Columbia on July 16, 2012 and completed on April 5, 2013. The town of Steveston doubles as Storybrooke for the series.
All tracks written by Mark Isham.
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what did the war of 1812 lead to | Results of the war of 1812 - wikipedia
The War of 1812 happened between Great Britain and the United States in 1812. It caused no geographical changes. The main result of the war was two centuries of peace between the United States and Britain. All the causes of the war had disappeared with the end of the war between Britain and France and with the destruction of the power of Indians to block American expansion into the Northwest. American fears of the Native Americans ended, as did British plans to create a buffer Native American state. The American quest for honor after its humiliations by the British were satisfied. The final collapse of the opposition Federalist Party opened an "Era of good feelings '' with lessened partisanship and an exuberant spirit. The British paid little attention to the war, concentrating instead on their final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The U.S. failed to gain any territory from British North America, contrary to many American politicians ' land from Spain.
After Napoleon 's defeat in 1814, Britain was no longer at war with France and there were no restrictions on trade; the British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors as there was a need to resumed it. Americans believed they had regained their honour and proclaimed victory in what they called a "second war of independence '' for the decisive defeat of the British invaders at New Orleans seemed to prove that Britain could never regain control of America (although this had at no time during the war been either plausible or a British intention). The threat of secession by New England ended with the failure of the Hartford Convention.
In Britain, the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs: Napoleon had returned from exile in March 1815, and was finally defeated at Waterloo 100 days later.
Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire. Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of American invasions. Francophone Canadians largely ignore the war.
Efforts to end the war began in 1812 when the chief U.S. diplomat in London proposed an armistice in return for a renunciation of impressments; the British refused. Later, in 1812, when the British captured Detroit and news of the repeal of the Orders reached Washington, Sir George Prevost arranged an armistice with his counterpart Henry Dearborn. The British Frigate HMS Junon was sent to relay The American 's response to the British squadrons on the North American Station. However, President James Madison decided to continue the war. In 1813, Russia offered to mediate a peace, but London rejected the offer, because it might compromise British interests in Europe. Finally, Great Britain and the United States agreed to commence peace negotiations in January 1814: the talks were delayed.
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations with unrealistic demands. The U.S. wanted an end to all British maritime practices it deemed objectionable and also demanded cessions of Canadian territory and guaranteed fishing rights off Newfoundland. The British announced as an essential element of the peace treaty their long - standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large "neutral '' Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest. It would be independent of the United States and under the tutelage of the British, who would use it to block American expansion and to build up their control of the fur trade. London dropped the demand when the Americans adamantly refused and indicated it would end the negotiations. The British had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh 's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and no longer controlled adequate supply lines to support an Indian barrier state. Britain also wanted to keep the far - northeastern parts of Maine that had been captured to provide a land corridor to Quebec from the maritime colonies.
After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed more seamen. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon. The negotiators agreed to return to the status quo ante bellum with no changes in boundaries. Both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. The next and final step would be formal ratification by each government.
The British -- but not the Americans -- knew, when they signed, that a battle was imminent at New Orleans (it was fought on January 8, 1815). This treaty finally went into effect when it was formally ratified by both sides in February 1815.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgment of American maritime rights, but in the century of peace between the worlds naval powers from 1815 until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The British navy ended the practices that angered Americans, for they were no longer needed after Napoleon. American pride and honor was built as a result of the Indian threat being ended, and through rejoicing surrounding American victory at New Orleans. In doing so, the United States had successfully created sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.
A key reason that American frontiersmen were so much in favor of the war in the first place was the threat posed to their continued settlement of Native American - inhabited territory by various tribes, which they blamed on the arms and supplies provided by British agents in Canada. In addition, they wanted access to lands that the British acknowledged belonged to the U.S. but that the British were blocking expansion into by inciting and arming the Native Americans. The death of Tecumseh in battle in 1813 removed a powerful obstacle to expansion, although Native American involvement in the war continued, as did their resistance to American westward expansion after the war 's end. The natives were the main losers in the war, losing British protection, and never regained their influence.
In the Southeast, Andrew Jackson 's destruction of Britain 's allies, the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, ended the threat of Native American hostilities in that region. It opened vast areas in Georgia and Alabama for settlement as plantations and farmlands. The U.S. occupied all of West Florida during the war and in 1819 purchased the rest of Florida from Spain, thus preventing the Spanish from arming hostile tribes there. Creek Indians who escaped to Spanish Florida joined the Seminoles there, and put up a long resistance known as the Seminole Wars.
In the treaty, the British promised not to arm the Native Americans in the U.S. from Canada (nor even trade with them), and the U.S. - Canada border was largely pacified. However, some Americans assumed that the British continued to conspire with their former Native American allies in an attempt to forestall U.S. hegemony in the Great Lakes region. Such perceptions were faulty, argues Calloway (1987). After the Treaty of Ghent, the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region became an undesirable burden to British policymakers.
Some in Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the "British yoke '', but that did not happen. After 1815, British officials, Anglican clergy and Canadians loyal to the Empire tried to spot and root out American ideals, such as democracy and republicanism. Thus, the British and Loyalist elite were able to set the different colonies, of what would later become Canada, on a different course from that of their former enemy. Canada discouraged further American immigration.
When the United States attacked British North America, most of the British forces were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. Thus, British North America had minimal troops to defend against the United States, who had a much larger (though initially poorly trained) military force. For most of the war, British North America stood alone against a much stronger American force. Reinforcements from the United Kingdom did not arrive until 1814, the final year of the war. The repelling of the American force helped to foster British loyalties in the colonies that later became Canada.
The nationalistic sentiment caused a suspicion of such American ideas as republicanism, which would frustrate political reform in Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837. However, the War of 1812 started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867. Canadian writer Pierre Berton has written that, although later events such as the rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more important, Canada would have become part of the United States if the War of 1812 had not taken place, because more and more American settlers would have arrived and Canadian nationalism would not have developed.
The War of 1812 was highly significant in Britain 's North American colonies. After the war, British sympathizers portrayed the war as a successful fight for national survival against an American democratic force that threatened the peace and stability the Canadians desired. Throughout the war, most of Canada 's inhabitants assigned the war to an American desire to annex the British colonies, a perception reinforced by American Generals like William Hull, who issued proclamations stating that Canada would be annexed.
An alleged Canadian myth from the war was that Canadian militiamen had performed admirably, while the British officers were largely ineffective. Jack Granatstein has termed this the "militia myth '', and he feels it has had a deep effect on Canadian military thinking, which placed more stress on a citizens ' militia than on a professional standing army. The United States suffered from a similar "frontiersman myth '' at the start of the war, believing falsely that individual initiative and marksmanship could be effective against a well - disciplined British battle line. Granatstein argues that the militia was not particularly effective in the war and that any British military success was the work of British regular forces and the result of British domination over the sea. Isaac Brock, for example, was reluctant to trust the militia with muskets.
Others argue that, in fact, the Canadian militia played important roles in several key engagements, including at the Battle of Chateauguay where they were central to defeating the American advance on Montreal in the fall of 1813. Historian Robert Henderson has referred to this as "The myth of the Militia myth ''. See: Canadian Units of the War of 1812
During the war, British officers constantly worried that the Americans would block the St. Lawrence River, which forms part of the Canada -- U.S. border. If the U.S. military had done so, there would have been no British supply route for Upper Canada, where most of the land battles took place, and British forces would likely have had to withdraw or surrender all western British territory within a few months. British officers ' dispatches after the war exhibited astonishment that the Americans never took such a simple step, but the British were not willing to count on the enemy repeating the mistake: as a result, Britain commissioned the Rideau Canal, an expensive project connecting Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ottawa River, providing an alternative supply route that bypassed the part of the St. Lawrence River along the U.S. border. The settlement at the northeastern end of the canal, where it joins the Ottawa River, later became the city of Ottawa, Canada 's fourth - largest city and its capital (placed inland to protect it from U.S. invasion -- known then as the ' defensible back - country '). Because population away from the St. Lawrence shores was negligible, the British, in the years following the war, took great lengths to ensure that back - country settlement was increased. They settled soldiers and initiated assisted - immigration schemes, offering free land to farmers, mostly tenants of estates in the south of Ireland. The canal project was not completed until 1832 and was never used for its intended purpose.
In contrast to Canada, the War of 1812 is seldom remembered in Britain today, as the conflict was quickly forgotten by the British public. Chiefly, this is because it was overshadowed by the dramatic events of the contemporary Napoleonic wars, and because Britain herself neither gained nor lost anything by the peace settlement, except for the fact that it kept control of Canada.
The Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the United States Navy had won single - ship duels during the war, even though they had no strategic effect. Particular attention was given these battles because American propaganda had projected them as battles of equal force, when actually the only single ship duel where the forces were equal was the Battle of Boston Harbor which the British won. Furthermore, Britain had effectively won the war on the ocean as almost the entire US Navy was blockaded and unable to fight. British honor was restored when the USS President was captured and taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships that participated in battles of so - called equal force where actually much larger than the British ships they were engaged with.
American privateers and commerce raiders had captured approximately 1200 British merchant ships, sending insurance rates up and embarrassing the Admiralty. Nevertheless, 50 % of all American privateers were captured by the British while the privateers only captured 5 % to 7 % of British commerce. Meanwhile, for every 14 American merchant ships that traded before the start of the war only 1 ship dared leave port during the war despite the American effort to double maritime trade. Furthermore, of the few ships that left port, a total 1400 were captured. In addition, Britain did win many sea battles. The Royal Navy had been able to deploy overwhelming strength to American waters, annihilating rather than merely denting American maritime trade, and driving the American economy close to bankruptcy. The Royal Navy would emerge unchecked from the conflict.
The British Army regarded the 1812 - 15 conflict in Canada and America as a sideshow. Only one regiment, the 41st, was awarded a battle honor (Detroit) from the war. The army was more interested in the lessons of the Peninsular War in Spain. The battle New Orleans could be conveniently attributed to poor leadership or insuperable physical obstacles and British attention was given to the Royal Navy 's successful capture of the American flagship which the Americans conveniently overlooked. If generalship had been better, it was believed, then British would have been successfully at New Orleans. Due to the huge, overwhelming success and pre-eminence of the Duke of Wellington in Europe, the British army was to make no change to its systems of recruitment, discipline and awards of commissions for more than half a century.
The British suffered 5,000 killed or wounded soldiers and sailors in the war.
The gloom in New England, which staunchly opposed the war, culminated in December 1814, as delegates from five states met secretly in the Hartford Convention. It demanded constitutional amendments to protect New England 's interests against the West and the South. Secession talk was rife and the region might have threatened to secede from the Union, if their demands had been ignored, but the news of peace ended the movement.
The United States had faced near - disaster in 1814, but the victories at the Battle of New Orleans and the Battle of Baltimore and what seemed to be a successful fight against the United Kingdom increased to unite the United States into one nation. Meanwhile, the loss of the American flagship USS President was conveniently overlooked by the public. The best - known patriotic legacy of the war was The Star Spangled Banner. The words are by Francis Scott Key, who after the bombardment of Fort McHenry set them to the music of a British drinking song, "To Anacreon in Heaven. '' In 1889 the U.S. Navy began using The Star Spangled Banner at flag - raising ceremonies, a practice copied by the Army. In 1931, Congress made it the U.S. National Anthem.
Although all of the original objectives of the war had failed, the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment. The war ushered in a period of American history that has frequently been called "the Era of Good Feelings, '' a time when, at least on the surface, most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose. The War of 1812 convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home.
With the collapse of the Hartford Convention and news of the triumph at the Battle of New Orleans, Americans had cause for celebration. In February, President James Madison sent Congress the treaty of peace. He congratulated the nation on the close of a war "waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils, of the patriotism of the people, of the public spirit of the militia, and of the velour of the military and naval forces of the country. '' The spirit of nationalism and pride led to the collapse of the nay - sayer Federalist Party and the new Era of Good Feelings.
One indirect result of the War of 1812 was the later election to the presidency of war heroes Andrew Jackson and of William Henry Harrison. Both of these men won military fame which had much to do with their elections. Another indirect result was the decline of Federalist power.
During the war a total of 2,260 American soldiers and sailors were killed. The war cost the United States about $200 million. Neither the United States nor Great Britain gained any military advantage. Indirectly the United States made some gains.
A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on professionalism in the U.S. Army officer corps and in particular, the training of officers at the United States Military Academy ("West Point ''). This new professionalism would become apparent during the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 1848). After the Texas Annexation by the U.S., the term Manifest Destiny became a widely used political term for those who propagated American expansionism and military pride.
In a related development, the United States officially abandoned its reliance on the militia for its defense. Moreover, Army Corps of Engineers (which at that time controlled West Point), began building fortifications around New Orleans as a response to the British attack on the city during the war. This effort then grew into numerous civil river works, especially in the 1840s and 1850s under General Pierre Beauregard. The Corps remains the authority over Mississippi (and other) river works.
The embarrassing defeat of Fort Madison in what is now Iowa and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien led to the fortification of the Mississippi, with the expansion of Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis, and the construction of Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien, and Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota. Removal of all Indians from the Mississippi Valley became a top priority for the U.S. government.
Historian Norman Risjord has emphasized the central importance of honour as a cause the war. Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honour, and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. This quest for honour was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honour. Chesapeake -- Leopard Affair in which the HMS Leopard attacked the USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event. Historians have documented the importance of honour in shaping public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee, as well as the territory of Michigan. Americans widely celebrated the conclusion of the war as successful, especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans, while conveniently overlooking the loss of their flagship the very next week. For the next century it was often called "the Second American War for Independence '' and it propelled Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison to the White House. Americans felt they had restored their sense of honour.
According to Historians such as Andrew Lambert and William James, British honor was challenged because deserters from the Royal Navy were granted citizenship in the United States. This led to the impressment of American citizens into the Royal Navy. In 1811, the Little Belt Affair would anger the Admiraly and embarrass the United States. This would lead to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship USS President. Although the British would effectively disable the vast majority of the United States Navy during the war by having the ships blockaded, the single ship actions that the American 's won embarrassed the Admiralty. Specific attention was given to these battles as the American 's claimed there were between ships of equal force.
The British effectively restored their honor by capturing the sloop of war USS Frolic and more importantly the flagship USS President. Both ships were taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships of the so - called engagements of equal force were much larger than the British ships they had fought in single ship duels. Furthermore, the United States failed at abolishing impressment when the treaty was signed, but the British did not continue the practice as the Napoleonic Wars had ended so they no longer needed as many sailors. In doing so British honor was restored, only for the entire conflict to be overshadowed by the defeat of Napoleon.
Although during the War of 1812 the United States ' economy was severely damaged by the British blockade, the aftermath gave a dramatic boost to the manufacturing capabilities of the United States. The British blockade of the American coast created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States, leading to the creation of a cotton - manufacturing industry, beginning at Waltham, Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell. The war also spurred on construction of the Erie Canal project, which was built to promote commercial links yet was also perceived as having military uses should the need ever arise. As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811, the federal government was ill - prepared to finance the war and resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes. These actions set a precedent for future Federal responses to financial crises. Also, this exposure of the nation 's financial weaknesses explained in part the Congressional decision to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The readiness of Southern leaders especially John C. Calhoun to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling. Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic - Republican Party, its long - time foes, the Federalists, vanishing from national politics. The result was an Era of Good Feelings with the lowest level of partisanship ever seen.
Canadians, however, contrasted their post-war economic stagnation to the booming American economy, which Desmond Morton believes led to the Rebellions of 1837. During the war, Bermudian privateers, with their fast Bermuda sloops, were to capture 298 ships (the total captures by all British naval or privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels).
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when did the battle of gettysburg begin and end | Battle of Gettysburg - wikipedia
The Battle of Gettysburg (locally / ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ / (listen)) was fought July 1 -- 3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war 's turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meade 's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee 's invasion of the North.
After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North -- the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war - ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.
Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.
On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil 's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full - scale assaults on Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.
On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp 's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett 's Charge. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army.
Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three - day battle, the most costly in US history.
On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.
Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 -- May 6, 1863), Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam). Such a move would upset U.S. plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war - ravaged Virginia a much - needed rest. In addition, Lee 's 72,000 - man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North.
Thus, on June 3, Lee 's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death of Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet (First Corps), Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart.
The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men.
The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton 's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.
By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the Union garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell 's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill 's and Longstreet 's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker 's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee 's army. The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27.
Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population. Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. During the invasion, the Confederates seized some 40 northern African Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but most were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard.
On June 26, elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early 's division of Ewell 's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes. Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.
Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B. Stuart to take a portion of the army 's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee 's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart 's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee 's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg (28 miles (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle (30 miles (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.
In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General - in - Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.
On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles (13 km) west of Gettysburg. On June 30, while part of Hill 's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill 's brigades, North Carolinians under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew, ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, Pettigrew 's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town -- especially shoes.
When Pettigrew 's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee 's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth 's division advanced to Gettysburg.
The Army of the Potomac, initially under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (Maj. Gen. George Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization:
During the advance on Gettysburg, Maj. Gen. Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI Corps. Note that many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry.
In reaction to the death of Lt. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his Army of Northern Virginia (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three.
Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp 's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade 's army would have difficulty dislodging them.
Heth 's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three miles (5 km) west of town, about 7: 30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones. In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument. Eventually, Heth 's men reached dismounted troopers of Col. William Gamble 's cavalry brigade, who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines. Still, by 10: 20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.
North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler 's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer 's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson 's) Woods. The U.S. Iron Brigade under Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.
General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be "the best general in the army. '' Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12: 30 p.m. It resumed around 2: 30 p.m., when Heth 's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough.
As Pettigrew 's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day 's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three - day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender 's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.
As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell 's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee 's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the U.S. line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.
However, the U.S. did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.
Around 2 p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens. Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out - flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of Col. Edward A. O'Neal and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early 's division profited from a blunder by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher 's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow 's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early 's troops overran Barlow 's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army 's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.
As U.S. positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve. Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade 's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. Hancock told Howard, "I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw. '' When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: "Very well, sir, I select this as the battle - field. '' Hancock 's determination had a morale - boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.
General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken "if practicable. '' Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.
The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade 's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee 's army (27,000) were engaged.
Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet 's brigades were on the road: Brig. Gen. George Pickett, had begun the 22 mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brig. Gen. E.M. Law had begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his 28 - mile (45 km) march in eleven hours.
The Union line ran from Culp 's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp 's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a "fishhook '' formation.
The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp 's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) long.
Lee 's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade 's positions. On the right, Longstreet 's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the U.S. line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood 's and Lafayette McLaws 's divisions, followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson 's division of Hill 's Third Corps.
On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet 's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee 's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a "diversion '', to be turned into a full - scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.
Lee 's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart 's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet 's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade 's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade 's escape route.
Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11: 00 a.m. About noon, General Anderson 's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles ' outpost guard and the Third Corps -- upon which Longstreet 's First Corps was to form -- did not get into position until 1: 00 p.m.
Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively.
As Longstreet 's left division, under Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles 's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west -- centered at the Sherfy farm 's Peach Orchard -- he violated orders and advanced his corp to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge. The new line ran from Devil 's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys 's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney 's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively. The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3: 00 p.m. After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade 's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles ' position and demanded an explanation of the situation. Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles ' offer to withdraw.
Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell 's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood 's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil 's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood 's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy 's Peach Orchard. McLaws 's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the "Valley of Death '') before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles 's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell 's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson 's division, coming from McLaws 's left and starting forward around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.
As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil 's Den, Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law 's brigade of Hood 's division. Meade 's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent 's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood 's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain but possibly led by Lt. Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Chamberlain into prominence after the war.
Ewell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade. His 32 guns, along with A.P. Hill 's 55 guns, engaged in a two - hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect. Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front.
Maj. Gen. Edward "Allegheny '' Johnson 's Division "had not been pushed close to (Culp 's Hill) in preparation for an assault, although one had been contemplated all day. It now had a full mile (1,600 m) to advance and Rock Creek had to be crossed. This could only be done at few places and involved much delay. Only three of Johnson 's four brigades moved to the attack. '' Most of the hill 's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet 's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene behind strong, newly constructed defensive works. With reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene 's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp 's Hill.
Early was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays ' and Isaac E. Avery 's Brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: Col. Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes ' Division, but Rodes -- like Early and Johnson -- had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early 's troops had already begun to withdraw.
Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day 's battle. Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton 's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23 - year - old Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer 's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg.
General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the U.S. left, while Ewell attacked Culp 's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp 's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp 's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, "the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before. ''
Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett 's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill 's Corps, in an attack on the U.S. II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the U.S. positions would bombard and weaken the enemy 's line.
Much has been made over the years of General Longstreet 's objections to General Lee 's plan. In his memoirs, Longstreet described their discussion as follows:
(Lee) rode over after sunrise and gave his orders. His plan was to assault the enemy 's left centre by a column to be composed of McLaws 's and Hood 's divisions reinforced by Pickett 's brigades. I thought that it would not do; that the point had been fully tested the day before, by more men, when all were fresh; that the enemy was there looking for us, as we heard him during the night putting up his defences; that the divisions of McLaws and Hood were holding a mile (1,600 m) along the right of my line against twenty thousand men, who would follow their withdrawal, strike the flank of the assaulting column, crush it, and get on our rear towards the Potomac River; that thirty thousand men was the minimum of force necessary for the work; that even such force would need close co-operation on other parts of the line; that the column as he proposed to organize it would have only about thirteen thousand men (the divisions having lost a third of their numbers the day before); that the column would have to march a mile (1,600 m) under concentrating battery fire, and a thousand yards (900 m) under long - range musketry; that the conditions were different from those in the days of Napoleon, when field batteries had a range of six hundred yards (550 m) and musketry about sixty yards (55 m).
He said the distance was not more than fourteen hundred yards (1280 m). General Meade 's estimate was a mile or a mile and a half (1.6 or 2.4 km) (Captain Long, the guide of the field of Gettysburg in 1888, stated that it was a trifle over a mile). He then concluded that the divisions of McLaws and Hood could remain on the defensive line; that he would reinforce by divisions of the Third Corps and Pickett 's brigades, and stated the point to which the march should be directed. I asked the strength of the column. He stated fifteen thousand. Opinion was then expressed that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed.
Around 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac 's artillery, under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy 's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 U.S. cannons added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position.
Around 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three - quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as "Pickett 's Charge ''. As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from Hancock 's II Corps. In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (in order to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results. Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines.
Although the U.S. line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the "Angle '' in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repulsed. The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead 's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett 's division at the Angle is referred to as the "High - water mark of the Confederacy '', arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory. Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand - to - hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was wounded shortly afterward three times.
There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the U.S. right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. Three miles (5 km) east of Gettysburg, in what is now called "East Cavalry Field '' (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart 's forces collided with U.S. cavalry: Brig. Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg 's division and Brig. Gen. Custer 's brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand - to - hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer 's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by Wade Hampton 's brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the U.S. rear.
Meanwhile, after hearing news of the day 's victory, Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet 's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the attack, and his brigade suffered significant losses.
The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties, and Busey and Martin 's more recent 2005 work, Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing). Nearly a third of Lee 's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured. The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57,225.
In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war in terms of total casualties, Gettysburg also had the highest number of generals killed in action of any battle in the war. The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. The Union lost Generals John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, Stephen H. Weed, and Elon J. Farnsworth, as well as Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, and Winfield Scott Hancock. For the Confederacy, Major General John Bell Hood lost the use of his left arm, while Major General Henry Heth received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate Generals James Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett 's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. General James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds ' death.
The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three - day battle.
Bruce Catton wrote, "The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe. '' But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread. Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69 - year old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Despite his age and injuries, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872. Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. Over 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners.
The armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4, the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.
Lee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg. Cavalry under Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles - long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him, using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport, Maryland. Meade 's army followed, although the pursuit was half - spirited. The recently rain - swollen Potomac trapped Lee 's army on the north bank of the river for a time, but when the Union troops finally caught up, the Confederates had forded the river. The rear - guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, who was mortally wounded. General James Kemper, severely wounded during Pickett 's charge, was captured during Lee 's retreat.
In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7, Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. He continued:
Now, if Gen. Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far, by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee 's army, the rebellion will be over.
Halleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln 's letter to Meade in a telegram. Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, which continued over the next week, Meade did not pursue Lee 's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South. The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23, in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap, after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River.
The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed "VICTORY! WATERLOO ECLIPSED! '' New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:
The results of this victory are priceless... The charm of Robert E. Lee 's invincibility is broken. The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it, and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard - fought failures... Copperheads are palsied and dumb for the moment at least... Government is strengthened four-fold at home and abroad.
However, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee 's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that "Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it! '' Brig. Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as "Chase, Seward and others, '' disgusted with Meade, "write to me that Lee really won that Battle! ''
In fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee 's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens 's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams wrote, "The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end. ''
Compounding the effects of the defeat would be end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant 's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle.
The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2 -- 3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned "rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac. '' He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, "Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove. '' Some Southern publications, such as the Charleston Mercury, criticized Lee 's actions in the campaign and on August 8, he offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.
Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the "Lost Cause '', a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war. A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North. However, they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee, who up until this time had been almost invincible, was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg: Ewell, for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1; Stuart, for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign; and especially Longstreet, for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended. In this view, Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity, in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy 's favor.
After the war, General Pickett was asked why Confederates lost at Gettysburg. He replied "I always thought the Yankees had something to do with it. ''
The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers ' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.
The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the "turning point '', usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day. This is based on the observation that after Gettysburg Lee 's army conducted no more strategic offensives -- his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865 -- and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war.
Bruce Catton, Glory Road
It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee 's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of "decisive victory '' is intended -- an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict -- historians are divided. For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a "strategic loss for the Confederacy '' and James M. McPherson wrote that "Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863. ''
However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the "strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was... fairly limited. '' Steven E. Woodworth wrote that "Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater. '' Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that "after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864. '' Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that "Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion, '' yet after Gettysburg, "without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia (remained) an extremely formidable force. '' Ed Bearss wrote, "Lee 's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater... '' Furthermore, the Confederacy soon proved it was still capable of winning significant victories over the Northern forces in both the East (Battle of Cold Harbor) and West (Battle of Chickamauga).
Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the "horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee 's offensive capacity, '' implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army 's Military Review journal on the definition of "decisive '' and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: "For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label ' decisive battle '. '' The military historian John Keegan agrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If "not exactly a decisive battle '', Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant 's Overland Campaign.
Prior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers -- although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army -- during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians have attempted to explain how Lee 's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg. Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee 's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee 's loss arguably can be attributed to: (1) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; (2) the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; (3) his failing health, and (4) the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.
Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee 's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army 's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee "acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into. '' Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, "No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public -- I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor. ''
The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee 's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee 's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings. Two of his corps commanders -- Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill -- had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee 's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders. All four of Lee 's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:
In addition to Hill 's illness, Lee 's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack. He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field, and said, "I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled. ''
As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks.
Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade "would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one... will make haste to take advantage of it. '' That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, "The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg. '' Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a "sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in (themselves). The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle. ''
Meade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command. Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half - hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade 's most competent subordinates -- Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle -- defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience.
Today, the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation 's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development.
On July 20, 2009, a Comfort Inn and Suites opened on Cemetery Hill, adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery, just one of many modern edifices infringing on the historic field. The Baltimore Pike corridor attracts development that concerns preservationists.
Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field. The Civil War Trust also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011.
Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 1,022 acres (4.14 km) of the battlefield in more than 30 separate transactions since 1997. Some of these acres are now among the 4,998 acres of the Gettysburg National Military Park. In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a four - acre parcel that included the stone house that Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters during the battle. The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee 's Headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs. It opened the site to the public in October, 2016.
During the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four - year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961. The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.
A commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936. As was typical for the period, mintage for the coin was very low, just 26,928. On January 24, 2011, the America the Beautiful quarters released a 25 - cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg. The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry.
Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield. At the 50th anniversary (1913), veterans re-enacted Pickett 's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. At the 75th anniversary (1938), 2500 veterans attended, and there was a ceremonial mass hand - shake across a stone wall. This was recorded on sound film, and some Confederates can be heard giving the Rebel Yell.
The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film Gettysburg, based on Michael Shaara 's 1974 novel The Killer Angels. The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford 's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain 's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett 's Charge.
The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories. Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg (sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci - fi elements in an account of the battle):
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where is radiation produced in the xray tube | X-ray tube - wikipedia
An X-ray tube is a vacuum tube that converts electrical input power into X-rays. X-ray tubes evolved from experimental Crookes tubes with which X-rays were first discovered on November 8, 1895, by the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. The availability of this controllable source of X-rays created the field of radiography, the imaging of partly opaque objects with penetrating radiation. In contrast to other sources of ionizing radiation, X-rays are only produced as long as the X-ray tube is energized. X-ray tubes are also used in CT scanners, airport luggage scanners, X-ray crystallography, material and structure analysis, and for industrial inspection.
The anode is supported on vacuum bearings and can be rotated by electromagnetic induction from a series of stator windings outside the evacuated tube. Typically, eddy currents are induced in a rotatable metal cylinder, the rotor. The superimposition of external magnetic induction and induction from the eddy currents, which changes direction with time, creates a driving mechanical momentum in the rotor.
Because the entire anode assembly has to be contained within the evacuated tube, heat removal is a serious problem, further exacerbated by the higher power rating available. Due to the high heat generation, a matched thermal expansion of glass and the anode material is necessary. For this, high - borate borosilicate glass pioneered by Otto Schott is often used. Direct cooling by conduction or convection, as in the Coolidge tube, is difficult. In most tubes, the anode is suspended on ball bearings with silver powder lubrication which provides almost negligible cooling by conduction.
A recent development has been liquid gallium lubricated fluid dynamic bearings which can withstand very high temperatures without contaminating the tube vacuum. The large bearing contact surface and metal lubricant provide an effective method for conduction of heat from the anode.
The anode must be constructed of high temperature materials. The focal spot temperature can reach 2,500 ° C (4,530 ° F) during an exposure, and the anode assembly can reach 1,000 ° C (1,830 ° F) following a series of large exposures. Typical materials are a tungsten - rhenium target on a molybdenum core, backed with graphite. The rhenium makes the tungsten more ductile and resistant to wear from the impact of the electron beams. The molybdenum conducts heat from the target. The graphite provides thermal storage for the anode, and minimizes the rotating mass of the anode.
Increasing demand for high - performance Computed tomography (CT) scanning and angiography systems has driven development of very high performance medical X-ray tubes. Contemporary CT tubes have power ratings of up to 100 kW and anode heat capacity of 6 MJ, yet retain an effective focal spot area of less than 1 mm.
Some X-ray examinations (such as, e.g., non-destructive testing and 3 - D microtomography) need very high - resolution images and therefore require X-ray tubes that can generate very small focal spot sizes, typically below 50 μm in diameter. These tubes are called microfocus X-ray tubes.
There are two basic types of microfocus X-ray tubes: solid - anode tubes and metal - jet - anode tubes.
Solid - anode microfocus X-ray tubes are in principle very similar to the Coolidge tube, but with the important distinction that care has been taken to be able to focus the electron beam into a very small spot on the anode. Many microfocus X-ray sources operate with focus spots in the range 5 - 20 μm, but in the extreme cases spots smaller than 1 μm may be produced.
The major drawback of solid - anode microfocus X-ray tubes is the very low power they operate at. In order to avoid melting of the anode the electron - beam power density must be below a maximum value. This value is somewhere in the range 0.4 - 0.8 W / μm depending on the anode material. This means that a solid - anode microfocus source with a 10 μm electron - beam focus can operate at a power in the range 4 - 8 W.
In metal - jet - anode microfocus X-ray tubes the solid metal anode is replaced with a jet of liquid metal, which acts as the electron - beam target. The advantage of the metal - jet anode is that the maximum electron - beam power density is significantly increased. Values in the range 3 - 6 W / μm have been reported for different anode materials (gallium and tin). In the case with a 10 μm electron - beam focus a metal - jet - anode microfocus X-ray source may operate at 30 - 60 W.
The major benefit of the increased power density level for the metal - jet X-ray tube is the possibility to operate with a smaller focal spot, say 5 μm, to increase image resolution and at the same time acquire the image faster, since the power is higher (15 - 30 W) than for solid - anode tubes with 10 μm focal spots.
As with any vacuum tube, there is a cathode, which emits electrons into the vacuum and an anode to collect the electrons, thus establishing a flow of electrical current, known as the beam, through the tube. A high voltage power source, for example 30 to 150 kilovolts (kV), is connected across cathode and anode to accelerate the electrons. The X-ray spectrum depends on the anode material and the accelerating voltage.
In many applications, the current flow (typically in the range 1 mA to 1 A) is able to be pulsed on for between about 1 ms to 1 s. This enables consistent doses of X-rays, and taking snapshots of motion. Until the late 1980s, X-ray generators were merely high - voltage, AC to DC variable power supplies. In the late 1980s a different method of control was emerging, called high speed switching. This followed the electronics technology of switching power supplies (aka switch mode power supply), and allowed for more accurate control of the X-ray unit, higher quality results, and reduced X-ray exposures.
Electrons from the cathode collide with the anode material, usually tungsten, molybdenum or copper, and accelerate other electrons, ions and nuclei within the anode material. About 1 % of the energy generated is emitted / radiated, usually perpendicular to the path of the electron beam, as X-rays. The rest of the energy is released as heat. Over time, tungsten will be deposited from the target onto the interior surface of the tube, including the glass surface. This will slowly darken the tube and was thought to degrade the quality of the X-ray beam. Vaporized tungsten condenses on the inside of the envelope over the "window '' and thus acts as an additional filter and decreases the tubes ability to radiate heat. Eventually, the tungsten deposit may become sufficiently conductive that at high enough voltages, arcing occurs. The arc will jump from the cathode to the tungsten deposit, and then to the anode. This arcing causes an effect called "crazing '' on the interior glass of the X-ray window. As time goes on, the tube becomes unstable even at lower voltages, and must be replaced. At this point, the tube assembly (also called the "tube head '') is removed from the X-ray system, and replaced with a new tube assembly. The old tube assembly is shipped to a company that reloads it with a new X-ray tube.
The X-ray photon - generating effect is generally called the bremsstrahlung effect, a contraction of the German bremsen for braking, and strahlung for radiation.
The range of photonic energies emitted by the system can be adjusted by changing the applied voltage, and installing aluminum filters of varying thicknesses. Aluminum filters are installed in the path of the X-ray beam to remove "soft '' (non-penetrating) radiation. The number of emitted X-ray photons, or dose, are adjusted by controlling the current flow and exposure time.
The tube current and exposure time affect the dose and therefore the contrast of the image.
Since the introduction of scattered electron traps, directly cooled liquid metal anode bearings, rotating frame tubes and other modern technology the term has become misleading when used for the objective comparison of the performance of medical rotating anode X-ray tubes. Accordingly, the IEC 60613 standard has been revised in 2010. Anode heat storage capacity and implicitly "Heat Units '' were abandoned and replaced by terms of practical relevance, e.g. NOMINAL CT ANODE INPUT POWER. Historically, heat units were referring to the amount of heat stored in a solely radiation cooled anode inside an electron reflecting glass envelope. In radiography, in particular in radiology, a heat unit was a usual unit derived from the Joule and measuring the quantity of heat in a device, in particular the thermal energy that an X-ray tube must be able to support and dissipate during and after an exam.
Historically, this unit comes from the need to express a quantity of energy whatever the waveform of the electrical source power (direct or pulsating). The heat produced in these devices is (in Joule):
In radiography voltage is usually expressed in k V p (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (kV_ (p))) (thousands of volts peak), the effective current in mA and the time in seconds:
w being the waveform ratio. With a full - wave rectification of a sine wave it equals 1 2 ≈ 0.707 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (\ sqrt (2))) \ approx 0.707), thus the practical unit:
Historically, X-rays were discovered radiating from experimental discharge tubes called Crookes tubes invented by British physicist William Crookes and others. As the medical and other uses of X-rays became apparent, workshops began to manufacture specialized Crookes tubes to produce X-rays. These were the first X-ray tubes. These first generation cold cathode or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until the 1920s.
Crookes tubes generated the electrons needed to create X-rays by ionization of the residual air in the tube, instead of a heated filament, so they were partially but not completely evacuated. They consisted of a glass bulb with around 10 to 5 × 10 atmospheric pressure of air (0.1 to 0.005 Pa). An aluminum cathode plate at one end of the tube created a beam of electrons, which struck a platinum anode (for economy, made from nickel or copper with a thin platinum face) target at the center generating X-rays. The anode surface was angled so that the X-rays would radiate through the side of the tube. The cathode was concave so that the electrons were focused on a small (~ 1 mm) spot on the anode, approximating a point source of X-rays, which resulted in sharper images. The tube had a third electrode, an anticathode connected to the anode. It improved the X-ray output, but the method by which it achieved this is not understood. A more common arrangement used a copper plate anticathode (similar in construction to the cathode) in line with the anode such that the anode was between the cathode and the anticathode.
To operate, a DC voltage of a few kilovolts to as much as 100 kV was applied between the anodes and the cathode, usually generated by an induction coil, or for larger tubes, an electrostatic machine. This created and then accelerated a small number of ions from the low pressure gas in the tube. These struck further gas atoms, knocking electrons off them, creating more positive ions in a chain reaction. All the positive ions were attracted to the cathode. When they struck it, they knocked electrons out of the metal, which were accelerated along with the electrons knocked from the gas atoms toward the anode target. When these high speed electrons struck the atoms of the anode, they created X-rays by one of two processes, either Bremsstrahlung or X-ray fluorescence.
Crookes tubes were unreliable. As time passed, the residual air would be absorbed by the walls of the tube, reducing the pressure. This increased the voltage across the tube, generating ' harder ' X-rays, until eventually the tube stopped working. To prevent this, ' softener ' devices were used (see picture). A small tube attached to the side of the main tube contained a mica sleeve or chemical that released a small amount of gas when heated, restoring the correct pressure.
The glass envelope of the tube would blacken in use due to the X-rays affecting its structure.
The Crookes tube was improved by William Coolidge in 1913. The Coolidge tube, also called hot cathode tube, is the most widely used. It works with a very good quality vacuum (about 10 Pa, or 10 Torr).
In the Coolidge tube, the electrons are produced by thermionic effect from a tungsten filament heated by an electric current. The filament is the cathode of the tube. The high voltage potential is between the cathode and the anode, the electrons are thus accelerated, and then hit the anode.
There are two designs: end - window tubes and side - window tubes. End window tubes usually have "transmission target '' which is thin enough to allow X-rays to pass through the target (X-rays are emitted in the same direction as the electrons are moving.) In one common type of end - window tube, the filament is around the anode ("annular '' or ring - shaped), the electrons have a curved path (half of a toroid).
What is special about side - window tubes is an electrostatic lens is used to focus the beam onto a very small spot on the anode. The anode is specially designed to dissipate the heat and wear resulting from this intense focused barrage of electrons. Some anodes are mechanically spun to increase the area heated by the beam (e.g. edical "rotating anode '') or cooled by circulating coolant (indirectly on most rotating anodes). The anode is precisely angled at 1 - 20 degrees off perpendicular to the electron current so as to allow the escape of some of the X-ray photons which are emitted perpendicular to the direction of the electron current. The anode is usually made out of tungsten or molybdenum. The tube has a window designed for escape of the generated X-ray photons.
The power of a Coolidge tube usually ranges from 0.1 to 18 kW.
Any vacuum tube operating at several thousand volts or more can produce X-rays as an unwanted byproduct, raising safety issues. The higher the voltage, the more penetrating the resulting radiation and the more the hazard. CRT displays, once common in color televisions and computer displays, operate at 3 - 40 kilovolts, making them the main concern among household appliances. Historically, concern has focused less on the cathode ray tube, since its thick glass envelope is impregnated with several pounds of lead for shielding, than on high voltage (HV) rectifier and voltage regulator tubes inside. In the late 1960s it was found that a failure in the HV supply circuit of some General Electric TVs could leave excessive voltages on the regulator tube, causing it to emit X-rays. The models were recalled and the ensuing scandal caused the US agency responsible for regulating this hazard, the Center for Devices and Radiological Health of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to require that all TVs include circuits to prevent excessive voltages in the event of failure. The hazard associated with excessive voltages was eliminated with the advent of all solid state TVs, which have no tubes beside the CRT. Since 1969 the FDA has limited TV X-ray emission to 0.5 mR (milliroentgen) per hour. The flat screens used today do not have any vacuum tubes capable of emitting X-rays.
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where is haiti located on the world map | Haiti - wikipedia
Coordinates: 19 ° 00 ′ N 72 ° 25 ′ W / 19.000 ° N 72.417 ° W / 19.000; - 72.417
Haiti (/ ˈheɪti / (listen); French: Haïti (a. iti); Haitian Creole: Ayiti (ajiti)), officially the Republic of Haiti (French: République d'Haïti; Haitian Creole: Repiblik Ayiti) and formerly called Hayti, is a sovereign state located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western three - eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Haiti is 27,750 square kilometres (10,714 sq mi) in size and has an estimated 10.8 million people, making it the most populous country in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the second-most populous country in the Caribbean as a whole.
The region was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people. Spain discovered the island on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic. When Columbus initially landed in Haiti, he had thought he had found India or Asia. On Christmas Day 1492, Columbus ' flagship the Santa Maria ran aground north of what is now Limonade. As a consequence, Columbus ordered his men to salvage what they could from the ship, and he created the first European settlement in the Americas, naming it La Navidad after the day the ship was destroyed.
The island was named La Española and claimed by Spain, which ruled until the early 17th century. Competing claims and settlements by the French led to the western portion of the island being ceded to France, which named it Saint - Domingue. Sugarcane plantations, worked by slaves brought from Africa, were established by colonists.
In the midst of the French Revolution (1789 -- 1799), slaves and free people of colour revolted in the Haitian Revolution (1791 -- 1804), culminating in the abolition of slavery and the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte 's army at the Battle of Vertières. Afterward the sovereign nation of Haiti was established on 1 January 1804 -- the first independent nation of Latin America and the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, and the only nation in the world established as a result of a successful slave revolt. The rebellion that began in 1791 was led by a former slave and the first black general of the French Army, Toussaint Louverture, whose military genius and political acumen transformed an entire society of slaves into an independent country. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean - Jacques Dessalines, who declared Haiti 's sovereignty and later became the first Emperor of Haiti, Jacques I. The Haitian Revolution lasted just over a dozen years; and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves. The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas. Henri Christophe -- former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I -- built it to withstand a possible foreign attack.
It is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS), Association of Caribbean States, and the International Francophonie Organisation. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization, and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas. Most recently, in February 2004, a coup d'état originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean - Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH).
The name Haiti (or Hayti) comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, "land of high mountains. '' The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti, is a diacritical mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word naïve. In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling Haiti is used. There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such as HIGH - ti, high - EE - ti and haa - EE - ti, which are still in use, but HAY - ti is the most widespread and established.
The name was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean - Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint - Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.
In French, Haiti 's nickname is the Pearl of the Antilles (La Perle des Antilles) because of both its natural beauty, and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France, as it was considered the richest colony owned by any of the European powers at the time.
At the time of European encounter, the island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three - eighths, was one of many Caribbean islands inhabited by the Taíno Indians, speakers of an Arawakan language called Taino, which has been preserved in the Haitian Creole language. The Taíno name for the entire island was Haiti. The people had migrated over centuries into the Caribbean islands from South America. Genetic studies show they were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. They also originated in Central and South America. After migrating to Caribbean islands, in the 15th century, the Taíno were pushed into the northeast Caribbean islands by the Caribs.
In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean islands, the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. The island of Haiti was divided among five Caciquats: the Magua in the north east, the Marien in the north west, the Xaragua in the south west, the Maguana in the center region of Cibao and the Higuey in the south east. The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests.
Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern - day Léogane started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua.
Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 5 December 1492, in an area that he named Môle Saint - Nicolas, and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap - Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad.
The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases. The natives lacked immunity to these new diseases and died in great numbers in epidemics. The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507. The encomienda system forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.
The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos, 1512 -- 13, which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism, and gave legal framework to encomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.
As a gateway to the Caribbean, Hispaniola became a haven for pirates during the early colonial period. The western part of the island was settled by French buccaneers. Among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco. He recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe. European nations were competing for control in the New World, in the Caribbean as well as in North America. France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island, by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, and divided Hispaniola between them.
France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint - Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony of Hispaniola and the name of its patron saint, Saint Dominic.
To develop it into sugarcane plantations, the French imported thousands of slaves from Africa. Sugar was a lucrative commodity crop throughout the 18th century. By 1789, approximately 40,000 white colonists lived in Saint - Domingue. In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a vast territory, had numbered 65,000. The whites were vastly outnumbered by the tens of thousands of African slaves they had imported to work on their plantations, which were primarily devoted to the production of sugarcane. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Blacks outnumbered whites by about ten to one.
The French - enacted Code Noir ("Black Code ''), prepared by Jean - Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint - Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one - third of newly imported Africans died within a few years. Many slaves died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever. They had low birth rates, and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery.
As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color: the mixed - race descendants of white male colonists and black female slaves (and later, mixed - race women). Over time, many were released from slavery. They established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed - race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port - au - Prince, and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property. Some became slave holders. The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.
Slaves that made it to Haiti from the trans - Atlantic journey and slaves born in Haiti were first documented in Haiti 's archives and transferred to France 's Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 2015, these records are in The National Archives of France. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti 's population consisted of nearly 25,000 whites, 22,000 free coloureds and 700,000 slaves.
Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, free people of color and slaves in Saint - Domingue and the French West Indies pressed for freedom and more civil rights. Most important was the revolution of the slaves in Saint - Domingue, starting in the northern plains in 1791, where Africans greatly outnumbered the whites.
In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control. To build an alliance with the gens de couleur and slaves, the French commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the National Convention, led by Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.
Political leaders in the United States, which was a new republic itself, reacted with ambivalence, at times providing aid to enable planters to put down the revolt. Later in the revolution, the US provided support to black Haitian military forces, with the goal of reducing French influence in North America and the Caribbean.
Toussaint Louverture, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt, drove out the Spanish (from Santo Domingo) and the British invaders who threatened the colony. In the uncertain years of revolution, the United States played both sides off against each other, with its traders supplying both the French and the rebels. The struggle within Haiti between the free people of color led by André Rigaud and the black Haitians led by Louverture devolved into the War of the Knives in 1799 and 1800. Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees.
After Louverture created a separatist constitution, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors under the command of his brother - in - law, General Charles Leclerc, to retake the island. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months, most of the French had died from yellow fever. More than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals. The French captured Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.
The slaves, along with free gens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence. Jean - Jacques Dessalines defeated French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, leading the first ever successful slave army revolution. In late 1803, France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire. With the war going badly, he sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.
The independence of Saint - Domingue was proclaimed by Dessalines on 1 January 1804. The exact number of deaths due to the Haitian Revolution is unknown.
Dessalines was proclaimed "Emperor for Life '' by his troops. Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others. Once in power, he ordered the massacre of most whites. Without regard to age or gender, those who did not swear allegiance to him were slain. In the continuing competition for power, he was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.
Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: the Polish soldiers, the majority of whom deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the little group of German colonists invited to the north - west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals. Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.
Fearful of the influence of the slaves ' revolution, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic, as did most European nations. The U.S. did not officially recognize Haiti for decades, until after the start of the American Civil War.
The revolution led to a wave of emigration. In 1809, nearly 10,000 refugees from Saint - Domingue settled en masse in New Orleans. They doubled the city 's population. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city 's African population.
Saint - Domingue was divided between the Kingdom of Haiti in the north, directed by Henri Christophe, who declared himself Henri I, and a republic in the south, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur. Henri Christophe established a semi-feudal corvée system, with a rigid education and economic code.
President Pétion gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada. He was instrumental in aiding countries in South America achieve independence from Spain.
Beginning in 1821, President Jean - Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the two parts of Haiti and extended control over the entire western portion of the island. In addition, after Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer sent forces in to take control. Boyer ruled the entire island with iron rule, ending slavery in Santo Domingo. After Santo Domingo achieved independence from Haiti, it established a separate national identity.
Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own. Following the Revolution, many peasants wanted to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.
The American Colonization Society (ACS) encouraged free blacks in the United States to emigrate to Haiti. Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by the ACS. Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.
In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer the island. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs. By an order of 17 April 1825, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty over Santo Domingo, and recognized the independence of Haiti.
Though the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, Haiti was unable to finish paying off its debt until 1947. The Haitian president would have had little choice as the country, unknowingly to him, would have been blockaded by French ships if the exchange did not go the French way.
After losing the support of Haiti 's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843. A long succession of coups followed his departure to exile.
The enforced payment to France reduced Haiti 's economy for years. Western nations did not give Haiti formal diplomatic recognition. Both of these problems kept the Haitian economy and society isolated. Expatriates bankrolled and armed opposing groups.
Charles Rivière - Hérard replaced Boyer as president of Haiti. Nationalist forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on February 27, 1844. Unprofessional and undisciplined Haitian forces in the east, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels. In March Rivière - Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition. Soon after Rivière - Hérard crossed the border, domestic turmoil exploded again. Rivière - Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged black general Philippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on May 3, 1844.
In 1892, the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin and in 1897 the Germans used gunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government during the Luders Affair.
In the first decades of the 20th century Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. Fearing possible foreign intervention, President Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in December 1914, just after the outbreak of World War I. They removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank for "safe - keeping '' (sic) in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank.
In an expression of the Theodore Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the United States occupied the island in July 1915 after the assassination of Haiti 's president, Vilbrun Guillaume Sam. The pro-U.S. Haitian president had been dragged from the French legation and killed in the street by local insurgents after he had ordered 167 political prisoners killed. USS Washington, under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port - au - Prince to try to restore order and protect U.S. interests. This began a nearly 20 - year occupation by U.S. forces. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house which controlled all the finances of the island nation. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, had been installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The new constitution included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.
The next 5 years witnessed numerous cases of intimidation, arson, torture and murder of the Haitian population by U.S. Marines and their local enforcers, the Gendarmerie d'Haiti. The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism allowing them to behave this way. Mary Renda writes that "paternalism was an assertion of authority, superiority, and control expressed in the metaphor of a father 's relationship with his children. '' This mindset allowed the marines to act highly authoritatively in Haiti and carry out atrocious acts. It has been estimated that up to 15,000 Haitians lost their lives at the hands of the occupying forces, either through armed opposition or through the ' corvee ' system of forced labor. This system allowed the occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges, etc. Many resisted and were killed on the spot while others died working or due to disease and malnutrition while living in squalid work camps.
This chapter in the two nations ' histories reflects the oppressive foreign policy of the United States toward its neighbors in Central America and the Caribbean that is often characterized as "gunboat diplomacy '' or one of many "Banana Wars '' that plagued the region in the early 20th century. U.S. Marines were stationed in the country until 1934, a period of nineteen years, and were finally ordered from the island by Franklin D. Roosevelt as a demonstration of his "Good Neighbor Policy ''. However, the United States controlled the economy of the island and heavily influenced elections in Haiti up through the 1980s.
Sisal was introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports. Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to American - backed changes, while the urban elites wanted more control. Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934. The debts were still outstanding and the American financial advisor - general receiver handled the budget until 1941.
Recognition of the distinctive traditionalism of the Haitian people had an influence on United States writers, including Eugene O'Neill, James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston and Orson Welles.
After US forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley massacre, he ordered his Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. Between 10,000 and 20,000 Haitians were killed. Though he was one - quarter Haitian himself, Trujillo continued policies against the neighboring population for some time.
On 27 September 1945, Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (successor to the League of Nations, in which Haiti was also a founding member). In the 1950s, American and European tourists started to visit Haiti.
The waterfront area of Port - au - Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk from the docks to cultural attractions. Among these attractions were the Moorish - styled Iron Market, where fine Haitian art and mahogany were sold. In the evenings entrepreneurs provided dancing, casino gambling and Voodoo shows. Truman Capote and Noël Coward visited the Hotel Oloffson, a 19th - century Gothic gingerbread mansion set in a tropical garden, which was even portrayed in the Graham Greene novel, The Comedians.
After a period of disorder, in September 1957 Dr. François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as "Papa Doc '' and initially popular, Duvalier was President until his death in 1971. He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite. He stayed in power by enlisting an organization known as Tontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen ''), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents. 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvalier father and son.
Haiti 's brief tourism boom was wiped out by the rule of Papa Doc Duvalier and his unstable government. When his son Jean - Claude "Baby Doc '' Duvalier succeeded him as President for Life, tourism returned in the 1970s. Vive la différence has long been Haiti 's national tourism slogan and its proximity to the United States made Haiti a hot attraction until the Duvalier regime was ousted in 1986.
Papa Doc 's son Jean - Claude Duvalier -- also known as "Baby Doc '' -- led the country from 1971 until his ouster in 1986, when protests led him to seek exile in France. Army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council. General elections in November were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes. Fraudulent elections followed. The elected President, Leslie Manigat, was overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état. The September 1988 Haitian coup d'état, which followed the St Jean Bosco massacre, revealed the increasing prominence of former Tontons Macoutes. General Prosper Avril led a military regime until March 1990.
In December 1990, a former Catholic priest, Jean - Bertrand Aristide, was elected President in the Haitian general election. In September of the following year, Aristide was overthrown by the military in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état. In 1994, a U.S. team negotiated the departure of Haiti 's military leaders and the peaceful entry of U.S. forces under Operation Uphold Democracy. This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean - Bertrand Aristide as president. In October 1994, Aristide returned to Haiti to complete his term in office. Aristide vacated the presidency in February 1996. In the 1995 election, René Préval was elected as president for a five - year term, winning 88 % of the popular vote.
In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.
The November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92 % of the vote. The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence and human rights abuses. Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence 's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.
In 2004, a revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile, after which the United Nations stationed peacekeepers in Haiti. Some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping '' by U.S. forces. Mrs. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore U.S. Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti. The United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was established after the 2004 coup d'état and remains in the country to the present day. Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority. René Préval was elected President in February 2006, following elections marked by uncertainties and popular demonstrations.
In 2004, Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves. In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain. There were 331 dead and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid. The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.
On 12 January 2010, at 4: 53pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude - 7.0 earthquake. This was the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years. The 2010 Haiti earthquake was reported to have left up to 316,000 people dead and 1.6 million homeless, though later reports found these numbers to have been grossly inflated, and put the death toll between 46,000 and 85,000. The country has yet to recover from the 2010 earthquake and a subsequent and massive Haiti cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera - infected waste from a MINUSTAH peacekeeping station contaminated the country 's main river, the Artibonite. The country has yet to fully recover, due to both the severity of the damage Haiti endured in 2010, as well as a government that was ineffective well before the earthquake.
General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake. The elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run - off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner. On 7 February 2016, Michel Martelly stepped down as president without a successor, but only after a deal was reached for a provisional government and leaving Prime Minister Evans Paul in power "until an interim president is chosen by both chambers of Parliament. ''
In 2013, Haiti called for European nations to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings. The Economist wrote, "Any assistance to the region should be carefully targeted; and should surely stem from today 's needs, not the wrongs of the past. '' The topic, however, has more than a passing reference to a country that, as Lord Anthony Gifford wrote, "was forced to pay compensation to the government of France. ''
On 4 October 2016, Hurricane Matthew made landfall near Les Anglais, making it the worst hurricane to strike the nation since Hurricane Cleo in 1964. The storm brought deadly winds and rain which left Haiti with a large amount of damage to be repaired. With all of the resources in the country destroyed, Haiti received aid from the United Nations of around US $120 million. The death total was approximately 3,000. Thousands of people were displaced due to damage to infrastructure. Also, the cholera outbreak has been growing since the storm hit Haiti. With additional flooding after the storm, cholera continued to spread beyond the control of officials. The storm also caused damage to hospitals and roads which created a larger problem in helping victims and moving resources. The devastation and damage that Hurricane Matthew caused was unpredictable and left Haiti in a state of emergency.
Haiti is on the western part of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic (the latter shares a 360 - kilometre (224 mi) border with Haiti). Haiti at its closest point is about 45 nautical miles (83 km; 52 mi) away from Cuba and comprises the horseshoe - shape peninsula and because of this, it has a disproportionately long coastline and is second in length (1,771 km or 1,100 mi) behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles.
Haiti is the most mountainous nation in the Caribbean and its terrain consists mainly of them interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle, at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).
The northern region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti 's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean.
The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Its westernmost point is known as Cap Carcasse.
The southern region consists of the Plaine du Cul - de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul - de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country 's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti 's largest lake, Étang Saumatre. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range -- an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) -- extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west. This mountain range harbors Pic la Selle, the highest point in Haiti at 2,680 metres (8,793 ft).
Haiti 's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires. This region supports the country 's (also Hispaniola 's) longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau.
Haiti also includes various offshore islands. The island of Tortuga (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve. Gonâve Island is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache (Cow Island), a lush island with many beautiful sights, is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. Also part of Haiti are the Cayemites and Île d ' Anacaona. La Navasse located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti, is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States.
Haiti 's climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude. Port - au - Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of 23 ° C (73.4 ° F) to an average maximum of 31 ° C (87.8 ° F); in July, from 25 -- 35 ° C (77 -- 95 ° F). The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Haiti 's dry season occurs from November to January.
Port - au - Prince receives an average annual rainfall of 1,370 mm (53.9 in). There are two rainy seasons, April -- June and October -- November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are also a menace. In summary, Haiti is generally a hot and humid tropical climate.
There are blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo - Plantain Garden fault system over which Haiti lies. After the earthquake of 2010, there was no evidence of surface rupture and based on seismological, geological and ground deformation data.
The northern boundary of the fault is where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm (0.79 inches) per year in relation to the North American plate. The strike - slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional - Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo - Plantain Garden fault in the south.
A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo - Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst - case forecast would involve a 7.2 M earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake. A study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo - Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean Geologic Conference in March 2008, noting the large strain. The team recommended "high priority '' historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years. An article published in Haiti 's Le Matin newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port - au - Prince; and duly the magnitude 7.0 2010 Haiti earthquake happened on this fault zone on 12 January 2010.
Haiti also has rare elements such as gold, which can be found at The Mont Organisé gold mine.
The soil erosion released from the upper catchments and deforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding in Haiti, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti 's southern border with the Dominican Republic.
Haiti 's forests covered 60 percent of the country as recently as fifty years ago, but today, according to more in - depth environmental analysis, the country yields approximately 30 percent tree cover, a stark difference from the often cited 2 percent which has been widely circulated in discourse concerning Haiti.
Scientists at the Columbia University 's Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability in Haiti through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management.
The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the President of Haiti is head of state elected directly by popular elections. The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. In 2013, the annual budget was US $1 billion.
Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti. The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti 's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987.
Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups. Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution, but a long history of oppression by dictators -- including François Duvalier and his son Jean - Claude Duvalier -- has markedly affected the nation. France, the United States and other Western countries have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country 's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. Along with international financial institutions, they have imposed large quantities of debt. Haiti has so much foreign debt that payments have rivaled the available government budget for social sector spending. There have been criticisms of financial institutions for enforcing trade policies on Haiti, which are considered by some to be detrimental to local industry.
According to a 2006 report by the Corruption Perceptions Index, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty in Haiti. The nation ranked first of all countries surveyed for of levels of perceived domestic corruption. The International Red Cross reports that seven out of ten Haitians live on less than US $2 a day.
This statistic was somewhat disputed in a 2006 article about poverty in the slums of Haiti (written for the Red Cross), wherein ICRC officer Didier Revol wrote, "Such statistical estimations should be looked upon very skeptically because of the fact that the average Haitian and Haitian family has to and does spend a lot more than that daily. The disconnect likely lies in the fact that these are estimates based on surveys conducted by asking individuals what their incomes are; in the Haitian culture it is very unlikely that one will receive a truthful and accurate answer to such a personal question. For various reasons individuals will not tell the truth on such a private matter. For some it is because ' it 's none of your business ', for others, they will simply exaggerate their poor situation in hopes that some type of financial aide will be gained or rendered to them ''.
The commune of Cité Soleil in Port - au - Prince has been called "the most dangerous place on Earth '' by the United Nations. It is one of the largest slums in the Northern Hemisphere. Many of its residents are supporters of former Haitian President Jean - Bertrand Aristide, who, according to the BBC, "accused the US of forcing him out -- an accusation the US rejected as ' absurd ' ''.
Jean - Bertrand Aristide was initially denied access to Haiti by Haitian immigration authorities, despite issuing appeals for entrance to his supporters and international observers. The world 's most prominent governments did not overtly oppose such appeals, nor did they support them; an unnamed analyst "close to the Haitian government '' quoted in several media sources -- including The New York Times -- is reported to have said: "Aristide could have 15 passports and he 's still not going to come back to Haiti (...) France and the United States are standing in the way. '' However, Aristide finally returned to Haiti on 18 March 2011, days before the 2011 presidential election.
The first round of the 2010 general election was held in December. Mirlande Manigat and Jude Celestin qualified for the second round of the presidential election, but its results were contested. Some people said that the first round was a fraud and that Michel Martelly should replace Jude Celestin, René Préval 's chosen successor. There was some violence between the contending parties. On 4 April 2011, the Provisional Electoral Council announced preliminary results indicating that Martelly had won the presidential election.
After the U.S. funded $33 million to legislative and presidential elections in August and October 2015, a special verification panel -- implemented by interim President Joceleme Privert -- declared the results "tainted by significant fraud ''. Jovenel Moïse, the supposed winner of the October 25, 2015 election, had been hand - picked by former President Michel Martelly. The month - long examination in May 2016 was created after the elections were condemned as fraudulent to restore credibility to the process. The commission recommended completely redoing the vote after auditing a random sample of about 13,000 ballots.
In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU). The AU was reported to be planning to upgrade Haiti 's status from observer to associate at its June 2013 summit but the application had still not been ratified by May 2016.
In 2010, the Haitian National Police force numbered 7,000. The legal system for torts is based on a version of the Napoleonic Code.
The Institute for the Protection of National Heritage has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap - Haïtien.
The executive function is divided into ministries, each led by a Minister appointed by the Prime Minister and confirmed by Parliament:
Haiti 's Ministry of Defense is the main body of their armed forces. The former Haitian Armed Forces were demobilized in 1995, however, efforts to reconstitute it are currently underway. The current defense force for Haiti is the Haitian National Police, which has a highly trained SWAT team, and works alongside the Haitian Coast Guard.
Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index. It is estimated that President "Baby Doc '' Duvalier, his wife Michelle, and their agents stole US $504 million from the country 's treasury between 1971 and 1986. Similarly, after the Haitian Army folded in 1995, the Haitian National Police (HNP) gained sole power of authority on the Haitian citizens. Many Haitians as well as observers of the Haitian society believe that this monopolized power could have given way to a corrupt police force.
Similarly, some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean - Bertrand Aristide. In March 2004, at the time of Aristide 's being kidnapped, a BBC article wrote that the Bush administration State Department stated that Aristide had been involved in drug trafficking. The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative '' of the Aristide years.
Conversely, according to the 2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates in Haiti (10.2 per 100,000) are far below the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than 1⁄4 that of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly 1⁄2 that of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region. In large part, this is due to the country 's ability to fulfill a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50 %, a four - year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crack down on crime. A notable bust in recent years led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by a West Point - trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries.
In 2010, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent a team of veteran officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, strategies to improve the anti-kidnapping personnel and community outreach to build stronger relationships with the public especially among the youth. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit in the center of Delmas, a neighborhood of Port - au - Prince.
In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent - prone neighborhoods of Cité Soleil and Grande Ravine in Port - au - Prince to the new northern industrial park at Caracol.
Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.
The departments are further divided into 42 arrondissements, 145 communes and 571 communal sections. These serve as, respectively, second - and third - level administrative divisions.
Haiti 's purchasing power parity GDP fell 8 % in 2010 (from US $12.15 billion to US $11.18 billion) and the GDP per capita remained unchanged at PPP US $1,200. Despite having a viable tourist industry, Haiti is one of the world 's poorest countries and the poorest in the Americas region, with poverty, corruption, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main sources. The economy receded due to the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of Cholera. Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3 % of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI 's poverty measures.
Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide 's rule, US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004. After Aristide 's departure in 2004, aid was restored and the Brazilian army led a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5 % in 2005. In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank 's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.
More than 90 percent of the government 's budget comes from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela - led oil alliance.
Haiti received more than US $4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US $1.5 billion from the United States.
The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union. In January 2010, following the earthquake, US President Barack Obama promised US $1.15 billion in assistance. European Union nations pledged more than € 400 million (US $616 million).
Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to Haiti, including the funding and construction of a public university, human capital, free healthcare services in the border region, and logistical support after the 2010 earthquake.
According to the UN Office of the Special Envoy for Haiti, as of March 2012, of Humanitarian funding committed or disbursed by bilateral and multilateral donors in 2010 and 2011, only 1 % has been pledged to the Haitian Government
According to the 2013 CIA World Factbook, the 2010 Haiti earthquake inflicted an estimated US $7.8 billion in damage and caused the country 's GDP to contract.
The United Nations states that in total US $13.34 billion has been earmarked for the crisis through 2020, though two years after the 2010 quake, less than half of that amount had actually been released, according to UN documents. As of 2015, the US government has allocated US $4 billion; US $3 billion has already been spent, and the rest is dedicated to longer - term projects.
Former US President Bill Clinton 's foundation contributed US $250,000 to a recycling initiative for a sister - program of "Ranmase Lajan '' or "Picking Up Money '' by use of reverse vending machines.
According to the 2015 CIA World Factbook, Haiti 's main import partners are: Dominican Republic 35 %, US 26.8 %, Netherlands Antilles 8.7 %, China 7 % (est. 2013). Haiti 's main export partner is the US 83.5 % (est. 2013).
Haiti had a trade deficit of US $3 billion in 2011, or 41 % of GDP.
In 1925, the city of Jacmel was the first area in the Caribbean to have electricity and was subsequently dubbed the City of Light.
Today, Haiti relies heavily on an oil alliance with Petrocaribe for much of its energy requirements. In recent years, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy have been explored as possible sustainable energy sources.
The World Factbook reports a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment and underemployment, saying "more than two - thirds of the labor force do not have formal jobs. '' It is also often stated that three - quarters of the population lives on US $2 or less per day. Such statistical estimations could be viewed with skepticism because the average Haitian and Haitian family spends more than that daily.
The World Factbook also states that "remittances are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling one - fifth (20 %) of GDP and representing more than five times the earnings from exports in 2012 ''. This implies that remittances are the life - blood of the Haitian economy.
The World Bank estimates that over 80 % of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad in 2004.
Haiti 's economy was severely impacted by the 2010 Haiti earthquake which occurred on 12 January 2010, killing over 300,000 and displacing 1.5 million residents.
In rural areas, people often live in wooden huts with corrugated iron roofs. Outhouses are located in back of the huts. In Port - au - Prince, colorful shantytowns surround the central city and go up the mountainsides.
The middle and upper classes live in Suburbs, or in the central part of the bigger cities in apartments, where there is urban planning. Many of the houses they live in are like miniature fortresses, located behind walls embedded with metal spikes, barbed wire, broken glass, and sometimes all three. The gates to these houses are barred at night, the house is locked; guard dogs patrol the yard. These houses are often self - sufficient as well. The houses have backup generators, because the electrical grid in Haiti is unreliable. Some even have rooftop reservoirs for water, as the water supply is also unreliable.
Haiti is the world 's leading producer of vetiver, a root plant used to make luxury perfumes, essential oils and fragrances, providing for half the world 's supply. Half of all Haitians work in the agricultural sector. Haiti relies upon imports for half its food needs and 80 % of its rice.
Haiti exports crops such as mangoes, cacao, coffee, papayas, mahogany nuts, spinach, and watercress. Agricultural products comprise 6 % of all exports. In addition, local agricultural products include corn, beans, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts, pistachios, bananas, millet, pigeon peas, sugarcane, rice, sorghum, and wood.
The Haitian gourde (HTG) is the national currency. The "Haitian dollar '' equates to 5 gourdes (goud), which is a fixed exchange rate that exists in concept only, but are commonly used as informal prices.
The vast majority of the business sector and individuals in Haiti will also accept US dollars, though at the outdoor markets gourdes may be preferred. Locals may refer to the USD as "dollar américain '' (dola ameriken) or "dollar US '' (pronounced oo - es).
In 2014, the country received 1,250,000 tourists (mostly from cruise ships), and the industry generated US $200 million in 2014. In December 2014, the US State Department issued a travel warning about the country, noting that while thousands of American citizens safely visit Haiti each year, a few foreign tourists had been victims of burglary, predominantly in the Port - au - Prince area.
Several hotels were opened in 2014, including an upscale Best Western Premier, a five - star Royal Oasis hotel by Occidental Hotel and Resorts in Pétion - Ville, a four - star Marriott hotel in the Turgeau area of Port - au - Prince and other new hotel developments in Port - au - Prince, Les Cayes, Cap - Haïtien and Jacmel. Other tourist destinations include Île - à - Vache, Camp - Perrin, Pic Macaya.
The Haitian Carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the Caribbean. In 2010, the government decided to stage the event in a different city outside Port - au - Prince every year in an attempt to decentralize the country. The National Carnival -- usually held in one of the country 's largest cities (i.e., Port - au - Prince, Cap - Haïtien or Les Cayes) -- follows the also very popular Jacmel Carnival, which takes place a week earlier in February or March.
On 21 October 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Bill Clinton, Richard Branson, Ben Stiller and Sean Penn inaugurated the 600 acres (240 ha) Caracol industrial park, the largest in the Caribbean. Costing US $300 million, the project, which includes a 10 - megawatt power plant, a water - treatment plant and worker housing, is intended to transform the northern part of the country by creating 65,000 jobs.
The park is part of a "master plan '' for Haiti 's North and North - East departments, including the expansion of the Cap - Haitien International Airport to accommodate large international flights, the construction of an international Seaport in Fort - Liberté and the opening of the $50 million Roi Henri Christophe Campus of a new university in Limonade (near Cap - Haitien) on 12 January 2012.
South Korean clothing manufacturer Sae - A Trading Co. Ltd, one of the park 's main tenants, has created 5,000 permanent jobs out of the 20,000 projected and has built 8,600 houses in the surrounding area for its workers. The industrial park ultimately has the potential to create as many as 65,000 jobs once fully developed.
Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port - au - Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap - Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port - au - Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit - Goâve.
According to the Washington Post, "Officials from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers said Saturday (23 January 2010) that they assessed the damage from the (12 January) quake in Port - au - Prince, Haiti, and found that many of the roads are n't any worse than they were before because they 've always been in poor condition. ''
The port at Port - au - Prince, Port international de Port - au - Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port 's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees. The port of Saint - Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods coming into Haiti. Reasons for this may include its location away from volatile and congested Port - au - Prince, as well as its central location relative to numerous Haitian cities.
During the 2010 earthquake, the Port - au - Prince port suffered widespread damage, impeding aid to the victims. The main pier caved in and fell into the water. One of the main cranes also collapsed in the water. Port access roads were severely damaged as well.
In the past, Haiti used rail transport, however the rail infrastructure was poorly maintained when in use and cost of rehabilitation is beyond the means of the Haitian economy.
Toussaint Louverture International Airport, located 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) North / North East of Port - au - Prince proper in the commune of Tabarre, is the primary transportation hub regarding entry and exit into the country. It has Haiti 's main jetway, and along with Cap - Haïtien International Airport located near the northern city of Cap - Haïtien, handles the vast majority of the country 's international flights. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, and Port - de-Paix have smaller, less accessible airports that are serviced by regional airlines and private aircraft. Such companies include: Caribintair (defunct), Sunrise Airways and Tortug ' Air (defunct).
In 2013, plans for the development of an international airport on Île - à - Vache were introduced by the Prime Minister.
Tap tap buses are colorfully painted buses or pick - up trucks that serve as share taxis. The "tap tap '' name comes from the sound of passengers tapping on the metal bus body to indicate they want off. These vehicles for hire are often privately owned and extensively decorated. They follow fixed routes, do not leave until filled with passengers, and riders can usually disembark at any point. The decorations are a typically Haitian form of art.
In August 2013, the first coach bus prototype was made in Haiti.
In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum 's Network Readiness Index (NRI) -- an indicator for determining the development level of a country 's information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013.
Haiti faces key challenges in the water supply and sanitation sector: Notably, access to public services is very low, their quality is inadequate and public institutions remain very weak despite foreign aid and the government 's declared intent to strengthen the sector 's institutions. Foreign and Haitian NGOs play an important role in the sector, especially in rural and urban slum areas.
Haiti 's population was about 10.8 million according to UN 2016 estimates, with half of the population younger than age 20. In 1950 the first formal census gave a total population of 3.1 million. Haiti averages approximately 350 people per square kilometer (~ 900 per sq mi.), with its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys.
Most modern Haitians are descendants of former black African slaves, including Mulattoes who are mixed - race. The remainder are of European descent and Arab Haitians, the descendants of settlers (colonial remnants and contemporary immigration during WWI and WWII). Haitians of East Asian descent or East Indian origin number approximately 400 +.
Millions of Haitians live abroad in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada (primarily Montreal), Bahamas, France, French Antilles, the Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. There are an estimated 881,500 in the United States, 800,000 in the Dominican Republic, 300,000 in Cuba, 100,000 in Canada, 80,000 in France, and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas. There are also smaller Haitian communities in many other countries, including Chile, Switzerland, Japan and Australia.
In 2015, the life expectancy at birth was 63 years.
The gene pool of Haiti is about 95.5 % Sub-Saharan African, 4.3 % European, with the rest showing some traces of East Asian genes; according to a 2010 autosomal genealogical DNA testing.
A 2012 genetic study on Haitian and Jamaican Y - chromosomal ancestry, has revealed that both populations "exhibit a predominantly Sub-Saharan paternal component, with haplogroups A1b - V152, A3 - M32, B2 - M182, E1a - M33, E1b1a - M2, E2b - M98, and R1b2 - V88 '' comprising (77.2 %) of the Haitian and (66.7 %) of Jamaican paternal gene pools. Y Chromosomes indicative of European ancestry "(i.e., haplogroups G2a * - P15, I - M258, R1b1b - M269, and T - M184) were detected at commensurate levels in Haiti (20.3 %) and Jamaica (18.9 %) ''. This corresponds to approximately 1 in every 5 Paternal ancestors, hailing from Europe. While, Y - haplogroups indicative of Chinese O - M175 (3.8 %) and Indian H - M69 (0.6 %) and L - M20 (0.6 %) ancestry were found at significant levels in Jamaica, Levantine Y - haplogroups were found in Haiti.
According to a 2008 study examining the frequency of the Duffy antigen receptor for Chemokines (DARC) Single Nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), (75 %) of Haitian women sampled exhibited the CC genotype (absent among women of European ancestry) at levels comparable to US African - Americans (73 %), but more than Jamaican females (63 %).
Due to the racial caste system instituted in colonial Haiti, Haitian mulattoes became the nation 's social elite and racially privileged. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti 's history have been mulattoes. Comprising 5 % of the nation 's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti. During this time, the slaves and the affranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days. As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color and continue to establish themselves in high, prestigious positions. Alexandre Pétion, born to a Haitian mother and a wealthy French father, was the first President of the Republic of Haiti.
Religion in Haiti according to the Pew Research Center (2010)
The 2017 CIA Factbook reported that around 54.7 % of Haitians profess to being Catholics while Protestants made up about 28.5 % of the population (Baptist 15.4 %, Pentecostal 7.9 %, Seventh - day Adventist 3 %, Methodist 1.5 %, other 0.7 %). Other sources put the Protestant population higher than this, suggesting that it might have formed one - third of the population in 2001. Moreover, Haiti is affected by a common Latin American phenomenon, i.e. a Protestant expansion, which is largely Evangelical Protestant and Pentecostal in nature. Haitian Cardinal Chibly Langlois is president of the National Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church.
Vodou, a religion with African roots similar to those of Cuba and Brazil, originated during colonial times in which slaves were obliged to disguise their loa or spirits as Roman Catholic saints, an element of a process called syncretism and is still practiced by some Haitians today. Since the religious syncretism between Catholicism and Vodou, it is difficult to estimate the number of Vodouists in Haiti.
Minority religions in Haiti include Islam, Bahá'í Faith, Judaism, and Buddhism.
The two official languages of Haiti are French and Haitian Creole. French is the principal written and administratively authorized language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42 % of Haitians. It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church masses. Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French - speaking areas are all overseas départements, or collectivités, of France.
Haitian Creole, which has recently undergone a standardization, is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. Haitian Creole is one of the French - based creole languages. Its vocabulary is 90 % derived from French, but its grammar resembles that of some West African languages. It also has influences from Taino, Spanish, and Portuguese. Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, but most closely to the Antillean Creole and Louisiana Creole variants.
Emigrants from Haiti have constituted a segment of American and Canadian society since before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804.
Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W.E.B. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin.
Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, an immigrant from Saint - Domingue (now the Republic of Haiti), founded the first nonindigenous settlement in what is now Chicago, Illinois, the third largest city in the United States. The state of Illinois and city of Chicago declared du Sable the founder of Chicago on 26 October 1968.
Haiti has a rich and unique cultural identity consisting of a large blend of traditional customs of French and African, mixed with sizeable contributions from the Spanish and indigenous Taíno culture. The country 's customs essentially are a blend of cultural beliefs that derived from the various ethnic groups that inhabited the island of Hispaniola. Haiti 's culture is greatly reflected in its paintings, music, and literature. Galleries and museums in the United States and France have exhibited the works of the better - known artists to have come out of Haiti.
Haitian art is distinctive, particularly through its paintings and sculptures, known for its various artistic expressions. Brilliant colors, naïve perspectives, and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, delectable foods, lush landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. Artists frequently paint in fables. People are disguised as animals and animals are transformed into people.
As a result of a deep history and strong African ties, symbols take on great meaning within Haitian society. For example, a rooster often represents Aristide and the red and blue colors of the Haitian flag often represent his Lavalas party. Many artists cluster in ' schools ' of painting, such as the Cap - Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint - Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism.
Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled on this Caribbean island. It reflects French, African rhythms, Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from Vodou ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, Twoubadou ballads, Mini-jazz rock bands, Rasin movement, Hip hop Kreyòl, Méringue, and Compas. Youth attend parties at nightclubs called discos, (pronounced "deece - ko ''), and attend Bal. This term is the French word for ball, as in a formal dance.
Compas (konpa) (also known as compas direct in French, or konpa dirèk in creole) is a complex, ever - changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti 's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, with méringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially.
Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. The French colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the eighteenth century there has been a sustained effort to write in Haitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole. In 1975, Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication of Dezafi, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole. The work offers a poetic picture of Haitian life.
Haitian cuisine is an eclectic blend of the various cooking practices and traditions of the various ethnic groups that populated the island of Hispaniola, chiefly French and African culinary elements with notable influences from the Spanish and indigenous Taíno as well. Haitian cuisine is similar to the rest of the Latin - Caribbean; however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts, notably in its bold seasoning and emphasis on spices.
Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally. Consequently Haitian cuisine is often moderately spicy. The staple diet is rice and beans, in several variations, and it is the de facto national dish.
One such dish is mais moulu (mayi moulen), which is comparable to grits that can be eaten with sauce pois (sòs pwa), a bean purée made from one of many types of beans such as kidney, pinto, chickpeas, or pigeon peas (known in some countries as gandules). Mais moulin can be eaten with fish (often red snapper), or alone depending on personal preference. Some of the many plants used in Haitian dishes include tomato, oregano, cabbage, avocado, bell peppers. A popular food is banane pesée (ban - nan'n peze), flattened plantain slices fried in cooking oil (known as tostones in the Spanish - speaking Latin American countries). It is eaten both as a snack and as part of a meal, and is often eaten with tassot and griot (deep - fried goat and pork).
Traditionally, the food that Haitians eat on independence day (1 January) is soup joumou. Haiti is also known globally for its rum; Rhum Barbancourt is an internationally renowned rum, the most popular alcoholic beverage in Haiti.
Monuments include the Sans - Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982. Situated in the Northern Massif du Nord, in one of Haiti 's National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century. The buildings were among the first built after Haiti 's independence from France. The Citadelle Laferrière, is the largest fortress in the Americas, is located in northern Haiti. It was built between 1805 and 1820 and is today referred to by some Haitians as the eighth wonder of the world.
Jacmel, a colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage site, was extensively damaged by the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
The anchor of Christopher Columbus ' largest ship, the Santa María now rests in the Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH), in Port - au - Prince, Haiti.
Haiti is known for its folklore traditions. The country has tales that are part of the Haitian Vodou tradition.
The most festive time of the year in Haiti is during Carnival (referred to as Kanaval in Haitian Creole or Mardi Gras) in February. There is music, parade floats, and dancing and singing in the streets. Carnival week is traditionally a time of all - night parties.
Rara is a festival celebrated before Easter. The festival has generated a style of Carnival music.
Football is the most popular sport in Haiti with hundreds of small football clubs competing at the local level. Basketball is growing in popularity. Stade Sylvio Cator is the multi-purpose stadium in Port - au - Prince, where it is currently used mostly for association football matches that fits a capacity of 10,000 people. In 1974, the Haiti national football team were only the second Caribbean team to make the World Cup (after Cuba 's entry in 1938). They lost in the opening qualifying stages against three of the pre-tournament favorites; Italy, Poland, and Argentina. The national team won the 2007 Caribbean Nations Cup.
Haiti has participated in the Olympic Games since the year 1900 and won a number of medals. Haitian footballer Joe Gaetjens played for the United States national team in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, scoring the winning goal in the 1 -- 0 upset of England.
The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.
More than 80 % of primary schools are privately managed by nongovernmental organizations, churches, communities, and for - profit operators, with minimal government oversight. According to the 2013 Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Report, Haiti has steadily boosted net enrollment rate in primary education from 47 % in 1993 to 88 % in 2011, achieving equal participation of boys and girls in education. Charity organizations, including Food for the Poor and Haitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. According to CIA 2015 World Factbook, Haiti 's literacy rate is now 60.7 % (est. 2015).
The January 2010 earthquake, was a major setback for education reform in Haiti as it diverted limited resources to survival.
Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school - age students in Haiti. The Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least US $3 billion to create an adequately funded system.
Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Haiti include the University of Haiti. There are also medical schools and law schools offered at both the University of Haiti and abroad. Presently, Brown University is cooperating with L'Hôpital Saint - Damien in Haiti to coordinate a pediatric health care curriculum.
In the past, children 's vaccination rates have been low -- as of 2012, 60 % of the children in Haiti under the age of 10 were vaccinated, compared to rates of childhood vaccination in other countries in the 93 -- 95 % range. Recently there have been mass vaccination campaigns claiming to vaccinate as many as 91 % of a target population against specific diseases (measles and rubella in this case). Most people have no transportation or access to Haitian hospitals.
The World Health Organization cites diarrheal diseases, HIV / AIDS, meningitis, and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti. Ninety percent of Haiti 's children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites. HIV infection is found in 1.71 % of Haiti 's population (est. 2015). The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America. Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with malaria each year.
Most people living in Haiti are at high risk for major infectious diseases. Food or water - borne diseases include bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, typhoid fever and hepatitis A and E; common vector - borne diseases are dengue fever and malaria; water - contact diseases include leptospirosis. Roughly 75 % of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake. The infant mortality rate in Haiti in 2013 was 55 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to a rate of 6 per 1,000 in other countries.
After the 2010 earthquake, Partners In Health founded the Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais, the largest solar - powered hospital in the world.
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who won the womens hockey in the olympics | List of Olympic medalists in Ice Hockey - wikipedia
Ice hockey is a sport that is contested at the Winter Olympic Games. A men 's ice hockey tournament has been held every Winter Olympics (starting in 1924); an ice hockey tournament was also held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. From 1920 to 1968, the Olympics also acted as the Ice Hockey World Championships, and the two events occurred concurrently. From 1920 until 1984, only amateur athletes were allowed to compete in the tournament, and players from the National Hockey League (NHL) were not allowed to compete. The countries that benefited most were the Soviet Bloc countries of Eastern Europe, where top athletes were state - sponsored while retaining their status as amateurs. In 1970, after a disagreement over the definition of amateur players, Canada withdrew from the tournament and did not send a team to the 1972 or 1976 Winter Olympics. In 1986, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to allow professional athletes to compete in the Olympics, and starting in 1998, the NHL allowed its players to participate. Women 's ice hockey was added in 1992 and the first tournament was held at the 1998 Winter Olympics. Both events have been held at every Olympic Games since.
In women 's hockey, Canadians Jayna Hefford and Hayley Wickenheiser hold the record for total medals (five), having won four gold and one silver. Their team mate Caroline Ouellette also won four gold medals. Four other athletes have won four medals: two Canadians - Becky Kellar and Jennifer Botterill with three gold and a silver - and three Americans - Angela Ruggiero, Jenny Potter (each with one gold, two silver and one bronze) and Julie Chu (three silver and one bronze).
Eight male athletes have won four medals: Vladislav Tretiak (three gold, one silver), Igor Kravchuk (two gold, one silver, one bronze), Jiří Holík (two silver, two bronze) and five players (all from Finland), each with one silver and three bronze: Teemu Selänne, Kimmo Timonen, Saku Koivu, Jere Lehtinen, and Ville Peltonen. Six have won three gold medals: Tretiak, Anatoli Firsov, Viktor Kuzkin, Andrei Khomutov, Alexander Ragulin and Vitali Davydov.
From 1920 to 1952, teams from Canada dominated the men 's tournament, winning six gold and one silver medal. The Soviet Union began competing at the Olympics in 1956 and won nine straight Olympic medals, including seven gold. The Soviet Union broke up in 1991, and in 1992, a Unified Team composed mainly of former Soviet players won gold. Teams from Canada have won the most medals, with fifteen, including nine gold. As of the 2014 Winter Olympics, 81 medals (26 of each color) have been awarded to teams from 13 National Olympic Committees.
Individuals who have been inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame (including announced members awaiting induction) are indicated as follows:
Individuals who have been inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame (including announced members awaiting induction) are indicated as follows:
^ Note 1. The members of the 1920 Czechoslovakia team vary depending on the source. Karel Hartmann, Vilém Loos, Jan Palouš, Jan Peka, Karel Pešek, Josef Šroubek and Otakar Vindyš are all consistently included on team lists. However, there is a discrepancy over Karel Wälzer, Josef Loos, Karel Kotrba and Adolf Dušek. The following are the lineups based on the listings of the Czech Olympic Committee (COC), International Olympic Committee (IOC) and International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH). This table does not list the seven that are included in every source.
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who has the most scoring titles in nba history | List of National Basketball Association annual scoring Leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are accumulated through free throws or field goals. The National Basketball Association 's (NBA) scoring title is awarded to the player with the highest points per game average in a given season. The scoring title was originally determined by total points scored through the 1968 -- 69 season, after which points per game was used to determine the leader instead. Players who earned scoring titles before the 1979 -- 80 season did not record any three point field goals because the three - point line had just been implemented in the NBA at the start of that season. To qualify for the scoring title, the player must appear in at least 70 games (out of 82) or have at least 1,400 points. These have been the entry criteria since the 1974 -- 75 season.
Wilt Chamberlain holds the all - time records for total points scored (4,029) and points per game (50.4) in a season; both records were achieved in the 1961 -- 62 season. He also holds the rookie records for points per game when he averaged 37.6 points in the 1959 -- 60 season. Among active players, Kevin Durant has the highest point total (2,593) and the highest scoring average (32.0) in a season; both were achieved in the 2013 -- 14 season.
Michael Jordan has won the most scoring titles, with ten. Jordan and Chamberlain are the only players to have won seven consecutive scoring titles (this was also Chamberlain 's career total). George Gervin, Allen Iverson and Durant have won four scoring titles in their career, and George Mikan, Neil Johnston and Bob McAdoo have achieved it three times. Paul Arizin, Bob Pettit, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal, Tracy McGrady, Kobe Bryant, and Russell Westbrook have each won the scoring title twice. Since the 1946 -- 47 season, five players have won both the scoring title and the NBA championship in the same season: Fulks in 1947 with the Philadelphia Warriors, Mikan from 1949 to 1950 with the Minneapolis Lakers, Abdul - Jabbar (then Lew Alcindor) in 1971 with the Milwaukee Bucks, Jordan from 1991 to 1993 and from 1996 to 1998 with the Chicago Bulls, and O'Neal in 2000 with the Los Angeles Lakers. Since the introduction of the three - point field goal, O'Neal is the only scoring leader to have made no three - pointers in his winning season.
At 21 years and 197 days, Durant is the youngest scoring leader in NBA history, averaging 30.1 points in the 2009 -- 10 season. Russell Westbrook led the league with an average of 31.6 points in the 2016 -- 17 season, when he also became the second NBA player to average a triple - double in a season. The most recent champion is James Harden.
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where does the term full monty come from | The full monty (phrase) - Wikipedia
The full monty (or the full Monty) is a British slang phrase of uncertain origin. It is generally used to mean "everything which is necessary, appropriate or possible; ' the works ' ''. Similar North American phrases include the whole kit and caboodle, the whole nine yards, the whole ball of wax, the whole enchilada, the whole shebang, or (going) whole hog.
The phrase was first identified in print by the OED in the 1980s. Anecdotal evidence exists for earlier usage; the phrase was also used as the name for some fish and chip shops in Manchester during the same period.
Hypothesized origins of the phrase include:
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how many countries did germany invade in ww1 | Eastern Front (World War I) - wikipedia
Central Powers victory
Russian Empire (1914 -- 17) Russian Republic (1917) Kingdom of Romania (1916 -- 17) Supported by: United Kingdom Belgium
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The Eastern Front or Eastern Theater of World War I (Russian: Восточный фронт, Vostochnıy front, sometimes called the "Second Fatherland War '' or "Second Patriotic War '' (Russian: Вторая Отечественная война, Vtoraya Otechestvennaya voyna) in Russian sources) was a theatre of operations that encompassed at its greatest extent the entire frontier between the Russian Empire and Romania on one side and the Austro - Hungarian Empire, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire on the other. It stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south, included most of Eastern Europe and stretched deep into Central Europe as well. The term contrasts with "Western Front '', which was being fought in Belgium and France.
In the opening months of the war, the Imperial Russian Army attempted an invasion of eastern Prussia in the northwestern theater, only to be beaten back by the Germans after some initial success. At the same time, in the south, they successfully invaded Galicia, defeating the Austro - Hungarian forces there. In Russian Poland, the Germans failed to take Warsaw. But by 1915, the German and Austro - Hungarian armies were on the advance, dealing the Russians heavy casualties in Galicia and in Poland, forcing it to retreat. Grand Duke Nicholas was sacked from his position as the commander - in - chief and replaced by the Tsar himself. Several offensives against the Germans in 1916 failed, including Lake Naroch Offensive and the Baranovichi Offensive. However, General Aleksei Brusilov oversaw a highly successful operation against Austria - Hungary that became known as the Brusilov Offensive, which saw the Russian Army make large gains.
The Kingdom of Romania entered the war in August 1916. The Entente promised the region of Transylvania (which was part of Austria - Hungary) in return for Romanian support. The Romanian Army invaded Transylvania and had initial successes, but was forced to stop and was pushed back by the Germans and Austro - Hungarians when Bulgaria attacked them in the south. Meanwhile, a revolution occurred in Russia in February 1917 (one of the several causes being the hardships of the war). Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate and a Russian Provisional Government was founded, with Georgy Lvov as its first leader, who was eventually replaced by Alexander Kerensky.
The newly formed Russian Republic continued to fight the war alongside Romania and the rest of the Entente until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in October 1917. Kerensky oversaw the July Offensive, which was largely a failure and caused a collapse in the Russian Army. The new government established by the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with the Central Powers, taking it out of the war and making large territorial concessions. Romania was also forced to surrender and signed a similar treaty, though both of the treaties were nullified with the surrender of the Central Powers in November 1918.
The front in the east was much longer than that in the west. The theater of war was roughly delimited by the Baltic Sea in the west and Minsk in the east, and Saint Petersburg in the north and the Black Sea in the south, a distance of more than 1,600 kilometres (990 mi). This had a drastic effect on the nature of the warfare.
While World War I on the Western Front developed into trench warfare, the battle lines on the Eastern Front were much more fluid and trenches never truly developed. This was because the greater length of the front ensured that the density of soldiers in the line was lower so the line was easier to break. Once broken, the sparse communication networks made it difficult for the defender to rush reinforcements to the rupture in the line, mounting rapid counteroffensives to seal off any breakthrough.
Propaganda was a key component of the culture of World War I. It was most commonly deployed through the state - controlled media to glorify the homeland and demonize the enemy. Propaganda often took the form of images which portrayed stereotypes from folklore about the enemy or from glorified moments from the nation 's history. On the Eastern Front, propaganda took many forms such as opera, film, spy fiction, theater, spectacle, war novels and graphic art. Across the Eastern Front the amount of propaganda used in each country varied from state to state. Propaganda took many forms within each country and was distributed by many different groups. Most commonly the state produced propaganda, but other groups, such as anti-war organizations, also generated propaganda.
Prior to the outbreak of war, German strategy was based almost entirely on the Schlieffen Plan. With the Franco - Russian Agreement in place, Germany knew that war with either of these combatants would result in war with the other, which meant that there would be war in both the west and the east. Therefore, the German General Staff, Alfred von Schlieffen, planned a quick, all - out ground war on the Western Front to take France and, upon victory, Germany would turn its attention to Russia in the east. Von Schlieffen believed Russia would not be ready or willing to move against and attack Germany due to the huge losses of military equipment that Russia suffered in the Russo - Japanese war, her low population density and lack of railroads.
Conversely, the German Navy believed it could be victorious over Britain with Russian neutrality, something which von Moltke knew would not be possible.
In the immediate years preceding the First World War, the kingdom of Romania was involved in the Second Balkan War on the side of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and the Ottoman Empire against Bulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on August 10, 1913, ended the Balkan conflict and added 6,960 square kilometers to Romania 's territory. Although militarized, Romania decided upon a policy of neutrality at the start of the First World War, mainly due to having territorial interests in both Austria - Hungary (Transylvania and Bukovina) and in Russia (Bessarabia). Strong cultural influences also affected Romanian leanings, however. King Carol I, as a Hohenzollern - Sigmaringen, favoured his Germanic roots, while the Romanian people, influenced by their Orthodox church and Latin - based language, were inclined to join France. Perhaps King Carol 's attempts at joining the war on the side of the Central powers would have been fruitful had he not died in 1914, but Romanian disenchantment with Austria - Hungary had already influenced public and political opinion. French endorsement of Romanian action against Bulgaria, and support of the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest was particularly effective at inclining Romania towards the Entente. Furthermore, Russian courting of Romanian sympathies, exemplified by the visit of the Tsar to Constanta on June 14, 1914, signaled in a new era of positive relations between the two countries. Nevertheless, King Ferdinand I of Romania maintained a policy of neutrality, intending to gain the most for Romania by negotiating between competing powers. According to historian John Keegan, the enticements offered by the Allies were never concrete, for in secret, Russia and France agreed not to honor any conventions when the end of the war came.
The immediate reason for Russia 's involvement in the First World War was a direct result of the decisions made by the statesmen and generals during July 1914. The July crisis was the culmination of a series of diplomatic conflicts that took place in the decades prior to 1914, and this is fundamental to an understanding of Russia 's position immediately prior to the War. According to D.C. Lieven, Russia was formidable and was able to back up her diplomatic policies with force. In 1870 -- 1914, the four leading powers in Europe were Russia, Prussia, Austria and France, each of whom exercised a similar proportion of power at the time. One of the most significant factors in bringing Russia to the brink of war was the downfall of her economy. The 20 percent jump in defense expenditure during 1866 -- 77 and in 1871 - 5 forced them to change their position within Europe and shift the balance of power out of her favour. At the time, Russian infrastructure was backward and the Russian government had to invest far more than its European rivals in structural changes. In addition there were overwhelming burdens of defense, which would ultimately result in an economic downfall for the Russians. This was a major strain on the Russian population, but also served as a direct threat to military expenditure. Thus the only way the Russians could sustain the strains of European war would be to place more emphasis on foreign investment from the French who essentially came to Russia 's aid for industrial change. The Franco - Russian Alliance allowed for the Russian defense to grow and aid the European balance of power during the growth of the German Empire 's might. In 1914, Germany was the most powerful state in all of Europe. Nevertheless, one of the key factors was that of the Russian foreign policy between 1890 and 1914.
In order for the Russians to legitimise their war efforts the government constructed an image of the enemy through state instituted propaganda. Their main aim was to help overcome the legend of the "invincible '' German war machine, in order to boost the morale of civilians and soldiers. Russian propaganda often took the form of showing the Germans as a civilised nation, with barbaric "inhuman '' traits. Russian propaganda also exploited the image of the Russian POWs who were in the German camps, again in order to boost the morale of their troops, serving as encouragement to defeat the enemy and to get their fellow soldiers out of the "inhuman '' German POW camps.
An element of the Russian propaganda was the Investigate Commission formed in April 1915. It was led by Aleksei Krivtsov and the study was tasked with the job of studying the legal violations committed by of the Central Powers and then getting this information to the Russian public. This commission published photographs of letters that were allegedly found on fallen German soldiers. These letters document the German correspondents saying to "take no prisoners. '' A museum was also set up in Petrograd, which displayed pictures that showed how "inhumanly '' the Germans were treating prisoners of war.
Austria - Hungary 's participation in the outbreak of World War I has been neglected by historians, as emphasis has traditionally been placed on Germany 's role as the prime instigator. However, the "spark '' that ignited the First World War is attributed to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip, which took place on June 28, 1914. Approximately a month later, on July 28, 1914, Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia. This act led to a series of events that would quickly expand into the First World War; thus, the Habsburg government in Vienna initiated the pivotal decision that would begin the conflict.
The causes of the Great War have generally been defined in diplomatic terms, but certain deep - seated issues in Austria - Hungary undoubtedly contributed to the beginnings of the First World War. The Austro - Hungarian situation in the Balkans pre-1914 is a primary factor in its involvement in the war. The movement towards South Slav unity was a major problem for the Habsburg Empire, which was facing increasing nationalist pressure from its multinational populace. As Europe 's third largest state, the Austro - Hungarian monarchy was hardly homogeneous; comprising over fifty million people and eleven nationalities, the Empire was a conglomeration of a number of diverse cultures, languages, and peoples.
Specifically, the South Slavic people of Austria - Hungary desired to amalgamate with Serbia in an effort to officially solidify their shared cultural heritage. Over seven million South Slavs lived inside the Empire, while three million lived outside it. With the growing emergence of nationalism in the twentieth century, unity of all South Slavs looked promising. This tension is exemplified by Conrad von Hötzendorf 's letter to Franz Ferdinand:
The unification of the South Slav race is one of the powerful national movements which can neither be ignored nor kept down. The question can only be, whether unification will take place within the boundaries of the Monarchy -- that is at the expense of Serbia 's independence -- or under Serbia 's leadership at the expense of the Monarchy. The cost to the Monarchy would be the loss of its South Slav provinces and thus of almost its entire coastline. The loss of territory and prestige would relegate the Monarchy to the status of a small power.
The annexation of Bosnia - Herzegovina in 1908 by Austrian foreign minister Baron von Aehrenthal in an effort to assert domination over the Balkans inflamed Slavic nationalism and angered Serbia. Bosnia - Herzegovina became a "rallying cry '' for South Slavs, with hostilities between Austria - Hungary and Serbia steadily increasing. The situation was ripe for conflict, and when the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Austrian imperial heir, Franz Ferdinand, these longstanding hostilities culminated into an all - out war.
The Allied Powers wholeheartedly supported the Slavs ' nationalistic fight. George Macaulay Trevelyan, a British historian, saw Serbia 's war against Austria - Hungary as a "war of liberation '' that would "free South Slavs from tyranny. '' In his own words: "If ever there was a battle for freedom, there is such a battle now going on in Southeastern Europe against Austrian and Magyar. If this war ends in the overthrow of the Magyar tyranny, an immense step forward will have been taken toward racial liberty and European peace. ''
Prior to 1914, the Russian 's lack of success in war and diplomacy in the six decades before 1914 sapped the country 's moral strength. The triumphs of Britain and Germany in the martial, diplomatic and economic spheres put these countries in the front rank of the world 's leading nations. This was a source of national pride, self - confidence and unity. It helped reconcile the worker to the state and the Bavarian or Scotsman to rule from Berlin or London. In the years prior to 1914, Austro - Russian co-operation was both crucial for European peace and difficult to maintain. Old suspicions exacerbated by the Bosnian crisis stood in the way of agreement between the two empires, as did ethnic sensitivities. Russia 's historical role as liberator of the Balkans was difficult to square with Austria 's determination to control adjacent territories. In 1913 -- 1914 Saint Petersburg was too concerned with its own weakness and what it saw as threats to vital Russian interests, to spare much thought for Vienna 's feelings. The Russians were, with some justice, indignant that the concessions they had made after the First Balkan War in the interest of European peace had not been reciprocated by the Central Powers.
This was doubly dangerous given the growing evidence flowing into Petersburg about Germany 's aggressive intentions. Both Bazarov and the agents of the Russian secret political police in Germany reported the concern aroused in public opinion by the press war against Russia, which raged in the spring of 1914.
The Russian military was the largest in the world consisting of 1.4 million men prior to the war. They could also mobilize up to 5 million men, but only had 4.6 million rifles to give them. It also had poor leadership.
The war in the east began with the Russian invasion of East Prussia on 17 August 1914 and the Austro - Hungarian province of Galicia. The first effort quickly turned to a defeat following the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. A second Russian incursion into Galicia was completely successful, with the Russians controlling almost all of that region by the end of 1914, routing four Austrian armies in the process. Under the command of Nikolai Ivanov and Aleksei Brusilov, the Russians won the Battle of Galicia in September and began the Siege of Przemyśl, the next fortress on the road towards Kraków.
This early Russian success in 1914 on the Austro - Russian border was a reason for concern to the Central Powers and caused considerable German forces to be transferred to the East to take pressure off the Austrians, leading to the creation of the new German Ninth Army. At the end of 1914, the main focus of the fighting shifted to central part of Russian Poland, west of the river Vistula. The October Battle of the Vistula River and the November Battle of Łódź brought little advancement for the Germans, but at least kept the Russians at a safe distance.
The Russian and Austro - Hungarian armies continued to clash in and near the Carpathian Mountains throughout the winter of 1914 -- 1915. Przemysl fortress managed to hold out deep behind enemy lines throughout this period, with the Russians bypassing it in order to attack the Austro - Hungarian troops further to the west. They made some progress, crossing the Carpathians in February and March 1915, but then the German relief helped the Austrians stop further Russian advances. In the meantime, Przemysl was almost entirely destroyed and the Siege of Przemysl ended in a defeat for the Austrians.
In 1915 the German command decided to make its main effort on the Eastern Front, and accordingly transferred considerable forces there. To eliminate the Russian threat the Central Powers began the campaign season of 1915 with the successful Gorlice - Tarnow Offensive in Galicia in May 1915.
After the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes, the German and Austro - Hungarian troops in the Eastern Front functioned under a unified command. The offensive soon turned into a general advance and a corresponding strategic retreat by the Russian Army. The cause of the reverses suffered by the Russian Army was not so much errors in the tactical sphere, as the deficiency in technical equipment, particularly in artillery and ammunition as well as the corruption and incompetence of the Russian officers. Only by 1916 did buildup of Russian war industries increase production of war material and improve the supply situation.
By mid-1915, the Russians had been expelled from Russian Poland and hence pushed hundreds of kilometers away from the borders of the Central Powers, removing the threat of Russian invasion of Germany or Austria - Hungary. At the end of 1915 German - Austrian advance was stopped on the line Riga -- Jakobstadt -- Dünaburg -- Baranovichi -- Pinsk -- Dubno -- Ternopil. The general outline of this front line did not change until the Russian collapse in 1917.
After the Battle of Sarikamish, the Russo - Turkish front quickly turned in favor of Russian forces. The Turks were concerned with reorganizing their army and committing the Armenian Genocide. Meanwhile, Russia was preoccupied with other armies on the Eastern Front. However, the appointment of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich as Viceroy and Commander in the Caucasus in September 1915 revived the situation of the Russo - Turkish front.
When the Allies withdrew from Gallipoli in December, the Caucasus Army 's Chief of Staff General Nikolai Yudenich believed Turkish forces would take action against his army. This concern was legitimate: Bulgaria 's entry into the war as Germany 's ally in October caused serious alarm, as a land route from Germany to Turkey was now open and would allow for an unrestricted flow of German weapons to the Turks. A "window of opportunity '' appeared that would allow the Russians to destroy the Turkish Third Army, as the British required assistance in Mesopotamia (now modern day Iraq). Britain 's efforts to besiege Baghdad had been halted at Ctesiphon, and they were forced to retreat. This led to an increasing number of attacks by Turkish forces. The British requested the Russians to attack in an attempt to distract the Turks, and Yudenich agreed. The resulting offensive began on January 10, 1916.
This offensive was unanticipated by the Turks, as it was in the middle of winter. The Turkish situation was exacerbated by the Third Army 's commander Kamil Pasha and Chief of Staff Major Guse absence. Coupled with an imbalance of forces -- the Russians had 325 000 troops, while the Turks only 78 000 -- the situation appeared grim for the Central Powers. After three months of fighting, the Russians captured the city of Trabzon on April 18, 1916.
Allied operations in 1916 were dictated by an urgent need to force Germany to transfer forces from its Western to Eastern fronts, to relieve the pressure on the French at the Battle of Verdun. This was to be accomplished by a series of Russian offensives which would force the Germans to deploy additional forces to counter them. The first such operation was the Lake Naroch Offensive in March -- April 1916, which ended in failure.
The Italian operations during 1916 had one extraordinarily positive result: Austrian divisions were pulled away from the Russian southern front. This allowed the Russian forces to organize a counter-offensive. The Brusilov Offensive was a large tactical assault carried out by Russian forces against Austro - Hungarian forces in Galicia. General Aleksei Brusilov believed victory against the Central Powers was possible if close attention was paid to preparation. Brusilov suggested that the Russians should attack on a wide front, and to position their trenches a mere seventy - five yard away from Austrian trenches.
Brusilov 's plan worked impeccably. The Russians outnumbered the Austrians 200,000 to 150,000, and held a considerable advantage in guns, with 904 large guns to 600. Most importantly innovative new tactics similar to those independently invented by Erwin Rommel were used to perform quick and effective close - range surprise attacks that allowed a steady advance. The Russian Eighth Army overwhelmed the Austrian Fourth and pushed on to Lutsk, advancing forty miles beyond the starting position. Over a million Austrians were lost, with over 500,000 men killed or taken prisoner by mid-June.
Although the Brusilov Offensive was initially successful, it slowed down considerably. An inadequate number of troops and poorly maintained supply lines hindered Brusilov 's ability to follow up on the initial victories in June. The Brusilov Offensive is considered to be the greatest Russian victory of the First World War. Although it cost the Russians half a million casualties, the offensive successfully diverted substantial forces of the Central Powers from the Western front, and persuaded Romania to join the war, diverting even more Central Powers forces to the East.
Romania may be the turning point of the campaign. If the Germans fail there it will be the greatest disaster inflicted upon them. Afterwards it will only be a question of time. But should Germany succeed, I hesitate to think what the effect will be on the fortunes of our campaign.... and yet no one seems to have thought it his particular duty to prepare a plan.
Up until 1916, the Romanians followed the tides of war with interest, while attempting to situate themselves in the most advantageous position. French and Russian diplomats had begun courting the Romanians early on, but persuasion tactics gradually intensified. For King Ferdinand to commit his force of half a million men, he expected the Allies to offer a substantial incentive. Playing on Romanian anti-Hungarian sentiment the Allies promised the Austria - Hungarian territory of Ardeal (Transylvania) to Romania. Transylvanian (demographics) strongly favoured the Romanians. Romania succumbed to Allied enticement on August 18, 1916. Nine days later, on August 27, Romanian troops marched into Transylvania.
Romania 's entry into the war provoked major strategic changes for the Germans. In September 1916, German troops were mobilized to the Eastern Front. Additionally, the German Chief of the General Staff, General Erich Von Falkenhayn was forced to resign from office in order to command the combined Central Powers forces against Romania, along with General August von Mackensen. Kaiser Wilhelm II immediately replaced Falkenhayn with Paul von Hindenburg. Von Hindenburg 's deputy, the more adept Erich Ludendorff, was given effective control of the army and ordered to advance on Romania. On September 3, the first troops of the Central Powers marched into Romanian territory. Simultaneously, the Bulgarian Air Force commenced an incessant bombing of Bucharest. In an attempt to relieve some pressure, French and British forces launched a new offensive known as the Battle of the Somme, while the Brusilov Offensive continued in the East.
It is certain that so relatively small a state as Rumania had never before been given a role so important, and, indeed, so decisive for the history of the world at so favorable a moment. Never before had two Great Powers like Germany and Austria found themselves so much at the mercy of the military resources of a country which had scarcely one twentieth of the population of the two great states. Judging by the military situation, it was to be expected that Rumania had only to advance where she wished to decide the world war in favor of those Powers which had been hurling themselves at us in vain for years. Thus everything seemed to depend on whether Rumania was ready to make any sort of use of her momentary advantage.
The entrance of Romania into the war was disconcerting for von Hindenburg. On September 15, Paul von Hindenburg issued the following order, stating that: "The main task of the Armies is now to hold fast all positions on the Western, Eastern, Italian and Macedonian Fronts, and to employ all other available forces against Rumania. '' Fortunately for the Central Powers, the quantity and quality of the Romanian Army was overestimated. Although numbering half a million men, the Romanian Army suffered from poor training and a lack of appropriate equipment.
The initial success of the Romanian Army in Austria - Hungarian territory was quickly undermined by the Central Powers. German and Austro - Hungarian troops advanced from the north, while Bulgarian - Turkish - German forces marched into Romania from the south. Although thought to be a tactical blunder by contemporaries, the Romanians opted to mount operations in both directions. By the middle of November the German force passed through the Carpathians, suffering significant casualties due to determined Romanian resistance. By December 5, Bulgarian troops had crossed the Danube and were approaching the capital, Bucharest. At the same time as the Austro - Hungarian troops moved east, and as the Bulgarians marched north, the Turks had sent in two army divisions by sea to the Dobruja from the east. Eventually, the Romanian forces were pushed back behind the Siret in northern Moldavia.
By January 1917, the ranks of the Romanian army had been significantly thinned. Roughly 150,000 Romanian soldiers had been taken prisoner, 200,000 men were dead or wounded, and lost two thirds of their country, including the capital. Importantly, the Ploiești oilfields, the only significant source of oil in Europe west of the Black Sea, had been destroyed before they were abandoned to the Central Powers.
The Russian February Revolution aimed to topple the Russian monarchy and resulted in the creation of the Provisional Government. The revolution was a turning point in Russian history, and its significance and influence can still be felt in many countries today. Although many Russians wanted a revolution, no one had expected it to happen when it did -- let alone how it did.
On International Women 's Day, Thursday, February 23, 1917, as many as 90,000 female workers in the city of Petrograd left their factory jobs and marched through the streets, shouting "Bread '', "Down with the autocracy! '' and "Stop the War! '' These women were tired, hungry, and angry, after working long hours in miserable conditions to feed their families because their menfolk were fighting at the front. They were not alone in demanding change; more than 150,000 men and women took to the streets to protest the next day.
By Saturday, February 25, the city of Petrograd was essentially shut down. No one was allowed to work or wanted to work. Even though there were a few incidents of police and soldiers firing into the crowds, those groups soon mutinied and joined the protesters. Tsar Nicholas II, who was not in Petrograd during the revolution, heard reports of the protests but chose not to take them seriously. By March 1, it was obvious to everyone except the czar himself, that his rule was over. On March 2 it was made official.
In early July 1917, on the Romanian front, a relatively small area, there was one of the largest concentrations of combat forces and means known during the conflagration: nine armies, 80 infantry divisions with 974 battalions, 19 cavalry divisions with 550 squadrons and 923 artillery batteries, whose effectives numbered some 800,000 men, with about one million in their immediate reserve. The three great battles, decisive for the Romanian nation 's destiny, delivered at Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz represented a turning point in the world war on the Eastern front. These battles, named by the localities and zones where they took place, were fought approximately on the front alignment stabilized in early 1917, which the conflicting sides had thoroughly consolidated for half a year.
Between late July and early September, the Romanian Army fought the battles of Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz, managing to stop the German - Austro - Hungarian advance, inflicting heavy losses in the process and winning the most important Allied victories on the Eastern Front in 1917.
As a result of these operations, the remaining Romanian territories remained unoccupied, tying down nearly 1,000,000 Central Powers troops and prompting The Times to describe the Romanian front as "The only point of light in the East ''.
On May 7, 1918, in light of the existing politico - military situation, Romania was forced to conclude the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers, imposing harsh conditions on the country but recognizing its union with Bessarabia. Alexandru Marghiloman became the new German - sponsored Prime Minister. King Ferdinand, however, refused to sign the treaty.
The Germans were able to repair the oil fields around Ploiești and by the end of the war had pumped a million tons of oil. They also requisitioned two million tons of grain from Romanian farmers. These materials were vital in keeping Germany in the war to the end of 1918.
By September 1917, just months after the February Revolution, Lenin believed the Russian people were ready for another revolution, this time on Marxist principles. On October 10, at a secret meeting of the Bolshevik party leaders, Lenin used all his power to convince the others that it was time for armed insurrection. After 24 hours of debate, a vote was taken the following morning: the result was ten to two in favour of a revolution. Troops who were loyal to the Bolsheviks took control of the telegraph stations, power stations, strategic bridges, post offices, train stations, and state banks, without gunfire or any resistance.
Petrograd was officially in the hands of the Bolsheviks, who greatly increased their organization in factory groups and in many barracks throughout Petrograd. They concentrated on devising a plan for overturning the Provisional Government, with a coup d'état. On October 24, Lenin emerged from hiding in a suburb, entered the city, set up his headquarters at the Smolny Institute and worked to complete his three - phase plan. With the main bridges and the main railways secured, only the Winter Palace, and with it the Provisional Government, remained to be taken. On the evening of November 7, the troops that were loyal to the Bolsheviks infiltrated the Winter Palace. After an almost bloodless coup, the Bolsheviks were the new leaders of Russia. Lenin announced that the new regime would end the war, abolish all private land ownership, and create a system for workers ' control over the factories.
On 7 November 1917, the Communist Bolsheviks took power under their leader Vladimir Lenin. Lenin 's new Bolshevik government tried to end the war, with a ceasefire being declared on December 15, 1917 along lines agreed in November. At the same time Bolsheviks launched a full - scale military offensive against its opponents: Ukraine and separatist governments in the Don region. During the peace negotiations between Soviets and Central Powers, the Germans demanded enormous concessions, eventually resulting in the failure of the long - drawn - out peace negotiations on February 17, 1918. At the same time the Central Powers concluded a military treaty with Ukraine which was losing ground in the fight with invading Bolshevik forces. The Russian Civil War, which started just after November 1917, would tear apart Russia for three years. As a result of the events during 1917, many groups opposed to Lenin 's Bolsheviks had formed. With the fall of Nicholas II, many parts of the Russian Empire took the opportunity to declare their independence, one of which was Finland, which did so in December 1917; however, Finland too collapsed into a civil war. Finland declared itself independent Dec. 6th 1917, and this was accepted by Lenin a month later. The Finnish Parliament elected a German prince as King of Finland. However, the Socialists (The Reds) and the Whites in Finland fell into war with each other in January 1918. The Reds wanted Finland to be a Soviet republic, and was aided by Russian forces still in Finland. The Whites of Finland were led by General Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, a Finnish baron who had been in the Tsars service since he was 15 years old. The Whites were also offered help by a German Expeditionary Corps led by the German General Golz. Mannerheim never approved this. The German corps landed in Finland, but never got into battle, and was to no help, as the Whites had won the war by May 1918.
After the disintegration of the Russian imperial army and navy in 1917, the Council of People 's Commissars headed by Leon Trotsky set about creating a new army. By a decree on January 28, 1918 the council created the Workers ' and Peoples ' Red Army; it began recruitment on a voluntary basis, but on April 22, the Soviet government made serving in the army compulsory for anyone who did not employ hired labor. While the majority of the army was made up of workers and peasants, many of the Red Army 's officers had served a similar function in the imperial army before its collapse.
With the German Army just 85 miles (137 km) from the Russian capital Petrograd (St. Petersburg) on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk was signed and the Eastern Front ceased to be a war zone. While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year, it did provide some relief to the Bolsheviks, who were embroiled in a civil war, and affirmed the independence of Ukraine. However, Estonia and Latvia were intended to become a United Baltic Duchy to be ruled by German princes and German nobility as fiefdoms under the German Kaiser. Finland 's sovereignty had already been declared in December 1917, and accepted by most nations, including France and the Soviet Union, but not by the United Kingdom and the United States. The Germans were able to transfer substantial forces to the west in order to mount an offensive in France in the spring of 1918.
This offensive on the Western Front failed to achieve a decisive breakthrough, and the arrival of more and more American units in Europe was sufficient to offset the German advantage. Even after the Russian collapse, about a million German soldiers remained tied up in the east until the end of the war, attempting to run a short - lived addition to the German Empire in Europe. In the end, Germany and Austria lost all their captured lands, and more, under various treaties (such as the Treaty of Versailles) signed after the armistice in 1918.
In comparison to the attention directed to the role played by women on the Western Front during the First World War, the role of women in the east has garnered limited scholarly focus. It is estimated that 20 percent of the Russian industrial working class was conscripted into the army; therefore, women 's share of industrial jobs increased dramatically. There were percentage increases in every industry, but the most noticeable increase happened in industrial labour, which increased from 31.4 percent in 1913 to 45 percent in 1918.
Women also fought on the Eastern Front. In the later stages of Russia 's participation in the war, Russia began forming all - woman combat units, the Women 's Battalions, in part to fight plummeting morale among male soldiers by demonstrating Russian women 's willingness to fight. In Romania, Ecaterina Teodoroiu actively fought in the Romanian Army and is remembered today as a national hero.
British nursing efforts were not limited to the Western Front. Nicknamed the "Gray partridges '' in reference to their dark gray overcoats, Scottish volunteer nurses arrived in Romania in 1916 under the leadership of Elsie Inglis. In addition to nursing injured personnel, Scottish nurses manned transport vehicles and acted as regimental cooks. The "Gray Partridges '' were well respected by Romanian, Serbian and Russian troops and as a result, the Romanian press went as far as to characterize them as "healthy, masculine, and tanned women. '' As a testament to her abilities, Elsie Inglis and her volunteers were entrusted to turn an abandoned building in the city of Galati into an operational hospital, which they did in a little more than a day. Yvonne Fitzroy 's published journal, "With the Scottish Nurses in Roumania, '' provides an excellent first hand account Scottish nursing activities in the Eastern Front.
During World War I, approximately 200,000 German soldiers and 2.5 million soldiers from the Austro - Hungarian army entered Russian captivity. During the 1914 Russian campaign the Russians began taking thousands of Austrian prisoners. As a result, the Russian authorities made emergency facilities in Kiev, Penza, Kazan, and later Turkestan to hold the Austrian prisoners of war. As the war continued Russia began to detain soldiers from Germany as well as a growing number from the Austro - Hungarian army. The Tsarist state saw the large population of POWs as a workforce that could benefit the war economy in Russia. Many POWs were employed as farm laborers and miners in Donbas and Krivoi Rog. However, the majority of POWs were employed as laborers constructing canals and building railroads. The living and working environments for these POWs was bleak. There was a shortage of food, clean drinking water and proper medical care. During the summer months malaria was a major problem, and the malnutrition among the POWs led to many cases of scurvy. While working on the Murmansk rail building project over 25,000 POWs died. Information about the bleak conditions of the labor camps reached the German and Austro - Hungarian governments. They began to complain about the treatment of POWs. The Tsarist authorities initially refused to acknowledge the German and Habsburg governments. They rejected their claims because Russian POWs were working on railway construction in Serbia. However, they slowly agreed to stop using prison labor. Life in the camps was extremely rough for the men who resided in them. The Tsarist government could not provide adequate supplies for the men living in their POW camps. The Russian government 's inability to supply the POWs in their camps with supplies was due to inadequate resources and bureaucratic rivalries. However, the conditions in the POW camps varied; some were more bearable than others.
Disease played a critical role in the loss of life on the Eastern Front. In the East, disease accounted for approximately four times the number of deaths caused by direct combat, in contrast to the three to one ratio in the West. Malaria, cholera, and dysentery contributed to the epidemiological crisis on the Eastern Front; however, typhoid spotted fever, transmitted by pathogenic lice and previously unknown to German medical officers before the outbreak of the war, was the most deadly. There was a direct correlation between the environmental conditions of the East and the prevalence of disease. With cities excessively crowded by refugees fleeing their native countries, unsanitary medical conditions created a suitable environment for diseases to spread. Primitive hygienic conditions, along with general lack of knowledge about proper medical care was evident in the German occupied Ober Ost.
Ultimately, a large scale sanitation program was put into effect. This program, named Santitätswesen (Medical Affairs), was responsible for ensuring proper hygienic procedures were being carried out in Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Quarantine centers were built, and diseased neighbourhoods were isolated from the rest of the population. Delousing stations were prevalent in the countryside and in cities to prevent the spread of typhoid spotted fever, with mass numbers of natives being forced to take part in this process at military bathhouses. A "sanitary police '' was also introduced to confirm the cleanliness of homes, and any home deemed unfit would be boarded up with a warning sign. Dogs and cats were also killed for fear of possible infection.
To avoid the spread of disease, prostitution became regulated. Prostitutes were required to register for a permit, and authorities demanded mandatory medical examinations for all prostitutes, estimating that seventy percent of prostitutes carried a venereal disease. Military brothels were introduced to combat disease; the city of Kowno emphasized proper educational use of contraceptives such as condoms, encouraged proper cleansing of the genital area after intercourse, and gave instructions on treatment in the case of infection.
The Russian casualties in the First World War are difficult to estimate, due to the poor quality of available statistics.
Cornish gives a total of 2,006,000 military dead (700,000 killed in action, 970,000 died of wounds, 155,000 died of disease and 181,000 died while POWs). This measure of Russian losses is similar to that of the British Empire, 5 % of the male population in the 15 to 49 age group. He says civilian casualties were five to six hundred thousand in the first two years, and were then not kept, so a total of over 1,500,000 is not unlikely. He has over five million men passing into captivity, the majority during 1915.
When Russia withdrew from the war, 2,500,000 Russian POWs were in German and Austrian hands. This by far exceeded the total number of prisoners of war (1,880,000) lost by the armies of Britain, France and Germany combined. Only the Austro - Hungarian Army, with 2,200,000 POWs, came even close.
The empire of Austria lost approximately 60 % of its territory as a result of the war, and evolved into a smaller state with a small homogeneous population of 6.5 million people. With the loss Vienna was now an imperial capital without an empire to support it. The states that were formed around Austria feared the return of the Austro - Hungarian Empire and put measures into place to prevent it from re-forming.
Czechoslovakia was created through the merging of the Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, previously under Austrian rule, united with Slovakia and Ruthenia, which were part of Hungary. Although these groups had many differences between them, they believed that together they would create a stronger state. The new country was a multi-ethnic state. The population consisted of Czechs (51 %), Slovaks (16 %), Germans (22 %), Hungarians (5 %) and Rusyns (4 %). Many of the Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians and Poles and some Slovaks, felt oppressed because the political elite did not generally allow political autonomy for minority ethnic groups. The state proclaimed the official ideology that there are no Czechs and Slovaks, but only one nation of Czechoslovaks (see Czechoslovakism), to the disagreement of Slovaks and other ethnic groups. Once a unified Czechoslovakia was restored after World War II the conflict between the Czechs and the Slovaks surfaced again.
After the war Hungary was severely disrupted by the loss of 72 % of its territory, 64 % of its population and most of its natural resources. The loss of territory was similar to that of Austria after the breaking up the Austria - Hungary territory. They lost the territories of Transylvania, Slovakia, Croatia, Slavonia, Syrmia, and Banat.
Italy incorporated the regions of Trieste and Tyrol from Austria.
The creation of a free and Independent Poland was one of Wilson 's fourteen points. At the end of the 18th century the state of Poland was broken apart by Prussia, Russia, and Austria. During the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, the Commission on Polish Affairs was created which recommended there be a passageway across West Prussia and Posen, in order to give Poland access to the Baltic through the port of Danzig at the mouth of the Vistula River. The creation of the state of Poland would cut off 1.5 million Germans in East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Poland also received Upper Silesia. British Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon proposed Poland 's eastern border with Russia. Neither the Soviet Russians nor the Polish were happy with the demarcation of the border.
The state of Romania was enlarged greatly after the war. As a result of the Paris peace conference Romania kept the Dobrudja and Transylvania. Between the states of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Romania an alliance named the Little Entente was formed. They worked together on matters of foreign policy in order to prevent a Habsburg restoration.
Initially Yugoslavia began as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. The State secured its territory at the Paris peace talks after the end of the war. The state suffered from many internal problems because of the many diverse cultures and languages within the state. Yugoslavia was divided on national, linguistic, economic, and religious lines.
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who wrote pink fluffy unicorns dancing on rainbows | Andrew Huang (musician) - wikipedia
Andrew Huang (born 8 April 1984) is a Canadian musician, video producer, and YouTube personality. He is best known for his "Song Challenge '' video series, which invites viewers to dare him in feats of musicianship, as well as for several viral videos featuring his music. Huang has released more than 50 albums of original music through DFTBA Records and independently, under his own name as well as under various pseudonyms.
As of April 2018, his YouTube videos have more than 167 million views with more than 1.3 million subscribers.
Huang was born and raised in Ottawa, Ontario. He obtained a Bachelor of Fine Arts at York University studying music and since then has been self - employed as a music producer and YouTube personality. He currently resides in Toronto with his wife.
After little success finding a part - time job during his university studies, Huang began auctioning off his songwriting skills to the highest bidder on eBay. The winning bidders received a custom song in any genre, written and recorded to their specifications.
In response to the success of the eBay auctions, in April 2004, Huang launched the website Songs To Wear Pants To, where visitors to the site could commission songs based on personal requests. The popularity of the site grew as Huang also began to take on commissions for free, providing the song idea interested him. The free songs often took on a comedic angle, either by poking fun at the person who requested the song, or simply because Huang would choose the most outrageous of submitted ideas to write about. What resulted was an eclectic archive of hip hop, classical, doo wop, electronic, folk, rock and heavy metal tunes performed entirely by Huang.
In October 2006, Huang started a channel on YouTube and began uploading fan - made music videos for the songs he created through Songs To Wear Pants To. Huang 's channel is known for a wide variety of musical genres, influences, and projects, often thematically focused. Huang 's videos often feature the artist himself, and frequently aim to showcase various elements of the song.
Huang is most widely known for his "Song Challenge '' series, an extension of the idea behind Songs To Wear Pants To, in which Huang takes on musical challenges submitted by viewers via social media. In 2013, he released a rap song titled Vass Tunga, written in five different languages.
Huang occasionally uses unusual instruments to record cover versions of songs. One of his early efforts was released a week before AMC 's Breaking Bad aired its series finale, featuring a cover of its unsettling title music using clandestine chemistry equipment. Other examples include a cover version of "99 Red Balloons '' recorded with balloons, and a cover of the Weeknd 's "Ca n't Feel My Face '', using dental instruments filmed in his dentist 's office.
Huang is currently signed to the YouTube network Fullscreen.
Huang has collaborated with various other YouTube personalities, most notably with Boyinaband and Hannah Hart. He provided instrumentation and songwriting for Hank Green and the Perfect Strangers ' Incongruent, and toured across the United States with the band. Huang produced the music for Rhett and Link 's "Geeks vs. Nerds '' music video in 2013.
In 2010, Huang teamed up with musician and internet personality Gunnarolla to produce videos and music, including the popular series We Are What You Tweet and New State Plates. The pair have toured North America, Australia, and New Zealand together. Huang and Gunnarolla later created electropop music duo Dreamz. As a duo, they entered CBC Music 's Searchlight contest under this new name, and their debut single "Come On '' was selected as CBC Here and Now 's Song of the Week on March 11, 2013. Dreamz reached the Top 16 of the contest representing Toronto.
In 2008, Huang entered a contest run by American Express and won a chance to develop a music project with Emily Haines, lead vocalist for Canadian indie band Metric. He created an interactive installation featuring a series of videos that visitors could use to create ambient music. The piece was exhibited at the Four Seasons Centre in Toronto during November 2011.
Huang composed the anthem for WWF - Canada 's official Earth Hour in 2012 using lyrics from user - submitted suggestions, taking the title of "Canada 's first official crowd sourced song ''. Huang later performed the song live during Toronto 's 2012 and 2013 Earth Day celebrations.
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where does the last name nieves come from | Nieves - wikipedia
Nieves is a Spanish surname and a female given name from the title of the Virgin Mary Nuestra Señora de las Nieves meaning "Our Lady of the Snows ''. The Portuguese variant is Neves. The surname is particularly common in Puerto Rico. It is also common in the Canary Islands and the autonomous region of Galicia, Spain.
Notable people with the surname Nieves:
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what are the names of the hotels on the las vegas strip | List of Las Vegas Strip hotels - wikipedia
The following is a list of hotels located on the Las Vegas Strip.
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channel that separates isle of wight from mainland | Isle of Wight - wikipedia
The Isle of Wight (/ waɪt /; also referred to informally as The Island or abbreviated to IoW) is a county and the largest and second-most populous island in England. It is in the English Channel, about 2 miles (3.2 km) off the coast of Hampshire, separated by the Solent. The island has resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times, and is known for its mild climate, coastal scenery, and verdant landscape of fields, downland and chines.
The island has been home to the poets Swinburne and Tennyson and to Queen Victoria, who built her much - loved summer residence and final home Osborne House at East Cowes. It has a maritime and industrial tradition including boat - building, sail - making, the manufacture of flying boats, the hovercraft, and Britain 's space rockets. The island hosts annual music festivals including the Isle of Wight Festival, which in 1970 was the largest rock music event ever held. It has well - conserved wildlife and some of the richest cliffs and quarries for dinosaur fossils in Europe.
The isle was owned by a Norman family until 1293 and was earlier a kingdom in its own right. The island has played an important part in the defence of the ports of Southampton and Portsmouth, and been near the front - line of conflicts through the ages, including the Spanish Armada and the Battle of Britain. Rural for most of its history, its Victorian fashionability and the growing affordability of holidays led to significant urban development during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Historically part of Hampshire, the island became a separate administrative county in 1890. It continued to share the Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire until 1974, when it was made its own ceremonial county. Apart from a shared police force, there is now no administrative link with Hampshire, although a combined local authority with Portsmouth and Southampton was considered, this is now unlikely to proceed. Until 1995 the island had a governor.
The quickest public transport link to the mainland is the hovercraft from Ryde to Southsea; three ferry and two catamaran services cross the Solent to Southampton, Lymington and Portsmouth.
During the last Ice Age, sea levels were lower and the Solent was part of a river flowing south east from current day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel. As sea levels rose, the river valley became flooded, and the chalk ridge line west of the Needles breached to form the island. The Isle of Wight is first mentioned in writing in Geography by Ptolemy.
Bronze Age Britain had large reserves of tin in the areas of Cornwall and Devon and tin is necessary to smelt bronze. At that time the sea level was much lower and carts of tin were brought across the Solent at low tide for export, possibly on the Ferriby Boats. Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin, as a part of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BC, forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. During Iron Age Britain, the Late Iron Age, the Isle of Wight would appear to have been occupied by the Celtic tribe, the Durotriges - as attested by finds of their coins, for example, the South Wight Hoard, and the Shalfleet Hoard. South eastern Britain experienced significant immigration that is reflected in the genetic makeup of the current residents. As the Iron Age began the value of tin likely dropped sharply and this likely greatly changed the economy of the Isle of Wight. Trade however continued as evidenced by the remarkable local abundance of European Iron Age coins.
Starting in AD 449 (according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicles) the 5th and 6th centuries saw groups of Germanic speaking peoples from Northern Europe crossing the English Channel and setting up home. Bede 's (731) Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum identifies three separate groups of invaders: of these, the Jutes from Denmark settled the Isle of Wight and Kent. From then onwards, there are indications that the island had wide trading links, with a port at Bouldnor, evidence of Bronze Age tin trading, and finds of Late Iron Age coins.
Julius Caesar reported that the Belgae took the Isle of Wight in about 85 BC, and recognised the culture of this general region as "Belgic '', but made no reference to Vectis. The Roman historian Suetonius mentions that the island was captured by the commander Vespasian. The Romans built no towns or roads on the island, but the remains of at least seven Roman villas have been found, indicating the prosperity of local agriculture. First - century exports were principally hides, slaves, hunting dogs, grain, cattle, silver, gold, and iron. Ferriby Boats and later Blackfriars Ships likely were important to the local economy.
During the Dark Ages the island was settled by Jutes as the pagan kingdom of Wihtwara under King Arwald. In 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla, who tried to replace the inhabitants with his own followers. In 686 Arwald was defeated and the island became the last part of English lands to be converted to Christianity, added to Wessex and then becoming part of England under King Alfred the Great, included within the shire of Hampshire.
It suffered especially from Viking raids, and was often used as a winter base by Viking raiders when they were unable to reach Normandy. Later, both Earl Tostig and his brother Harold Godwinson (who became King Harold II) held manors on the island.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight; the island was given by William the Conqueror to his kinsman William FitzOsbern. Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were then founded. Allegiance was sworn to FitzOsbern rather than the king; the Lordship was subsequently granted to the de Redvers family by Henry I, after his succession in 1100.
For nearly 200 years the island was a semi-independent feudal fiefdom, with the de Redvers family ruling from Carisbrooke. The final private owner was the Countess Isabella de Fortibus, who, on her deathbed in 1293, was persuaded to sell it to Edward I. Thereafter the island was under control of the English Crown and its Lordship a royal appointment.
The island continued to be attacked from the continent: it was raided in 1374 by the fleet of Castile, and in 1377 by French raiders who burned several towns, including Newtown, and laid siege to Carisbrooke Castle before they were defeated.
Under Henry VIII, who developed the Royal Navy and its Portsmouth base, the island was fortified at Yarmouth, Cowes, East Cowes, and Sandown.
The French invasion on 21 July 1545 (famous for the sinking of the Mary Rose on the 19th) was repulsed by local militia.
During the English Civil War, King Charles fled to the Isle of Wight, believing he would receive sympathy from the governor Robert Hammond, but Hammond imprisoned the king in Carisbrooke Castle.
During the Seven Years ' War, the island was used as a staging post for British troops departing on expeditions against the French coast, such as the Raid on Rochefort. During 1759, with a planned French invasion imminent, a large force of soldiers was stationed there. The French called off their invasion following the Battle of Quiberon Bay.
In the 1860s, what remains in real terms the most expensive ever government spending project saw fortifications built on the island and in the Solent, as well as elsewhere along the south coast, including the Palmerston Forts, The Needles Battery and Fort Victoria, because of fears about possible French invasion.
The future Queen Victoria spent childhood holidays on the island and became fond of it. When queen she made Osborne House her winter home, and so the island became a fashionable holiday resort, including for Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Julia Margaret Cameron, and Charles Dickens (who wrote much of David Copperfield there), as well as the French painter Berthe Morisot and members of European royalty. Until then, the island had been rural, with most people employed in farming, fishing or boat - building. The boom in tourism, spurred by growing wealth and leisure time, and by Victoria 's example, led to significant urban development of the island 's coastal resorts.
The world 's first radio station was set up by Marconi in 1897, during her reign, at the Needles Battery, at the western tip of the island. In 1898 the first paid wireless telegram (called a "Marconigram '') was sent from this station, and the island was for some time the home of the National Wireless Museum, near Ryde.
Queen Victoria died at Osborne House on 22 January 1901, aged 81.
During the Second World War the island was frequently bombed. With its proximity to German - occupied France, the island hosted observation stations and transmitters, as well as the RAF radar station at Ventnor. It was the starting - point for one of the earlier Operation Pluto pipelines to feed fuel to Europe after the Normandy landings.
The Needles Battery was used to develop and test the Black Arrow and Black Knight space rockets, which were subsequently launched from Woomera, Australia.
The Isle of Wight Festival was a very large rock festival that took place near Afton Down, West Wight in 1970, following two smaller concerts in 1968 and 1969. The 1970 show was notable both as one of the last public performances by Jimi Hendrix and for the number of attendees, reaching by some estimates 600,000. The festival was revived in 2002 in a different format, and is now an annual event.
The oldest records that give a name for the Isle of Wight are from the Roman Empire: it was then called Vectis or Vecta in Latin, Iktis or Ouiktis in Greek. From the Anglo - Saxon period Latin Vecta, Old English Wiht and Old Welsh forms Gueid and Guith are recorded. In Domesday Book it is Wit; the modern Welsh name is Ynys Wyth (ynys = island). These are all variant forms of the same name, possibly Celtic in origin. It may mean "place of the division '', because the island divides the two arms of the Solent.
The Isle of Wight is situated between the Solent and the English Channel, is roughly rhomboid in shape, and covers an area of 150 sq mi (380 km). Slightly more than half, mainly in the west, is designated as the Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The island has 100 sq mi (258 km) of farmland, 20 sq mi (52 km) of developed areas, and 57 miles (92 km) of coastline. Its landscapes are diverse, leading to its oft - quoted description as "England in miniature ''.
West Wight is predominantly rural, with dramatic coastlines dominated by the chalk downland ridge, running across the whole island and ending in the Needles stacks. The southwestern quarter is commonly referred to as the Back of the Wight, and has a unique character. The highest point on the island is St Boniface Down in the south east, which at 791 feet (241 m) is a marilyn. The most notable habitats on the rest of the island are probably the soft cliffs and sea ledges, which are scenic features, important for wildlife, and internationally protected.
The island has three principal rivers. The River Medina flows north into the Solent, the Eastern Yar flows roughly northeast to Bembridge Harbour, and the Western Yar flows the short distance from Freshwater Bay to a relatively large estuary at Yarmouth. Without human intervention the sea might well have split the island into three: at the west end where a bank of pebbles separates Freshwater Bay from the marshy backwaters of the Western Yar east of Freshwater, and at the east end where a thin strip of land separates Sandown Bay from the marshy Eastern Yar basin.
The Undercliff between St Catherine 's Point and Bonchurch is the largest area of landslip morphology in western Europe.
The north coast is unusual in having four high tides each day, with a double high tide every twelve and a half hours. This arises because the western Solent is narrower than the eastern; the initial tide of water flowing from the west starts to ebb before the stronger flow around the south of the island returns through the eastern Solent to create a second high water.
The Isle of Wight is made up of a variety of rock types dating from early Cretaceous (around 127 million years ago) to the middle of the Palaeogene (around 30 million years ago). The geological structure is dominated by a large monocline which causes a marked change in age of strata from the northern younger Tertiary beds to the older Cretaceous beds of the south. This gives rise to a dip of almost 90 degrees in the chalk beds, seen best at the Needles.
The northern half of the island is mainly composed of clays, with the southern half formed of the chalk of the central east -- west downs, as well as Upper and Lower Greensands and Wealden strata. These strata continue west from the island across the Solent into Dorset, forming the basin of Poole Harbour (Tertiary) and the Isle of Purbeck (Cretaceous) respectively. The chalky ridges of Wight and Purbeck were a single formation before they were breached by waters from the River Frome during the last ice age, forming the Solent and turning Wight into an island. The Needles, along with Old Harry Rocks on Purbeck, represent the edges of this breach.
All the rocks found on the island are sedimentary, such as limestones, mudstones and sandstones. They are rich in fossils; many can be seen exposed on beaches as the cliffs erode. Lignitic coal is present in small quantities within seams, and can be seen on the cliffs and shore at Whitecliff Bay. Fossilised molluscs have been found there, and also on the northern coast along with fossilised crocodiles, turtles and mammal bones; the youngest date back to around 30 million years ago.
The island is one of the most important areas in Europe for dinosaur fossils. The eroding cliffs often reveal previously hidden remains, particularly along the Back of the Wight. Dinosaur bones and fossilised footprints can be seen in and on the rocks exposed around the island 's beaches, especially at Yaverland and Compton Bay. As a result, the island has been nicknamed "Dinosaur Island '' and Dinosaur Isle was established in 2001.
The area was affected by sea level changes during the repeated Quaternary glaciations. The island probably became separated from the mainland about 125,000 years ago, during the Ipswichian interglacial.
Ordnance Survey map of the island
Geological map of the island
Blackgang Chine, circa 1910
A view of the Needles and Alum Bay
Like the rest of the UK, the island has an oceanic climate, but is somewhat milder and sunnier, which makes it a holiday destination. It also has a longer growing season. Lower Ventnor and the neighbouring Undercliff have a particular microclimate, because of their sheltered position south of the downs. The island enjoys 1,800 -- 2,100 hours of sunshine a year. Some years have almost no snow in winter, and only a few days of hard frost. The island is in Hardiness zone 9.
The Isle of Wight is one of the few places in England where the red squirrel is still flourishing; no grey squirrels are to be found. There are occasional sightings of wild deer, and there is a colony of wild goats on Ventnor 's downs. Protected species such as the dormouse and rare bats can be found. The Glanville fritillary butterfly 's distribution in the United Kingdom is largely restricted to the edges of the island 's crumbling cliffs.
A competition in 2002 named the pyramidal orchid as the Isle of Wight 's county flower.
The island has a single Member of Parliament and 138,300 permanent residents in 2011, being one of the most populated constituencies in the United Kingdom (more than 50 % above the English average). However, in 2011 the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act was to have changed this, as part of the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, but this was deferred to no earlier than October 2018 by the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013. Thus the single constituency remained for the 2015 and 2017 general elections. However, two separate East and West constituencies are proposed for the island under the 2018 review now under way.
The Isle of Wight is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county. Since the abolition of its two borough councils and restructuring of the county council as Isle of Wight Council in 1995, it has been a unitary authority.
Elections in the constituency have traditionally been a battle between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. Andrew Turner of the Conservative Party gained the seat from Peter Brand of the Lib Dems at the 2001 general election. Since 2009, Turner was embroiled in controversy over his expenses, health, and relationships with colleagues, with local Conservatives having tried but failed to remove him in the runup to the 2015 general election. He stood down prior to the 2017 snap general election, and the new Conservative Party candidate Bob Seely was elected with a majority of 21,069 votes.
At the Isle of Wight Council election of 2013, the Conservatives lost the majority which they had held since 2005 to the Island Independents, with Island Independent councillors holding 16 of the 40 seats, and a further five councillors sitting as independents outside the group. The Conservatives regained control, winning 25 seats, at the 2017 local election.
There have been small regionalist movements: the Vectis National Party and the Isle of Wight Party; but they have attracted little support at elections.
The local accent is similar to the traditional dialect of Hampshire, featuring the dropping of some consonants and an emphasis on longer vowels. It is similar to the West Country dialects heard in South West England, but less pronounced.
The island has its own local and regional words. Some, such as nipper / nips (a young male person), are still commonly used and are shared with neighbouring areas of the mainland. A few are unique to the island, for example overner and caulkhead (see below). Others are more obscure and now used mainly for comic emphasis, such as mallishag (meaning "caterpillar ''), gurt meaning "large '', nammit (a mid-morning snack) and gallybagger ("scarecrow '', and now the name of a local cheese).
There remains occasional confusion between the Isle of Wight as a county and its former position within Hampshire. The island was regarded and administered as a part of Hampshire until 1890, when its distinct identity was recognised with the formation of Isle of Wight County Council (see also Politics of the Isle of Wight). However, it remained a part of Hampshire until the local government reforms of 1974 when it became a full ceremonial county with its own Lord Lieutenant.
In January 2009, the first general flag for the county was accepted by the Flag Institute.
Island residents are sometimes referred to as "Vectensians '', "Vectians '' or, if born on the island, "caulkheads ''. One theory is that this last comes from the once prevalent local industry of caulking or sealing wooden boats; the term became attached to islanders either because they were so employed, or as a derisory term for perceived unintelligent labourers from elsewhere. The term "overner '' is used for island residents originating from the mainland (an abbreviated form of "overlander '', which is an archaic term for "outsider '' still found in parts of Australia).
Residents refer to the island as "The Island '', as did Jane Austen in Mansfield Park, and sometimes to the UK mainland as "North Island ''.
To promote the island 's identity and culture, the High Sheriff Robin Courage founded an Isle of Wight Day; the first was held on Saturday 24 September 2016.
The island is said to be the most haunted in the world, sometimes referred to as "Ghost Island ''. Notable claimed hauntings include God 's Providence House in Newport (now a tea room), Appuldurcombe House, and the remains of Knighton Gorges.
The island is well known for its cycling, and it was included within Lonely Planet 's Best in Travel Guide (2010) top ten cycling locations. The island also hosts events such as the Isle of Wight Randonnée and the Isle of Wight Cycling Festival each year. A popular cycling track is the Sunshine Trail which starts in Newport and ends in Sandown.
There are rowing clubs at Newport, Ryde and Shanklin, all members of the Hants and Dorset rowing association.
There is a long tradition of rowing around the island dating back to the 1880s.
In May 1999 a group of local women made history by becoming the first ladies ' crew to row around the island, in ten hours and twenty minutes. Rowers from Ryde Rowing Club have rowed around the island several times since 1880. The fours record was set 16 August 1995 at 7 hours 54 minutes.
Two rowers from Southampton ARC (Chris Bennett and Roger Slaymaker) set the two - man record in July 2003 at 8 hours 34 minutes, and in 2005 Gus McKechnie of Coalporters Rowing Club became the first adaptive rower to row around, completing a clockwise row.
The route around the island is about 60 miles (97 km) and usually rowed anticlockwise. Even in good conditions, it includes a number of significant obstacles such as the Needles and the overfalls at St Catherine 's Point. The traditional start and finish were at Ryde Rowing Club; however, other starts have been chosen in recent years to give a tidal advantage.
Cowes is a centre for sailing, hosting several racing regattas. Cowes Week is the longest - running regular regatta in the world, with over 1,000 yachts and 8,500 competitors taking part in over 50 classes of racing. In 1851 the first America 's Cup race was around the island. Other major sailing events hosted in Cowes include the Fastnet race, the Round the Island Race, the Admiral 's Cup, and the Commodore 's Cup.
There are two main trampoline clubs on the island, in Freshwater and Newport, competing at regional, national and international grades.
The Isle of Wight Marathon is the United Kingdom 's oldest continuously held marathon, having been run every year since 1957. Since 2013 the course has started and finished in Cowes, heading out to the west of the island and passing through Gurnard, Rew Street, Porchfield, Shalfleet, Yarmouth, Afton, Willmingham, Thorley, Wellow, Shalfleet, Porchfield, and Northwood. It is an undulating course with a total climb of 1,043 feet (318 m).
The island is home to the Wightlink Warriors speedway team, who compete in the sport 's third division, the National League.
Following an amalgamation of local hockey clubs in 2011, the Isle of Wight Hockey Club now runs two men 's senior and two ladies ' senior teams. These compete at a range of levels in the Hampshire open leagues.
The now - disbanded Ryde Sports F.C., founded in 1888, was one of the eight founder members of the Hampshire League in 1896. There are several non-league clubs such as Newport (IW) F.C. There is an Isle of Wight Saturday Football League with two divisions and two reserve team leagues, and a rugby union club.
The Isle of Wight is the 39th official county in English cricket, and the Isle of Wight Cricket Board organises a league of local clubs. Ventnor Cricket Club competes in the Southern Premier League, and has won the Second Division several times. Newclose County Cricket Ground near Newport opened officially in 2009 but with its first match held on 6 September 2008. The island has produced some notable cricketers, such as Danny Briggs, who plays county cricket for Hampshire.
The Isle of Wight competes in the biennial Island Games, which it hosted in 1993 and again in 2011.
The annual Isle of Wight International Scooter Rally has since 1980 met on the August Bank Holiday. This is now one of the biggest scooter rallies in the world, attracting between four and seven thousand participants.
The island is home to the Isle of Wight Festival and until 2016, Bestival before it was relocated to Lulworth Estate in Dorset. In 1970, the festival was headlined by Jimi Hendrix attracting an audience of 600,000, some six times the local population at the time. It is the home of the band The Bees, Trixie 's Big Red Motorbike.
The table below shows the regional gross value (in millions of pounds) added by the Isle of Wight economy, at current prices, compiled by the Office for National Statistics.
According to the 2011 census, the island 's population of 138,625 lives in 61,085 households, giving an average household size of 2.27 people.
41 % of households own their home outright and a further 29 % own with a mortgage, so in total 70 % of households are owned (compared to 68 % for South East England).
Compared to South East England, the island has fewer children (19 % aged 0 -- 17 against 22 % for the South East) and more elderly (24 % aged 65 + against 16 %), giving an average age of 44 years for an island resident compared to 40 in South East England.
The largest industry is tourism, but the island also has a strong agricultural heritage, including sheep and dairy farming and arable crops. Traditional agricultural commodities are more difficult to market off the island because of transport costs, but local farmers have succeeded in exploiting some specialist markets, with the higher price of such products absorbing the transport costs. One of the most successful agricultural sectors is now the growing of crops under cover, particularly salad crops including tomatoes and cucumbers. The island has a warmer climate and a longer growing season than much of the United Kingdom. Garlic has been successfully grown in Newchurch for many years, and is even exported to France. This has led to the establishment of an annual Garlic Festival at Newchurch, which is one of the largest events of the local calendar. A favourable climate supports two vineyards, including one of the oldest in the British Isles at Adgestone. Lavender is grown for its oil. The largest agricultural sector has been dairying, but due to low milk prices and strict legislation for UK milk producers, the dairy industry has been in decline: there were nearly 150 producers in the mid-1980s, but now just 24.
Maritime industries, especially the making of sailcloth and boat building, have long been associated with the island, although this has diminished somewhat in recent years. GKN operates what began as the British Hovercraft Corporation, a subsidiary of (and known latterly as) Westland Aircraft, although they have reduced the extent of plant and workforce and sold the main site. Previously it had been the independent company Saunders - Roe, one of the island 's most notable historic firms that produced many flying boats and the world 's first hovercraft.
Another manufacturing activity is in composite materials, used by boat - builders and the wind turbine manufacturer Vestas, which has a wind turbine blade factory and testing facilities in West Medina Mills and East Cowes.
Bembridge Airfield is the home of Britten - Norman, manufacturers of the Islander and Trislander aircraft. This is shortly to become the site of the European assembly line for Cirrus light aircraft. The Norman Aeroplane Company is a smaller aircraft manufacturing company operating in Sandown. There have been three other firms that built planes on the island.
In 2005, Northern Petroleum began exploratory drilling for oil at its Sandhills - 2 borehole at Porchfield, but ceased operations in October that year after failing to find significant reserves.
There are three breweries on the island. Goddards Brewery in Ryde opened in 1993. David Yates, who was head brewer of the Island Brewery, started brewing as Yates Brewery at the Inn at St Lawrence in 2000.
Ventnor Brewery, which closed in 2009, was the last incarnation of Burt 's Brewery, brewing since the 1840s in Ventnor. Until the 1960s most pubs were owned by Mews Brewery, situated in Newport near the old railway station, but it closed and the pubs were taken over by Strong 's, and then by Whitbread. By some accounts Mews beer was apt to be rather cloudy and dark. In the 19th century they pioneered the use of screw top cans for export to British India.
The island 's heritage is a major asset that has for many years supported its tourist economy. Holidays focused on natural heritage, including wildlife and geology, are becoming an alternative to the traditional British seaside holiday, which went into decline in the second half of the 20th century due to the increased affordability of foreign holidays. The island is still an important destination for coach tours from other parts of the United Kingdom.
Tourism is still the largest industry, and most island towns and villages offer hotels, hostels and camping sites. In 1999, it hosted 2.7 million visitors, with 1.5 million staying overnight, and 1.2 million day visits; only 150,000 of these were from abroad. Between 1993 and 2000, visits increased at an average rate of 3 % per year.
At the turn of the 19th century the island had ten pleasure piers, including two at Ryde and a "chain pier '' at Seaview. The Victoria Pier in Cowes succeeded the earlier Royal Pier but was itself removed in 1960. The piers at Ryde, Seaview, Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor originally served a coastal steamer service that operated from Southsea on the mainland. The piers at Seaview, Shanklin, Ventnor and Alum Bay were all destroyed by various storms during the 20th century; only the railway pier at Ryde and the piers at Sandown, Totland Bay (currently closed to the public) and Yarmouth survive.
Blackgang Chine is the oldest theme park in Britain, opened in 1843. The skeleton of a dead whale that its founder Alexander Dabell found in 1844 is still on display.
As well as its more traditional attractions, the island is often host to walking or cycling holidays through the attractive scenery. An annual walking festival has attracted considerable interest. The 70 miles (113 km) Isle of Wight Coastal Path follows the coastline as far as possible, deviating onto roads where the route along the coast is impassable.
A major contributor to the local economy is sailing and marine - related tourism.
Summer Camp at Camp Beaumont is an attraction at the old Bembridge School site.
The Isle of Wight has 489 miles (787 km) of roadway. It does not have a motorway, although there is a short stretch of dual carriageway towards the north of Newport near the hospital and prison.
A comprehensive bus network operated by Southern Vectis links most settlements, with Newport as its central hub.
Journeys away from the island involve a ferry journey. Car ferry and passenger catamaran services are run by Wightlink and Red Funnel, and a hovercraft passenger service (the only such remaining in the world) by Hovertravel.
The island formerly had its own railway network of over 55 miles (89 km), but only one line remains in regular use. The Island Line is part of the United Kingdom 's National Rail network, running a little under 9 miles (14 km) from Shanklin to Ryde Pier Head, where there is a connecting ferry service to Portsmouth Harbour station on the mainland network. The line was opened by the Isle of Wight Railway in 1864, and from 1996 to 2007 was run by the smallest train operating company on the network, Island Line Trains. It is notable for utilising old ex-London Underground rolling stock, due to the small size of its tunnels and unmodernised signalling. Branching off the Island Line at Smallbrook Junction is the heritage Isle of Wight Steam Railway, which runs for 5 ⁄ miles (8.9 km) to the outskirts of Wootton on the former line to Newport.
There are two airfields for general aviation, Isle of Wight Airport at Sandown and Bembridge Airport.
The island has over 200 miles (322 km) of cycleways, many of which can be enjoyed off - road. The principal trails are:
The main local newspaper is the Isle of Wight County Press, published most Fridays.
The island a news website, Island Echo, which was launched in May 2012.
The island has one local commercial radio station: Isle of Wight Radio has broadcast in the medium - wave band since 1990 and on 107.0 MHz (with three smaller transmitters on 102.0 MHz) FM since 1998, as well as streaming on the Internet. The island is also covered by a number of local stations on the mainland, including the BBC station BBC Radio Solent broadcast from Southampton.
The island 's not - for - profit community radio station Angel Radio opened in 2007. Angel Radio began broadcasting on 91.5 MHz from studios in Cowes and a transmitter near Newport.
Local online radio station Vectis Radio has broadcast since 2010, broadcasting from the Riverside Centre in Newport.
Other online news sources for the Isle of Wight include On the Wight.
The island has had community television stations in the past, first TV12 and then Solent TV from 2002 until its closure on 24 May 2007. iWight.tv is a local internet video news channel.
The Isle of Wight is part of the BBC South region and the ITV Meridian region.
Important broadcasting infrastructure includes Chillerton Down transmitting station with a mast that is the tallest structure on the island, and Rowridge transmitting station, which broadcasts the main television signal both locally and for most of Hampshire and parts of Dorset and West Sussex.
The Isle of Wight is near the densely populated south of England, yet separated from the mainland. This position led to it hosting three prisons: Albany, Camp Hill and Parkhurst, all located outside Newport near the main road to Cowes. Albany and Parkhurst were among the few Category A prisons in the UK until they were downgraded in the 1990s. The downgrading of Parkhurst was precipitated by a major escape: three prisoners (two murderers and a blackmailer) escaped from the prison on 3 January 1995 for four days, before being recaptured. Parkhurst enjoyed notoriety as one of the toughest jails in the United Kingdom, and housed many notable inmates including the Yorkshire Ripper Peter Sutcliffe, New Zealand drug lord Terry Clark and the Kray twins.
Camp Hill is located adjacent but to the west of Albany and Parkhurst, on the very edge of Parkhurst Forest, having been converted first to a borstal and later to a Category C prison. It was built on the site of an army camp (both Albany and Parkhurst were barracks); there is a small estate of tree - lined roads with the former officers ' quarters (now privately owned) to the south and east. Camp Hill closed as a prison in March 2013.
The management of all three prisons was merged into a single administration, under HMP Isle of Wight in April 2009.
There are 69 local education authority - maintained schools on the Isle of Wight, and two independent schools. As a rural community, many of these are small and with fewer pupils than in urban areas. The Isle of Wight College is located on the outskirts of Newport.
From September 2010, there was a transition period from the three - tier system of primary, middle and high schools to the two - tier system that is usual in England. Some schools have now closed, such as Chale C.E. Primary. Others have become "federated '', such as Brading C.E. Primary and St Helen 's Primary. Christ the King College started as two "middle schools, '' Trinity Middle School and Archbishop King Catholic Middle School, but has now been converted into a dual - faith secondary school and sixth form.
Since September 2011 five new secondary schools, with an age range of 11 to 18 years, replaced the island 's high schools (as a part of the previous three - tier system).
Notable residents have included:
The Isle of Wight has given names to many parts of former colonies, most notably Isle of Wight County in Virginia founded by settlers from the island in the 17th century. Its county seat is a town named Isle of Wight.
Other notable examples include:
The Isle of Wight was:
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which 2.4 ghz channels are safe to use on the north american continent | List of WLAN channels - wikipedia
Wireless local area network channels using IEEE 802.11 protocols are sold mostly under the trademark WiFi.
The 802.11 workgroup has documented use in five distinct frequency ranges: 2.4 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 4.9 GHz, 5 GHz, and 5.9 GHz bands. Each range is divided into a multitude of channels. Countries apply their own regulations to the allowable channels, allowed users and maximum power levels within these frequency ranges.
Fourteen channels are designated in the 2.4 GHz range, spaced 5 MHz apart from each other except for a 12 MHz space before channel 14.
For 802.11 g / n, it is not possible to guarantee orthogonal frequency - division multiplexing (OFDM) operation, thus affecting the number of possible non-overlapping channels depending on radio operation.
As the protocol requires 16.25 to 22 MHz of channel separation (as shown above), adjacent channels overlap and will interfere with each other. Leaving three or four channels clear between used channels is recommended to avoid interference. The exact spacing required depends on the protocol and data rate selected as well as the electromagnetic environment where the equipment is used.
When two or more 802.11 b transmitters are operated in the same airspace, their signals must be attenuated by - 50 dBr and / or separated by 22 MHz to prevent interference. This is because the DSSS algorithm transmits data logarithmically along a 20 MHz bandwidth. The remaining 2 MHz gap is used as a guard band to allow sufficient attenuation along the edge channels.
Note: The 40 MHz bands in the diagram above are labelled with their centre channel numbers, but the management interface of many Wi - Fi devices labels one of these bands with the centre channel of one of the 20 MHz bands it overlaps plus an Up or Down notation to specify the other half of the band. For example, channel 3 in the diagram is called channel 1 + Upper or Channel 5 + Lower, and Channel 11 in the diagram is called Channel 9 + Upper or Channel 13 + Lower.
Countries apply their own regulations to the allowable channels, allowed users and maximum power levels within these frequency ranges. Network operators should consult their local authorities as these regulations may be out of date as they are subject to change at any time. Most of the world will allow the first thirteen channels in the spectrum.
^ B In the U.S., 802.11 operation in the channels 12 and 13 is allowed under low powered conditions. The 2.4 GHz Part 15 band in the U.S. allows spread - spectrum operation as long as the 50 dB bandwidth of the signal is within the range of 2,400 -- 2,483.5 MHz which wholly encompasses both channels 12 and 13. A Federal Communications Commission (FCC) document clarifies that only channel 14 is forbidden and that low - power transmitters with low - gain antennas may operate legally in channels 12 and 13. Channels 12 and 13, however, are not normally used in order to avoid any potential interference in the adjacent restricted frequency band, 2,483.5 -- 2,500 MHz, which is subject to strict emission limits set out in 47 CFR § 15.205. Per recent FCC Order 16 - 181, "an authorized access point device can only operate in the 2483.5 -- 2495 MHz band when it is operating under the control of a Globalstar Network Operating Center and that a client device can only operate in the 2483.5 -- 2495 MHz band when it is operating under the control of an authorized access point ''
In Canada, 12 channels are available for use, 11 of which at full power and the other (channel 12) is transmit power limited. Few devices, however, have a method to enable a lower powered channel 12.
^ C Channel 14 is valid only for DSSS and CCK modes (Clause 18 a.k.a. 802.11 b) in Japan. OFDM (i.e., 802.11 g) may not be used. (IEEE 802.11 - 2007 § 19.4. 2)
Except where noted, all information taken from Annex J of IEEE 802.11 y - 2008
This range is documented as only being allowed as a licensed band in the United States. Please see IEEE 802.11 y for details.
Countries apply their own regulations to the allowable channels, allowed users and maximum power levels within these frequency ranges.
A 40 MHz band is available from 3655 -- 3695 MHz. It may be divided into eight 5 MHz channels, four 10 MHz channels, or two 20 MHz channels, as follows:
50 MHz of spectrum from 4940 MHz to 4990 MHz (WLAN channels 20 -- 26) are in use by public safety entities in the United States. Within this spectrum space, there are two non-overlapping channels allocated, both with a width of 20 MHz. The most commonly used channels are 22 and 26.
Countries apply their own regulations to the allowable channels, allowed users and maximum power levels within these frequency ranges. Network operators should consult their local authorities as these regulations may be out of date as they are subject to change at any time.
European standard EN 301 893 covers 5.15 -- 5.725 GHz operation, and v1. 8.1 is in force.
In 2007, the FCC (United States) began requiring that devices operating on 5.250 -- 5.350 GHz and 5.470 -- 5.725 GHz must employ dynamic frequency selection (DFS) and transmit power control (TPC) capabilities. This is to avoid interference with weather - radar and military applications. In 2010, the FCC further clarified the use of channels in the 5.470 -- 5.725 GHz band to avoid interference with TDWR weather radar systems. In FCC parlance, these restrictions are now referred to collectively as the "Old Rules ''. On 10 June 2015, the FCC approved a "new '' ruleset for 5 GHz device operation (called the "New Rules ''), which adds 160 and 80 MHz channel identifiers, and re-enables previously prohibited DFS channels, in Publication Number 905462. This FCC publication eliminates the ability for manufacturers to have devices approved or modified under the Old Rules in phases; the New Rules apply in all circumstances as of 2 June 2016.
Germany requires DFS and TPC capabilities on 5.250 -- 5.350 GHz and 5.470 -- 5.725 GHz as well; in addition, the frequency range 5.150 -- 5.350 GHz is allowed only for indoor use, leaving only 5.470 -- 5.725 GHz for outdoor and indoor use.
Since this is the German implementation of EU Rule 2005 / 513 / EC, similar regulations must be expected throughout the European Union.
Austria adopted Decision 2005 / 513 / EC directly into national law. The same restrictions as in Germany apply, only 5.470 -- 5.725 GHz is allowed to be used outdoor and indoor.
South Africa simply copied the European regulations.
Japan 's use of 10 and 20 MHz - wide 5 GHz wireless channels is codified by Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) document STD - T71, Broadband Mobile Access Communication System (CSMA). Additional rule specifications relating to 40, 80, and 160 MHz channel allocation has been taken on by Japan 's Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC).
In Brazil, the TPC use in 5.150 -- 5.725 GHz band is optional. DFS is required only in the 5.470 -- 5.725 GHz band.
As of 2015, some of the Australian channels require DFS to be utilised (a significant change from the 2000 regulations, which allowed lower power operation without DFS). As per AS / NZS 4268 B1 and B2, transmitters designed to operate in any part of 5250 -- 5350 GHz and 5470 -- 5725 GHz bands shall implement DFS in accordance with sections 4.7 and 5.3. 8 and Annex D of ETSI EN 301 893 or alternatively in accordance with FCC paragraph 15.407 (h) (2). Also as per AS / NZS 4268 B3 and B4, transmitters designed to operate in any part of 5250 -- 5350 MHz and 5470 -- 5725 MHz bands shall implement TPC in accordance with sections 4.4 and 5.3. 4 of ETSI EN 301 893 or alternatively in accordance with FCC paragraph 15.407 (h) (1).
New Zealand regulation differs from Australian.
Singapore requires DFS and TPC capabilities on 5.250 -- 5.350 GHz above 100 mW (e.i.r.p.) and below or equal to 200 mW (e.i.r.p.), and requires DFS capability on 5.250 -- 5.350 GHz below or equal to 100 mW (e.i.r.p.). In addition, 5.150 -- 5.350 GHz is allowed only for indoor use.
China MIIT expanded allowed channels as of 31 December 2012 to add UNII - 1, 5150 ~ 5250 GHz, UNII - 2, 5250 ~ 5350 GHz (DFS / TPC), similar to European standards EN 301.893 V1. 7.1.
The 802.11 p amendment, also known as Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE), published on 15 July 2010, specifies WLAN in the licensed Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) band of 5.9 GHz (5.850 -- 5.925 GHz). The 802.11 p standard is intended for use in vehicular communication systems.
The 802.11 ad / ay, also known as WiGig. This operates in 60 GHz ISM band.
802.11 ah operates in sub-gigahertz unlicensed bands. Each world region supports different sub-bands, and the channels number depends on the starting frequency of the sub-band it belongs to. Thus, there is no global channels numbering plan, and the channels numbers are incompatible between world regions (and even between sub-bands of a same world region).
The following sub-bands are defined in the 802.11 ah specifications:
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when was the movie quigley down under made | Quigley Down Under - wikipedia
Quigley Down Under is a 1990 Australian - American Western film directed by Simon Wincer and starring Tom Selleck, Alan Rickman and Laura San Giacomo.
Matthew Quigley (Tom Selleck) is an American cowboy and sharpshooter with a specially modified rifle with which he can shoot accurately at extraordinary distances. He answers a newspaper advertisement that asks for a man with a special talent in long - distance shooting, using just four words, "M. Quigley 900 yards, '' written on a copy of the advertisement that is punctured by six closely spaced bullet holes.
When he arrives in Australia, he gets into a fight with employees of the man who hired him, who are trying to force "Crazy Cora '' (Laura San Giacomo) onto their wagon. After he identifies himself, he is taken to the station of Elliot Marston (Alan Rickman), who informs Quigley his sharpshooting skills will be used to eradicate the increasingly elusive Aborigines. Quigley turns down the offer and throws Marston out of his own house.
The aborigine manservant knocks Quigley over the head and Marston 's men beat him and Cora unconscious and dump them in the outback with no water and little chance of survival. However, they are rescued by Aborigines. Cora now reveals that she comes from Texas. When her home was attacked by Comanches, she hid in the cellar and accidentally suffocated her child while trying to prevent him from crying. Her husband had then put her alone on a ship to Australia. Now Cora consistently calls Quigley by her husband 's name (Roy), much to his annoyance.
When Marston 's men attack the Aborigines who helped them, Quigley kills three. Escaping on a single horse, they encounter more of the men driving Aborigines over a cliff. Quigley drives them off with his deadly shooting and Cora rescues an orphaned baby she finds among the dead Aborigines. Leaving Cora and the infant in the desert with food and water, Quigley rides alone to a nearby town. There he obtains new ammunition from a local German gunsmith, who hates Marston for his murdering ways. Quigley also learns that he has become a legendary hero among the Aborigines.
Marston 's men are also in town and recognize Quigley 's horse. When they attack, cornering him in a burning building, he escapes through a skylight and kills all but one of them. The injured survivor is sent back to say he will be following. First Quigley returns to Cora and the baby, which she has just saved from an attack by dingoes. At first she had tried to stop it crying, but then told it to make as much noise as it liked as she gunned the animals down. Back in town, she gives the baby to Aborigines living there after Quigley tells her that the child has ' a right to happiness '.
The next morning, Quigley rides away to confront Marston at his station. At first he shoots the defenders from his location in the hills but is eventually shot in the leg and captured by Marston 's last two men. Marston, who has noticed that Quigley only ever carries a rifle, decides to give him a lesson in the "quick - draw '' style of gunfighting. As the two face off, Marston makes the first move, but is beaten to the draw by Quigley, who shoots the two remaining men as well. As Marston lies dying, Quigley refers to an earlier conversation, telling him, "I said I never had much use for one (a revolver); I never said I did n't know how to use it. ''
Marston 's servant comes out of the house and gives Quigley his rifle back, then walks away from the ranch, stripping off his western - style clothing as he goes. An army troop now arrives to arrest Quigley for murder until they notice the surrounding hills are lined with Aborigines and decide to withdraw. Later he and Cora book a passage back to America in the name of Roy Cobb, Cora 's husband, since Quigley is still wanted. On the wharf she reminds him that he once told her that she had to say two words before he would make love to her. Smiling broadly, she calls him "Matthew Quigley '' and the two embrace for the first time.
John Hill first began writing Quigley Down Under in 1978, and both Steve McQueen and Clint Eastwood were considered for the lead, but by the time production began in 1980, McQueen was too ill and the project was scrapped. In the mid-1980s Tom Selleck heard of it and UAA got involved; the film was almost set up at Warner Bros with Lewis Gilbert as director but it fell over during pre-production. Simon Wincer then became director, who felt a good story had been ruined by numerous rewrites from people who knew little about Australian history, so he brought on Ian Jones as writer. They went back to the original draft, re-set it from the 1880s to the 1860s and made it more historically accurate.
The film was made by the newly formed Pathé Group, then under Alan Ladd, Jr. It was Ladd 's enthusiasm for the project which helped get it financed.
The firearm used by Quigley (Selleck) is a custom 13.5 pound (6 kg), single - shot, 1874 Sharps Rifle, with a 34 - inch (860 mm) barrel. The rifle used for filming was a replica manufactured for the film by the Shiloh Rifle Manufacturing Company of Big Timber, Montana. In 2002 Selleck donated the rifle, along with six other firearms from his other films, to the National Rifle Association, as part of the NRA 's exhibit "Real Guns of Reel Heroes '' at the National Firearms Museum in Fairfax, Virginia.
The movie was filmed entirely in Australia. Scenes were filmed in and around Warrnambool and Apollo Bay, Victoria.
Although several scenes of the story depict violence and cruelty toward and involving animals, a film spokesperson explained that no animal was harmed, and special effects were used. For example, Quigley and Cora are reduced to consuming "grub worms '' (actually blobs of dough) for survival. A pack of dingoes attacks Cora, and she finally saves herself by shooting the animals. Those animals were specially trained, and were actually "playing '' for that scene, which was later enhanced by visual and sound effects. Several scenes involve falling horses; they were performed by specially - trained animals and were not hurt. When a horse falls off a cliff, the "horse '' was a mechanical creation. The film 's producer stated that a veterinarian was on the set whenever animals were being used in filming.
Critical responses were mixed, with Quigley having a 56 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Roger Ebert gave the film two - and - a-half out of four stars, arguing that it was a flawed but respectable neo-western, and particularly praising San Giacomo 's performance: "(T) his may be the movie that proves her staying power. (...) She has an authority, a depth of presence, that is attractive, and her voice is deep and musical. ''
The film, however, was not a financial success in theaters, roughly recouping its budget.
The film, and more specifically the protagonist 's skill with his rifle, has led snipers to refer to the act of killing two targets with a single bullet as ' a Quigley '.
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mortal instruments city of bones is jace clary's brother | List of the Mortal Instruments characters - wikipedia
This is a list of the main characters from The Mortal Instruments series by Cassandra Clare, including the novels City of Bones, City of Ashes, City of Glass, City of Fallen Angels, City of Lost Souls, and City of Heavenly Fire
The following is a list of series regulars who have appeared in one or more of the series ' three seasons. The characters are listed in the order they were first credited in the series.
Clarissa "Clary '' Adele Fairchild is a fictional character and the main protagonist of the Mortal Instruments series. While at a New York City nightclub, the Pandemonium, she is stunned to observe a group of teenagers with apparent supernatural abilities: Jace, Isabelle, and Alec. She sees them attack a demon and soon realizes she is the only person able to see them.
After the battle, Clary is introduced to the group of teens, who identify themselves as Shadowhunters, a race of humans who are physically enhanced with angel blood, who secretly protect humanity from demons. When her mother Jocelyn goes missing, Clary learns that the event is connected to the conflict between the Shadowhunters and their enemies. She then enters the Shadowhunter fold, using her newly revealed mystical abilities to assist the group while attempting to find her mother. In the process, she falls in love with fellow Shadowhunter Jace / Jonathan Herondale.
Clary learns that Valentine Morgenstern, the main antagonist of the series, is her biological father and her mother 's ex-husband. At the end of City of Bones, Valentine tells them that Clary and Jace are siblings -- which, they discover later in the series, is a lie. In the second book of the series, City of Ashes, Clary dates her best friend Simon, who has for a long time had a crush on her, in order to forget Jace during the torturous time of believing him to be her brother. She is told by the Seelie Queen that she has the ability to create runes that do n't exist; but they do exist, which later enables her to destroy Valentine 's ship using the "Open '' rune. In the end of the second novel, Clary finds that an old friend of her mother, Madeleine, knows how to wake her mother, who has been in a magical coma since the first book.
In City of Glass, it is discovered that Jocelyn had taken a potion, made by a warlock named Ragnor Fell, to induce a comatose state and prevent her from being interrogated by Valentine. Before she dies, Madeleine tells Clary she needs to find Fell, who will help her cure her mother. Clary uses a magic portal to convey herself and Luke to Idris, and falls into Lake Lyn and drinks some of the water by accident; this causes her to hallucinate and then to become lucid, because the lake 's water is poisonous to Shadowhunters. Luke then takes her to his sister Amatis for healing.
During her stay in Alicante, Clary ventures to find Ragnor Fell, who will be able to help her with the potion. She is escorted there by Sebastian Verlac, whom she recently met, in an attempt to make contact with Fell. Instead she finds Magnus Bane. He tells her of Ragnor 's death and how he was called as a replacement, and requests that she find him the Book of White in return for his help. She returns to Alicante, where Sebastian kisses her. She rejects him after having feelings of "wrong '' while he kissed her, and they continue back to Alicante. She then learns that something called the Book of White has been hidden in Wayland Manor, and travels with Jace to retrieve it. Inside the Manor, they find the angel Ithuriel tied up and left for dead in the basement. He gives both Shadowhunters visions of Valentine experimenting on his children with demon blood in an attempt to make a stronger warrior.
They escape from Wayland Manor, after freeing Ithuriel so that he can finally die; the two then share a moment of passionate romance. They return to Alicante to see it burning from the first assault on the city, and after things are in order, Clary meets with the others and they go to free Simon who was taken to a Conclave prison called The Guard. They return to see the Clave, and Clary uses her rune ability to create a binding rune, enabling Shadowhunters and Downworlders to share powers. All those of age go to the battle on Brocelind Plains, and Clary has to give Simon the Mark of Cain so that the vampires will join the fight.
At last, Magnus wakes Clary 's mother Jocelyn, who informs Clary that Jace is not her brother. Her real brother is Sebastian (Jonathan Morgenstern). It is soon revealed that Sebastian is a spy for Valentine and that he tried to seduce Clary into teaming up with him. Clary then tries to locate Jace to help him. She runs into Valentine, who ties her down in order to complete his summoning of the Angel by using her blood. Then, when Jace arrives to rescue her, Valentine forces her to watch as he fatally stabs Jace in the chest. Upon summoning the angel, Clary changes the marks on Valentine 's summoning circle, giving her the ability to control the Angel, and after Valentine is slain, she wishes to have Jace back. After Jace is brought back to life, the two get together.
In the fourth book, City of Fallen Angels, Clary and Jace are happily in love. But soon, Jace starts to behave strangely and avoids her, leading Clary to assume he wants to break up with her. In truth, he has been influenced by Lilith, who sent him dreams in which he kills or hurts Clary, because when he was raised from the dead by Raziel, all of his protections placed on him at birth were stripped away, leaving him vulnerable to demonic influence. During the party, when Lucian 's pack celebrated his engagement with Clary 's mother Jocelyn, she is kidnapped by a fully possessed Jace and taken to Lilith. There, she learns her brother Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern / Sebastian Verlac is going to be raised from the dead by Simon, and she was brought just to make him do that. Using Jace 's affection for her (which remains undiminished because his possession has no effect on that part of him), she cuts the rune which enabled Lilith to control him. Seeing his chance, Simon destroys Lilith with his Mark of Cain. After Lilith 's destruction, Isabelle and Alec appear on the scene, but Jace shoos them away since he does n't want to be consoled as he feels terrible for hurting Clary, in spite of the fact that he was n't himself. Alec then shoves Clary back to the room as they get into the elevator, feeling that only she can help him. Clary and Jace reaffirm their love after she convinces him he is not a horrible person. The last words Clary says to him before going down are, "I 'll be back. Five minutes, '' and they share a kiss before she leaves and comes back to find him gone, unaware his rune has healed and he is possessed once again.
In the fifth book of the series, City of Lost Souls, Clary has realized that Jace has gone away with Sebastian Verlac (Jonathan Morgenstern). The Clave was alarmed by the sudden disappearance of Jonathan and Jace and started to search for any signs of them, after two weeks of repeating the same statement about what happened at the rooftop, before Clary left him with Sebastian, alive by Simon 's blood. But other problems come to the Clave and it has to set aside the search for Jonathan. Clary is outraged by the news. Using the bell given to her by Kaelie Whitewillow, a waitress and subject of the Queen 's, she goes to the Seelie Queen 's palace where she has to beg for help due to the limited resources. The Seelie Queen has requested that Clary be allowed to steal the faerie rings kept inside the Institute. Clary steals the rings but does n't give them to the Queen because of the appearance of Jace and Sebastian at the library, all healthy looking and safe. Afterward, Clary accepts their offer of coming to them.
When the plan of Sebastian was finally revealed to her, she could n't believe what could happen. At the enchantment ceremony, she was surprised when Amatis was turned into a dark Shadowhunter by the blood of Lilith. At the same time, Magnus, Alec, Maryse, Isabelle, and Simon arrived, with Glorious in hand. When Glorious was handed to her, she struck Jace, the mark of Lilith burning, making him cry out in pain.
In the epilogue, she was concerned why she could n't visit Jace because of her thoughts telling her she almost killed Jace, but reassured by Isabelle she did n't do anything to make Jace mad. She visited Jace, but she almost thought she was n't going to be allowed to go in due to Brother Zachariah. By the consent of Brother Zachariah, she entered, hugging Jace and reaffirming their relationship.
Finally in City of Heavenly Fire, Sebastian has taken many shadowhunters and turned them into his endarkened. The remaining shadowhunters retreat to Idris for safety. Sebastian offers to leave them alone if he is given Clary and Jace. Before the Clave can make a decision Clary, Jace, Simon, Isabelle and Alec sneak off to Edom, the demon realm Sebastian is hiding in; he has Jocelyn, Luke, Magnus and Raphael prisoner. After spending days trying to find him they come upon his castle, a dark version of Alicante. Sebastian offers Clary a place next to him, in exchange for leaving everyone she knows and all of the Shadowhunters alone. She accepts it, knowing that she has to keep everyone safe. When Sebastian is momentarily distracted she stabs him with the Morgenstern blade, containing heavenly fire. He is returned to the brother that she could have had, before he then dies.
The group manage to escape after Simon gives up his immortality and memories of the Shadow World. Months later Clary talks to him but he does n't remember her. At her mother and Luke 's wedding, Simon tell her he remembers her. She and Jace are happy, as the others; they are coping with all the losses of the dark war. After all that Jace finally finds out what Sebastian did to Clary.
Clary is 5'2 '' with curly red hair, green eyes, pale skin, and freckles. She is said to look like her mother, who is described as beautiful and small. Clary sometimes doubts the fact that she is as beautiful as her mother, believing herself to be a duller version of her mother, with less defined features. She is rather small and thin. She is described by Jace many times throughout the series as "delicate ''.
She is portrayed by Lily Collins in the film adaptation of the book and Katherine McNamara in the television series.
She is the daughter of Valentine Morgenstern and Jocelyn Fairchild, step daughter of Lucian Graymark. She is also the sister to Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern. She gained her ability to create runes when Valentine fed her mother angel blood while she was in the womb.
Jace Ligtwood - Herondale is a Shadowhunter living at the New York Institute with his adopted family. Jace 's legal name changes throughout the series, from Jace Wayland (when his father is thought to be Michael Wayland), to Jonathan Morgenstern (Valentine 's son), to Jace Lightwood for the family that has taken him in, to Jace Herondale (when his true father is revealed to be Stephen Herondale). His mother was the young Celiné Herondale, a member of Valentine 's inner circle with Stephen Herondale, his father.
The nickname "Jace '' was given to him by Maryse Lightwood after his (fake) initials J.C. (Jonathan Christopher, because no one but Valentine and Jocelyn knew Jace was not his real son), when he first began living with Maryse Lightwood and her family, because of his dislike for his name. Jace was given the blood of an angel named Ithuriel by Valentine when Celiné was pregnant with him. This gave him enhanced abilities, even compared to regular Shadowhunters (Shadowhunters hunt demons that come into this world through portals from their own worlds), such as the ability to jump from extreme heights and survive, run faster than any other Shadowhunter, and move with a stealth close to that of the Silent Brothers.
For most of the books, Jace 's sarcastic, cold remarks and behavior hide his tortured and angry soul. In City of Ashes, his strong "bad - boy '' personality makes Maryse Lightwood (his adopted mother) somewhat scared of him, worried that he is too much like Valentine, who was believed to be his real father until the assumption was proven false in City of Glass. Jace and Clary fall in love in City of Bones, making Clary the only girl Jace has developed real genuine feelings for, but after they find out they are "siblings '', each attempts to get over the other by dating other people. He is naturally overprotective and caring for her, although Clary does not see this due to her internal suffering. At the end of the third novel, City of Glass, Jocelyn contradicts Valentine 's avowal that Jace and Clary are siblings, telling Clary that Jace is actually the son of Celine and Stephen Herondale. The truth frees Jace and Clary from the torture of having seemingly incestuous feelings for each other, allowing them to accept their mutual feelings and become a "real '' couple.
Jace has fine, wavy dark golden - blond hair and dark gold eyes. He has a slim, muscular build, and is about 5'11 ". His face is described as being pretty and angular, and Clary often refers to him as beautiful and leonine, with a narrow mouth. His eyes were much lighter in City of Bones, City of Ashes, and City of Glass; Clary describes his eyes and hair as darker in City of Fallen Angels. His eyes are brown with flecks of gold that lighten and darken with his moods.
Like all other Shadowhunters, he is covered in thin, pale scars from years of applying various magical runes with a stele for battle and healing purposes, as well as permanent runes. It is said that Jace is seventeen years old, though that was assuming he was Valentine (or Michael Wayland 's) son, and his real age is between a few years younger than Jonathan Christopher and a year or so older than Clary. Jace is also left - handed (like Valentine). He has often said (and tried to prove) that the only trait he got from his father was his attitude. He is described to be extremely good looking. Jace is portrayed by Jamie Campbell Bower in the film adaptation of the book and Dominic Sherwood in the television series.
In City of Bones, Jace lives with his adoptive family, the Lightwoods, and is seen as the brother of the Lightwood children. Later, he is told that he is the son of Valentine and Jocelyn Morgenstern, and not Michael Wayland as he had been told. At this time, he is also told that Clary Fray is his sister.
In the end it is revealed that he is actually Stephen Herondale and Celine Herondale 's son and that Clary is not related to him. He and Clary have a conversation at the end of City of Glass in which he confesses that he does n't know who he is, referring to his last name. Clary confirms that he is a Lightwood, and Jace accepts that, correcting people throughout City of Fallen Angels when they referred to him as "Jace Herondale ''. At the end of City of Heavenly Fire, Jace chooses to take on the Herondale name. Jace is also related to Will Herondale former leader of the London Institute and husband of Warlock Tessa Grey.
Clary Fray: Jace begins to fall in love with Clary in City of Bones, growing close to her. Isabelle and Alec later say that they noticed a change in Jace 's behavior after he started getting close to Clary. In City of Glass, Isabelle tells Clary that before Jace met her, he was apathetic and only half - alive as if in a long - time sleep, but that after his first encounter with her, Jace "woke up '' and "started living ''. Isabelle further claims that she has never seen him act the way he does with Clary and states that Jace will never get over her. Throughout the series, Jace continuously loves Clary even after he believes they are siblings, to the extent that he is willing to commit incest with her and have a secret relationship. He has been with a couple of girls (though it being stated as more as just hooking up) and tries to start a relationship with Aline Penhallow in a failed attempt to get over Clary. Clary and Jace reunite at the end of the third book after discovering they are not siblings.
Simon Lewis is Clary 's best friend. He accompanies Clary in her adventures, despite being human for the first book, and most of the second book, falling helplessly in love with Isabelle Lightwood (his girlfriend).
He is portrayed by Robert Sheehan in the film and by Alberto Rosende in the television series.
His family is said to be devoutly Jewish. Not much is said about Simon 's family. It is mentioned that his father died when he was very young due to a heart attack. His mother, Elaine Lewis, becomes a more prominent character in City of Fallen Angels when she discovers that Simon is a vampire and kicks him out of the house. Upon leaving, he puts her in a trance, hoping to talk to her at a later date. He also has a sister named Rebecca who is a few years older than he is. In City of Lost Souls, he admits to his sister that he is a vampire despite his fear of her shutting him out like his mother. Rebecca accepts him, and the two stay in contact.
Elaine Lewis is portrayed by Christina Cox, and Rebecca is portrayed by Holly Deveaux in the television series.
In City of Bones, he is kidnapped by vampires after being turned into a rat and brought to their lair in the abandoned Hotel Dumort. Later, in City of Ashes, he begins to feel some side effects as a result of biting Raphael, the temporary head vampire while he was a rat. Because he is human and does n't know the correct way to become a vampire, he begins to fear he may be turning into a monster.
When he can not reconcile his feelings for Clary, he returns to the hotel -- putting himself in great danger -- to ask them if he is becoming one of them. Unfortunately, the vampires attack, and Raphael saves him from immediate death by bringing him back to the Institute, where Clary is staying. Faced with the choice of letting Simon die or making him a vampire, Clary and Jace decide to let him be reborn as a vampire. In City of Ashes, he becomes a "Daylighter '' after being drained of most of his blood on Valentine 's ship by Valentine so he can complete his Conversion on Maellartach, The Soul - Sword. Jace finds Simon on the brink of death and allows him to drink his blood to revive him. The large quantity of Angel blood in Jace 's body then allows Simon to stand in high sun with no risk of burning, unlike all other vampires who can not.
After Max Lightwood 's death, Isabelle (Max 's older sister) becomes distraught, blaming herself for not listening to him and for not being there for her little brother. She refused to see anyone, finally allowing Simon to come in. Simon comforts Isabelle, trying to convince her that Max 's death was n't her fault, and ends up sleeping next to her, much to his surprise, although they do nothing sexual. Towards the end of the third novel, Raphael demands Simon 's death in exchange for his clan 's assistance for the war; Raphael believes Simon 's Daylighter powers make him too dangerous to remain alive. In order to protect him, Clary draws the Mark of Cain on Simon, which prevents him from being harmed by anyone and also curses him, marking him as a wanderer for eternity.
In City of Fallen Angels, a conflicted Simon tries casually dating both Isabelle and Maia. When the girls find out, they both leave him, and he is alone once more. However, by the end of the book it is clear that a deepening relationship is forming between Simon and Isabelle.
In City of Lost Souls, Simon loses his Mark of Cain to the Angel Raziel in exchange for the sword "Glorious '' to save Jace by separating him and Sebastian. Throughout the book, Simon and Isabelle 's relationship progresses to the point where she trusts him enough to let him bite her when he is hungry. They spend nights together, much to Alec 's horror. However, they still do n't consider themselves dating for neither has confessed that they want to. Simon thinks he will just be dumped like the rest of Isabelle 's boyfriends while Isabelle has trouble revealing her feelings and thinks Simon should make the first move.
In City of Heavenly Fire, Simon admits his love to Isabelle. Throughout the book, Simon follows Clary and Jace -- along with Isabelle and Alec -- into the demon realm Edom to defeat Sebastian and find Magnus, Raphael, Luke and Jocelyn. In the demon realm, he saves Isabelle after she is bitten by a demon. Soon after, he tells Isabelle he loves her. As a result, they finally make their relationship official. At the end, after defeating Sebastian, they have no possible way of getting out. Magnus calls on his father, Asmodeus, who asks to help them get out of Edom since Sebastian closed all possible ways for them to get out. In return, Asmodeus wants Magnus ' immortal life -- if Magnus does this, he will die. None of them want Magnus to sacrifice his life, so Simon steps forward. Because Simon has only just become a vampire, his years will not catch up to him and he will return a mundane. But to spice up the deal, Asmodeus also says he must take away all of Simon 's memory of the Shadow world and of Clary. Everything he will remember will be a normal life, a life without Clary, or Jace, or Alec, or Magnus and Isabelle. This devastated them all, but Simon gave it willingly to save his friends and the person he loves. In the Epilogue, Clary tries to see if Simon remembers her, but he does n't and just thinks she 's a crazy girl with tattoos. Except, he does give her his band flyer thinking she might be hitting on him. She walks away with it. Clary gives Izzy the flyer and walks away. The flyer says the band 's name, "The Mortal Instruments ''. With this sliver of hope, Izzy and Magnus go to Simon and tell him what has happened. Simon is given the choice for Magnus to prep him to Ascend and become a Shadowhunter so that Asmodeus can not touch him and he can regain all of his memory. Simon agrees and receives some of his memory back. He then reunites with Clary, Izzy, and the rest of the clan at Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding.
Luke Garroway, whose birth name is Lucian Graymark, is Jocelyn Fray 's best friend who later becomes her husband and stepfather to Clary Fray. He is a werewolf who was a Shadowhunter and member of The Circle which was run by Valentine Morgenstern.
In his early life, Lucian was raised in Idris with his mother and older sister Amatis. Later, his mother left to join the Iron Sisters, leaving Luke to be raised by his sister. When Luke was young he met Jocelyn Fairchild (Jocelyn Fray) and they were later sent to Alicante to train and attend school. When they arrived at Alicante, Luke was n't the best in school and often contemplated quitting, until Valentine Morgenstern offered to tutor him.
Before Luke turned into a Werewolf, he was a Shadowhunter. Valentine had invited Luke to go hunting to help clean out the werewolves ' nests that had killed Valentine 's father. While they were scouting out the nests, a werewolf bit Luke. After he was bitten, Luke was n't sure if the bite was enough to infect him with Lycanthropy. At one point, he went seeking aid from his sister Amatis for help and shelter and was sent away. He, along with Jocelyn and Valentine had kept quiet in following weeks while they awaited for the full moon. To his dismay, he did Change after the attack. Valentine then took him to the forest and gave Luke his father 's dagger and told him to be honorable and kill himself. Valentine then led everyone to believe that Luke was dead.
Instead Luke sought out the werewolf that had Turned him to kill him and himself in the process. When Luke finally found him, he turned out to be the leader of a pack in Brocelind Forest. Luke had fought and killed him. By werewolf law, Luke had become the new pack leader and accepted the position and began his new life.
Luke has blue eyes and brown, uneven hair with ragged - looking clothes. He is tall, with squared shoulders and wears glasses. His favorite shirts to wear are flannel shirts. He is portrayed by Aidan Turner in the film adaptation of the book, and Isaiah Mustafa in the television series.
After the Uprising Luke had offered Jocelyn to marry him but she refused and when they parted ways Luke could n't forget her and went looking for her. When he finally found her in New York, he chose to leave his life as a Werewolf behind to live a mundane life, all whilst harbouring a deep love for her.
Even though it took Luke many years, he finally told Jocelyn how he feels after she awoke from her coma. A few weeks later, the two became engaged and were married after the Dark War.
Isabelle "Izzy '' Sophia Lightwood is a Shadowhunter and lives in the New York Institute. She is rebellious and very beautiful. Her cooking is often made fun of by Jace and Alec. She is known to be dangerous and often carries weapons in her tall boots that are never less than seven inches.
Her signature weapon is an electrum whip with which she is quite skilled. She dresses well, as shown when she gave Clary to wear clothes that she picked for Magnus 's party. Despite this seemingly shallow and girlish side of her personality, she is shown to take responsibility for situations, shouldering the blame for her brother Max 's death, despite having been struck unconscious at the time. She is comforted by Simon, and ends up sleeping (in a literal, non-sexual sense) with him. She begins to casually date Simon -- who is also dating Maia at the same time -- and then later upon finding out about Maia, breaks up with him. After this and seeing how she is genuinely hurt by it, begins to slowly realize that she may actually be in love with Simon, but refuses to admit it.
Isabelle obviously cares for Jace and Alec, and is fiercely protective of both of them. Because of this, she is constantly torn over the fact that her brother is struggling with his sexuality and when Jace is heartbroken over Clary during their supposedly sibling relationship. In City of Glass, she yells at Clary for only thinking of herself and not realizing how much pain Jace is in due to how much he really loves her.
Isabelle is very beautiful and tall. She has very dark brown eyes with hints of gold that initially appear to be black. She is curvaceous and has long black hair that is described as "black as spilt ink '' by Clary. She dresses stylishly, often with high heels. However, she despised her height and hated towering over everyone and wished to be small and delicate like Clary.
She is portrayed by Jemima West in the film adaptation of the book, and Emeraude Toubia in the television series.
Isabelle is the middle child in the Lightwood family. Her parents are Maryse and Robert Lightwood, who were once in the Circle with Valentine until the Uprising. Her older brother is Alec and her younger brother was Max, who died at the hand of Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern. Jace is her adoptive brother. Her parents run the Institute in New York.
Alexander "Alec '' Gideon Lightwood lives in the New York Institute with his siblings. He is the oldest of the Lightwoods and is quieter than both Isabelle, his brother Max, and Jace, his best friend and adoptive brother. Alec is 18, making him legally an ' adult, ' which gives him permission to attend Clave meetings. He was jealous of Clary, at first, upon meeting her due to knowing how Jace felt about her, and Alec himself had a crush on Jace. Later, he begins to forget him and he starts to date and falls in love with Magnus Bane (a warlock who is immortal and nearly 400 years old), though his strong brotherly love for Jace remains.
Alec is mostly soft - spoken and serious. He tries his best to act wisely and is not as reckless as Jace. Later in the story, it is revealed early on that he had never killed a demon, which changes in the middle of City of Bones. He shows himself to be extremely caring about the ones he loves and is willing to do anything to protect them. Among the whole group, Alec is the most intelligent. For much of the series, Alec denies his homosexuality and attraction to males (particularly Jace), which results in him lashing out at people. When he finally accepts himself, he becomes a more relaxed person and comes out as gay to the whole Clave and everyone there, including his family and parents, by publicly passionately kissing Magnus. Clary notes at the end of the fourth novel that Alec had become more generous with himself, allowing him to be more generous with others. Alec, as seen in City of Fallen Angels, can also become extremely jealous, getting angry at Magnus when he discovers Magnus ' long dating history and relationship with Camille, a vampire woman.
Alec becomes a much more central character in City of Lost Souls and is one of the book 's narrators. He, along with Clary, leads the search for Jace, while also dealing with Camille.
Alec is said to have a thin, wiry build and like his mother, has black hair, luminous blue eyes, and impressive height. He is also very pale. Alec is described as being very handsome as well, but unlike his sister, he tries to downplay his looks by wearing worn out sweaters and damaged clothing. It is mentioned by Camille Belcourt that he bears a strong resemblance to William Herondale from The Infernal Devices.
He was portrayed by Kevin Zegers in the film adaptation of the book, and Matthew Daddario in the television series.
Alec is the oldest child of the Lightwood family, and the first son of Maryse and Robert Lightwood. Isabelle and Max Lightwood are his younger siblings, and Jace is his adoptive brother and Parabatai.
Magnus Bane is the High Warlock of Brooklyn. He regularly tampered with the mind of Clary Fray after designing a spell that would erase her memories of the Shadow World once every two years as a favour to her mother, Jocelyn. He first meets the other Shadowhunters at one of his Downworlder parties. He later has Clary retrieve the Book of the White for him in City of Glass, and agrees to help revive her mother with it. In City of Heavenly Fire, he admits to Alec that he is almost 400 years old, although he often lies about his age (for instance, in "The Bane Chronicles '' he claims to be under 300 years old, to which his friends Catarina Loss and Ragnor Fell laugh, obviously aware of the lie, and in "City of Glass '' he claims to be 800). Despite his flamboyant appearance and whimsical personality, Magnus is a kind yet jaded person who yearns for love and acceptance, but has great trouble revealing his honest desires and personal secrets to others due to his long and traumatic past. His life has frequently been entangled with the fates of certain Shadowhunters (specifically the Herondale family during the Victorian and Edwardian eras, and the Fairchild family following the collapse of Valentine 's Circle), but he does n't become seriously involved with the workings of their society and their struggle for survival and reformation until he meets Alec Lightwood, who goes on to become the love of his life.
Magnus Bane is described as being of Asian descent, due to his human parent being half - Dutch, half - Indonesian. He is an inch or two taller than Alec and is said to be lean, but not skinny, with lightly muscled arms. He has brown skin and black, nearly shoulder - length hair that is usually styled and dyed. He wears all kinds of makeup, such as glitter around his eyes and blue lipstick, and in City of Glass is also noted to own more makeup tools and accessories than even Isabelle Lightwood. He likes to flaunt his bisexuality by wearing flashy and sometimes bizarre clothing. Isabelle once described him as a "sexy, sexy warlock '', whereas Simon Lewis countered that Magnus "looks like a gay Sonic the Hedgehog and dresses like the Child Catcher from Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. '' He also has gold - green eyes with vertical cat - like pupils and no belly button, both of which serve as his warlock marks.
He is portrayed by Godfrey Gao in the film adaptation of the book, and Harry Shum Jr. in the television series by Freeform.
Magnus ' mother and step - father began to fear him when he started nearing the age of ten, after they realised he was n't fully human. It is revealed that his mother was in fact tricked into sleeping with a demon who disguised himself as her husband, and when she realized, some time after Magnus ' birth, that Magnus was a warlock (in other words, someone half - human, half - demon) and not her husband 's child, she hanged herself in her family 's barn. Soon after, his step - father tried to drown him, and Magnus burned him alive in an attempt to save himself. He was then brought up by the Silent Brothers of Madrid, who also came up with his name. Cassandra Clare revealed on Twitter that Magnus was born in what was once Batavia of the Dutch East Indies (modern - day Jakarta, Indonesia). Camille does state in City of Lost Souls that his biological father is a Prince of Hell, therefore implying he is a high - ranked demon. Whenever asked who his father is, Magnus always avoids the question or changes the subject. In City of Heavenly Fire, his father is revealed to be Asmodeus, the Greater Demon of Lust and ruler of Edom. Because Asmodeus is also a fallen angel, Magnus is capable of interacting with witchlights -- he can make them glow red.
Maia Roberts is a biracial teenager born and raised in a New Jersey suburban neighborhood. Her brother, Daniel, was beautiful and abusive, though her parents never believed her, even when he broke her arm. This treatment leads to Maia hating and fearing beautiful boys, even after her brother was killed in a hit - and - run. In tenth - eleventh grade, Maia met Jordan Kyle and they began dating. However, during their relationship, he soon began to become controlling and abusive and she broke up with him. He became enraged at her break up with him and, in werewolf form, attacked her on her way home from a party. (She was a mundane and did not know that he was a werewolf or anything about the Shadow World.) Jordan vanished shortly afterward, and Maia soon turned into a werewolf on the next full moon. She ran away from home and joined the wolf - pack in New York and became good friends with Luke, the leader of the pack. She became associated with the Shadowhunters and develops a crush on Simon, and in City of Glass gets into a competition with Isabelle for his attention.
In City of Ashes, Maia leaves Luke 's apartment to apologize to Simon for her vicious reaction (after she was attacked) and realized he was a vampire. On her way over to him, she is attacked by Agramon, the Demon of Fear which she interprets as her older brother Daniel who violently abused her when he was still alive. Valentine then abducts her to drain her completely of blood so he can complete his spell. Simon is kidnapped as well shortly after for his vampire blood. It is learned that lycanthropes are negatively affected by all kinds of silver when Valentine sprinkles silver dust on her and she screams in pain.
At the beginning of City of Fallen Angels, Maia and Simon are casually dating, while Simon, not to her or Isabelle 's knowledge, ends up also casually dating Isabelle. The truth of Simon 's actions comes out just as Maia runs into her ex-boyfriend Jordan Kyle. Jordan, who had recently become acquainted with Simon, was the one who turned Maia into a werewolf. However, Jordan 's actions were not what they seemed to be, as he had just become a new werewolf when he bit her and therefore unable to control his actions. Maia is understandably angry to have him back in her life due to his abusiveness during their relationship and him turning her into a werewolf, but when she learns the truth behind what Jordan did, she understands and even seems to forgive him when realizing he is genuinely regretful of his past actions towards her. Towards the end of the book, after she and Jordan have helped Isabelle and Alec look for Simon, she and Jordan kiss and eventually reaffirm their relationship.
Maia is described as having curly, brown and gold hair (her eyelashes are described as the color of toast), light brown skin and amber - brown eyes. She is also described as having a heart - shaped face and rather curvy figure when Clary notes, "No girl should have that great of a body. ''
She is portrayed by Alisha Wainwright in the television series.
Not much is said about Maia 's mother or father, however her older brother Daniel is mentioned. Daniel was said to be an attractive boy, but a very abusive brother to Maia, It is said that he gave her bruises where they would n't be seen, breaking her arm, etc. He died when he was hit by a car while at a young age, but Maia still felt afraid of him for many more years after.
Jocelyn Morgenstern / Fairchild / Fray / Garroway / Graymark is Clary 's mother and a former Shadowhunter. Jocelyn grew up in Idris with Luke, Valentine, and the other Circle members. She was married to Valentine at the age of 19, though she says she married him because she loved him, she later realized that he was torturing innocent people. She fled Idris when she found out she was pregnant with Clary, so he could not do harm to her daughter like he did on Jonathan (Sebastian), her first - born son. Later it is said that Luke tracked her down and Clary, being around the age of 3 - 5 at the time though it does not specify, opened the door to him. He then stayed in their lives and him and Jocelyn lived their lives in New York, also taking a large part in raising Clary, until Jocelyn is located by Valentine. She takes a potion, putting herself in a coma to protect her secrets and remains unconscious until she is revived by Magnus Bane in City of Glass. She is also a Shadowhunter warrior.
In City of Glass, after Valentine was killed by the angel Raziel, Lucian Graymark (Luke) finally declared his love for her, telling her he 's been in love with her for over 20 years. After he walks out the door, initially believing she did not return his feelings, she soon runs after him to tell she loves him too. It is then later revealed in City of Fallen Angels that they are engaged to be married and also are "disgustingly in love '' as described by Clary. Later in City of Lost Souls, after Luke is wounded by Sebastian and in critical condition, Jocelyn says to him how she regrets failing to have noticed his feelings for her back when they were younger and wishes he would have told her how he felt about her so she would have married "the right guy '' instead of Valentine. Hence, so things would have been "different '' and could have turned out better than they were currently. However, Luke does n't have any regrets saying how if things had been any different, "they '' would n't have Clary, making Jocelyn happy since he said "as though he was sure Clary was his own daughter ''.
Jocelyn is described of being elegant and beautiful. She has long red hair that is usually in a twist, and still carries the scars of her Shadowhunting days. Clary is often said to look almost identical to her. Jocelyns hair is also a darker red than Clary 's.
She is portrayed by Lena Headey in the film adaptation of the book, and Maxim Roy in the television series.
Jocelyn has two children, Jonathan Christopher and Clarissa Adele. Her parents were killed in a fire set by Valentine Morgenstern, in which she also believed that Jonathan had been killed. She is engaged to Lucian Graymark (Luke) as of City of Lost Souls and they were married in City of Heavenly Fire as the majority of the epilogue takes place at the wedding reception.
Valentine Morgenstern is the main antagonist of the first half of the series, and is the former husband of Jocelyn Fairchild. This also makes him biological father to Clarissa Morgenstern and Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern (also known as Sebastian). In his youth he was a very skilled Shadowhunter from a rich family in Alicante. His best friend was Lucian Graymark while they were in school, among other Shadowhunters including Maryse Lightwood (née Trueblood), Robert Lightwood, Hodge Starkweather, Stephen Herondale and Michael Wayland. Upon the death of his father, Valentine fell in love with Jocelyn Fairchild, and together he and his group of young Shadowhunters formed the infamous group known as the Circle. With him leading the Circle, they had intended to share the gift of the Nephilim with the rest of humanity by using the Mortal Cup. Valentine and Jocelyn married and all was well until his ideas for the Circle became more radical, as Valentine wanted to kill all Downworlders. He infects his son with Demon blood and is betrayed by his former best friend, Lucian Graymark, and his wife at the Uprising of the Accords. Upon fleeing the battle, Valentine is assumed to be dead and goes into hiding with his son and Jace Herondale.
Years later, when City of Bones begins, Valentine finds Jocelyn and wants her to reveal where the Mortal Cup is located. He kidnaps her, but is unable to extract information from her due to her self - induced comatose state. He eventually secures the Mortal Cup, and the Mortal Sword and goes to the Mortal Mirror to summon the Angel Raziel. His arrogance, however, as well as his torturing of the angel Ithuriel, Raziel 's brother, causes the angel to slay him. During the series, it is also revealed he faked his death and took on the name of Michael Wayland, raising Jace Herondale as Jace Wayland.
Valentine is said to be tall and very handsome. He is broad - shouldered and has light blond, almost silver hair. He also has black eyes. Though in the movie he has dark brown hair and blue eyes.
He is portrayed by Jonathan Rhys Meyers in the film adaptation of the book, and Alan van Sprang in the television series.
Valentine is the former husband of Jocelyn Fairchild, with whom he had two children (Clarissa "Clary '' Adele Morgenstern and Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern). Clarissa realizes that she is Valentine 's daughter in the first book, City of Bones, but being raised by Jocelyn her whole life is void of Valentine 's influence. His son however, was tutored by him to be a very talented Shadowhunter and ruthless killer. He later becomes Valentine 's spy, taking the name Sebastian Verlac. Valentine also adopts Jace Herondale as his son, training him as well as Jonathan, making him as skilled a Shadowhunter as Jonathan.
Valentine also experimented on his children. Hoping to make a stronger and better Shadowhunter, he infused Jonathan with demon blood while in Jocelyn 's womb. However, a side effect of the blood was that it would "burn out his (Jonathan 's) humanity as poison burns the life from blood. '' This gave him a son capable of incredible feats, but with little to no compassion or ability to love. The experimentation on Jonathan led to Jocelyn feeling sick and very depressed. To make her feel better he gave her powdered Angel blood, not knowing that she was carrying a second child (Clary), infusing Clary with Angel blood in the same way that Jonathan was with Demon blood. With Jace, upon the failure of Jonathan to show any compassion, he gave Angel blood to Jace 's mother (Celiné Herondale), hoping to create a stronger warrior, without the side effects Jonathan suffered from the use Demon blood. In the end, Valentine trained Jace, but was forced to abandon him when he was 10 years old, making Valentine the only father Jace has known. It is also thought that of the two boys, the angel and the demon, that Valentine loved Jace more than his own son.
Sebastian Verlac / Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern / Sebastian Morgenstern is the true blood related son of Valentine Morgenstern and Jocelyn Fairchild, making him the brother of Clary Fray. His real name is Jonathan Christopher Morgenstern, but he went by Sebastian Verlac (cousin of the Penhallows) in City of Glass. He is very sadistic in nature, as a result of having been experimented on by his father with the blood of the Greater Demon Lilith, which robbed him of his humanity. He first appears in City of Glass as Sebastian Verlac, charming his way into the lives of the Lightwoods. He takes Clary to see Ragnor Fell, and kisses her, disgusting her. Upon Clary 's return with Jace to Alicante, it is discovered that Max Lightwood had seen someone climbing the demon warding towers. Sebastian was the person climbing the towers, and it was his blood that was used to bring down the wards. During the first attack on Alicante, he also kills Max Lightwood and severely injures Isabelle Lightwood. He is eventually tracked down and killed by Jace, before the summoning of Raziel by Valentine, but his body is never recovered. He is taken by his "mother '', Lilith, and taken to safety. She uses Jace as leverage and tries to bring him back from the dead. In City of Fallen Angels he is awoken, and uses a rune put on Jace to control him.
He becomes the main antagonist in City of Lost Souls, using Lilith 's bond to alter Jace 's memories to believe they are on the same side and plans on raising and army of demons and Dark Shadowhunters to destroy the world. Clary infiltrates his inner circle through Jace and they both continually mistrust each other but are forced to work together when they are attacked by enemy demons. Eventually Clary learns the truth of his plans and they engage in a bloody battle. Unable to kill him because it will kill Jace too, she gives up but successfully destroys their base of operations with one of her runes. After a dark ritual, he uses the Infernal Cup to create more Dark Shadowhunters and almost turns Clary but is quickly stopped by the arrival of the Lightwoods and their allies. Before he manages to escape, Clary is forced to stab Jace with the angelic sword Glorious, severing his bond with Sebastian and causing the latter horrible pain. At the end of the book he sends a message to Maryse Lightwood: severed angel wings with a single piece of paper saying _́ _́ I am coming. _́ _́
In City of Heavenly Fire, Sebastian is attacking institutes around the world and turning Shadowhunters into Endarkened. He then goes and attacks the Citadel, and kills many Shadowhunters but is forced to flee when Jace loses control of his Heavenly Fire. Sebastian then later visits Clary and tries to convince her to leave with him, offering her mercy but she refuses. Once again Jace and Sebastian fight but Sebastian proves that he can not be hurt by anything other than the Heavenly Fire after he stabs himself and then leaves unharmed. Sebastian offers to leave all of the Shadowhunters in Alicante alone, and return Jocelyn, Luke, Magnus, Raphael and Meliorn, whom he has kidnapped, if the Clave turn over Clary and Jace to him. Clary, Jace, Simon, Alec and Isabelle all travel by portal to the Seelie court and travel through to Edom, where Sebastian is hiding. Sebastian is well aware of this and plans for them. When they arrive Sebastian defeats them all and forces Clary by his side. When he is unaware, Clary stabs him with a sword that contains the Heavenly Fire, burning away all of the demon blood in him. He dies surrounded by Clary, Jocelyn and Jace. Clary mourns for the brother that she could have had. Clary later spreads Sebastians ashes over Lake Lyn.
He is said to be the spitting image of Valentine. He has naturally white / silver hair, is very buff, and has deep black eyes. He dyes his hair black in City of Glass while he is impersonating Sebastian Verlac.
He is portrayed by Will Tudor in the television series.
Jonathan is the birth child of Jocelyn Morgenstern (née Fairchild) and Valentine Morgenstern. He was experimented on by Valentine while Jocelyn was pregnant with him. When he was born, Jocelyn knew that something was wrong with the child and had to try very hard to be around him. He is Clary 's brother, and has an unusual sexual attraction to her, freely kissing her in City of Glass and almost forcing himself on her in City of Lost Souls with Clary having to fight him off, repulsed by his actions. The Demoness Lilith also claims that Jonathan is her "son '' due to the fact that it is her demon blood that flows through his veins.
Alaric was a werewolf and served as Third hand (soon second when Gretel died) to Luke in his werewolf pack. He later dies in the battle at Renwick 's in City of Bones.
Amatis Graymark is Luke 's sister who resides in Alicante. She cared for Luke after their mother became an Iron Sister, married Stephen Herondale, and later joined Valentine 's Circle. However, when Luke was bitten by a werewolf, Amatis sent him away in disgust, in spite of their close relationship. Even after this, Valentine decided that Amatis was unfit to be Stephen 's wife for having a Downworlder brother, and told Stephen to leave Amatis for Céline Montclaire (Jace 's biological mother), devastating Amatis. Amatis later became regretful of her decision to banish her brother, who became distrustful of her. In City of Glass, Luke took refuge in Amatis ' residence due to Clary 's wounds caused by Lake Lyn, despite Amatis ' resistance. Amatis then helps the Shadowhunters in the battle of Brocelind Plain and mends her relationship with Luke afterwards. In city of lost souls, Jonathan Morgenstern kidnaps Amatis and turns her into an Endarkened Shadowhunter by having her drink from the Infernal Cup, becoming Jonathan 's faithful lieutenant from then on. With the Infernal Cup 's destruction at the end of the series, Amatis too dies along with all other Endarkened Shadowhunters, only managing to give Luke one last loving look.
Catarina Loss is a warlock and an old friend of Magnus Bane, Ragnor Fell, and Tessa Gray. She has blue skin which she covers up using glamour rather frequently due to her choice to work at Beth Israel Hospital, a hospital for the mundanes. She helps Magnus craft an antidote to wake Jocelyn from her coma and is entrusted with the Book of the White. Catarina continues to help the Shadowhunters against Jonathan and his army of Endarkened Shadowhunters and at the end of the series, attends Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding, where she hints that the Fair Folk is possibly planning revenge against the Shadowhunters for the disadvantaging terms applied to them for their betrayal during the war. She also begins teaching history at the Shadowhunter Academy in Alicante.
In the television series, she is portrayed by Sophia Walker.
Emma Carstairs is a young Shadowhunter of the Los Angeles Institute who appears in City of Heavenly Fire. She is also the main protagonist of The Dark Artifices series (which takes place five years after The Mortal Instruments). Her parents are both killed during the height of the war against Jonathan and his army of Endarkened Shadowhunters; though they are not the true suspects, the Clave decides to put the blame on them. Emma is also interrogated by the Clave using the Mortal Sword which impacts her greatly and prompts Clary to comfort her. Though the Clave mumbles on sending Emma to her relatives, Emma decides to live with her parabatai, Julian Blackthorn, and his family back in Los Angeles. She has a crush on Jace Herondale.
Hodge Starkweather was a member of the Circle, a tutor to the Lightwood children. He was bound to the New York Institute due to not leaving the Circle before the Uprising but he was still loyal to Valentine and tricked Clary into giving him The Mortal Cup so he could give to Valentine in order to be freed of his curse which happened. He fled afterwards with Clary in pursuit and cornered him. Hodge was about to kill her but was attacked by Luke in his werewolf form and somehow found the strength to escape. He reappears again in City of Glass where he was imprisoned by the Clave in the cell next to the one Simon Lewis was in. After Simon was rescued by Clary, Jace and Alec, Hodge revealed where the Mortal Mirror was and nearly revealed to Jace that Valentine was n't his real father but was killed by Jonathan Morgenstern before he could.
He is played by Jared Harris in the movie, and Jon Cor in the television series.
Imogen Herondale (née Whitelaw) is the Inquisitor up to City of Ashes and the paternal grandmother of Jace Herondale through her son, Stephen Herondale. Ever since Stephen 's death at the hands of Valentine and her husband 's immediate death after hearing the news, Imogen becomes a cold - hearted woman who seeks vengeance against Valentine and anyone who has connections with him, such as the former members of his Circle which includes the Lightwoods. She is also certain that Jace, whom she believes is Valentine 's son, is a spy of his father. In City of Ashes, though, Imogen realizes that Jace is actually her grandson after looking at his birthmark (a sign of the Herondales) and sacrifices herself to protect Jace from a poison attack. Before she dies, Imogen tells Jace how his real father, Stephen, would be proud of him if he were still alive. She is portrayed by Mimi Kuzyk in the television series.
Lilith is a Greater Demon, the first woman made by God and is said to have been Adam 's first wife. However, she was disobedient so she was cast into Hell. Also Sebastian / Jonathan 's creator because it was her blood that Valentine had used. And she was an unknown demon that almost killed God and the Devil. In the book, The City of Fallen Angels, it is said that Lilith considers Sebastian her son because it is her blood that flows through his veins. She is then killed by attacking Simon when he still had the Mark of Cain. She is portrayed by Anna Hopkins in the television series.
Malachi was a Shadowhunter Consul for almost two decades before his death. He secretly worked with Valentine Morgenstern and planned to destroy all of the Clave. Consequently, he was an enemy. He is killed in City of Glass by Hugo after he tries to hurt Clary.
Maryse Lightwood (née Trueblood) is the wife of Robert Lightwood, mother of Alec, Isabelle, and Max, and the adoptive mother of Jace Herondale, being the one who gave him his nickname that he preferred over his "real '' name, Jonathan. She is also one of the heads of the New York Institute. Maryse had a brother who decided to leave the Shadowhunter world in favor of marrying a mundane, making her an outcast in her peers, though she still honored him by naming her youngest son, Max, after him. Like her husband, Maryse was a part of Valentine 's Circle and was the more attracted of the two, up until the Uprising which sentenced her and Robert to lead the New York Institute as punishment for conspiring with Valentine. Her marriage with Robert is never the same ever since the Uprising, with Robert even thinking of leaving the family several times. Maryse becomes especially grief - stricken after Max 's death at the hands of Sebastian in City of Glass. At the end of The Mortal Instruments series, Maryse and Robert announce that they are no longer together, though the two say that they will continue to care and love each other. She is portrayed by Nicola Correia Damude in the television series.
Maureen Brown is a 14 - year - old girl who tells everyone she is Simon 's girlfriend and is the friend of the cousin of Simon 's friend Eric. In City of Fallen Angels Simon drinks her blood, but Camille turns her into a vampire and she starts working for a Lilith after killing multiple mundanes. In the epilogue of City of Lost Souls, Alec goes to kill Camille though discovers that Maureen has already killed her and is now head of the New York vampire clan.
Maureen, as leader of the clan, allowed the members to kill conspicuously while sending for some of them to capture Simon, who later escaped to Idris with Raphael. It appears she was mentally tormented by Lilith and Camille before turning into a vampire which resulted in her corrupted state. Eventually Lily, one of the second - in - commands of the clan, conspired with Maia Roberts, the new leader of the New York werewolf pack, to kill Maureen to stop her reckless actions; while most the members were happy with her, some saw the error of her ways as a problem to their kind. Maia agreed to join Maureen 's cause against the Shadowhunters to make her drink her blood and seal the deal. Her blood, however, was spiked with holy water and Maureen turned to dust, but not before being able mutter her last word, "Mama ''. Lily then took leadership of the clan.
Maxwell "Max '' Joseph Lightwood is the second son of Robert and Maryse and the younger brother of Alec and Isabelle. He is 9 years old and is described as hating the fact that he is still young, which prevents him from joining in the matters for adults. In City of Glass, Max is murdered by Sebastian, who strikes him with his hammer. His death greatly impacts his sister, who blames herself for not being there to save him. He 's portrayed by Jack Fulton in the television series.
Raphael Santiago used to be the head of the New York vampire clan at the Hotel Dumort. He became a vampire sometime in the 1950s after being bitten by a vampire at the hotel when he tried to drive out the vampires who lived there. He is said to have been asexual. He died in the last installment of The Mortal Instruments: City Of Heavenly Fire. He 's portrayed by David Castro in the television series.
Robert Lightwood is one of the heads of the New York Institute, later the Inquisitor, husband of Maryse, father of Alec, Isabelle, and Max, as well as the adoptive father of Jace Herondale. He was a part of Valentine 's Circle until the Uprising, after which he and his family were banished to New York. His parabatai was Michael Wayland, but they drifted apart because of Robert 's contempt for the latter 's love for him, later breaking up completely after Robert 's banishment to the point that Robert did not know that Michael had been murdered with his identity being taken up by Valentine. Robert 's marriage with Maryse has been strained since their banishment and Robert once even considered to leave the family for Annamarie Highsmith if not for Max 's birth; this fact is played up by Isabelle after Max 's death, who accuses her father of being happy with Max 's death now that his "burden '' is released. Robert also seems to be the one in his family least pleased when Alec comes out of the closet, even questioning him about what drove him to become gay. At the end of The Mortal Instruments series, Robert has ended his marriage with Maryse, though the two say that they will continue to love each other. He also tells Alec that his disapproval of the latter 's sexuality was because of his previous experience with Michael Wayland. In the television series, he 's portrayed by Paulino Nunes.
Theresa "Tessa '' Gray is a half - demon half - Shadowhunter warlock who is descended from the Starkweather family and the ancestor of the Herondale family. She is the main protagonist of The Infernal Devices series, a distant prequel series of The Mortal Instruments series set during the Victorian era London. Though she does not appear until the last book, Tessa figures in the series ' backstory, not only by her descendants but also as the one who performed the Shadowhunter ritual on Clary when she was younger; Clary even notes several times before their formal meeting that Tessa is familiar to her in some way. She was married to Will Herondale until his mortal death 60 years post-marriage, after which Tessa became a recluse living in the Spiral Labyrinth. When Brother Zachariah is cured by Jace 's heavenly fire, he reverts to Tessa 's old lover, Jem Carstairs, now a mortal and dispelled of any needs of his yin fen medication to which he had needed to live. The two happily marry sometime after Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding, attended by new and old friends -- Will Herondale and Jessamine Lovelace 's ghosts.
Zachariah is a Silent Brother who becomes the one most contacted by the Clave to solve cases regarding the New York Institute in 2007 after the Silent Brothers ' massacre by Valentine. He used to be Jem Carstairs, a main character of The Infernal Devices series, who was turned into a Silent Brother to save his life as he laid dying due to running out of the yin fen medication required to sustain his life, in the process breaking his parabatai link with Will Herondale and separating him from his fiancée, Tessa Gray. He and Tessa together performed the Shadowhunter protection ritual on Clary when she was younger, which also erased her knowledge about the Shadow World for a time. When he finds out that Jace is a descendant of Will, Zachariah becomes fiercely protective of him, especially when he is put under Jonathan Morgenstern 's spell and infused with the heavenly fire. In City of Heavenly Fire, Zachariah 's attempt to save Jace infuses him with the heavenly fire, which burns out his yin fen and turns him back into a mortal Jem Carstairs again. During the war he finds Emma Carstairs a descendant of His family and fiercely protects her during the war. After the war, Jem reunites with Tessa and marries her a year after Jocelyn and Luke 's wedding. He also begins to keep an eye on his distant relative, Emma Carstairs, in Los Angeles and Jace Herondale.
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who holds the privilege when it concerns attorney-client communication | Attorney -- client privilege - wikipedia
In the law of the United States, attorney -- client privilege or lawyer -- client privilege is a "client 's right privilege to refuse to disclose and to prevent any other person from disclosing confidential communications between the client and the attorney. ''
The attorney -- client privilege is one of the oldest recognized privileges for confidential communications. The United States Supreme Court has stated that by assuring confidentiality, the privilege encourages clients to make "full and frank '' disclosures to their attorneys, who are then better able to provide candid advice and effective representation.
Although there are minor variations, the elements necessary to establish the attorney client privilege generally are:
There are a number of exceptions to the privilege in most jurisdictions, chief among them:
A corollary to the attorney -- client privilege is the joint defense privilege, which is also called the common interest rule. The common interest rule "serves to protect the confidentiality of communications passing from one party to another party where a joint defense or strategy has been decided upon and undertaken by the parties and their respective counsel. ''
An attorney speaking publicly in regard to a client 's personal business and private affairs can be reprimanded by the bar and / or disbarred, regardless of the fact that he or she may be no longer representing the client. Discussing a client 's or past client 's criminal history, or otherwise, is viewed as a breach of fiduciary responsibilities.
The attorney -- client privilege is separate from and should not be confused with the work - product doctrine.
When an attorney is not acting primarily as an attorney but, for instance, as a business advisor, member of the Board of Directors, or in another non-legal role, then the privilege generally does not apply.
The privilege protects the confidential communication, and not the underlying information. For instance, if a client has previously disclosed confidential information to a third party who is not an attorney, and then gives the same information to an attorney, the attorney -- client privilege will still protect the communication to the attorney, but will not protect the communication with the third party.
The privilege may be waived if the confidential communications are disclosed to third parties.
Other limits to the privilege may apply depending on the situation being adjudicated.
The crime - fraud exception can render the privilege moot when communications between an attorney and client are themselves used to further a crime, tort, or fraud. In Clark v. United States, the US Supreme Court stated that "A client who consults an attorney for advice that will serve him in the commission of a fraud will have no help from the law. He must let the truth be told. '' The crime - fraud exception also does require that the crime or fraud discussed between client and attorney be carried out to be triggered. US Courts have not yet conclusively ruled how little knowledge an attorney can have of the underlying crime or fraud before the privilege detaches and the attorney 's communications or requisite testimony become admissible.
Lawyers may disclose confidential information relating to the retainer where they are reasonably seeking to collect payment for services rendered. This is justified on policy grounds. If lawyers were unable to disclose such information, many would undertake legal work only where payment is made in advance. This would arguably adversely affect the public 's access to justice.
Lawyers may also breach the duty where they are defending themselves against disciplinary or legal proceedings. A client who initiates proceedings against a lawyer effectively waives rights to confidentiality. This is justified on grounds of procedural fairness -- a lawyer unable to reveal information relating to the retainer would be unable to defend themselves against such action.
Another case is for the probate of a last will and testament. Previously confidential communications between the lawyer and testator may be disclosed in order to prove that a will represented the intent of the now deceased decedent. In many instances, the will, codicil, or other parts of the estate plan require explanation or interpretation through other proof (extrinsic evidence), such as the attorney 's file notes or correspondence from the client.
In certain cases, the client may desire or consent to revelation of personal or family secrets only after his or her death; for example, the will may leave a legacy to a paramour or a natural child.
Courts have occasionally revoked the privilege after the death of the client if it is deemed that doing so serves the client 's intent, such as in the case of resolving testamentary disputes among heirs.
In the United States, communications between accountants and their clients are usually not privileged. A person who is worried about accusations of questionable accounting, such as tax evasion, may decide to work only with an attorney or only with an accountant who is also an attorney; some or all of the resulting communications may be privileged provided that all the requirements for the attorney -- client privilege are met. The mere fact that the practitioner is an attorney will not create a valid attorney -- client privilege with respect to a communication, for example, that involves business or accounting advice rather than legal advice.
Under Federal tax law in the United States, for communications on or after July 22, 1998, there is a limited Federally authorized accountant -- client privilege that may apply to certain communications with non -- attorneys.
If a case arises in the federal court system, the federal court will apply Rule 501 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to determine whether to apply the privilege law of the relevant state or federal common law. If the case is brought to the federal court under diversity jurisdiction, the law of the relevant state will be used to apply the privilege. If the case involves a federal question, the federal court will apply the federal common law of attorney -- client privilege; however, Rule 501 grants flexibility to the federal courts, allowing them to construe the privilege "in light of experience and reason ''.
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when does the new halloween movie come out | Halloween (2018 film) - Wikipedia
Halloween is an upcoming American slasher film directed by David Gordon Green and written by Green, Jeff Fradley, and Danny McBride. It is the eleventh installment in the Halloween franchise, and is a direct sequel to Halloween, while disregarding the continuity of the previous sequels. After failing to develop a new Halloween film in time, Dimension Films lost the rights to the franchise, which were later obtained by Blumhouse Productions with John Carpenter 's involvement. Carpenter, co-creator of the original Halloween, serves as a composer, executive producer and creative consultant for the film.
Set forty years after the original film, Laurie Strode comes face - to - face with Michael Myers for one final showdown on Halloween night. Jamie Lee Curtis and Nick Castle reprise their roles as Strode and Myers, respectively, with stuntman James Jude Courtney also portraying Myers. The film also stars Judy Greer, Andi Matichak, Will Patton, and Virginia Gardner.
Principal photography commenced on January 13, 2018, in South Carolina and concluded on February 19, 2018. The film will premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival in September, and is set for release on October 19, 2018, a week before the 40th anniversary of John Carpenter 's original Halloween.
"The film picks up 40 years after the events of the 1978 original, Laurie Strode (Jamie Lee Curtis) comes to her final confrontation with Michael Myers (Nick Castle and James Jude Courtney), the masked figure who has haunted her since she narrowly escaped his killing spree on Halloween night four decades ago. ''
In 2011, it was announced that a sequel to 2009 's Halloween II, titled Halloween 3D, would be released on October 26, 2012. At the time of the announcement, there was no director or writer attached to the project. Originally, Patrick Lussier and Todd Farmer were labeled as writers but dropped out due to their occupancy on the Hellraiser reboot. The film would pick up where the final frame of its predecessor left off, and would pay homage to the original version of Michael Myers from the 1978 film. It was dropped from its release schedule of October 26, 2012, as no progress had been made.
In February 2015, it was reported that Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan would be writing a new Halloween film, described as a "recalibration '' rather than a reboot, along with Malek Akkad and Matt Stein producing. On June 15, 2015, it was further reported that The Weinstein Company was moving ahead with another Halloween sequel, tentatively titled Halloween Returns with Dunstan directing. It would have been a standalone film set to reintroduce audiences to Michael Myers years after his initial rampage from Halloween and 1981 's Halloween II, as he was confronted by a new generation of victims while on death row. On October 22, 2015, producer Malek Akkad revealed that the production of Halloween Returns had been postponed, stating that the extra time would result in a better film. Malek said on the matter, "Although, I have to say, and this is somewhat new news, but unfortunately things happen in Hollywood where you have issues with studios and different variables. We 've had to take a step back and now we 're trying to re-figure this beast that is the new Halloween. So there is a bit of a delay, but this new Halloween is n't going to be quite what has been announced and what people are expecting, so we 're making some changes there as well. '' In December 2015, it was announced that Dimension Films no longer had the rights to the Halloween franchise after Halloween Returns failed to go into production on schedule. The film 's cancellation was confirmed at the same time.
On May 24, 2016, it was announced that Blumhouse Productions and Miramax were co-financing a new film in the franchise. Blumhouse CEO Jason Blum called the original Halloween a milestone that had influenced the company to begin making horror films, "The great Malek Akkad and John Carpenter have a special place in the hearts of all genre fans and we are so excited that Miramax brought us together. '' The rights specifically went to Miramax and Tarik Akkad, who sought out Blum because of his success as a horror film producer.
When John Carpenter, who had co-written the first two Halloween films with Debra Hill and directed the original, signed on as an executive producer in 2016, he described his intention: "Thirty - eight years after the original Halloween, I 'm going to help to try to make the 10th sequel the scariest of them all. '' He discussed his reasoning for revisiting the franchise since producing 1982 's Halloween III: Season of the Witch in an interview with Rotten Tomatoes, "I talked about the Halloweens for a long time, the sequels -- I have n't even seen all of them... But finally it occurred to me: Well if I 'm just flapping my gums here, why do n't I try to make it as good as I can? So, you know, stop throwing rocks from the sidelines and get in there and try to do something positive. '' When the rights were acquired by Blumhouse, filmmaker Adam Wingard discussed making a new Halloween film, but ultimately dropped out after being sated by an email of encouragement from Carpenter, "I kinda walked away from it like, I just got everything I wanted out of this job. ' This is about as good as it gets. ' '' David Gordon Green and Danny McBride were publicised on February 9, 2017 to handle screenwriting duties, with Green directing and Carpenter advising the project. Carpenter said that he was impressed with the pitch presented by the co-writers, solicited by Jason Blum, proclaiming that "They get it. ''
Rather than reboot the franchise a second time, they chose to focus primarily on continuing the mythology of the first two films when developing the story, with Danny McBride stating, "We all came to the decision that remaking something that already works is n't a good idea. So we just have a reimagining instead. '' The pitch was created by the writers specifically to present to Carpenter, as they were self - described fans of the original Halloween to begin with. The story was eventually fleshed out so that all of the sequels were ignored from continuity, and the ending of the first film was slightly retconned in what McBride likened to an alternate reality. However, he later said that the film still pays tribute to the other films, despite sharing no direct continuity, "you know like there 's some many different versions, and the timeline is so mixed up, we just thought it would be easier to go back to the source and continue from there. It was nicer than knowing you 're working on Halloween 11, it just seemed cooler, ' we 're making Halloween 2 '. For fans, we pay homage and respect to every Halloween that has been out there. '' Despite Green and McBride 's comedy roots, Halloween was distanced from the comedy genre. McBride further elaborated that "I think there was, like, maybe one joke on the page, but the rest is straight horror. '' Believing that "good horror movie directors are good directors '', Jason Blum hired Green for his perceived "amazing '' storytelling. No large steps were taken without Carpenter 's approval, including the acceptance of the initial pitch and bringing back actress Jamie Lee Curtis.
Displeased with Rob Zombie 's re-imagining and added backstory of murderer Michael Myers, Carpenter wanted to take the character back to his more mysterious roots, describing him as "a force of nature. He 's supposed to be almost supernatural. '' McBride detailed his approach as humanizing the character, "I think we 're just trying to take it back to what was so good about the original. It was just very simple and just achieved that level of horror that was n't turning Michael Myers into some being that could n't be killed. I want to be scared by something that I really think could happen. I think it 's much more horrifying to be scared by someone standing in the shadows while you 're taking the trash out. ''
In September 2017, Jamie Lee Curtis confirmed that she would reprise her role as Laurie Strode. In contrast to the character 's final girl role in the original film, Laurie armed herself and prepared extensively in the time period between films in case Michael Myers ever returned. Although Halloween II and its latter installments have portrayed Myers as a familicidal killer and Laurie as his sister, the writers felt that the added motive made him less frightening as a killer. As such, they intentionally ignored that aspect of the lore. In the trailer for the film, Strode 's granddaughter, played by Andi Matichak, explains how her life has been impacted by Michael 's reign of terror 40 years earlier. When a friend hints that they heard Michael was Laurie 's brother, Matichak 's character replies, "No, it was not her brother, that was something people made up. '' The writers did not originally know if Curtis would be willing to return, according to McBride, so they "busted (their) ass on this script to really make that Laurie Strode character something she would n't be able to say no to. '' On why she returned, Curtis stated, "As soon as I read what David Green and Danny McBride had come up with... and the way that they connected the dots of the story, it made so much sense to me that it felt totally appropriate for me to return to Haddonfield, Ill., for another 40th - anniversary retelling. It 's the original story in many, many, many ways. Just retold 40 years later with my granddaughter. '' Curtis had previously returned as Laurie in the sequels Halloween II (1981), Halloween H20: 20 Years Later, and Halloween: Resurrection.
The following October, Judy Greer entered negotiations to play Laurie 's daughter Karen Strode. Danielle Harris, who played Laurie 's daughter Jamie Lloyd in the original continuity 's Halloween 4 and Halloween 5, contacted Blumhouse with the offer to reprise her role in some way, but the studio planned to go with a different daughter character, to Harris ' disappointment: "I was okay with it when she had a son... but they 're saying it 's the last one and... she has a daughter. And it 's not Jamie. It 's just kind of a bummer, I guess. '' On December 7, 2017, Andi Matichak was cast to play Laurie 's granddaughter Allyson.
On December 20, 2017, it was announced that Nick Castle, who portrayed Michael Myers in the original film, would be reprising his role, with actor and stuntman James Jude Courtney set to portray Myers as well. Courtney was suggested to Malek Akkad and David Gordon Green by stunt coordinator Rawn Hutchinson for his ability to do both physical stunts and genuine acting, auditioning afterwards and receiving a phone call in December 2017 affirming that he had landed the role. Green explained to him his vision for Myers ' mannerisms, an amalgamation of Castle 's original performance and the addition of an efficient cat - eque style of movement. Courtney tailored his portrayal to those specifications from observing an actual cat, "I think cats are the most perfect hunting machines on the planet. And the beauty of it is we do n't judge a cat for what a cat does. So I sort of carried that movement and the non-judgmental approach to the way I moved as The Shape, which I learned from my cat Parcival. '' He referred to collaborating with Castle as an "honor '', with Castle describing it as a "passing of the torch ''. He used John Carpenter and Castle 's work on the original film to determine how the forty years that transpired between the events of the films would inform the character over time.
On January 13, 2018, Ginny Gardner, Miles Robbins, Dylan Arnold and Drew Scheid were confirmed to play Allyson 's friends, respectively. On January 16, 2018, Will Patton was publicized to have joined the film 's roster. He was later joined by Rob Niter, both actors being announced to portray police officers. At the same time, Rhian Rees was cast as a character named Dana. Speaking of the cast, Nick Castle stated that "What I like about this (new film) is they 've got some really good young actors. They fleshed out the relationship of Jamie 's character with her daughter and her granddaughter. And they made some choices that I think are really bold choices about who these people are and why they are the way they are now. ''
On July 27, it was announced that a sound - alike voice actor would provide Dr. Loomis ' voice over.
Principal production began on January 13, 2018 in Charleston, South Carolina. Originally, it was set to begin in late October 2017, but was delayed until January 2018. Michael Simmonds served cinematography duties, with Paul Daley and Stewart Cantrell operating the camera. According to Danny McBride, the horror of the film aims to create a sense of tension and dread to the audience rather than relying on graphic violence; the make - up and visual effects were provided by Christopher Nelson. Jamie Lee Curtis finished her scenes on February 16, 2018, with the remaining principal photography concluding on February 19, 2018. Response to the film 's first test screening led the filmmakers to schedule reshoots beginning June 11, 2018, where they will adjust the end scene. Filming will take place again in Charleston.
Courtney did a week of rehearsal before filming began. Nelson used a life cast of his face to construct the Michael Myers ' mask and other prosthetics worn by the actor. The mask was weathered and aged to reflect the character 's "authentic evolution '' since the original. Courtney was involved in every scene featuring Myers, including those of Nick Castle, who was only involved for a minimal amount of filming, which Castle described to the journalists on set as a cameo appearance: "Jim is our Michael Myers now. '' Castle expressed that it was the filmmakers intention to maintain the atmosphere of the original and that, like the 1978 film, "it 's very neighborhood - centric... There are a lot of things coinciding (in the new film) that feel like clever ways to introduce a kind of déjà vu of the first one, without feeling like it 's being copied. It was the first thing out of their mouths really: ' We want to do it like John (Carpenter) did it. ' ''
Nelson accompanied Courtney throughout filming, providing him with acting advice from his own knowledge of the characters of the Halloween franchise. Nelson had been interviewed and examined for the film by Akkad and Green after a conversation with Blumhouse producer Ryan Turek, who he was already acquainted with. Collaborating with fellow make - up effects artist Vincent Van Dyke, some of his designs and concepts were initially rejected due to legal complications, which were later straightened out as he began his work on the film. Rather than trying to copy the design of the original mask, he simply intended on recapturing what he described as the visual "feeling '' of it. Because the film is set forty years after the events of the original, he studied the decomposition and wrinkling of forty - year - old masks over time while outlining his take on Myers ' look, "You 're not creating just a mask. You 're creating a feeling that you get that does have an expression... But also the mask looks completely different in every single angle it 's ever been photographed at, and I wanted that feeling too. '' Courtney was hired after Nelson advised Green not to cast a hulking stuntman in the role in compliance with the first film.
After previously providing the score for the original Halloween, Halloween II, and Halloween III: Season of the Witch, John Carpenter confirmed in October 2017 that he had made a deal to score the 2018 release. Regarding his take on the sequel, he said, "I 'll be consulting with the director to see what he feels. I could create a new score, we could update the old score and amplify it, or we could combine those two things. I 'll have to see the movie to see what it requires. ''
The CinemaCon film convention premiered exclusive footage on April 25, 2018, garnering positive reactions from those in attendance. The film had a presentation at the San Diego Comic - Con in Hall H on July 20, 2018, which featured Jamie Lee Curtis, David Gordon Green, Malek Akkad, and Jason Blum in attendance. During the panel, which featured an extended scene and trailer, Curtis discussed how the film ties in with the Me Too movement, describing it as a film about "trauma '', stating, "(Laurie 's) taking back her narrative. She has carried the trauma and PTSD of someone who was attacked (...) And there comes a point where you say, I am not a victim. And this is a person who has been waiting 40 years (for the chance). ''
Halloween will have its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2018, as part of the festival 's Midnight Madness section. The film is scheduled to be released theatrically on October 19, 2018.
Trick or Treat Studios obtained the official costume licensing rights for the film. Both Nelson and Vincent Van Dyke joined their design team, who used toolings from the screen - used mold of Michael Myers ' mask to adapt it for mass market sale.
In October 2017, Carpenter said that the film would be the final installment of the series. However, in June 2018, McBride confirmed that he and Green originally had intended to pitch two films that would be shot back - to - back, after deciding against it and waiting to see the reaction to the first film: "We were going to shoot two of them back - to - back. Then we were like, ' Well, let 's not get ahead of ourselves. This could come out, and everyone could hate us, and we 'd never work again. So, let 's not have to sit around for a year while we wait for another movie to come out that we know people are n't going to like. ' So, we were like, ' Let 's learn from this, and see what works, and what does n't. ' But we definitely have an idea of where we would go (with) this branch of the story and hopefully we get a chance to do it. ''
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who played king robert on game of thrones | Mark Addy - wikipedia
Mark Ian Addy (born 14 January 1964) is an English actor. He is known for varied roles in British television, including Detective Constable Gary Boyle in the sitcom The Thin Blue Line (1995 -- 1996) and Hercules in the fantasy drama series Atlantis (2013 -- 2015). He made his film debut as Dave Horsefall in The Full Monty (1997), earning a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Other notable roles include Fred Flintstone in The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000), Bill Miller in the CBS sitcom Still Standing (2002 -- 2006) and King Robert Baratheon in the HBO medieval fantasy series Game of Thrones (2011).
Addy was born in York. His family has lived in York since at least 1910, when his great - grandfather was living there. His father Ian spent his working life as a glazier at York Minster. Addy was educated at Nunthorpe Grammar School, and from 1982 to 1984 attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
Addy made his first TV appearance in 1987 in The Ritz, followed in 1988 by A Very Peculiar Practice, followed by TV performances in shows such as Heartbeat, Band of Gold, Married... with Children, Peak Practice, The Thin Blue Line, Too Much Sun, Sunnyside Farm, Trollied and most recently The Syndicate for the BBC.
He played Bill Miller in Still Standing and played Detective Boyle in the second series of the British sitcom The Thin Blue Line. He also appeared on ITV1 's comedy drama series Bonkers, and another ITV comedy drama, Bike Squad, in early 2008 as Sergeant John Rook.
Since 2009, Addy has starred with Fay Ripley in a series of adverts for the relaunched Tesco Clubcard. He played Robert Baratheon in the HBO series Game of Thrones. He played Hercules, one of the main characters in the BBC One fantasy drama series Atlantis, which started airing on 28 September 2013 in the UK. In the BBC TV drama, New Blood (2016) featuring young detectives from the Serious Fraud Office and the London Police Service, Addy played D.S. Derek Sands.
In film, Addy had a leading role in The Full Monty, and played Fred Flintstone in the 2000 film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas. In that role, as well as in Still Standing, he played a blue - collar American (or, more accurately, an American - accented Pangean in the case of Fred Flintstone). He played Mac McArthur in the 1998 film Jack Frost. In 2001, he played Roland in A Knight 's Tale and a butler to Chris Rock 's character in the film Down to Earth. In Down to Earth, his character was an American who was pretending to be British.
Addy played David Philby in The Time Machine and made an appearance as the Ship Captain in Around the World in 80 Days with Jackie Chan and Steve Coogan and made an appearance as Friar Tuck in Ridley Scott 's 2010 film Robin Hood.
Addy played Kevin Snell in the 2006 revival of Donkeys ' Years at the Comedy Theatre in London, and in 2007 -- 08 he has appeared at the National Theatre as Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing and as Hjalmar Johansen in Fram. In 2011, he played Vladimir, an NKVD officer, in Collaborators at the National Theatre, which also featured in the National Theatre Live programme, where live performances are broadcast to cinemas around the world. In 2016, Addy appeared in Richard Bean 's The Nap at Sheffield Crucible with Jack O'Connell and Ralf Little, directed by Richard Wilson.
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to indicate the results of triage every person receives a | Triage - wikipedia
Triage (/ ˈtriːɑːʒ / or / / triːˈɑːʒ / /) is the process of determining the priority of patients ' treatments based on the severity of their condition. This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately. The term comes from the French verb trier, meaning to separate, sift or select. Triage may result in determining the order and priority of emergency treatment, the order and priority of emergency transport, or the transport destination for the patient.
Triage may also be used for patients arriving at the emergency department, or telephoning medical advice systems, among others. This article deals with the concept of triage as it occurs in medical emergencies, including the prehospital setting, disasters, and emergency room treatment.
The term triage may have originated during the Napoleonic Wars from the work of Dominique Jean Larrey. The term was used further during World War I by French doctors treating the battlefield wounded at the aid stations behind the front. Those responsible for the removal of the wounded from a battlefield or their care afterwards would divide the victims into three categories:
For many emergency medical services (EMS) systems, a similar model may sometimes still be applied. In the earliest stages of an incident, such as when one or two paramedics exist to twenty or more patients, practicality demands that the above, more "primitive '' model will be used. However once a full response has occurred and many hands are available, paramedics will usually use the model included in their service policy and standing orders.
As medical technology has advanced, so have modern approaches to triage, which are increasingly based on scientific models. The categorizations of the victims are frequently the result of triage scores based on specific physiological assessment findings. Some models, such as the START model may be algorithm - based. As triage concepts become more sophisticated, triage guidance is also evolving into both software and hardware decision support products for use by caregivers in both hospitals and the field.
This section is for concepts in triage. See other sections for specific triage tools, methods, and systems
Simple triage is usually used in a scene of an accident or "mass - casualty incident '' (MCI), in order to sort patients into those who need critical attention and immediate transport to the hospital and those with less serious injuries. This step can be started before transportation becomes available.
Upon completion of the initial assessment by physicians, nurses or paramedical personnel, each patient may be labelled which may identify the patient, display assessment findings, and identify the priority of the patient 's need for medical treatment and transport from the emergency scene. At its most primitive, patients may be simply marked with coloured flagging tape or with marker pens. Pre-printed cards for this purpose are known as a triage tags.
A triage tag is a prefabricated label placed on each patient that serves to accomplish several objectives:
Triage tags may take a variety of forms. Some countries use a nationally standardized triage tag, while in other countries commercially available triage tags are used, and these will vary by jurisdictional choice. The most commonly used commercial systems include the METTAG, the SMARTTAG, E / T LIGHT tm and the CRUCIFORM systems. More advanced tagging systems incorporate special markers to indicate whether or not patients have been contaminated by hazardous materials, and also tear off strips for tracking the movement of patients through the process. Some of these tracking systems are beginning to incorporate the use of handheld computers, and in some cases, bar code scanners.
For classifications, see the specific section for that topic.
In advanced triage, doctors and specially trained nurses may decide that some seriously injured people should not receive advanced care because they are unlikely to survive. It is used to divert scarce resources away from patients with little chance of survival in order to increase the chances for others with higher likelihoods.
The use of advanced triage may become necessary when medical professionals decide that the medical resources available are not sufficient to treat all the people who need help. The treatment being prioritized can include the time spent on medical care, or drugs or other limited resources. This has happened in disasters such as terrorist attacks, mass shootings, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, and rail accidents. In these cases some percentage of patients will die regardless of medical care because of the severity of their injuries. Others would live if given immediate medical care, but would die without it.
In these extreme situations, any medical care given to people who will die anyway can be considered to be care withdrawn from others who might have survived (or perhaps suffered less severe disability from their injuries) had they been treated instead. It becomes the task of the disaster medical authorities to set aside some victims as hopeless, to avoid trying to save one life at the expense of several others.
If immediate treatment is successful, the patient may improve (although this may be temporary) and this improvement may allow the patient to be categorized to a lower priority in the short term. Triage should be a continuous process and categories should be checked regularly to ensure that the priority remains correct given the patient 's condition. A trauma score is invariably taken when the victim first comes into hospital and subsequent trauma scores are taken to account for any changes in the victim 's physiological parameters. If a record is maintained, the receiving hospital doctor can see a trauma score time series from the start of the incident, which may allow definitive treatment earlier.
Continuous integrated triage is an approach to triage in mass casualty situations which is both efficient and sensitive to psychosocial and disaster behavioral health issues that affect the number of patients seeking care (surge), the manner in which a hospital or healthcare facility deals with that surge (surge capacity) and the overarching medical needs of the event.
Continuous integrated triage combines three forms of triage with progressive specificity to most rapidly identify those patients in greatest need of care while balancing the needs of the individual patients against the available resources and the needs of other patients. Continuous integrated triage employs:
However any Group, Individual and / or Hospital Triage system can be used at the appropriate level of evaluation.
Usually, triage refers to prioritising admission. A similar process can be applied to discharging patients early when the medical system is stressed. This process has been called "reverse triage ''. During a "surge '' in demand, such as immediately after a natural disaster, many hospital beds will be occupied by regular non-critical patients. In order to accommodate a greater number of the new critical patients, the existing patients may be triaged, and those who will not need immediate care can be discharged until the surge has dissipated, for example through the establishment of temporary medical facilities in the region.
Undertriage is the underestimating the severity of an illness or injury. An example of this would be categorizing a Priority 1 (Immediate) patient as a Priority 2 (Delayed) or Priority 3 (Minimal). Historically, acceptable undertriage rates have been deemed 5 % or less.
Overtriage is the overestimating of the severity of an illness or injury. An example of this would be categorizing a Priority 3 (Minimal) patient as a Priority 2 (Delayed) or Priority 1 (Immediate). Acceptable overtriage rates have been typically up to 50 % in an effort to avoid undertriage. Some studies suggest that overtriage is less likely to occur when triaging is performed by hospital medical teams, rather than paramedics or EMTs.
This section is for general concepts in triage - based treatment options and outcomes. For specific triage systems and methods see the sections dedicated to that topic
For those patients that have a poor prognosis and are expected to die regardless of the medical treatment available, palliative care such as painkillers may be given to ease suffering before they die.
In the field, triage sets priorities for evacuation or relocation to other care facilities.
Alternative care facilities are places that are set up for the care of large numbers of patients, or are places that could be so set up. Examples include schools, sports stadiums, and large camps that can be prepared and used for the care, feeding, and holding of large numbers of victims of a mass casualty or other type of event. Such improvised facilities are generally developed in cooperation with the local hospital, which sees them as a strategy for creating surge capacity. While hospitals remain the preferred destination for all patients, during a mass casualty event such improvised facilities may be required in order to divert low - acuity patients away from hospitals in order to prevent the hospitals becoming overwhelmed.
In advanced triage systems, secondary triage is typically implemented by emergency nurses, skilled paramedics, or battlefield medical personnel within the emergency departments of hospitals during disasters, injured people are sorted into five categories.
Some crippling injuries, even if not life - threatening, may be elevated in priority based on the available capabilities. During peacetime, most amputation injuries may be triaged "Red '' because surgical reattachment must take place within minutes, even though in all probability the person will not die without a thumb or hand.
This section is for examples of specific triage systems and methods. For general triage concepts, see the sections for types of triage, treatment options, and outcomes.
During the early stages of an incident, first responders may be overwhelmed by the scope of patients and injuries. One valuable technique is the Patient Assist Method (PAM). The responders quickly establish a casualty collection point (CCP) and advise, either by yelling, or over a loudspeaker, that "anyone requiring assistance should move to the selected area (CCP) ''. This does several things at once, it identifies patients that are not so severely injured, that they need immediate help, it physically clears the scene, and provides possible assistants to the responders. As those who can move, do so, the responders then ask, "anyone who still needs assistance, yell out or raise your hands ''; this further identifies patients who are responsive, yet maybe unable to move. Now the responders can rapidly assess the remaining patients who are either expectant, or are in need of immediate aid. From that point the first responder is quickly able to identify those in need of immediate attention, while not being distracted or overwhelmed by the magnitude of the situation. Using this method assumes the ability to hear. Deaf, partially deaf, or victims of a large blast injury may not be able to hear these instructions.
Examples of scoring systems used:
S.T.A.R.T. (Simple Triage and Rapid Treatment) is a simple triage system that can be performed by lightly trained lay and emergency personnel in emergencies. It is not intended to supersede or instruct medical personnel or techniques. It has been taught to California emergency workers for use in earthquakes. It was developed at Hoag Hospital in Newport Beach, California for use by emergency services. It has been field - proven in mass casualty incidents such as train wrecks and bus accidents, though it was developed for use by community emergency response teams (CERTs) and firefighters after earthquakes.
Triage separates the injured into four groups:
Triage also sets priorities for evacuation and transport as follows:
Within the hospital system, the first stage on arrival at the emergency room is assessment by the hospital triage nurse. This nurse will evaluate the patient 's condition, as well as any changes, and will determine their priority for admission to the Emergency Room and also for treatment. Once emergency assessment and treatment are complete, the patient may need to be referred to the hospital 's internal triage system.
For a typical inpatient hospital triage system, a triage nurse or physician will either field requests for admission from the ER physician on patients needing admission or from physicians taking care of patients from other floors who can be transferred because they no longer need that level of care (i.e. intensive care unit patient is stable for the medical floor). This helps keep patients moving through the hospital in an efficient and effective manner.
This triage position is often done by a hospitalist. A major factor contributing to the triage decision is available hospital bed space. The triage hospitalist must determine, in conjunction with a hospital 's "bed control '' and admitting team, what beds are available for optimal utilization of resources in order to provide safe care to all patients. A typical surgical team will have their own system of triage for trauma and general surgery patients. This is also true for neurology and neurosurgical services. The overall goal of triage, in this system, is to both determine if a patient is appropriate for a given level of care and to ensure that hospital resources are utilized effectively.
In an advanced triage process injured people are sorted into categories. Conventionally there are five classifications with corresponding colors and numbers although this may vary by region.
The Australasian Triage Scale (abbreviated ATS and formally known as the National Triage Scale) is a triage system that is implemented in both Australia and New Zealand. The scale has been in use since 1994. The scale consists of 5 levels, with 1 being the most critical (resuscitation), and 5 being the least critical (nonurgent).
In the mid-1980s, The Victoria General Hospital, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, introduced paramedic triage in its Emergency Department. Unlike all other centres in North America that employ physician and primarily nurse triage models, this hospital began the practice of employing Primary Care level paramedics to perform triage upon entry to the Emergency Department. In 1997, following the amalgamation of two of the city 's largest hospitals, the Emergency Department at the Victoria General closed. The paramedic triage system was moved to the city 's only remaining adult emergency department, located at the New Halifax Infirmary. In 2006, a triage protocol on whom to exclude from treatment during a flu pandemic was written by a team of critical - care doctors at the behest of the Ontario government.
For routine emergencies, many locales in Canada now employ the Canadian Triage and Acuity Scale (CTAS) for all incoming patients. The system categorizes patients by both injury and physiological findings, and ranks them by severity from 1 -- 5 (1 being highest). The model is used by both paramedics and E / R nurses, and also for pre-arrival notifications in some cases. The model provides a common frame of reference for both nurses and paramedics, although the two groups do not always agree on scoring. It also provides a method, in some communities, for benchmarking the accuracy of pre-triage of calls using AMPDS (What percentage of emergency calls have return priorities of CTAS 1, 2, 3, etc.) and these findings are reported as part of a municipal performance benchmarking initiative in Ontario. Curiously enough the model is not currently used for mass casualty triage, and is replaced by the START protocol and METTAG triage tags.
Triage at an accident scene is performed by a paramedic or an emergency physician, using the four - level scale of Can wait, Has to wait, Cannot wait, and Lost.
In France, the Prehospital triage in case of a disaster uses a four - level scale:
This triage is performed by a physician called médecin trieur (sorting medic). This triage is usually performed at the field hospital (PMA -- poste médical avancé, i.e. forward medical post). The absolute urgencies are usually treated onsite (the PMA has an operating room) or evacuated to a hospital. The relative urgencies are just placed under watch, waiting for an evacuation. The involved are addressed to another structure called the CUMP -- Cellule d'urgence médico - psychologique (medical - psychological urgency cell); this is a resting zone, with food and possibly temporary lodging, and a psychologist to take care of the brief reactive psychosis and avoid post-traumatic stress disorder.
In the emergency room of a hospital, the triage is performed by a physician called MAO -- médecin d'accueil et d'orientation (reception and orientation physician), and a nurse called IOA -- infirmière d'organisation et d'accueil (organisation and reception nurse). Some hospitals and SAMU organisations now use the "Cruciform '' card referred to elsewhere.
France has also a Phone Triage system for Medical Emergencies Phone Demands in its Samu Medical Regulation Centers through the 15 medical free national hot line. "Medical Doctor Regulator '' decides what is to be the most efficient solution = Emergency Telemedecine or dispatch of an Ambulance, a General Practitioner or a Physician+ Nurse + Ambulance Man, Hospital based MICU (Mobile Intensive Care Unit).
Preliminary assessment of injuries is usually done by the first ambulance crew on scene, with this role being assumed by the first Notarzt arriving at the scene. As a rule, there will be no cardiopulmonary resuscitation, so patients who do not breathe on their own or develop circulation after their airways are cleared, will be tagged "deceased ''. Also, not every major injury automatically qualifies for a red tag. A patient with a traumatic amputation of the forearm might just be tagged yellow, have the bleeding stopped, and then be sent to a hospital when possible. After the preliminary assessment, a more specific and definite triage will follow, as soon as patients are brought to a field treatment facility. There, they will be disrobed and fully examined by an emergency physician. This will take approximately 90 seconds per patient.
The German triage system also uses four, sometimes five colour codes to denote the urgency of treatment. Typically, every ambulance is equipped with a folder or bag with coloured ribbons or triage tags. The urgency is denoted as follows:
In Hong Kong, triage in Accident & Emergency Departments is performed by experienced registered nurses, patients are divided into five triage categories: Critical, Emergency, Urgent, Semi-urgent and Non-urgent.
In Japan, the triage system is mainly used by health professionals. The categories of triage, in corresponding color codes, are:
In Spain, there are 2 models which are the most common found in hospitals around the country:
Some autonomous communities in Spain, like Navarre and the Valencian Community, have created their own systems for the community own hospitals.
In the UK, the commonly used triage system is the Smart Incident Command System, taught on the MIMMS (Major Incident Medical Management (and) Support) training program. The UK Armed Forces use this system on operations. This grades casualties from Priority 1 (needs immediate treatment) to Priority 3 (can wait for delayed treatment). There is an additional Priority 4 (expectant, likely to die even with treatment) but the use of this category requires senior medical authority.
In the UK and Europe, the triage process used is sometimes similar to that of the United States (see below), but the categories are different:
Triage in a multi-scale destruction, disaster, catastrophic, casualty event, such as following a tornado or an explosion in a populated area, first responders follow a similar triage category scale as the US military. The civilian medical industry uses a similar system for triage. Normally medical personnel are n't immediately available on scene. First responders are usually the first to arrive on scene. They could be police, fire rescue, paramedics, or community individuals with disaster training (CERT certified). They are trained to perform first aid, basic life saving and rescue techniques while performing the greatest good, for the greatest number of people. They will rapidly classify victims and sort them into 4 categories, treating quickly as they go. This system is intended to rapidly identify and classify victims for arriving transport or advanced care medical personnel such as doctors and nurses. The local National Guard and other military units responding would be using the military system of triage rather than civilian. The triage categories are general and the names may vary by region of the nation:
A battlefield situation, however, requires medics and corpsmen to rank casualties for precedence in MEDEVAC or CASEVAC. The casualties are then transported to a higher level of care, either a Forward Surgical Team or Combat Support Hospital and re-triaged by a nurse or doctor. In a combat situation, the triage system is based solely on resources and ability to save the maximum number of lives within the means of the hospital supplies and personnel.
The triage categories (with corresponding color codes), in precedence, are:
Afterwards, casualties are given an evacuation priority based on need:
In a "naval combat situation '', the triage officer must weigh the tactical situation with supplies on hand and the realistic capacity of the medical personnel. This process can be ever - changing, dependent upon the situation and must attempt to do the maximum good for the maximum number of casualties.
Field assessments are made by two methods: primary survey (used to detect & treat life - threatening injuries) and secondary survey (used to treat non-life - threatening injuries) with the following categories:
Notions of mass casualty triage as an efficient rationing process of determining priority based upon injury severity are not supported by research, evaluation and testing of current triage practices, which lack scientific and methodological bases. START and START - like (START) triage that use color - coded categories to prioritize provide poor assessments of injury severity and then leave it to providers to subjectively order and allocate resources within flawed categories. Some of these limitations include:
Research indicates there are wide ranges and overlaps of survival probabilities of the Immediate and Delayed categories, and other START limitations. The same physiologic measures can have markedly different survival probabilities for blunt and penetrating injuries. For example, a START Delayed (second priority) can have a survival probability of 63 % for blunt trauma and a survival probability of 32 % for penetrating trauma with the same physiological measures -- both with expected rapid deterioration, while a START Immediate (first priority) can have survival probabilities that extend to above 95 % with expected slow deterioration. Age categories exacerbate this. For example, a geriatric patient with a penetrating injury in the Delayed category can have an 8 % survival probability, and a pediatric patient in the Immediate category can have a 98 % survival probability. Issues with the other START categories have also been noted. In this context, color - coded tagging accuracy metrics are not scientifically meaningful.
Poor assessments, invalid categories, no objective methodology and tools for prioritizing casualties and allocating resources, and a protocol of worst first triage provide some challenges for emergency and disaster preparedness and response. These are clear obstacles for efficient triage and resource rationing, for maximizing savings of lives, for best practices and National Incident Management System (NIMS) compatibilities, and for effective response planning and training.
Inefficient triage also provides challenges in containing health care costs and waste. Field triage is based upon the notion of up to 50 % overtriage as being acceptable. There have been no cost - benefit analyses of the costs and mitigation of triage inefficiencies embedded in the healthcare system. Such analyses are often required for healthcare grants funded by taxpayers, and represent normal engineering and management science practice. These inefficiencies relate to the following cost areas:
Because treatment is intentionally delayed or withheld from patients, advanced triage has ethical implications.
Bioethical concerns have historically played an important role in triage decisions, such as the allocation of iron lungs during the polio epidemics of the 1940s and of dialysis machines during the 1960s. As many health care systems in the developed world continue to plan for an expected influenza pandemic, bioethical issues regarding the triage of patients and the rationing of care continue to evolve. Similar issues may occur for paramedics in the field in the earliest stages of mass casualty incidents when large numbers of potentially serious or critical patients may be combined with extremely limited staffing and treatment resources.
Research continues into alternative care, and various centers propose medical decision - support models for such situations. Some of these models are purely ethical in origin, while others attempt to use other forms of clinical classification of patient condition as a method of standardized triage.
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if i die young what is the song about | If I Die Young - wikipedia
"If I Die Young '' is a song written by Kimberly Perry, and recorded by American country music group The Band Perry. It was released on June 8, 2010 as the second single from the group 's self - titled debut album, which was released on October 12, 2010.
"If I Die Young '' is a mid-tempo tune accompanied by acoustic guitar, banjo, accordion, mandolin, fiddle, electric bass, and drums. It is in the key of E Major. The song is about the sadness of dying young ("The sharp knife of a short life '') as the narrator describes how she never really got to experience love and worrying about how her loved ones will miss her and deal with the loss. She recognizes that once someone passes away, others seem to pay more attention to that person 's life: "And maybe then you 'll hear the words I been singin ' / Funny when you 're dead how people start listenin '. '' She states that if she dies young, then her family left behind should "save their tears '' for a time when "they 're really gon na need them. '' She states that she has had a well - lived life in the line "Well, I 've had just enough time. ''
The Band Perry received at least one letter in response to the song. In its envelope, the members also found a necklace with a ring on it. The letter 's author was a young girl who had recently lost her best friend to cancer. Mourning her friend 's death, the girl was contemplating suicide. Driving from work one day, she heard "If I Die Young '' on the radio. Hearing "so much life in the song '', the girl changed her mind. In her letter to The Band Perry, she wrote about the necklace: "I 'm sending this to you, because it 's the most important thing I own. This song literally saved my life. ''
Bobby Peacock of Roughstock spoke positively of the lyrics, saying that they were "very well - developed with interesting little details. '' He felt that, although the topic is "a little sugarcoated '', the vocal performance is a "pleasant listening experience ''.
"If I Die Young '' debuted at number 57 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of May 29, 2010. It also debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the week of July 24, 2010. In October 2010, it became the group 's first top 10 single on the Hot Country Songs chart as well as their first top 20 on the Hot 100 chart. The song became their first number one hit on the Hot Country Songs chart for the week of December 11, 2010.
In early 2011, the song was remixed by Matt Ward and Dean Gillard for pop radio. The remix debuted at number 36 on the U.S. Billboard Pop Songs chart and number 29 on the U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary chart for the week of June 11, 2011. With the remix impacting pop radio, the song re-entered the Hot 100 chart at number 46 for the week of June 25, 2011. It has since reached a new peak of number 14.
In May 2011, the song sold over 2 million copies, the eleventh country music song to do so, and only the fourth time that a band reached this plateau, following Lady Antebellum, Zac Brown Band and Rascal Flatts. At the time, "If I Die Young '' song was the highest - selling single to miss the top ten, and as of August 24, 2015, "If I Die Young '' surpassed 5 million downloads.
In July 2011, the song reached the top 15 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in its thirty - fifth chart week, making it the slowest climb into the top 15. It broke the slowest climb record that was previously held by Carrie Underwood 's "Before He Cheats '', and Taylor Swift 's "Teardrops on My Guitar ''. Both songs took thirty - three weeks to reach the top 15. The song spent 53 weeks on Billboard Hot 100 chart and is their best - selling single to date.
The music video, which was directed by David McClister, premiered on CMT on May 27, 2010. In the video, the band is shown setting Kimberly Perry in a canoe before pushing it off into the river. Perry is holding a book containing poems by Tennyson, including The Lady of Shalott, which the book is opened to at the end of the music video. The video echoes a scene in Anne of Green Gables in which Anne attempts to appear as the Lady of the poem. Kimberly 's mother and her love interest (played by Kyle Kupecky) are shown plucking flower petals and visibly depressed that she has left them. Eventually, her canoe begins to take on water, she sits up. Once this occurs her brothers come back for her. When she gets back to her house, her mother and love interest embrace her. The video was filmed on location at Two Rivers Mansion outside of Nashville, Tennessee. Throughout the video, the band is also shown performing with their instruments inside of the house.
In 2013, Naya Rivera performed the song as her character Santana Lopez in the fifth season tribute episode "The Quarterback '' of the television series Glee, in honor of Cory Monteith, who played character Finn Hudson on the show. The song peaked at number eighty - eight on the UK Singles Chart.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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eritrea is a country located in one of these continents of the world | Eritrea - wikipedia
Coordinates: 15 ° N 39 ° E / 15 ° N 39 ° E / 15; 39
Eritrea (/ ˌɛrɪˈtreɪ. ə / or / ˌɛrɪˈtriːə /; Tigrinya: ኤርትራ, listen (help info)), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa, with its capital at Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km (45,406 sq mi), and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands. Its toponym Eritrea is based on the Greek name for the Red Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa), which was first adopted for Italian Eritrea in 1890.
Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country, with nine recognized ethnic groups in its population of around 5 million. Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches. Among these communities, the Tigrinyas make up about 55 % of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30 % of inhabitants. In addition, there are a number of Nilo - Saharan - speaking Nilotic ethnic minorities. Most people in the territory adhere to Christianity or Islam.
The Kingdom of Aksum, covering much of modern - day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, rose somewhere around the first or second centuries and adopted Christianity around the time Islam had spread through Egypt and the Levant. In medieval times much of Eritrea fell under the Medri Bahri kingdom, with a smaller region being part of Hamasien.
The creation of modern - day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent, distinct kingdoms and sultanates (for example, Medri Bahri and the Sultanate of Aussa) eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea. In 1947 Eritrea became part of a federation with Ethiopia, the Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Subsequent annexation into Ethiopia led to the Eritrean War of Independence, ending with Eritrean independence following a referendum in April 1993. Hostilities between Eritrea and Ethiopia persisted, leading to the Eritrean -- Ethiopian War of 1998 -- 2000 and further skirmishes with both Djibouti and Ethiopia.
Eritrea is a one - party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed. According to Human Rights Watch, the Eritrean government 's human rights record is considered among the worst in the world. The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated. The compulsory military service requires lengthy, indefinite conscription periods, which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid. Since all local media is state - owned, Eritrea was also ranked as having the least press freedom in the global Press Freedom Index.
Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, and IGAD, and is an observer in the Arab League alongside Brazil, Venezuela, India and Turkey.
During the Middle Ages, the Eritrea region was known as Medri Bahri ("sea - land ''). The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea (ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα erythra thalassa, based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red ''). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea). The territory became the Eritrea Governorate within Italian East Africa in 1936. Eritrea was annexed by Ethiopia in 1953 (nominally within a federation until 1962) and an Eritrean Liberation Front formed in 1960. Eritrea gained independence following the 1993 referendum, and the name of the new state was defined as State of Eritrea in the 1997 constitution.
At Buya in Eritrea, one of the oldest hominids representing a possible link between Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens was found by Italian scientists. Dated to over 1 million years old, it is the oldest skeletal find of its kind and provides a link between hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was also a major player in terms of human evolution, and may contain other traces of evolution from Homo erectus hominids to anatomically modern humans.
During the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World. In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125,000 years old near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa, along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources like clams and oysters.
According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic - speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family 's proposed urheimat ("original homeland '') in the Nile Valley. Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.
Together with Djibouti, Ethiopia, northern Somalia, and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Eritrea is considered the most likely location of the land known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt, whose first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The ancient Puntites had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut.
In 2010, a genetic study was conducted on the mummified remains of baboons that were brought back as gifts from Punt by the ancient Egyptians. Led by a research team from the Egyptian Museum and the University of California, the scientists used oxygen isotope analysis to examine hairs from two baboon mummies that had been preserved in the British Museum. One of the baboons had distorted isotopic data, so the other 's oxygen isotope values were compared to those of present - day baboon specimens from regions of interest. The researchers initially found that the mummies most closely matched modern baboon specimens in Eritrea and Ethiopia, which they suggested implied that Punt was likely a narrow region that included eastern Ethiopia and all of Eritrea. In 2015, isotopic analysis of other ancient baboon mummies from Punt confirmed that the specimens likely originated from an area encompassing the Eritrea - Ethiopia corridor and eastern Somalia.
Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the earliest pastoral and agricultural communities in the Horn region. Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in the Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC.
Additionally, the Ona culture may have had connections with the ancient Land of Punt. In a tomb in Thebes (Luxor) dated to the 18th dynasty reign of Pharaoh Amenophis II (Amenhotep II), long - necked pots similar to those that were made by the Ona people are depicted as part of the cargo in a ship from Punt.
Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group. Ceramics were discovered that were related to those of the C - Group (Temehu) pastoral culture, which inhabited the Nile Valley between 2500 -- 1500 BC. Some sources dating back to 3500 BC. Shards akin to those of the Kerma culture, another community that flourished in the Nile Valley around the same period, were also found at other local archaeological sites in the Barka valley belonging to the Gash Group. According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus - Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the C - Group and Kerma peoples spoke Afroasiatic languages of the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively.
Dʿmt was a kingdom that encompassed most of Eritrea and the northern frontier of Ethiopia. The polity existed during the 10th to 5th centuries BC. Given the presence of a massive temple complex at Yeha, this area was most likely the kingdom 's capital. Qohaito, often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea.
The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.
The Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100 -- 940 AD, growing from the proto - Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.
According to the medieval Liber Axumae (Book of Aksum), Aksum 's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Aksum in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia '' as early as the 4th century.
The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns, the Obelisk of Aksum, is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet. Under Ezana (fl. 320 -- 360), Aksum later adopted Christianity. In the 7th century, early Muslims from Mecca also sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijra. It is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.
The kingdom is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands were under the domain of Bahr Negash ruled by the Bahr Negus. The area was then known as Ma'ikele Bahr ("between the seas / rivers, '' i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river). It was later renamed under Emperor Zara Yaqob as the domain of the Bahr Negash, the Medri Bahri ("Sea land '' in Tingrinya, although it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia). With its capital at Debarwa, the state 's main provinces were Hamasien, Serae and Akele Guzai.
Turks briefly occupied the highland parts of Baharnagash in 1559 and withdrew after they encountered resistance and were pushed back by the Bahrnegash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into the highlands with the help of Bahr Negash Yisehaq who had switched alliances due to power struggle, and by 1589 once again they were apparently compelled to withdraw their forces to the coast. After that Ottomans abandoned their ambitions to establish themselves on the highlands and remained in the lowlands until they left the region by 1872.
The Scottish traveler James Bruce reported in 1770 that Medri Bahri was a distinct political entity from Abyssinia, noting that the two territories were frequently in conflict. The Bahre - Nagassi ("Kings of the Sea '') alternately fought with or against the Abyssinians and the neighbouring Muslim Adal Sultanate depending on the geopolitical circumstances. Medri Bahri was thus part of the Christian resistance against Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al - Ghazi of Adal 's forces, but later joined the Adalite states and the Ottoman Empire front against Abyssinia in 1572. That 16th century also marked the arrival of the Ottomans, who began making inroads in the Red Sea area.
James Bruce in his book published in 1805 reported Hadawi, the seat of Baharanagash, was part of the Tigré province of Abyssinia which was ruled by Ras Mikael Sehul at the time of his travel. The officer in Hadawi watched over the Naybe of Masawa (province of Turk 's Habesh Eyalet), and starved him into obedience by intercepting his provisions, whenever the officer in Hadawi and the governor of Tigré found it necessary. Bruce also located Tigré between Red Sea and the river Tekezé and stated many large governments, such as Enderta and Antalow, and the great part of Baharhagash were on the eastern side of Tigré province.
At the end of the 16th century, the Aussa Sultanate was established in the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea. The polity had come into existence in 1577, when Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Aussa (Asaita) with the split of the Adal Sultanate into Aussa and the Sultanate of Harar. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined in conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam 's recorded ascension to the throne. In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu, head of the Mudaito clan, seized power and established the Mudaito Dynasty. This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period.
By 1517, the Ottomans had succeeded in conquering Medri Bahri. They occupied all of northeastern present - day Eritrea for the next two decades, an area which stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan.
The territory became an Ottoman governorate (eyalet) known as the Habesh Eyalet. Massawa served as the new province 's first capital. When the city became of secondary economical importance, the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah. Its headquarters remained there from the end of the 16th century to the early 19th century, with Medina temporarily serving as the capital in the 18th century.
The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of the 16th century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the establishment of Italian Eritrea in the late 1800s.
The boundaries of the present - day Eritrea nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa. In 1869 or ' 70, the ruling Sultan of Raheita sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Rubattino Shipping Company. The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal. It had long been part of the Ottoman Habesh Eyalet centered in Egypt. The first Italian settlers arrived in 1880.
In the vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of Italian Eritrea, a colony of the Kingdom of Italy. In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. Uccialli) signed the same year, King Menelik of Shewa, a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals ' lands of Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889 -- 1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.
In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888, and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911. The Asmara -- Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time, but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the Italo - Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo - Abyssinian Wars.
Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of new factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.
In 1922, Benito Mussolini 's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia 's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana) administrative territory. This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire ''. Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa.
Through the 1941 Battle of Keren, the British expelled the Italians, and took over the administration of the country.
The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate.
In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and annexed to Sudan and Ethiopia. The Soviet Union, anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony.
In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations, the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II. The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty.
Following the adoption of UN Resolution 390A (V) in December 1950, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States. The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all practical purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy.
In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. On 1 September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory. The ensuing Eritrean War for Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when the Eritrean People 's Liberation Front (EPLF), a successor of the ELF, defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.
Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. The EPLF seized power, established a one - party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. There have been no elections since.
Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa in East Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea, Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12 ° and 18 ° N, and longitudes 36 ° and 44 ° E.
The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. It has fertile lands to the west, descending to desert in the east. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy and arid coastline.
Eritrea can be split into three ecoregions. To the east of the highlands are the hot, arid coastal plains stretching down to the southeast of the country. The cooler, more fertile highlands, reaching up to 3000m has a different habitat. Habitats here vary from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands. The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 meters (9,902 ft) above sea level.
The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Asseb in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, the northern town of Keren, and the central town Mendefera.
Eritrea is part of a 14 nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility, which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives. Local variability in rainfall patterns and / or reduced precipitation is known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, land degradation and desertification. In 2006, Eritrea also announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection.
Eritrea has several species of mammals and a rich avifauna of 560 species of birds.
Eritrea is home to an abundant amount of big game species. Enforced regulations have helped in steadily increasing their numbers throughout Eritrea. Mammals commonly seen today include the Abyssinian hare, African wild cat, Black - backed jackal, African golden wolf, Genet, Ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring 's gazelle, warthog. Dorcas gazelle are common on the coastal plains and in Gash - Barka.
Lions are said to inhabit the mountains of the Gash - Barka Region. There is also a small population of African bush elephants that roam in some parts of the country. Dik - diks can also be found in many areas. The endangered African wild ass can be seen in Denakalia Region. Other local wildlife include bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, African leopards, oryx and crocodiles., The spotted hyena is widespread and fairly common. Between 1955 and 2001 there were no reported sightings of elephant herds, and they are thought to have fallen victim to the war of independence. In December 2001 a herd of about 30, including 10 juveniles, was observed in the vicinity of the Gash River. The elephants seemed to have formed a symbiotic relationship with olive baboons, with the baboons using the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree - top baboons as an early warning system.
It is estimated that there are around 100 African bush elephant left in Eritrea, the most northerly of East Africa 's elephants. The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) was previously found in Eritrea, but is now deemed extirpated from the entire country. In Gash - Barka, deadly snakes like saw - scaled viper are common. Puff adder and red spitting cobra are widespread and can be found even in the highlands. In the coastal areas marine species that are common include dolphin, dugong, whale shark, turtles, marlin, swordfish, and manta ray.
The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea result in the diversity of climate across the country. The highlands have temperate climate throughout out the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid. The distribution of rainfall and vegetation types varies markedly throughout the country. Eritrean climate varies on the basis of seasonal and altitudinal differences.
Based on variations in temperature, Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones: the temperate zone, subtropical climate zone, and tropical climate zone.
The People 's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) is the ruling party in Eritrea. Other political groups are not allowed to organize, although the unimplemented Constitution of 1997 provides for the existence of multi-party politics. The National Assembly has 150 seats, of which 75 are occupied by the PFDJ. National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled; none have ever been held in the country. The president, Isaias Afwerki, has been in office since independence in 1993.
Eritrean National elections were set for 2001 but it was then decided that because 20 % of Eritrea 's land was under occupation, elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia. However, local elections have continued in Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in 2010 and 2011. On further elections, the President 's Chief of Staff, Yemane Gebremeskel said,
As yet, no national elections have been held since independence.
The Eritrean Defence Forces are now the official armed forces of the State of Eritrea. Eritrea 's military is one of the largest in Africa.
Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially, conscripts, male and female, must serve for 18 months (although a human rights inquiry stated that it lasts for decades, and sometimes life), which includes 6 months of military training and 12 months doing "national reconstruction ''. Thus around 5 % of Eritreans live in barracks in the desert doing projects such as road building as part of their service. After regular service, reservists with skills, such as teachers, may be forced to work as professionals anywhere.
National service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis ''; since 1998, everyone under the age of 50 is enlisted in national service for an indefinite period until released, which may depend on the arbitrary decision of a commander. In a study of 200 escaped conscripts, the average service was 6.5 years, and some had served more than 12 years.
Eritrea is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and is an observing member of the Arab League alongside Brazil, Venezuela, India and Turkey. The nation holds a seat on the United Nations ' Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Eritrea also holds memberships in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, and the World Customs Organization.
The Eritrean government previously withdrew its representative to the African Union to protest the AU 's alleged lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia. The Eritrean government has since January 2011 appointed an envoy, Tesfa - Alem Tekle, to the AU.
Eritrea maintains diplomatic ties with a number of other countries, including China, Denmark, Djibouti, Israel, the United States and Yemen. There are approximately 60,000 African refugees in Israel, mostly from Sudan and Eritrea. Its relations with Djibouti and Yemen are tense due to territorial disputes over the Doumeira Islands and Hanish Islands, respectively.
The undemarcated border with Ethiopia is the primary external issue currently facing Eritrea. Eritrea 's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of cautious mutual tolerance, following the 30 - year war for Eritrean independence, to a deadly rivalry that led to the outbreak of hostilities from May 1998 to June 2000 which claimed approximately 70,000 lives from both sides. The border conflict cost hundreds of millions of dollars.
Disagreements following the war have resulted in stalemate punctuated by periods of elevated tension and renewed threats of war. The stalemate led the President of Eritrea to urge the UN to take action on Ethiopia with the Eleven Letters penned by the President to the United Nations Security Council. The situation has been further escalated by the continued efforts of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting opposition in one another 's countries. In 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of planting bombs at an African Union summit in Addis Ababa, which was later supported by a UN report. Eritrea denied the claims.
Eritrea is divided into 6 administrative regions. These areas are further divided into 58 districts.
The regions of Eritrea are the primary geographical divisions through which the country is administered. Six in total, they include the Maekel / Central, Anseba, Gash - Barka, Debub / Southern, Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions. At the time of independence in 1993, Eritrea was arranged into ten provinces. These provinces were similar to the nine provinces operating during the colonial period. In 1996, these were consolidated into six regions (zobas). The boundaries of these new regions are based on catchment basins.
Transport in Eritrea includes highways, airports and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime and aerial transportation
As of 1999, there was a total of 317 kilometres of 950 mm (3 ft 1 ⁄ in) (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The railway links Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; however, it was nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. By 2003, the line had been restored from Massawa all the way through to Asmara.
The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically they are improved earth roads which are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable.
The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single - layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major cities and towns in Eritrea.
The economy of Eritrea has experienced considerable growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in gross domestic product (GDP) in October 2012 of 7.5 percent over 2011. A big reason for the recent growth of the Eritrean economy is the commencement of full operations in the gold and silver Bisha mine and the production of cement from the cement factory in Massawa.
The real GDP (2009 est.): $4.4 billion, and the annual growth rate (2011 est.): 14 %.
Worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32 percent of gross domestic product. Eritrea has an extensive amount of resources such as copper, gold, granite, marble, and potash. The Eritrean economy has undergone extreme changes due to the War of Independence. In 2011, Eritrea 's GDP grew by 8.7 percent making it one of the fastest growing economies in the world.
80 % of the Eritrean workforce are employed in agriculture. Eritrea 's main agricultural products include sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, legumes, vegetables, fruits, sesame, linseed, cattle, sheep, goats and camels.
The Eritrean -- Ethiopian War severely hurt Eritrea 's economy. GDP growth in 1999 fell to less than 1 %, and GDP decreased by 8.2 % in 2000. In May 2000, the war resulted in some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes.
Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure by asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war - damaged roads and bridges as a part of the Wefri Warsay Yika'alo program. The most significant of these projects was the construction of a coastal highway of more than 500 km connecting Massawa with Asseb, as well as the rehabilitation of the Eritrean Railway. The rail line has been restored between the port of Massawa and the capital Asmara, although services are sporadic. Steam locomotives are sometimes used for groups of enthusiasts.
In theory, Eritrea has a national carrier, Eritrean Airlines, but services are intermittent.
Eritrea 's population increased from 3.2 million to 5 million between 1990 and 2016. The average number of children born to Eritrean mothers is 4.7.
There are nine recognized ethnic groups according to the government of Eritrea. Eritrean society is ethnically heterogeneous. An independent census has yet to be conducted, but the Tigrinya people make up about 55 % and Tigre people make up about 30 % of the population. A majority of these ethnic groups belong to Afroasiatic - speaking communities of the Cushitic branch, such as the Saho, Hedareb, Afar and Bilen. There are also a number of Nilotic ethnic minorities, who are represented in Eritrea by the Kunama and Nara. Each ethnicity speaks a different native tongue but, typically, many of the minorities speak more than one language. The Rashaida represent about 2 % of Eritrea 's population. They reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea as well as the eastern coasts of Sudan. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Hejaz region.
In addition, there exist Italian Eritrean (concentrated in Asmara) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities. Neither is generally given citizenship unless through marriage or, more rarely, by having it conferred upon them by the State. Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians, in 1941. Most Italians left after Eritrea became independent from Italy.
Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has no official language, as the Constitution establishes the "equality of all Eritrean languages ''. Tigrinya serves as the de facto language of national identity. With 2,540,000 total speakers of a population of 5,254,000 in 2006, it is the most widely spoken language, particularly in the southern and central parts of Eritrea. Other major national languages include Afar, Arabic, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, Saho and Tigre. Tigrinya alongside Modern Standard Arabic and English serve as de facto working languages, with the latter used in university education and many technical fields. Italian, the former colonial language, is spoken by a few monolinguals and is still taught in primary and secondary schools.
Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country. The latter include Afar, Beja, Blin, and Saho. Smaller groups also speak other Afroasiatic languages, such as the newly recognized Dahlik and Arabic (the Hejazi and Hadhrami dialects spoken by the Rashaida and Hadhrami, respectively).
In addition, Nilo - Saharan languages (Kunama and Nara) are spoken as a native language by the Nilotic Kunama and Nara ethnic minority groups that live in the northern and northwestern part of the country.
According to the Pew Research Center, as of 2010, 62.9 % of the population of Eritrea adheres to Christianity, 36.6 % follows Islam, and 0.4 % practices folk religion. The remainder observes Judaism, ((Hinduism), Buddhism and other faiths (< 0.1 % each), or are religiously unaffiliated (0.1 %). The U.S. Department of State estimates that, as of 2011, 50 % of the population of Eritrea adheres to Christianity, 48 % follows Islam, and 2 % observes other religions including traditional faiths and animism.
Since May 2002, the government of Eritrea has officially recognized the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam, the Eritrean Catholic Church (a Metropolitanate sui juris), and the Evangelical Lutheran church. All other faiths and denominations are required to undergo a registration process. Among other things, the government 's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship.
The Eritrean government is against what it deems as "reformed '' or "radical '' versions of its established religions. Therefore, alleged radical forms of Islam and Christianity, Jehovah 's Witnesses, the Bahá'í Faith (though the Bahá'í Faith is neither Islamic nor Christian), the Seventh - day Adventist Church, and numerous other non-Protestant Evangelical denominations are not registered and can not worship freely. Three named Jehovah 's Witnesses are known to have been imprisoned since 1994 along with 51 others.
In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Eritrea a Country of Particular Concern (CPC).
Eritrea is a one - party state in which national legislative elections have been repeatedly postponed. According to Human Rights Watch, the government 's human rights record is considered among the worst in the world. Most Western countries have accused the Eritrean authorities of arbitrary arrest and detentions, and of detaining an unknown number of people without charge for their political activism. However, the Eritrean government has continually dismissed the accusations as politically motivated.
The G - 15 are a prominent group of fifteen Eritreans, including three cabinet members, who were arrested in September 2001 after publishing an open letter to the government and President Isaias Afewerki calling for democratic dialogue. This group and other thousands who were alleged to be affiliated with them are imprisoned without legal charges, hearing, trial and judgment.
Since Eritrea 's conflict with Ethiopia in 1998 -- 2001, the nation 's human rights record has come under criticism at the United Nations. Human rights violations are allegedly frequently committed by the government or on behalf of the government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association are limited. Those who practice "unregistered '' religions, try to flee the nation, or escape military duty are arrested and put into prison. During the Eritrean independence struggle and 1998 Eritrean - Ethiopian War, many atrocities were also committed by the Ethiopian authorities against unarmed Eritrean civilians.
In June 2016, a 500 - page United Nations Human Rights Council report accused Eritrea 's government of extrajudicial executions, torture, indefinitely prolonged national service and forced labour, and indicated that sexual harassment, rape and sexual servitude by state officials are also widespread. Barbara Lochbihler of the European Parliament Subcommittee on Human Rights said the report detailed ' very serious human rights violations ', and asserted that EU funding for development would not continue as at present without change in Eritrea. The Eritrean Foreign Ministry responded by describing the Commission 's report as "wild allegations '' which were "totally unfounded and devoid of all merit ''. Several countries also disputed the report 's language and accuracy, including the US and China.
All Eritreans between the ages of 18 -- 40 must complete a mandatory national service, which includes military service. This national service was implemented after Eritrea gained its independence from Ethiopia, as a precautionary means to be protected against any threats on Eritrea 's sovereignty, to instill national pride, and to create a disciplined populace. Eritrea 's national service requires lengthy, indefinite conscription periods, which some Eritreans leave the country in order to avoid.
In an attempt at reform, Eritrean government officials and NGO representatives in 2006 participated in numerous public meetings and dialogues. In these sessions they answered questions as fundamental as, "What are human rights? '', "Who determines what are human rights? '', and "What should take precedence, human or communal rights? '' In 2007, the Eritrean government also banned female genital mutilation. In Regional Assemblies and religious circles, Eritreans themselves speak out continuously against the use of female circumcision. They cite health concerns and individual freedom as being of primary concern when they say this. Furthermore, they implore rural peoples to cast away this ancient cultural practice. Additionally, a new movement called Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea aimed at bringing about dialogue between the government and opposition was formed in early 2009. The group consists of ordinary citizens and some people close to the government.
In its 2014 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked the media environment in Eritrea at the very bottom of a list of 178 countries, just below totalitarian North Korea. According to the BBC, "Eritrea is the only African country to have no privately owned news media '', and Reporters Without Borders said of the public media, "(they) do nothing but relay the regime 's belligerent and ultra-nationalist discourse... Not a single (foreign correspondent) now lives in Asmara. '' The state - owned news agency censors news about external events. Independent media have been banned since 2001. The Eritrean authorities had reportedly imprisoned the third highest number journalists after China and Iran.
Eritrea has achieved significant improvements in health care and is one of the few countries to be on target to meet its Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets in health, in particular child health. Life expectancy at birth has increased from 39.1 in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008, maternal and child mortality rates have dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure has been expanded. Due to Eritrea 's relative isolation, information and resources are extremely limited and according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) found in 2008 average life expectancy to be slightly less than 63 years. Immunisation and child nutrition has been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against measles almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7 % to 78.5 % and the underweight prevalence among children decreased by 12 % in 1995 -- 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28 %). The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health has registered tremendous improvements in reducing malarial mortality by as much as 85 % and the number of cases by 92 % between 1998 and 2006. The Eritrean government has banned female genital mutilation (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life - threatening health problems.
However, Eritrea still faces many challenges. Despite number of physicians increasing from only 0.2 in 1993 to 0.5 in 2004 per 1000 population, this is still very low. Malaria and tuberculosis are common in Eritrea. HIV prevalence among the 15 -- 49 group exceeds 2 %. The fertility rate is at about 5 births per woman. Maternal mortality dropped by more than half from 1995 to 2002, although the figure is still high. Similarly, between 1995 and 2002, the number of births attended by skilled health personnel has doubled but still is only 28.3 %. A major cause of death in neonates is by severe infection. Per capita expenditure on health is low in Eritrea.
There are five levels of education in Eritrea: pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary. There are nearly 238,000 students in the primary, middle, and secondary levels of education. There are approximately 824 schools in Eritrea and two universities (the University of Asmara and the Eritrea Institute of Technology) as well as several smaller colleges and technical schools.
Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory between seven and 13 years of age. However, the education infrastructure is inadequate to meet current needs. Statistics vary at the elementary level, suggesting that between 65 and 70 % of school - aged children attend primary school; Approximately 61 % attend secondary school. Student - teacher ratios are high: 45 to 1 at the elementary level and 54 to 1 at the secondary level. There are an average 63 students per classroom at the elementary level and 97 per classroom at the secondary level. Learning hours at school are often less than six hours per day. The literacy rate in Eritrea is high. For men in the age 18 -- 24 the literacy rate is 92.6 % in (2008 -- 2012), for women in the age 18 -- 24 the literacy rate is 87.7 % (2008 -- 2012) The literacy rate for the total population is 81 %,. Barriers to education in Eritrea include traditional taboos, school fees (for registration and materials), and the opportunity costs of low - income households.
One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the coffee ceremony. Coffee (Ge'ez ቡን būn) is offered when visiting friends, during festivities, or as a daily staple of life. During the coffee ceremony, there are traditions that are upheld. The coffee is served in three rounds: the first brew or round is called awel in Tigrinya (meaning "first ''), the second round is called kalaay (meaning "second ''), and the third round is called bereka (meaning "to be blessed '').
Traditional Eritrean attire is quite varied among the ethnic groups of Eritrea. In the larger cities, most people dress in Western casual dress such as jeans and shirts. In offices, both men and women often dress in suits. A common traditional clothing for Christian Tigrinya - speaking highlanders consists of bright white gowns called zurias for the women, and a white shirts accompanied by white pants for the men. In Muslim communities in the Eritrean lowland, the women traditionally dress in brightly colored clothes. Besides convergent culinary tastes, Eritreans share an appreciation for similar music and lyrics, jewelry and fragrances, and tapestry and fabrics as many other populations in the Horn region.
A typical traditional Eritrean dish consists of injera accompanied by a spicy stew, which frequently includes beef, chicken, lamb or fish. Overall, Eritrean cuisine strongly resembles those of neighboring Ethiopia, Eritrean cooking tend to feature more seafood than Ethiopian cuisine on account of their coastal location. Eritrean dishes are also frequently "lighter '' in texture than Ethiopian meals. They likewise tend to employ less seasoned butter and spices and more tomatoes, as in the tsebhi dorho delicacy.
Additionally, owing to its colonial history, cuisine in Eritrea features more Italian influences than are present in Ethiopian cooking, including more pasta and greater use of curry powders and cumin. The Italian Eritrean cuisine started to be practiced during the colonial times of the Kingdom of Italy, when a large number of Italians moved to Eritrea. They brought the use of "pasta '' to Italian Eritrea, and it is one of the main food eaten in present - day Asmara. An Italian Eritrean cuisine emerged, and dishes common dishes are ' Pasta al Sugo e Berbere ', which means "Pasta with tomato sauce and berbere '' (spice), but there are many more like "lasagna '' and "cotoletta alla milanese '' (milano cutlet). Alongside sowa, people in Eritrea also tend to drink coffee. Mies is another popular local alcoholic beverage, made out of honey.
Eritrea 's ethnic groups each have their own styles of music and accompanying dances. Amongst the Tigrinya, the best known traditional musical genre is the guaila. Traditional instruments of Eritrean folk music include the stringed krar, kebero, begena, masenqo and the wata (a distant / rudimentary cousin of the violin). A popular Eritrean artist is the Tigrinya singer Helen Meles, who is noted for her powerful voice and wide singing range. Other prominent local musicians include the Kunama singer Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, Bereket Mengisteab, the late Yemane Baria, and the late Abraham Afewerki.
Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena. Zersenay Tadese, an Eritrean athlete, currently holds the world record in half marathon distance running. The Tour of Eritrea, a multi-stage international cycling event, is held annually throughout the country. The Eritrea national cycling team has experienced a lot of success, winning the continental cycling championship several years in a row. Six Eritrean riders have been signed to international cycling teams, including Natnael Berhane and Daniel Teklehaimanot. Berhane was named African Sportsman of the Year in 2013, while Teklehaimanot became the first Eritrean to ride the Vuelta a España in 2012. In 2015, Teklehaimanot won the King of the Mountains classification in the Critérium du Dauphine. Teklehaimanot and fellow Eritrean Merhawi Kudus became the first cyclists from Africa to compete in the Tour de France, when they were selected by the MTN -- Qhubeka team for the 2015 edition of the race. In July of the year, Teklehaimanot also became the first rider from an African team to wear the polka dot jersey at the Tour de France. The Eritrean Cycling National team of both man and women are ranked first on the continent. In 2013, the women 's team won the gold medal in the African Continental Cycling Championships for the first time, and for the second time in 2015.
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when did the grand ole opry move from ryman | Grand Ole Opry - wikipedia
The Grand Ole Opry is a weekly country - music stage concert in Nashville, Tennessee, which was founded on November 28, 1925, by George D. Hay as a one - hour radio "barn dance '' on WSM. Currently owned and operated by Opry Entertainment (a division of Ryman Hospitality Properties, Inc.), it is the longest - running radio broadcast in US history. Dedicated to honoring country music and its history, the Opry showcases a mix of famous singers and contemporary chart - toppers performing country, bluegrass, Americana, folk, gospel, and comedic performances and skits. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors from around the world and millions of radio and Internet listeners.
The Opry 's current primary slogan is "The Show that Made Country Music Famous ''. Other slogans include "Home of American Music '' and "Country 's Most Famous Stage ''.
In the 1930s the show began hiring professionals and expanded to four hours; and WSM, broadcasting by then with 50,000 watts, made the program a Saturday night musical tradition in nearly 30 states. In 1939, it debuted nationally on NBC Radio. The Opry moved to a permanent home, the Ryman Auditorium, in 1943. As it developed in importance, so did the city of Nashville, which became America 's "country music capital ''. The Grand Ole Opry holds such significance in Nashville that its name is included on the city / county line signs on all major roadways. The signs read "Music City Metropolitan Nashville Davidson County Home of the Grand Ole Opry ''.
Membership in the Opry remains one of country music 's crowning achievements. Such country music legends as Hank Williams, Johnny Cash, Patsy Cline, Marty Robbins, Roy Acuff, the Carter family, Bill Monroe, Ernest Tubb, Kitty Wells, and Minnie Pearl became regulars on the Opry 's stage. In recent decades, the Opry has hosted such contemporary country stars as Dolly Parton, Loretta Lynn, Alan Jackson, Garth Brooks, Reba McEntire, Josh Turner, Carrie Underwood, Brad Paisley, Rascal Flatts, Dierks Bentley, Little Big Town, Blake Shelton, Chris Young, and Ricky Skaggs. Since 1974, the show has been broadcast from the Grand Ole Opry House east of downtown Nashville, with an annual three - month winter foray back to the Ryman since 1999. Performances have been sporadically televised in addition to the radio programs.
The Grand Ole Opry started as the WSM Barn Dance in the new fifth - floor radio studio of the National Life & Accident Insurance Company in downtown Nashville on November 28, 1925. On October 18, 1925, management began a program featuring "Dr. Humphrey Bate and his string quartet of old - time musicians. '' On November 2, WSM hired long - time announcer and program director George D. "Judge '' Hay, an enterprising pioneer from the National Barn Dance program at WLS in Chicago, who was also named the most popular radio announcer in America as a result of his radio work with both WLS and WMC in Memphis, Tennessee. Hay launched the WSM Barn Dance with 77 - year - old fiddler Uncle Jimmy Thompson on November 28, 1925, which is celebrated as the birth date of the Grand Ole Opry.
Some of the bands regularly on the show during its early days included Bill Monroe, the Possum Hunters (with Dr. Humphrey Bate), the Fruit Jar Drinkers with Uncle Dave Macon, the Crook Brothers, the Binkley Brothers ' Dixie Clodhoppers, Sid Harkreader, Deford Bailey, Fiddlin ' Arthur Smith, and the Gully Jumpers.
Judge Hay, however, liked the Fruit Jar Drinkers and asked them to appear last on each show because he wanted to always close each segment with "red hot fiddle playing ''. They were the second band accepted on Barn Dance, with the Crook Brothers being the first. When the Opry began having square dancers on the show, the Fruit Jar Drinkers always played for them. In 1926, Uncle Dave Macon, a Tennessee banjo player who had recorded several songs and toured the vaudeville circuit, became its first real star.
The phrase "Grand Ole Opry '' was first uttered on the air on December 10, 1927. At the time, Barn Dance followed the NBC Red Network 's Music Appreciation Hour, a program of classical music and selections from grand opera presented by classical conductor Walter Damrosch. On that particular night, Damrosch had remarked that "there is no place in the classics for realism. '' In response, Opry presenter George Hay said:
Friends, the program which just came to a close was devoted to the classics. Doctor Damrosch told us that there is no place in the classics for realism. However, from here on out for the next three hours, we will present nothing but realism. It will be down to earth for the "earthy ''.
Hay then introduced DeFord Bailey, the man he had dubbed the "Harmonica Wizard '', saying:
For the past hour, we have been listening to music taken largely from Grand Opera. From now on, we will present the "Grand Ole Opry ''.
Bailey then stepped up to the mic to play "The Pan-American Blues, '' his song inspired by the Pan-American, a premier L&N Railroad passenger train.
As audiences for the live show increased, National Life & Accident Insurance 's radio venue became too small to accommodate the hordes of fans. They built a larger studio, but it was still not large enough. After several months with no audiences, National Life decided to allow the show to move outside its home offices. In October 1934, the Opry moved into then - suburban Hillsboro Theatre (now the Belcourt); and then on June 13, 1936, to the Dixie Tabernacle in East Nashville. The Opry then moved to the War Memorial Auditorium, a downtown venue adjacent to the State Capitol. A 25 - cent admission was charged to try to curb the large crowds, but to no avail. On June 5, 1943, the Opry moved to the Ryman Auditorium.
Top - charting country music acts performed during the Ryman years, including Roy Acuff called the King of Country Music, Hank Williams, Webb Pierce, Faron Young, Martha Carson, Lefty Frizzell, and many others.
One hour of the Opry was nationally broadcast by the NBC Red Network from 1939 to 1956; for much of its run, it aired one hour after the program that had inspired it, National Barn Dance. The NBC segment, originally known by the name of its sponsor, The Prince Albert Show, was first hosted by Acuff, who was succeeded by Red Foley from 1946 to 1954. From October 15, 1955 to September 1956, ABC - TV aired a live, hour - long television version once a month on Saturday nights (sponsored by Ralston - Purina), pre-empting one hour of the then - 90 - minute Ozark Jubilee. From 1955 to 1957, Al Gannaway owned and produced both The Country Show and Stars of the Grand Ole Opry, filmed programs syndicated by Flamingo Films. Gannaway 's Stars of the Grand Ole Opry was the first television show shot in color.
On October 2, 1954, a teenage Elvis Presley made his only Opry performance. Although the audience reacted politely to his revolutionary brand of rockabilly music, after the show Opry manager Jim Denny told Presley 's producer Sam Phillips that the singer 's style did not suit the program.
In the 1960s, as the hippie counterculture movement spread, the Opry maintained a strait - laced, conservative image with "longhairs '' not being featured on the show. The Byrds were a notable exception. Country rock pioneer Gram Parsons, who at that time was a member of The Byrds, was in Nashville to work on the band 's country rock album, Sweetheart of the Rodeo. The band 's record label, Columbia Records, had arranged for The Byrds to be allowed to perform at the Ryman on March 15, 1968, a prospect that thrilled Parsons. However, when the band took the stage the audience 's response was immediately hostile, resulting in derisive heckling, booing and mocking calls of "tweet, tweet '' and "cut your hair '' The Byrds further outraged the Opry establishment by breaking with accepted protocol when they performed Parsons ' song "Hickory Wind '' instead of the Merle Haggard song "Life in Prison '', as had been announced by Tompall Glaser. Two decades later, long after Parsons 's death, members of The Byrds would reconcile with the Opry and collaborate on the 1989 album Will the Circle Be Unbroken: Volume Two.
Another artist that ran afoul of the Opry 's stringent standards was Jerry Lee Lewis, who, after several years of success on the country charts, made his first and only appearance on the show on January 20, 1973. Given two conditions for his appearance (no rock and roll and no profanity), Lewis proceeded to disregard both (referring to himself as a certain unairable maternal insult at one point) and, in a continuous 40 - minute set, played a mixture of his rock and roll hits and covers of other singers ' country songs. Lewis was said to be bitter about how he was treated when he first arrived in Nashville in 1955 and supposedly used his Opry appearance to exact revenge on the Nashville music industry.
The Ryman Auditorium was home to the Opry until 1974. By the late 1960s, National Life & Accident desired a new, larger and more modern home for the long - running radio show. Ryman Auditorium, already 51 years old at the time the Opry moved there, was beginning to suffer from disrepair as the downtown neighborhood around it fell victim to increasing urban decay. Despite these shortcomings, the show 's popularity was increasing and its weekly crowds were outgrowing the 3,000 - seat venue. The Opry 's operators were seeking to build a new air - conditioned theatre with a greater capacity, ample parking, and the ability to easily serve as a television production facility. The ideal location would be in a less urbanized area of town, providing visitors a more controlled, safer, and more enjoyable experience.
National Life & Accident purchased farmland owned by a local sausage manufacturer (Rudy 's Farm) in the Pennington Bend area of Nashville, nine miles east of downtown, and adjacent to the newly constructed Briley Parkway. The new Opry venue was to be the centerpiece of a grand entertainment complex at that location, which would later come to include Opryland USA Theme Park and Opryland Hotel.
The theme park opened to the public on June 30, 1972, well ahead of the 4,000 - seat Opry House, which debuted nearly two years later, on Saturday, March 16, 1974.
Opening night was attended by sitting U.S. President Richard Nixon, who played a few songs on the piano. To carry on the tradition of the show 's run at the Ryman, a six - foot circle of oak was cut from the corner of the Ryman 's stage and inlaid into center stage at the new venue. The artists on stage usually stand on the circle as they perform.
While the theme park was closed and demolished following the 1997 season, the Grand Ole Opry House remains in use. The immediate area around it was left intact through the construction of Opry Mills, which opened in May 2000.
The Opry continues to be performed every Tuesday, Friday and Saturday at the Grand Ole Opry House from March through November each year.
The Grand Ole Opry House was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 27, 2015.
Following the departure of the Opry, Ryman Auditorium sat mostly vacant and decaying for twenty years. An initial effort by National Life & Accident to tear down the Ryman and use its bricks to build a chapel at Opryland USA was met with resounding resistance from the public, including the influential musicians of the time. The plans were abandoned, and the building remained standing with an uncertain future. Despite the absence of performances, the building still held such significance as an attraction that it would remain open for tours.
In 1991 and 1992, Emmylou Harris performed a series of concerts there and released some of the recordings as an album entitled At the Ryman. The concert and album 's high acclaim renewed interest in reviving Ryman Auditorium as an active venue. Beginning in September 1993, Gaylord Entertainment undertook a full renovation of the Ryman, restoring it into a world - class concert hall that reopened with a broadcast of A Prairie Home Companion on June 4, 1994.
On Sunday, October 18, 1998, the Opry held a benefit show at Ryman Auditorium, marking its return to the venue for the first time since its final show on March 15, 1974. The show was well received by fans, performers, and management alike, and so the decision was made to host the Opry 's regular shows there on January 15 & 16, 1999 as part of the celebration to commemorate 25 years at the new venue.
Beginning in November 1999, the Opry was held at Ryman Auditorium for three months, partly due to the ongoing construction of Opry Mills. The Opry has returned to the Ryman for the three winter months every year since, allowing the show to acknowledge its roots while also taking advantage of a smaller venue during an off - peak season for tourism. While still officially the Grand Ole Opry, the shows there are billed as Opry At The Ryman. From 2002 to 2014, a traveling version of the Radio City Christmas Spectacular took up residence at the Grand Ole Opry House each holiday season while the Opry was away. It was replaced by Dr. Seuss ' How the Grinch Stole Christmas! The Musical beginning in 2015.
In May 2010, the Opry House was flooded, along with much of Nashville, due to the Cumberland River overflowing its banks. While repairs were made, the Opry itself remained uninterrupted. Over the course of the summer of 2010, the broadcast temporarily originated from alternate venues in Nashville, with Ryman Auditorium hosting the majority of the shows. Other venues included the TPAC War Memorial Auditorium, another former Opry home; TPAC 's Andrew Jackson Hall; Nashville Municipal Auditorium; Allen Arena at Lipscomb University; and the Two Rivers Baptist Church.
Much of the auditorium 's main floor seating, the backstage areas and the entire stage (including the inlaid circle of wood from the Ryman 's stage) was underwater during the flood. While the Grand Ole Opry House 's stage was replaced thereafter, the Ryman circle was restored and again placed at center stage in the Grand Ole Opry House before shows resumed. The remediation following the flood also resulted in a renovated backstage area, including the construction of more dressing rooms and a performer 's lounge.
The Opry returned to the Grand Ole Opry House on September 28, 2010 in a special edition of the Opry entitled Country Comes Home that was televised live on Great American Country. The evening was filled with one - of - a-kind Opry moments. Martina McBride and Connie Smith dueted on Smith 's signature hit "Once a Day '', and other collaborations included Dierks Bentley and Del McCoury ("Roll On Buddy, Roll On ''), Josh Turner and Lorrie Morgan ("Golden Ring ''), and Montgomery Gentry and Charlie Daniels Band ("Devil Went Down To Georgia ''), among others. The show closed with an all - star guitar jam featuring Brad Paisley, Keith Urban, Steve Wariner, Ricky Skaggs, and Marty Stuart.
The Grand Ole Opry is broadcast live on WSM - AM at 7 p.m. CT on Saturday nights, shortened from a previous time start of 6: 30. A similar program, the Friday Night Opry, airs live on Friday nights. From February through December, the Tuesday Night Opry is also aired live. Wednesday shows are typically presented in the summer months. The length of the show varies; as of October 2016, the show runs three nights a week for 21⁄4 hours each night (the Saturday night shows have often extended as late as midnight).
The Opry can also be heard live on Willie 's Roadhouse on channel 59 on Sirius XM Satellite Radio. The program is also streamed on WSM 's website.
ABC broadcast the Grand Ole Opry as a monthly series from 1955 to 1956. PBS televised annual live performances from 1978 to 1981. In 1985, The Nashville Network began airing an edited half - hour version of the program as Grand Ole Opry Live; the show moved to Country Music Television (expanding to an hour in the process), and then to the Great American Country (GAC) cable network with its Opry Live show no longer televised. RFD - TV carries reruns of Opry telecasts under the title Opry Encore.
Regular performers at the Grand Ole Opry can be inducted into the organization as a member, by way of an existing member nominating them. Opry membership must be maintained throughout an artist 's career and expires when the performer dies. Although a number of legendary country artists either lost their Opry membership (such as Hank Williams, Sr. and Willie Nelson) or never received it in their lifetimes (longtime leading hitmakers Merle Haggard, George Strait, and Conway Twitty being prominent examples), receiving Opry membership is considered an honor equivalent to a hall of fame induction.
In April 1963 Opry management made a rule that members had to perform on at least 26 shows a year to keep their membership active. WSM dropped the number of required performances to 20 in January 1964; in 2000 the minimum number of Opry performances was at 12. The minimum number of performances has reduced over the years, but artists offered membership are expected to show a dedication to the Opry with frequent attendance.
Another controversy that raged for years was over allowable instrumentation, especially the use of drums and electrically amplified instruments. Some purists were appalled at the prospect; traditionally a string bass provided the rhythm component in country music and percussion instruments were seldom used. Electric amplification, then new, was regarded as the province of popular music and jazz in 1940s. Though the Opry allowed electric guitars and steel guitars by World War II, the restrictions against drums and horns continued. They caused a conflict when Bob Wills and Pee Wee King defied the show 's ban on drums.
The company has enforced its trademark on the name "Grand Ole Opry '', for which it owns trademark registrations in the United States and in numerous countries around the world. It has taken court action to limit use of the word "opry '' (which the organization has not directly trademarked) to members of the Opry and products associated with or licensed by it, and to discourage use of the word in ways that would imply a connection to the Grand Ole Opry. In late 1968, for instance, WSM sued Opry Records, a record label that was independent of WSM, and the court stated that "the record is replete with newspaper and magazine articles and clippings which demonstrate conclusively that the term ' Opry ', standing alone as defendant has used it, is constantly used in country and western music circles in referring to plaintiff 's ' Grand Ole Opry '. '' The court also stated "the defendant has appropriated, at its peril, the dominant or salient term in the plaintiff 's mark, a term which identified the ' Grand Ole Opry ' in the mind of the public many years before the inception of ' Opry Records ' -- the name adopted by defendant. '' In another case, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board granted summary judgment that the term "Opry '' is a generic term (and thus no more protected than the words "Grand '' or "Ole '') but the Federal Circuit court reversed this decision. As recently as 2009, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board granted judgment against Texas Opry House, LLC, which had filed a trademark application for TEXAS OPRY HOUSE.
In 2004, it was announced that the Grand Ole Opry had contracted for the first time with a "presenting sponsor '', Cracker Barrel, and the sponsoring company 's name would be associated with Grand Ole Opry in all its advertising. Humana, Inc., Cracker Barrel, and Dollar General are the present sponsors of the Opry.
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who played trumpet on raindrops keep falling on my head | Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head - wikipedia
"Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' is a song written by Hal David and Burt Bacharach for the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. It won an Academy Award for Best Original Song. David and Bacharach also won Best Original Score. The song was recorded by B.J. Thomas in seven takes, after Bacharach expressed dissatisfaction with the first six. In the film version of the song, Thomas had been recovering from laryngitis, which made his voice sound hoarser than in the 7 - inch release. The film version featured a separate vaudeville - style instrumental break in double time while Paul Newman performed bicycle stunts.
The single by B.J. Thomas reached number 1 on charts in the United States, Canada, Norway and reached number 38 in the UK Singles Chart. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks in January 1970 and was also the first American number - one hit of the 1970s. The song also spent seven weeks atop the Billboard adult contemporary chart. Billboard ranked it as the No. 4 song of 1970. According to Billboard magazine, Thomas ' single had sold over 2 million copies by March 14, 1970, with eight - track and cassette versions also climbing the charts.
Ray Stevens was first offered the opportunity to record it for the film, but turned it down. He chose instead to record the song "Sunday Morning Coming Down '', written by Kris Kristofferson. Bob Dylan is supposed to have been approached for the song, but he, too, reportedly declined. The trumpet solos in the song are performed by Chuck Findley.
In 2004, it finished at number 23 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema. In 2008, the single was ranked 85th on Billboard 's Hot 100 All - Time Top Songs and placed 95th in the 55th Anniversary edition of the All - Time Hot 100 list in 2013. Billboard Magazine also ranked the song 15th on its Top 50 Movie Songs of All Time list in 2014.
The song, initially when it came out, I believe it was October of 69, the movie did n't come out until December, it did get some bad reviews. It was a very unique and different sounding song, Bacharach and David never had any qualms about trying to do anything different, or push the envelope so to speak. So nowadays, it sounds pretty tame, but back then, radio resisted it to some degree. But, when the movie came out it hit hugely and sold about 200,000 to 300,000 records a day (and continued selling) for about three years.
On December 3, 2013, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences announced that the single would be inducted into the 2014 Grammy Hall Of Fame.
"Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head '' was used in the film Spy Hard, which parodied the scene in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. Police Constable Pan-Am sings the opening lines at the end of his appearance in Series 2, Episode 4 of Monty Python 's Flying Circus. It is on the soundtracks to Forrest Gump and Spider - Man 2, in the latter accentuating Peter Parker 's blissful mood after abandoning his Spider - Man identity and its responsibilities. It was used in the Kevin Smith film Clerks II. The first episode of the second season of the popular medical drama Grey 's Anatomy is named after the song. It is also used in The Simpsons, episode 16 of the fourth season, called "Duffless '', at the end of the episode, while credits are presented. It was also used in a season 1 episode of Arrested Development entitled "Altar Egos ''. It was also used in the 2003 film The In - Laws starring Michael Douglas and Albert Brooks, which was a remake of the 1979 Peter Falk / Alan Arkin film.
B.J. Thomas version
Johnny Farnham version
The song has been covered numerous times. From January 24 to March 13, 1970, it was a number - one hit (for seven weeks) in Australia on the Go - Set National Top 40 for local pop singer, Johnny Farnham. In 1970, it was also covered by Dionne Warwick on her album I 'll Never Fall in Love Again, by Engelbert Humperdinck on his album We Made It Happen, Johnny Mathis on his album Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head, Perry Como on his album It 's Impossible, The Four Tops on their album Changing Times, Andy Williams on his album, Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head, and The Free Design on their album Stars / Time / Bubbles / Love. Portuguese - born television and radio presenter Pedro Biker released a Danish version re-entitled "Regndråber Drypper I Mit Hår '' in 1970. A Swedish version was also made in 1970, "Regnet det bara öser ner '' sung by Siw Malmkvist. Genesis referenced the song title in their lyrics of In the Cage '' in 1974.
It has been covered in French by French singer Sacha Distel, whose version Toute La Pluie Tombe Sur Moi was a number 10 hit in the UK Singles Chart, and number 13 in Ireland, as well as number 10 in France. Distel also recorded a version with the original English lyrics, and another in Italian, Gocce Di Pioggia Su Di Me. Bobbie Gentry 's version reached number 40 in the UK chart. Paul Mauriat recorded it with his Grand Orchestra it 1973. It was the only known cover in the USSR.
The Welsh rock band Manic Street Preachers cover version is credited with adding greater nuance to the song, the Financial Times citing their recording as transforming the song from carefree optimism to "an exhortation to keep going in the face of tragedy '' and noting that Bradfield 's voice "added grit to the facile lyric ''. The group often spent their downtime on the tour bus watching the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, and incorporated the song into live sets. After the disappearance of lyricist Richey Edwards, the band decided to continue rather than split up. Having booked studio time in France to record their fourth album, Everything Must Go, they were invited to record for the War Child album The Help Album. The project required all songs to be recorded in one day. While band biographer Simon Price has described the recording and release of the record as a "coded message '' that the band still existed, Bradfield recalls the events differently: "... us putting it out was n't planned as us saying ' We 're OK, guys! ', but the deadline was the next day after we 'd arrived in this place, for some kind of new beginning. '' The band 's recorded version of the song contains the first recorded instance of drummer Sean Moore performing on trumpet, and also appears on their 2003 B - sides and rarities compilation album Lipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers). The Manics further reference the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid with the B - side "Sepia ''.
The Barry Sisters covered the song in a Yiddish version ("Trop'ns Fin Regen Oif Mein Kop '') on their 1973 album Our Way.
Lisa Miskovsky covered the song in the extended version of her self - titled (2004) album.
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who sings how can this happen to me | Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me?) - wikipedia
"Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me?) '' is a song by Canadian rock band Simple Plan. It was released in April 2005 as the third single from their second studio album, Still Not Getting Any... The song 's official title, when the CD was released, was simply "Untitled ''.
The music video of this song tells a story of a car accident on a rainy evening where a young male drunk driver crashed his sedan head - on into a Trans Am driven by a female, resulting in her death. The drunk driver, however, survives relatively uninjured, and ends up captured by the FBI and BATF. The video was filmed near the famous tunnel in Griffith Park.
The video also shows the victim 's family doing things such as: her brother is seen playing video games in his bedroom, her sister is doing her homework in her bedroom, their mom is in her house 's kitchen washing dishes and their dad is working in his office. Then abruptly just as the two cars collide, the entire family is violently thrown into the walls surrounding them as the boy falls out of his bedroom window and the dad lands on his computer. In a joint letter with MADD, Simple Plan explained the events in the video:
Over the last few years, a lot of people we know have been involved in tragic accidents caused by drinking and driving. One of the students at our high - school crashed his car driving back from a weekend trip and killed his best friend. It was a very sad time that none of us will ever forget.
This is the story we wanted to tell with this video: the story of all the innocent victims caused by drinking and driving. We hope you will take the time to watch the video. Thanks for all your support.
When performed live, the guitar solo in the middle of the song is performed by Bouvier. Lead guitarist Jeff Stinco plays a semi-acoustic guitar until the end of the solo, while rhythm guitarist Sébastien Lefebvre and drummer Chuck Comeau come in at the beginning of the solo. Bassist David Desrosiers ' main role is backing vocals, with his bass taking a backseat until Bouvier 's solo and the final chorus. Stinco also plays a second solo as the song fades out.
The song has since been used in Mothers Against Drunk Driving anti-drunk driving campaigns, and in the fourth season episode of Smallville called "Recruit ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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missing girl in season one of stranger things | Stranger Things - Wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, and directed by the Duffer Brothers. The Duffer Brothers, Shawn Levy, and Dan Cohen serve as executive producers. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town, including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving nineteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series.
On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season, which began production in April 2018 and will consist of eight episodes. The Duffer Brothers have said that Stranger Things is likely to end after its fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will.
The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will has been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When it is discovered that Will is still being influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
The third season is currently planned to take place another year later, in mid-1985, in the midst of the popularity of Back to the Future 's release. Mike and Eleven have developed a relationship, as have Max and Lucas.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
In April 2018, executive producer Shawn Levy stated that, as with the previous two seasons, the Duffer Brothers would direct the first two episodes, with Levy directing the third and fourth episodes. The other directors for the season have yet to be announced; however Levy confirmed that Andrew Stanton (who directed two episodes of the second season) would not be returning due to scheduling issues.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as the Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffer Brothers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to about fifteen cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited the Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
-- The Duffer Brothers ' original pitch for Montauk
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
To pitch the series, the Duffer Brothers showcased images, footage and music from 1980s films such as E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Poltergeist, Hellraiser, Stand by Me, Firestarter, A Nightmare on Elm Street and Jaws, in order to establish the tone of the series.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. The Duffer Brothers initially intended for Stranger Things to either be a standalone miniseries or an anthology series. They also considered the possibility of setting a potential second season (which they referred to as a "sequel '') in the early 1990s and featuring an older version of the characters, along with all new characters, who are drawn back to Hawkins after supernatural events begin occurring again. However, following the release of the first season, they realized that the likability of the characters -- especially the children -- was key to the series ' success, and they decided to set the second season in 1984 and focus on the same characters. By the end of July, the Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffer Brothers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffer Brothers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffer Brothers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffer Brothers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffer Brothers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and the Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffer Brothers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffer Brothers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season, consisting of eight episodes. Levy also confirmed that a fourth season was "definitely happening '' and that there was potential for a fifth season.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffer Brothers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, the Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, the Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
According to David Harbour, writing for the third season was still occurring in December 2017. Levy said the season would be less about Will, saying, "We 're not going to put Will through hell for a third season in a row. He 'll be dealing with stuff, but he wo n't be at rock bottom... We 're (going to be) dealing with forces of evil that are new. ''
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The Duffer Brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. Sean Astin 's character, Bob, was originally meant to be a smaller role, but Astin performed his role so well the Duffer Brothers ended up having Bob be a major character, as well as giving him a heroic death. For Owens, the Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The third season sees Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer, Heaton, Buono, Schnapp, Sink, Keery and Montgomery return. They are joined by Maya Hawke as Robin.
For the third season, it was reported that the several of the cast members would be receiving pay raises. Ryder and Harbour were receiving an increase to $350,000 an episode from $150,000 and $80,000 respectively; Wolfhard, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, and Schnapp were receiving a pay increase to $200,000 an episodes and possibly around $250,000, a significant increase from the reported $20,000 they made in season one (later increased by $60,000); and Dyer, Heaton, and Keery would be receiving approximately $150,000 an episode. Brown 's pay was not disclosed, but was estimated to be a bigger raise than her young counterparts. Some sources suggest she is at least making $250,000 and may be getting possibly between $300,000 and $350,000 per episode.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with the Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce. In order to help the cast get into the mood and their characters, the Duffer Brothers would play creepy music on set before filming.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
Filming for the third season officially began on April 23, 2018.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffer Brothers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects, so they created an animatronic to play the part of the demogorgon. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to the Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, the Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffer Brothers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI. The third season will once again consist of eight episodes. It is not expected to be released until late 2018 or early 2019.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 72 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '', saying "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review in the San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffer Brothers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like the Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 123 reviews, and an average rating of 7.79 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and the Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, the Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including the Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Penguin Random House partnered with Netflix to release a series of books related to Stranger Things, starting in late 2018. This includes a companion book to the series, Stranger Things: World Turned Upside Down: The Official Behind - The - Scenes Companion, a children 's book that offers "advice, wisdom, and warnings '' from Stranger Things, and a prequel novel penned by Gwenda Bond focused on Eleven 's mother. Additional books for adults and young readers are expected to follow.
Dark Horse Comics announced a partnership with Netflix for "a multi-year publishing line '' of stories set in the Stranger Things world. The first title would be a four - issue miniseries written by Jodie Houser and interior art by Stefani Martino. The story would be set in between the events of season 1, showing Will 's perspective throughout his time in the Upside Down. The first issue of the miniseries would be set to come out on September 26.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based on a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support. The game was nominated for "Mobile Game '' at the 14th British Academy Games Awards.
Sony Interactive Entertainment has announced that it is working on a PlayStation 4 - exclusive game, based on Stranger Things, for their PlayStation VR peripheral. The company has since released a teaser showing the Christmas - lights - on - a-wall scenes.
In June 2018, Netflix announced a partnership with Telltale Games to bring their adventure games to the Netflix service. Alongside this announcement, a new Telltale - created Stranger Things game was announced.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
In April 2018, filmmaker Charlie Kessler filed a lawsuit against the Duffer Brothers, claiming that they stole his idea behind his short film Montauk for Stranger Things. Kessler 's Montauk featured a similar premise of a missing boy, a nearby military base doing otherworldy experiments, and a monster from another dimension. Kessler has directed the film and debuted it at the 2012 Hamptons International Film Festival. During the 2014 Tribeca Film Festival, he pitched his film to the Duffer Brothers and later gave them "the script, ideas, story and film '' for a larger film idea he called The Montauk Project for their review. Kessler contended that the Duffer Brothers used his ideas to device the premise for Stranger Things without appropriate compensation and is seeking monetary damages. The Duffer Brothers ' lawyer stated that the Duffer Brothers never saw Kessler 's film nor spoke to him regarding it, and that Kessler had no input into their concepts for Stranger Things.
Journalists have noted that the idea of supernatural events around Montauk had originated due to urban legend of the Montauk Project, which came to light from the 1992 book The Montauk Project: Experiments in Time.
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who was president went the war ended in 1953 | Korean War - Wikipedia
Military stalemate
United Nations:
Total: 178,405 dead and 32,925 missing Total wounded: 566,434
Total: 398,000 -- 750,000 + dead and 145,000 + missing Total wounded: 686,500 -- 789,000
The Korean War (in South Korean Hangul: 한국 전쟁; Hanja: 韓國 戰爭; RR: Hanguk Jeonjaeng, "Korean War ''; in North Korean Chosŏn'gŭl: 조국 해방 전쟁; Hancha: 祖國 解放 戰爭; MR: Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng, "Fatherland: Liberation War ''; 25 June 1950 -- 27 July 1953) was a war between North Korea (with the support of China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the principal support of the United States). The war began on 25 June 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea following a series of clashes along the border. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union also gave some assistance to the North.
As a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions with separate governments. Both claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces -- supported by the Soviet Union and China -- moved into the south on 25 June 1950. The United Nations Security Council authorized the formation and dispatch of UN forces to Korea to repel what was recognized as a North Korean invasion. Twenty - one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing around 90 % of the military personnel.
After the first two months of war, South Korean and U.S. forces rapidly dispatched to Korea were on the point of defeat, forced back to a small area in the south known as the Pusan Perimeter. In September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Incheon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were forced back north. UN forces rapidly approached the Yalu River -- the border with China -- but in October 1950, mass Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. The surprise Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951.
After these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate. North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in air - to - air combat for the first time in history, and Soviet pilots covertly flew in defense of their communist allies.
The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty has been signed, and according to some sources the two Koreas are technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict. In April 2018, the leaders of North and South Korea met at the demilitarized zone and agreed to sign a treaty by the end of the year to formally end the Korean War.
As a war undeclared by all participants, the conflict helped bring the term "police action '' into common use. It also led to the permanent alteration of the balance of power within the United Nations, where Resolution 377 -- passed in 1950 to allow a bypassing of the Security Council if that body could not reach an agreement -- led to the General Assembly displacing the Security Council as the primary organ of the UN.
In South Korea, the war is usually referred to as "625 '' or the "6 -- 2 -- 5 Upheaval '' (6.25 동란 (動亂), yook - i-o dongnan), reflecting the date of its commencement on 25 June.
In North Korea, the war is officially referred to as the "Fatherland Liberation War '' (Choguk haebang chǒnjaeng) or alternatively the "Chosǒn (Korean) War '' (조선 전쟁, Chosǒn chǒnjaeng).
In China, the war is officially called the "War to Resist America and Aid Korea '' (simplified Chinese: 抗美援朝 战争; traditional Chinese: 抗美援朝 戰爭; pinyin: Kàngměi Yuáncháo Zhànzhēng), although the term "Chaoxian (Korean) War '' (simplified Chinese: 朝鲜 战争; traditional Chinese: 朝鮮 戰爭; pinyin: Cháoxiǎn Zhànzhēng) is also used in unofficial contexts, along with the term "Han (Korean) War '' (simplified Chinese: 韩 战; traditional Chinese: 韓 戰; pinyin: Hán Zhàn) more commonly used in regions such as Hong Kong and Macau.
In the U.S., the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a "police action '' as the United States never formally declared war on its opponents and the operation was conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. It has been referred to in the English - speaking world as "The Forgotten War '' or "The Unknown War '' because of the lack of public attention it received both during and after the war, and in relation to the global scale of World War II, which preceded it, and the subsequent angst of the Vietnam War, which succeeded it.
Imperial Japan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino - Japanese War (1894 -- 95), ushering in the short - lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo - Japanese War (1904 -- 05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan -- Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.
Many Korean nationalists fled the country. A Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its U.S. - based founding president, Syngman Rhee. From 1919 to 1925 and beyond, Korean communists led internal and external warfare against the Japanese.
In China, the Nationalist National Revolutionary Army and the communist People 's Liberation Army helped organize Korean refugees against the Japanese military, which had also occupied parts of China. The Nationalist - backed Koreans, led by Yi Pom - Sok, fought in the Burma Campaign (December 1941 -- August 1945). The communists, led by Kim Il - sung among others, fought the Japanese in Korea and Manchuria.
At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States all decided that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent ''.
At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months of the victory in Europe. Accordingly, it declared war on Japan on 9 August 1945, three days after the USA dropped the bomb on Hiroshima. By 10 August, the Red Army had begun to occupy the northern part of the Korean peninsula.
On the night of 10 August in Washington, U.S. colonels Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III were tasked with dividing the Korean Peninsula into Soviet and U.S. occupation zones and proposed the 38th parallel. This was incorporated into the U.S. General Order No. 1 which responded to the Japanese surrender on 15 August. Explaining the choice of the 38th parallel, Rusk observed, "even though it was further north than could be realistically reached by U.S. forces, in the event of Soviet disagreement... we felt it important to include the capital of Korea in the area of responsibility of American troops ''. He noted that he was "faced with the scarcity of US forces immediately available, and time and space factors, which would make it difficult to reach very far north, before Soviet troops could enter the area ''. As Rusk 's comments indicate, the U.S. doubted whether the Soviet government would agree to this. Stalin, however, maintained his wartime policy of co-operation, and on 16 August the Red Army halted at the 38th parallel for three weeks to await the arrival of U.S. forces in the south.
On 8 September 1945, U.S. Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel. Appointed as military governor, General Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK 1945 -- 48). He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power, but in the face of Korean protests quickly reversed this decision. The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short - lived People 's Republic of Korea (PRK) due to its suspected Communist sympathies.
In December 1945, Korea was administered by a U.S. - Soviet Union Joint Commission, as agreed at the Moscow Conference, with the aim of granting independence after a five - year trusteeship. The idea was not popular among Koreans and riots broke out. To contain them, the USAMGIK banned strikes on 8 December 1945 and outlawed the PRK Revolutionary Government and the PRK People 's Committees on 12 December 1945. Following further large - scale civilian unrest, the USAMGIK declared martial law.
Citing the inability of the Joint Commission to make progress, the U.S. government decided to hold an election under United Nations auspices with the aim of creating an independent Korea. The Soviet authorities and the Korean Communists refused to co-operate on the grounds it would not be fair, and many South Korean politicians boycotted it. A general election was held in the South on 10 May 1948. North Korea held parliamentary elections three months later on 25 August.
The resultant South Korean government promulgated a national political constitution on 17 July 1948, and elected Syngman Rhee as president on 20 July 1948. The Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established on 15 August 1948. In the Soviet Korean Zone of Occupation, the Soviet Union established a communist government led by Kim Il - sung.
The Soviet Union withdrew as agreed from Korea in 1948, and U.S. troops withdrew in 1949.
With the end of the war with Japan, the Chinese Civil War resumed in earnest between the Communists and Nationalists. While the Communists were struggling for supremacy in Manchuria, they were supported by the North Korean government with matériel and manpower. According to Chinese sources, the North Koreans donated 2,000 railway cars worth of supplies while thousands of Koreans served in the Chinese People 's Liberation Army (PLA) during the war. North Korea also provided the Chinese Communists in Manchuria with a safe refuge for non-combatants and communications with the rest of China.
The North Korean contributions to the Chinese Communist victory were not forgotten after the creation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949. As a token of gratitude, between 50,000 and 70,000 Korean veterans that served in the PLA were sent back along with their weapons, and they later played a significant role in the initial invasion of South Korea. China promised to support the North Koreans in the event of a war against South Korea.
After the formation of the People 's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese government named the Western nations, led by the United States, as the biggest threat to its national security. Basing this judgment on China 's century of humiliation beginning in the early 19th century, U.S. support for the Nationalists during the Chinese Civil War, and the ideological struggles between revolutionaries and reactionaries, the Chinese leadership believed that China would become a critical battleground in the United States ' crusade against Communism. As a countermeasure and to elevate China 's standing among the worldwide Communist movements, the Chinese leadership adopted a foreign policy that actively promoted Communist revolutions throughout territories on China 's periphery.
By 1949, South Korean forces had reduced the active number of communist guerrillas in the South from 5,000 to 1,000. However, Kim Il - sung believed that the guerrillas weakened the South Korean military and that a North Korean invasion would be welcomed by much of the South Korean population. Kim began seeking Stalin 's support for an invasion in March 1949, traveling to Moscow to attempt to persuade him.
Serious border clashes between South and North occurred on August 4, 1949, when thousands of North Korean troops attacked South Korean troops occupying territory north of the 38th parallel. The 2nd and 18th infantry regiments of ROKA repulsed initial attacks in Kuksa - bong (above the 38th parallel) and Ch'ungmu, and at the end of the clashes ROKA troops were "completely routed ''.
Stalin initially did not think the time was right for a war in Korea. Chinese Communist forces were still embroiled in the Chinese Civil War, while U.S. forces remained stationed in South Korea. By spring 1950, he believed that the strategic situation had changed: Mao 's Communist forces had secured final victory in China, U.S. forces had withdrawn from Korea, and the Soviets detonated their first nuclear bomb, breaking the U.S. atomic monopoly. As the U.S. had not directly intervened to stop the communist victory in China, Stalin calculated that they would be even less willing to fight in Korea, which had much less strategic significance. The Soviets had also cracked the codes used by the U.S. to communicate with their embassy in Moscow, and reading these dispatches convinced Stalin that Korea did not have the importance to the US that would warrant a nuclear confrontation. Stalin began a more aggressive strategy in Asia based on these developments, including promising economic and military aid to China through the Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance.
In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim permission to invade the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if needed. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the United States. Kim met with Mao in May 1950. Mao was concerned the U.S. would intervene but agreed to support the North Korean invasion. China desperately needed the economic and military aid promised by the Soviets. However, Mao sent more ethnic Korean PLA veterans to Korea and promised to move an army closer to the Korean border. Once Mao 's commitment was secured, preparations for war accelerated.
Soviet generals with extensive combat experience from the Second World War were sent to North Korea as the Soviet Advisory Group. These generals completed the plans for the attack by May. The original plans called for a skirmish to be initiated in the Ongjin Peninsula on the west coast of Korea. The North Koreans would then launch a counterattack that would capture Seoul and encircle and destroy the South Korean army. The final stage would involve destroying South Korean government remnants, capturing the rest of South Korea, including the ports.
On 7 June 1950, Kim Il - sung called for a Korea - wide election on 5 -- 8 August 1950 and a consultative conference in Haeju on 15 -- 17 June 1950. On 11 June, the North sent three diplomats to the South as a peace overture that Rhee rejected outright. On 21 June, Kim Il - Sung revised his war plan to involve a general attack across the 38th parallel, rather than a limited operation in the Ongjin peninsula. Kim was concerned that South Korean agents learned about the plans and South Korean forces were strengthening their defenses. Stalin agreed to this change of plan.
While these preparations were underway in the North, there were frequent clashes along the 38th parallel, especially at Kaesong and Ongjin, many initiated by the South. The Republic of Korea Army (ROK Army) was being trained by the U.S. Korean Military Advisory Group (KMAG). On the eve of war, KMAG 's commander General William Lynn Roberts voiced utmost confidence in the ROK Army and boasted that any North Korean invasion would merely provide "target practice ''. For his part, Syngman Rhee repeatedly expressed his desire to conquer the North, including when U.S. diplomat John Foster Dulles visited Korea on 18 June.
Although some South Korean and U.S. intelligence officers predicted an attack from the North, similar predictions were made before and nothing happened. The Central Intelligence Agency noted the southward movement by the Korean People 's Army (KPA), but assessed this as a "defensive measure '' and concluded an invasion was "unlikely ''. On 23 June, UN observers inspected the border and did not detect that war was imminent.
Throughout 1949 and 1950, the Soviets continued arming North Korea. After the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, ethnic Korean units in the Chinese People 's Liberation Army (PLA) were released to North Korea. The combat veterans from China, the tanks, artillery and aircraft supplied by the Soviets, and rigorous training increased North Korea 's military superiority over the South, armed by the US military with mostly small arms and given no heavy weaponry such as tanks.
According to the first official census in 1949 the population of North Korea numbered 9,620,000, and by mid-1950 North Korean forces numbered between 150,000 and 200,000 troops, organized into 10 infantry divisions, one tank division, and one air force division, with 210 fighter planes and 280 tanks, who captured scheduled objectives and territory, among them Kaesong, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu, and Ongjin. Their forces included 274 T - 34 - 85 tanks, 200 artillery pieces, 110 attack bombers, and some 150 Yak fighter planes, and 35 reconnaissance aircraft. In addition to the invasion force, the North KPA had 114 fighters, 78 bombers, 105 T - 34 - 85 tanks, and some 30,000 soldiers stationed in reserve in North Korea. Although each navy consisted of only several small warships, the North and South Korean navies fought in the war as sea - borne artillery for their armies.
In contrast, the Republic of Korea population totaled 20,188,641, and its army was unprepared and ill - equipped. As of 25 June 1950 the ROK Army had 98,000 soldiers (65,000 combat, 33,000 support), no tanks (they had been requested from the U.S. military, but requests were denied), and a 22 - piece air force comprising 12 liaison - type and 10 AT6 advanced - trainer airplanes. Large U.S. garrisons and air forces were in Japan, but only 200 -- 300 American troops were in Korea.
At dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the Korean People 's Army crossed the 38th parallel behind artillery fire. The KPA justified its assault with the claim that ROK troops attacked first and that the KPA were aiming to arrest and execute the "bandit traitor Syngman Rhee ''. Fighting began on the strategic Ongjin peninsula in the west. There were initial South Korean claims that they captured the city of Haeju, and this sequence of events has led some scholars to argue that the South Koreans fired first.
Whoever fired the first shots in Ongjin, within an hour, North Korean forces attacked all along the 38th parallel. The North Koreans had a combined arms force including tanks supported by heavy artillery. The South Koreans had no tanks, anti-tank weapons or heavy artillery to stop such an attack. In addition, South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion and these were routed in a few days.
On 27 June, Rhee evacuated from Seoul with some of the government. On 28 June, at 2 am, the South Korean Army blew up the Hangang Bridge across the Han River in an attempt to stop the North Korean army. The bridge was detonated while 4,000 refugees were crossing it and hundreds were killed. Destroying the bridge also trapped many South Korean military units north of the Han River. In spite of such desperate measures, Seoul fell that same day. A number of South Korean National Assemblymen remained in Seoul when it fell, and forty - eight subsequently pledged allegiance to the North.
On 28 June, Rhee ordered the massacre of suspected political opponents in his own country.
In five days, the South Korean forces, which had 95,000 men on 25 June, was down to less than 22,000 men. In early July, when U.S. forces arrived, what was left of the South Korean forces were placed under U.S. operational command of the United Nations Command.
The Truman administration was unprepared for the invasion. Korea was not included in the strategic Asian Defense Perimeter outlined by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. Truman himself was at his home in Independence, Missouri. Military strategists were more concerned with the security of Europe against the Soviet Union than East Asia. At the same time, the administration was worried that a war in Korea could quickly widen into another world war should the Chinese or Soviets decide to get involved.
One facet of the changing attitude toward Korea and whether to get involved was Japan. Especially after the fall of China to the Communists, U.S. experts on East Asia saw Japan as the critical counterweight to the Soviet Union and China in the region. While there was no United States policy dealing with South Korea directly as a national interest, its proximity to Japan increased the importance of South Korea. Said Kim: "The recognition that the security of Japan required a non-hostile Korea led directly to President Truman 's decision to intervene... The essential point... is that the American response to the North Korean attack stemmed from considerations of U.S. policy toward Japan. ''
Another major consideration was the possible Soviet reaction in the event that the U.S. intervened. The Truman administration was fearful that a war in Korea was a diversionary assault that would escalate to a general war in Europe once the United States committed in Korea. At the same time, "(t) here was no suggestion from anyone that the United Nations or the United States could back away from (the conflict) ''. Yugoslavia -- a possible Soviet target because of the Tito - Stalin Split -- was vital to the defense of Italy and Greece, and the country was first on the list of the National Security Council 's post-North Korea invasion list of "chief danger spots ''. Truman believed if aggression went unchecked, a chain reaction would be initiated that would marginalize the United Nations and encourage Communist aggression elsewhere. The UN Security Council approved the use of force to help the South Koreans and the U.S. immediately began using what air and naval forces that were in the area to that end. The Truman administration still refrained from committing on the ground because some advisers believed the North Koreans could be stopped by air and naval power alone.
The Truman administration was still uncertain if the attack was a ploy by the Soviet Union or just a test of U.S. resolve. The decision to commit ground troops became viable when a communiqué was received on 27 June indicating the Soviet Union would not move against U.S. forces in Korea. The Truman administration now believed it could intervene in Korea without undermining its commitments elsewhere.
On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The Soviet Union, a veto - wielding power, had boycotted the Council meetings since January 1950, protesting that the Taiwanese "Republic of China '' and not the mainland "People 's Republic of China '' held a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. After debating the matter, the Security Council, on 27 June 1950, published Resolution 83 recommending member states provide military assistance to the Republic of Korea. On 27 June President Truman ordered U.S. air and sea forces to help the South Korean regime. On 4 July the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of South Korea.
The Soviet Union challenged the legitimacy of the war for several reasons. The ROK Army intelligence upon which Resolution 83 was based came from U.S. Intelligence; North Korea was not invited as a sitting temporary member of the UN, which violated UN Charter Article 32; and the fighting was beyond the UN Charter 's scope, because the initial north - south border fighting was classed as a civil war. Because the Soviet Union was boycotting the Security Council at the time, legal scholars posited that deciding upon an action of this type required the unanimous vote of all the five permanent members including the Soviet Union.
Within days of the invasion, masses of ROK Army soldiers -- of dubious loyalty to the Syngman Rhee regime -- were retreating southwards or defecting en masse to the northern side, the KPA.
As soon as word of the attack was received, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson informed President Truman that the North Koreans had invaded South Korea. Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response and agreed that the United States was obligated to act, paralleling the North Korean invasion with Adolf Hitler 's aggressions in the 1930s, with the conclusion being that the mistake of appeasement must not be repeated. Several U.S. industries were mobilized to supply materials, labor, capital, production facilities, and other services necessary to support the military objectives of the Korean War. However, President Truman later acknowledged that he believed fighting the invasion was essential to the U.S. goal of the global containment of communism as outlined in the National Security Council Report 68 (NSC 68) (declassified in 1975):
Communism was acting in Korea, just as Hitler, Mussolini and the Japanese had ten, fifteen, and twenty years earlier. I felt certain that if South Korea was allowed to fall, Communist leaders would be emboldened to override nations closer to our own shores. If the Communists were permitted to force their way into the Republic of Korea without opposition from the free world, no small nation would have the courage to resist threat and aggression by stronger Communist neighbors.
In August 1950, the President and the Secretary of State obtained the consent of Congress to appropriate $12 billion for military action in Korea.
Because of the extensive defense cuts and the emphasis placed on building a nuclear bomber force, none of the services were in a position to make a robust response with conventional military strength. General Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, was faced with re-organizing and deploying a U.S. military force that was a shadow of its World War II counterpart.
Acting on State Secretary Acheson 's recommendation, President Truman ordered General MacArthur to transfer matériel to the South Korean military while giving air cover to the evacuation of U.S. nationals. The President disagreed with advisers who recommended unilateral U.S. bombing of the North Korean forces, and ordered the U.S. Seventh Fleet to protect the Republic of China (Taiwan), whose government asked to fight in Korea. The United States denied ROC 's request for combat, lest it provoke a communist Chinese retaliation. Because the United States had sent the Seventh Fleet to "neutralize '' the Taiwan Strait, Chinese premier Zhou Enlai criticized both the UN and U.S. initiatives as "armed aggression on Chinese territory ''.
The Battle of Osan, the first significant U.S. engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540 - soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the North Koreans at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the North Koreans ' tanks. They were unsuccessful; the result was 180 dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back the U.S. force at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division 's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including the Division 's Commander, Major General William F. Dean.
By August, the KPA steadily pushed back the ROK Army and the Eighth United States Army southwards. The impact of the Truman administration 's defense budget cutbacks were now keenly felt, as U.S. troops fought a series of costly rearguard actions. Lacking sufficient anti-tank weapons, artillery or armor, they were driven down the Korean peninsula. During their advance, the KPA purged the Republic of Korea 's intelligentsia by killing civil servants and intellectuals. On 20 August, General MacArthur warned North Korean leader Kim Il - sung he was responsible for the KPA 's atrocities. By September, UN forces were hemmed into a small corner of southeast Korea, near Pusan. This 140 - mile perimeter enclosed about 10 % of Korea, in a line partially defined by the Nakdong River.
Although Kim 's early successes led him to predict he would end the war by the end of August, Chinese leaders were more pessimistic. To counter a possible U.S. deployment, Zhou Enlai secured a Soviet commitment to have the Soviet Union support Chinese forces with air cover, and deployed 260,000 soldiers along the Korean border, under the command of Gao Gang. Zhou commanded Chai Chengwen to conduct a topographical survey of Korea, and directed Lei Yingfu, Zhou 's military advisor in Korea, to analyze the military situation in Korea. Lei concluded that MacArthur would most likely attempt a landing at Incheon. After conferring with Mao that this would be MacArthur 's most likely strategy, Zhou briefed Soviet and North Korean advisers of Lei 's findings, and issued orders to Chinese army commanders deployed on the Korean border to prepare for U.S. naval activity in the Korea Strait.
In the resulting Battle of Pusan Perimeter (August -- September 1950), the U.S. Army withstood KPA attacks meant to capture the city at the Naktong Bulge, P'ohang - dong, and Taegu. The United States Air Force (USAF) interrupted KPA logistics with 40 daily ground support sorties that destroyed 32 bridges, halting most daytime road and rail traffic. KPA forces were forced to hide in tunnels by day and move only at night. To deny matériel to the KPA, the USAF destroyed logistics depots, petroleum refineries, and harbors, while the U.S. Navy air forces attacked transport hubs. Consequently, the over-extended KPA could not be supplied throughout the south. On 27 August, 67th Fighter Squadron aircraft mistakenly attacked facilities in Chinese territory and the Soviet Union called the UN Security Council 's attention to China 's complaint about the incident. The U.S. proposed that a commission of India and Sweden determine what the U.S. should pay in compensation but the Soviets vetoed the U.S. proposal.
Meanwhile, U.S. garrisons in Japan continually dispatched soldiers and matériel to reinforce defenders in the Pusan Perimeter. Tank battalions deployed to Korea directly from the U.S. mainland from the port of San Francisco to the port of Pusan, the largest Korean port. By late August, the Pusan Perimeter had some 500 medium tanks battle - ready. In early September 1950, ROK Army and UN Command forces outnumbered the KPA 180,000 to 100,000 soldiers.
Against the rested and re-armed Pusan Perimeter defenders and their reinforcements, the KPA were undermanned and poorly supplied; unlike the UN Command, they lacked naval and air support. To relieve the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur recommended an amphibious landing at Incheon, near Seoul and well over 160 km (100 mi) behind the KPA lines. On 6 July, he ordered Major General Hobart R. Gay, Commander, 1st Cavalry Division, to plan the division 's amphibious landing at Incheon; on 12 -- 14 July, the 1st Cavalry Division embarked from Yokohama, Japan, to reinforce the 24th Infantry Division inside the Pusan Perimeter.
Soon after the war began, General MacArthur began planning a landing at Incheon, but the Pentagon opposed him. When authorized, he activated a combined U.S. Army and Marine Corps, and ROK Army force. The X Corps, led by General Edward Almond, Commander, consisted of 40,000 men of the 1st Marine Division, the 7th Infantry Division and around 8,600 ROK Army soldiers. By 15 September, the amphibious assault force faced few KPA defenders at Incheon: military intelligence, psychological warfare, guerrilla reconnaissance, and protracted bombardment facilitated a relatively light battle. However, the bombardment destroyed most of the city of Incheon.
After the Incheon landing, the 1st Cavalry Division began its northward advance from the Pusan Perimeter. "Task Force Lynch '' (after Lieutenant Colonel James H. Lynch), 3rd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two 70th Tank Battalion units (Charlie Company and the Intelligence -- Reconnaissance Platoon) effected the "Pusan Perimeter Breakout '' through 171.2 km (106.4 mi) of enemy territory to join the 7th Infantry Division at Osan. The X Corps rapidly defeated the KPA defenders around Seoul, thus threatening to trap the main KPA force in Southern Korea. On 18 September, Stalin dispatched General H.M. Zakharov to Korea to advise Kim Il - sung to halt his offensive around the Pusan perimeter and to redeploy his forces to defend Seoul. Chinese commanders were not briefed on North Korean troop numbers or operational plans. As the overall commander of Chinese forces, Zhou Enlai suggested that the North Koreans should attempt to eliminate the enemy forces at Incheon only if they had reserves of at least 100,000 men; otherwise, he advised the North Koreans to withdraw their forces north.
On 25 September, Seoul was recaptured by South Korean forces. U.S. air raids caused heavy damage to the KPA, destroying most of its tanks and much of its artillery. North Korean troops in the south, instead of effectively withdrawing north, rapidly disintegrated, leaving Pyongyang vulnerable. During the general retreat only 25,000 to 30,000 North Korean soldiers managed to reach the KPA lines. On 27 September, Stalin convened an emergency session of the Politburo, in which he condemned the incompetence of the KPA command and held Soviet military advisers responsible for the defeat.
On 27 September, MacArthur received the top secret National Security Council Memorandum 81 / 1 from Truman reminding him that operations north of the 38th parallel were authorized only if "at the time of such operation there was no entry into North Korea by major Soviet or Chinese Communist forces, no announcements of intended entry, nor a threat to counter our operations militarily ''. On 29 September MacArthur restored the government of the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee. On 30 September, Defense Secretary George Marshall sent an eyes - only message to MacArthur: "We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel. '' During October, the ROK police executed people who were suspected to be sympathetic to North Korea, and similar massacres were carried out until early 1951.
On 30 September, Zhou Enlai warned the United States that China was prepared to intervene in Korea if the United States crossed the 38th parallel. Zhou attempted to advise North Korean commanders on how to conduct a general withdrawal by using the same tactics which allowed Chinese communist forces to successfully escape Chiang Kai - shek 's Encirclement Campaigns in the 1930s, but by some accounts North Korean commanders did not use these tactics effectively. Historian Bruce Cumings argues, however, the KPA 's rapid withdrawal was strategic, with troops melting into the mountains from where they could launch guerrilla raids on the UN forces spread out on the coasts.
By 1 October 1950, the UN Command repelled the KPA northwards past the 38th parallel; the ROK Army crossed after them, into North Korea. MacArthur made a statement demanding the KPA 's unconditional surrender. Six days later, on 7 October, with UN authorization, the UN Command forces followed the ROK forces northwards. The X Corps landed at Wonsan (in southeastern North Korea) and Riwon (in northeastern North Korea), already captured by ROK forces. The Eighth U.S. Army and the ROK Army drove up western Korea and captured Pyongyang city, the North Korean capital, on 19 October 1950. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team made their first of two combat jumps during the Korean War on 20 October 1950 at Sunchon and Sukchon. The missions of the 187th were to cut the road north going to China, preventing North Korean leaders from escaping from Pyongyang; and to rescue U.S. prisoners of war. At month 's end, UN forces held 135,000 KPA prisoners of war. As they neared the Sino - Korean border, the UN forces in the west were divided from those in the east by 50 -- 100 miles of mountainous terrain.
Taking advantage of the UN Command 's strategic momentum against the communists, General MacArthur believed it necessary to extend the Korean War into China to destroy depots supplying the North Korean war effort. President Truman disagreed, and ordered caution at the Sino - Korean border.
On 20 August 1950, Premier Zhou Enlai informed the UN that "Korea is China 's neighbor... The Chinese people can not but be concerned about a solution of the Korean question ''. Thus, through neutral - country diplomats, China warned that in safeguarding Chinese national security, they would intervene against the UN Command in Korea. President Truman interpreted the communication as "a bald attempt to blackmail the UN '', and dismissed it.
On 1 October 1950, the day that UN troops crossed the 38th parallel, the Soviet ambassador forwarded a telegram from Stalin to Mao and Zhou requesting that China send five to six divisions into Korea, and Kim Il - sung sent frantic appeals to Mao for Chinese military intervention. At the same time, Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces themselves would not directly intervene.
In a series of emergency meetings that lasted from 2 to 5 October, Chinese leaders debated whether to send Chinese troops into Korea. There was considerable resistance among many leaders, including senior military leaders, to confronting the U.S. in Korea. Mao strongly supported intervention, and Zhou was one of the few Chinese leaders who firmly supported him. After Lin Biao politely refused Mao 's offer to command Chinese forces in Korea (citing his upcoming medical treatment), Mao decided that Peng Dehuai would be the commander of the Chinese forces in Korea after Peng agreed to support Mao 's position. Mao then asked Peng to speak in favor of intervention to the rest of the Chinese leaders. After Peng made the case that if U.S. troops conquered Korea and reached the Yalu they might cross it and invade China the Politburo agreed to intervene in Korea. On 4 August 1950, with a planned invasion of Taiwan aborted due to the heavy U.S. naval presence, Mao Zedong reported to the Politburo that he would intervene in Korea when the People 's Liberation Army 's (PLA) Taiwan invasion force was reorganized into the PLA North East Frontier Force. On 8 October 1950, Mao Zedong redesignated the PLA North East Frontier Force as the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army (PVA).
To enlist Stalin 's support, Zhou and a Chinese delegation arrived in Moscow on 10 October, at which point they flew to Stalin 's home at the Black Sea. There they conferred with the top Soviet leadership which included Joseph Stalin as well as Vyacheslav Molotov, Lavrentiy Beria and Georgi Malenkov. Stalin initially agreed to send military equipment and ammunition, but warned Zhou that the Soviet Union 's air force would need two or three months to prepare any operations. In a subsequent meeting, Stalin told Zhou that he would only provide China with equipment on a credit basis, and that the Soviet air force would only operate over Chinese airspace, and only after an undisclosed period of time. Stalin did not agree to send either military equipment or air support until March 1951. Mao did not find Soviet air support especially useful, as the fighting was going to take place on the south side of the Yalu. Soviet shipments of matériel, when they did arrive, were limited to small quantities of trucks, grenades, machine guns, and the like.
Immediately on his return to Beijing on 18 October 1950, Zhou met with Mao Zedong, Peng Dehuai, and Gao Gang, and the group ordered two hundred thousand Chinese troops to enter North Korea, which they did on 25 October. UN aerial reconnaissance had difficulty sighting PVA units in daytime, because their march and bivouac discipline minimized aerial detection. The PVA marched "dark - to - dark '' (19: 00 -- 03: 00), and aerial camouflage (concealing soldiers, pack animals, and equipment) was deployed by 05: 30. Meanwhile, daylight advance parties scouted for the next bivouac site. During daylight activity or marching, soldiers were to remain motionless if an aircraft appeared, until it flew away; PVA officers were under order to shoot security violators. Such battlefield discipline allowed a three - division army to march the 460 km (286 mi) from An - tung, Manchuria, to the combat zone in some 19 days. Another division night - marched a circuitous mountain route, averaging 29 km (18 mi) daily for 18 days.
Meanwhile, on 15 October 1950, President Truman and General MacArthur met at Wake Island in the mid-Pacific Ocean. This meeting was much publicized because of the General 's discourteous refusal to meet the President on the continental United States. To President Truman, MacArthur speculated there was little risk of Chinese intervention in Korea, and that the PRC 's opportunity for aiding the KPA had lapsed. He believed the PRC had some 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, and some 100,000 -- 125,000 soldiers at the Yalu River. He further concluded that, although half of those forces might cross south, "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter '' without air force protection.
After secretly crossing the Yalu River on 19 October, the PVA 13th Army Group launched the First Phase Offensive on 25 October, attacking the advancing UN forces near the Sino - Korean border. This military decision made solely by China changed the attitude of the Soviet Union. Twelve days after Chinese troops entered the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Force to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. After inflicting heavy losses on the ROK II Corps at the Battle of Onjong, the first confrontation between Chinese and U.S. military occurred on 1 November 1950; deep in North Korea, thousands of soldiers from the PVA 39th Army encircled and attacked the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment with three - prong assaults -- from the north, northwest, and west -- and overran the defensive position flanks in the Battle of Unsan. The surprise assault resulted in the UN forces retreating back to the Ch'ongch'on River, while the Chinese unexpectedly disappeared into mountain hideouts following victory. It is unclear why the Chinese did not press the attack and follow up their victory.
The UN Command, however, were unconvinced that the Chinese had openly intervened because of the sudden Chinese withdrawal. On 24 November, the Home - by - Christmas Offensive was launched with the U.S. Eighth Army advancing in northwest Korea, while the US X Corps attacked along the Korean east coast. But the Chinese were waiting in ambush with their Second Phase Offensive.
After consulting with Stalin, on 13 November, Mao appointed Zhou Enlai the overall commander and coordinator of the war effort, with Peng as field commander. On 25 November at the Korean western front, the PVA 13th Army Group attacked and overran the ROK II Corps at the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and then inflicted heavy losses on the US 2nd Infantry Division on the UN forces ' right flank. The UN Command retreated; the U.S. Eighth Army 's retreat (the longest in US Army history) was made possible because of the Turkish Brigade 's successful, but very costly, rear - guard delaying action near Kunuri that slowed the PVA attack for two days (27 -- 29 November). On 27 November at the Korean eastern front, a U.S. 7th Infantry Division Regimental Combat Team (3,000 soldiers) and the U.S. 1st Marine Division (12,000 -- 15,000 marines) were unprepared for the PVA 9th Army Group 's three - pronged encirclement tactics at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, but escaped under Air Force and X Corps support fire -- albeit with some 15,000 collective casualties.
By 30 November, the PVA 13th Army Group managed to expel the U.S. Eighth Army from northwest Korea. Retreating from the north faster than they had counter-invaded, the Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel border in mid December. UN morale hit rock bottom when commanding General Walton Walker of the U.S. Eighth Army was killed on 23 December 1950 in an automobile accident. In northeast Korea by 11 December, the U.S. X Corps managed to cripple the PVA 9th Army Group while establishing a defensive perimeter at the port city of Hungnam. The X Corps were forced to evacuate by 24 December in order to reinforce the badly depleted U.S. Eighth Army to the south.
During the Hungnam evacuation, about 193 shiploads of UN Command forces and matériel (approximately 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies) were evacuated to Pusan. The SS Meredith Victory was noted for evacuating 14,000 refugees, the largest rescue operation by a single ship, even though it was designed to hold 12 passengers. Before escaping, the UN Command forces razed most of Hungnam city, especially the port facilities; and on 16 December 1950, President Truman declared a national emergency with Presidential Proclamation No. 2914, 3 C.F.R. 99 (1953), which remained in force until 14 September 1978. The next day (17 December 1950) Kim Il - sung was deprived of the right of command of KPA by China.
China justified its entry into the war as a response to "American aggression in the guise of the UN ''. Later, the Chinese claimed that U.S. bombers had violated PRC national airspace on three separate occasions and attacked Chinese targets before China intervened.
With Lieutenant - General Matthew Ridgway assuming the command of the U.S. Eighth Army on 26 December, the PVA and the KPA launched their Third Phase Offensive (also known as the "Chinese New Year 's Offensive '') on New Year 's Eve of 1950. Utilizing night attacks in which UN Command fighting positions were encircled and then assaulted by numerically superior troops who had the element of surprise, the attacks were accompanied by loud trumpets and gongs, which fulfilled the double purpose of facilitating tactical communication and mentally disorienting the enemy. UN forces initially had no familiarity with this tactic, and as a result some soldiers panicked, abandoning their weapons and retreating to the south. The Chinese New Year 's Offensive overwhelmed UN forces, allowing the PVA and KPA to conquer Seoul for the second time on 4 January 1951.
These setbacks prompted General MacArthur to consider using nuclear weapons against the Chinese or North Korean interiors, with the intention that radioactive fallout zones would interrupt the Chinese supply chains. However, upon the arrival of the charismatic General Ridgway, the esprit de corps of the bloodied Eighth Army immediately began to revive.
UN forces retreated to Suwon in the west, Wonju in the center, and the territory north of Samcheok in the east, where the battlefront stabilized and held. The PVA had outrun its logistics capability and thus were unable to press on beyond Seoul as food, ammunition, and matériel were carried nightly, on foot and bicycle, from the border at the Yalu River to the three battle lines. In late January, upon finding that the PVA had abandoned their battle lines, General Ridgway ordered a reconnaissance - in - force, which became Operation Roundup (5 February 1951). A full - scale X Corps advance proceeded, which fully exploited the UN Command 's air superiority, concluding with the UN reaching the Han River and recapturing Wonju.
Following the failure of ceasefire negotiations in January, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 498 on 1 February, condemning PRC as an aggressor, and called upon its forces to withdraw from Korea.
In early February, the South Korean 11th Division ran the operation to destroy the guerrillas and their sympathizer citizens in Southern Korea. During the operation, the division and police conducted the Geochang massacre and Sancheong - Hamyang massacre. In mid-February, the PVA counterattacked with the Fourth Phase Offensive and achieved initial victory at Hoengseong. But the offensive was soon blunted by the IX Corps positions at Chipyong - ni in the center. The U.S. 2nd Infantry "Warrior '' Division 's 23rd Regimental Combat Team and the French Battalion fought a short but desperate battle that broke the attack 's momentum. The battle is sometimes known as the "Gettysburg of the Korean War ''. 5,600 South Korean, U.S., and French troops were surrounded on all sides by 25,000 Chinese. United Nations forces had previously retreated in the face of large Communist forces instead of getting cut off, but this time they stood and fought, and won.
In the last two weeks of February 1951, Operation Roundup was followed by Operation Killer, carried out by the revitalized Eighth Army. It was a full - scale, battlefront - length attack staged for maximum exploitation of firepower to kill as many KPA and PVA troops as possible. Operation Killer concluded with I Corps re-occupying the territory south of the Han River, and IX Corps capturing Hoengseong. On 7 March 1951, the Eighth Army attacked with Operation Ripper, expelling the PVA and the KPA from Seoul on 14 March 1951. This was the city 's fourth conquest in a year 's time, leaving it a ruin; the 1.5 million pre-war population was down to 200,000, and people were suffering from severe food shortages.
On 1 March 1951, Mao sent a cable to Stalin, in which he emphasized the difficulties faced by Chinese forces and the need for air cover, especially over supply lines. Apparently impressed by the Chinese war effort, Stalin agreed to supply two air force divisions, three anti-aircraft divisions, and six thousand trucks. PVA troops in Korea continued to suffer severe logistical problems throughout the war. In late April Peng Dehuai sent his deputy, Hong Xuezhi, to brief Zhou Enlai in Beijing. What Chinese soldiers feared, Hong said, was not the enemy, but having no food, bullets, or trucks to transport them to the rear when they were wounded. Zhou attempted to respond to the PVA 's logistical concerns by increasing Chinese production and improving supply methods, but these efforts were never sufficient. At the same time, large - scale air defense training programs were carried out, and the Chinese Air Force began participating in the war from September 1951 onward.
On 11 April 1951, Commander - in - Chief Truman relieved the controversial General MacArthur, the Supreme Commander in Korea. There were several reasons for the dismissal. MacArthur crossed the 38th parallel in the mistaken belief that the Chinese would not enter the war, leading to major allied losses. He believed that whether to use nuclear weapons should be his decision, not the president 's. MacArthur threatened to destroy China unless it surrendered. While MacArthur felt total victory was the only honorable outcome, Truman was more pessimistic about his chances once involved in a land war in Asia, and felt a truce and orderly withdrawal from Korea could be a valid solution. MacArthur was the subject of congressional hearings in May and June 1951, which determined that he had defied the orders of the president and thus had violated the U.S. Constitution. A popular criticism of MacArthur was that he never spent a night in Korea, and directed the war from the safety of Tokyo.
MacArthur was relieved primarily due to his determination to expand the war into China, which other officials believed would needlessly escalate a limited war and consume too many already overstretched resources. Despite MacArthur 's claims that he was restricted to fighting a limited war when China was fighting all - out, congressional testimony revealed China was using restraint as much as the U.S. was, as they were not using air power against front - line troops, communication lines, ports, naval air forces, or staging bases in Japan, which had been crucial to the survival of UN forces in Korea. Simply fighting on the peninsula had already tied down significant portions of U.S. airpower; as Air Force chief of staff Hoyt Vandenberg said, 80 -- 85 % the tactical capacity, one - fourth of the strategic portion, and 20 % of air defense forces of the United States were engaged in a single country. There was also fear that crossing into China would provoke the Soviet Union into entering the war; General Omar Bradley testified that there were 35 Russian divisions totaling some 500,000 troops in the Far East, which if sent into action with the approximately 85 Russian submarines in the vicinity of Korea, could overwhelm U.S. forces and cut supply lines, as well as potentially assist China in taking over territory in Southeast Asia.
General Ridgway was appointed Supreme Commander, Korea; he regrouped the UN forces for successful counterattacks, while General James Van Fleet assumed command of the U.S. Eighth Army. Further attacks slowly depleted the PVA and KPA forces; Operations Courageous (23 -- 28 March 1951) and Tomahawk (23 March 1951) were a joint ground and airborne infilltration meant to trap Chinese forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces advanced to "Line Kansas '', north of the 38th parallel. The 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team 's ("Rakkasans '') second of two combat jumps was on Easter Sunday, 1951, at Munsan - ni, South Korea, codenamed Operation Tomahawk. The mission was to get behind Chinese forces and block their movement north. The 60th Indian Parachute Field Ambulance provided the medical cover for the operations, dropping an ADS and a surgical team and treating over 400 battle casualties apart from the civilian casualties that formed the core of their objective as the unit was on a humanitarian mission.
The Chinese counterattacked in April 1951, with the Fifth Phase Offensive, also known as the Chinese Spring Offensive, with three field armies (approximately 700,000 men). The offensive 's first thrust fell upon I Corps, which fiercely resisted in the Battle of the Imjin River (22 -- 25 April 1951) and the Battle of Kapyong (22 -- 25 April 1951), blunting the impetus of the offensive, which was halted at the "No - name Line '' north of Seoul. On 15 May 1951, the Chinese commenced the second impulse of the Spring Offensive and attacked the ROK Army and the U.S. X Corps in the east at the Soyang River. After initial success, they were halted by 20 May. At month 's end, the U.S. Eighth Army counterattacked and regained "Line Kansas '', just north of the 38th parallel. The UN 's "Line Kansas '' halt and subsequent offensive action stand - down began the stalemate that lasted until the armistice of 1953.
For the remainder of the Korean War the UN Command and the PVA fought, but exchanged little territory; the stalemate held. Large - scale bombing of North Korea continued, and protracted armistice negotiations began 10 July 1951 at Kaesong. On the Chinese side, Zhou Enlai directed peace talks, and Li Kenong and Qiao Guanghua headed the negotiation team. Combat continued while the belligerents negotiated; the UN Command forces ' goal was to recapture all of South Korea and to avoid losing territory. The PVA and the KPA attempted similar operations, and later effected military and psychological operations in order to test the UN Command 's resolve to continue the war.
The principal battles of the stalemate include the Battle of Bloody Ridge (18 August -- 15 September 1951), the Battle of the Punchbowl (31 August - 21 September 1951), the Battle of Heartbreak Ridge (13 September -- 15 October 1951), the Battle of Old Baldy (26 June -- 4 August 1952), the Battle of White Horse (6 -- 15 October 1952), the Battle of Triangle Hill (14 October -- 25 November 1952), the Battle of Hill Eerie (21 March -- 21 June 1952), the sieges of Outpost Harry (10 -- 18 June 1953), the Battle of the Hook (28 -- 29 May 1953), the Battle of Pork Chop Hill (23 March -- 16 July 1953), and the Battle of Kumsong (13 -- 27 July 1953).
Chinese troops suffered from deficient military equipment, serious logistical problems, overextended communication and supply lines, and the constant threat of UN bombers. All of these factors generally led to a rate of Chinese casualties that was far greater than the casualties suffered by UN troops. The situation became so serious that, in November 1951, Zhou Enlai called a conference in Shenyang to discuss the PVA 's logistical problems. At the meeting it was decided to accelerate the construction of railways and airfields in the area, to increase the number of trucks available to the army, and to improve air defense by any means possible. These commitments did little to directly address the problems confronting PVA troops.
In the months after the Shenyang conference Peng Dehuai went to Beijing several times to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities. Peng was convinced that the war would be protracted, and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the near future. On 24 February 1952, the Military Commission, presided over by Zhou, discussed the PVA 's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort. After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war, Peng, in an angry outburst, shouted: "You have this and that problem... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have! Not to speak of the casualties! For what are they giving their lives? We have no aircraft. We have only a few guns. Transports are not protected. More and more soldiers are dying of starvation. Ca n't you overcome some of your difficulties? '' The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference. Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings, where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups, to be dispatched to Korea in shifts; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots; to provide more anti-aircraft guns to the front lines; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union; to provide the army with more food and clothing; and, to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government.
The on - again, off - again armistice negotiations continued for two years, first at Kaesong, on the border between North and South Korea, and then at the neighboring village of Panmunjom. A major, problematic negotiation point was prisoner of war (POW) repatriation. The PVA, KPA, and UN Command could not agree on a system of repatriation because many PVA and KPA soldiers refused to be repatriated back to the north, which was unacceptable to the Chinese and North Koreans. In the final armistice agreement, signed on 27 July 1953, a Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission, under the chairman Indian General K.S. Thimayya, was set up to handle the matter.
In 1952, the United States elected a new president, and on 29 November 1952, the president - elect, Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. With the United Nations ' acceptance of India 's proposed Korean War armistice, the KPA, the PVA, and the UN Command ceased fire with the battle line approximately at the 38th parallel. Upon agreeing to the armistice, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which has since been patrolled by the KPA and ROKA, United States, and Joint UN Commands.
The Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel; to the south, it travels west. The old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally was in pre-war South Korea, but now is part of North Korea. The United Nations Command, supported by the United States, the North Korean People 's Army, and the Chinese People 's Volunteers, signed the Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953 to end the fighting. The Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. The war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. North Korea nevertheless claims that it won the Korean War.
After the war, Operation Glory was conducted from July to November 1954, to allow combatant countries to exchange their dead. The remains of 4,167 U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps dead were exchanged for 13,528 KPA and PVA dead, and 546 civilians dead in UN prisoner - of - war camps were delivered to the South Korean government. After Operation Glory, 416 Korean War unknown soldiers were buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (The Punchbowl), on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Defense Prisoner of War / Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) records indicate that the PRC and the DPRK transmitted 1,394 names, of which 858 were correct. From 4,167 containers of returned remains, forensic examination identified 4,219 individuals. Of these, 2,944 were identified as from the U.S., and all but 416 were identified by name. From 1996 to 2006, the DPRK recovered 220 remains near the Sino - Korean border.
The Korean Armistice Agreement provided for monitoring by an international commission. Since 1953, the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC), composed of members from the Swiss and Swedish Armed Forces, has been stationed near the DMZ.
In April 1975, South Vietnam 's capital was captured by the North Vietnamese army. Encouraged by the success of Communist revolution in Indochina, Kim Il - sung saw it as an opportunity to invade the South. Kim visited China in April of that year, and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai to ask for military aid. Despite Pyongyang 's expectations, however, Beijing refused to help North Korea for another war in Korea.
Since the armistice, there have been numerous incursions and acts of aggression by North Korea. In 1976, the axe murder incident was widely publicized. Since 1974, four incursion tunnels leading to Seoul have been uncovered. In 2010, a North Korean submarine torpedoed and sank the South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan, resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors. Again in 2010, North Korea fired artillery shells on Yeonpyeong island, killing two military personnel and two civilians.
After a new wave of UN sanctions, on 11 March 2013, North Korea claimed that the armistice had become invalid. On 13 March 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North - South declaration on non-aggression ''. On 30 March 2013, North Korea stated that it entered a "state of war '' with South Korea and declared that "The long - standing situation of the Korean peninsula being neither at peace nor at war is finally over ''. Speaking on 4 April 2013, the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, informed the press that Pyongyang "formally informed '' the Pentagon that it "ratified '' the potential use of a nuclear weapon against South Korea, Japan and the United States of America, including Guam and Hawaii. Hagel also stated the United States would deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense anti-ballistic missile system to Guam, because of a credible and realistic nuclear threat from North Korea.
In 2016, it was revealed that North Korea approached the United States about conducting formal peace talks to formally end the war. While the White House agreed to secret peace talks, the plan was rejected due to North Korea 's refusal to discuss nuclear disarmament as part of the terms of the treaty.
On 27 April 2018, it was announced that North Korea and South Korea agreed to talks to end the ongoing 65 year conflict. They committed themselves to the complete denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. However, on May 15, 2018, North Korea cancelled a high - level meeting due to military drills South Korea and the US conducted.
According to the data from the U.S. Department of Defense, the United States suffered 33,686 battle deaths, along with 2,830 non-battle deaths, during the Korean War. U.S. battle deaths were 8,516 up to their first engagement with the Chinese on 1 November 1950. South Korea reported some 373,599 civilian and 137,899 military deaths. Western sources estimate the PVA suffered about 400,000 killed and 486,000 wounded, while the KPA suffered 215,000 killed and 303,000 wounded.
Data from official Chinese sources, on the other hand, reported that the Chinese PVA had suffered 114,000 battle deaths, 34,000 non-battle deaths, 340,000 wounded, 7,600 missing and during the war. 7,110 Chinese POWs were repatriated to China. Chinese sources also reported that North Korea had suffered 290,000 casualties, 90,000 captured and a large number of civilian deaths.
CNN reported, citing Encyclopædia Britannica that North Korean civilian casualties were 600,000, while South Korean civilian casualties reached one million.
The Chinese and North Koreans estimated that about 390,000 soldiers from the United States, 660,000 soldiers from South Korea and 29,000 other UN soldiers were "eliminated '' from the battlefield.
Recent scholarship puts the full battle death toll on all sides at just over 1.2 million.
In a postwar analysis of the unpreparedness of U.S. Army forces deployed to Korea during the summer and fall of 1950, Army Major General Floyd L. Parks stated that "Many who never lived to tell the tale had to fight the full range of ground warfare from offensive to delaying action, unit by unit, man by man... (T) hat we were able to snatch victory from the jaws of defeat... does not relieve us from the blame of having placed our own flesh and blood in such a predicament. ''
By 1950, U.S. Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson had established a policy of faithfully following President Truman 's defense economization plans, and had aggressively attempted to implement it even in the face of steadily increasing external threats. He consequently received much of the blame for the initial setbacks in Korea and the widespread reports of ill - equipped and inadequately trained U.S. military forces in the war 's early stages.
As an initial response to the invasion, Truman called for a naval blockade of North Korea, and was shocked to learn that such a blockade could be imposed only "on paper '', since the U.S. Navy no longer had the warships with which to carry out his request. Army officials, desperate for weaponry, recovered Sherman tanks from World War II Pacific battlefields and reconditioned them for shipment to Korea. Army Ordnance officials at Fort Knox pulled down M26 Pershing tanks from display pedestals around Fort Knox in order to equip the third company of the Army 's hastily formed 70th Tank Battalion. Without adequate numbers of tactical fighter - bomber aircraft, the Air Force took F - 51 (P - 51) propeller - driven aircraft out of storage or from existing Air National Guard squadrons, and rushed them into front - line service. A shortage of spare parts and qualified maintenance personnel resulted in improvised repairs and overhauls. A Navy helicopter pilot aboard an active duty warship recalled fixing damaged rotor blades with masking tape in the absence of spares.
Army Reserve and Army National Guard infantry soldiers and new inductees called to duty to fill out understrength infantry divisions found themselves short of nearly everything needed to repel the North Korean forces: artillery, ammunition, heavy tanks, ground - support aircraft, even effective anti-tank weapons such as the M20 3.5 - inch (89 mm) Super Bazooka. Some Army combat units sent to Korea were supplied with worn out, ' red - lined ' M - 1 rifles or carbines in immediate need of ordnance depot overhaul or repair. Only the Marine Corps, whose commanders had stored and maintained their World War II surplus inventories of equipment and weapons, proved ready for deployment, though they still were woefully under - strength, as well as in need of suitable landing craft to practice amphibious operations (Johnson had transferred most of the remaining craft to the Navy and reserved them for use in training Army units).
Due to public criticism of his handling of the Korean War, Truman decided to ask for Johnson 's resignation. On September 19, 1950, Johnson resigned as Secretary of Defense, and the president quickly replaced him with General of the Army George C. Marshall.
The initial assault by North Korean KPA forces was aided by the use of Soviet T - 34 - 85 tanks. A North Korean tank corps equipped with about 120 T - 34s spearheaded the invasion. These drove against a ROK Army with few anti-tank weapons adequate to deal with the Soviet T - 34s. Additional Soviet armor was added as the offensive progressed. The North Korean tanks had a good deal of early successes against South Korean infantry, elements of the 24th Infantry Division, and the United States built M24 Chaffee light tanks that they encountered. Interdiction by ground attack aircraft was the only means of slowing the advancing Korean armor. The tide turned in favour of the United Nations forces in August 1950 when the North Koreans suffered major tank losses during a series of battles in which the UN forces brought heavier equipment to bear, including M4A3 Sherman medium tanks backed by U.S. M26 heavy tanks, along with British Centurion, Churchill, and Cromwell tanks.
The U.S. landings at Inchon on 15 September cut off the North Korean supply lines, causing their armored forces and infantry to run out of fuel, ammunition, and other supplies. As a result, the North Koreans had to retreat, and many of the T - 34s and heavy weapons had to be abandoned. By the time the North Koreans withdrew from the South, a total of 239 T - 34s and 74 SU - 76s were lost. After November 1950, North Korean armor was rarely encountered.
Following the initial assault by the north, the Korean War saw limited use of tanks and featured no large - scale tank battles. The mountainous, forested terrain, especially in the Eastern Central Zone, was poor tank country, limiting their mobility. Through the last two years of the war in Korea, UN tanks served largely as infantry support and mobile artillery pieces.
Because neither Korea had a significant navy, the Korean War featured few naval battles. A skirmish between North Korea and the UN Command occurred on 2 July 1950; the U.S. Navy cruiser USS Juneau, the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Jamaica, and the frigate HMS Black Swan fought four North Korean torpedo boats and two mortar gunboats, and sank them. USS Juneau later sank several ammunition ships that had been present. The last sea battle of the Korean War occurred at Inchon, days before the Battle of Inchon; the ROK ship PC - 703 sank a North Korean mine layer in the Battle of Haeju Island, near Inchon. Three other supply ships were sunk by PC - 703 two days later in the Yellow Sea. Thereafter, vessels from the UN nations held undisputed control of the sea about Korea. The gun ships were used in shore bombardment, while the aircraft carriers provided air support to the ground forces.
During most of the war, the UN navies patrolled the west and east coasts of North Korea, sinking supply and ammunition ships and denying the North Koreans the ability to resupply from the sea. Aside from very occasional gunfire from North Korean shore batteries, the main threat to United States and UN navy ships was from magnetic mine s. During the war, five U.S. Navy ships were lost to mines: two minesweepers, two minesweeper escorts, and one ocean tug. Mines and gunfire from North Korean coastal artillery damaged another 87 U.S. warships, resulting in slight to moderate damage.
The Korean War was the first war in which jet aircraft played the central role in air combat. Once - formidable fighters such as the P - 51 Mustang, F4U Corsair, and Hawker Sea Fury -- all piston - engined, propeller - driven, and designed during World War II -- relinquished their air - superiority roles to a new generation of faster, jet - powered fighters arriving in the theater. For the initial months of the war, the P - 80 Shooting Star, F9F Panther, Gloster Meteor and other jets under the UN flag dominated North Korea 's prop - driven air force of Soviet Yakovlev Yak - 9 and Lavochkin La - 9s.
The Chinese intervention in late October 1950 bolstered the Korean People 's Air Force (KPAF) of North Korea with the MiG - 15, one of the world 's most advanced jet fighters. The heavily armed MiGs were faster than first - generation UN jets and so could reach and destroy U.S. B - 29 Superfortress bomber flights despite their fighter escorts. With increasing B - 29 losses, the Air Force was forced to switch from a daylight bombing campaign to a safer but less accurate nighttime bombing of targets.
The USAF countered the MiG - 15 by sending over three squadrons of its most capable fighter, the F - 86 Sabre. These arrived in December 1950. The MiG was designed as a bomber interceptor. It had a very high service ceiling -- 15,000 m (50,000 ft) and carried very heavy weaponry: one 37 mm cannon and two 23 mm cannons. The F - 86 had a ceiling of 13,000 m (42,000 ft) and were armed with six. 50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, which were range adjusted by radar gunsights. If coming in at higher altitude the advantage of engaging or not went to the MiG. Once in a level flight dogfight, both swept - wing designs attained comparable maximum speeds of around 1,100 km / h (660 mph). The MiG climbed faster, but the Sabre turned and dived better.
In summer and autumn 1951, the outnumbered Sabres of the USAF 's 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing -- only 44 at one point -- continued seeking battle in MiG Alley, where the Yalu River marks the Chinese border, against Chinese and North Korean air forces capable of deploying some 500 aircraft. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng 's communication with the Pentagon, the 51st Fighter - Interceptor Wing finally reinforced the beleaguered 4th Wing in December 1951; for the next year - and - a-half stretch of the war, aerial warfare continued.
Unlike the Vietnam War, in which the Soviet Union only officially sent "advisers '', in the Korean aerial war Soviet forces participated via the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps. Fearful of confronting the United States directly, the Soviet Union denied involvement of their personnel in anything other than an advisory role, but air combat quickly resulted in Soviet pilots dropping their code signals and speaking over the wireless in Russian. This known direct Soviet participation was a casus belli that the UN Command deliberately overlooked, lest the war for the Korean peninsula expand to include the Soviet Union, and potentially escalate into atomic warfare.
After the war, and to the present day, the USAF reports an F - 86 Sabre kill ratio in excess of 10: 1, with 792 MiG - 15s and 108 other aircraft shot down by Sabres, and 78 Sabres lost to enemy fire. The Soviet Air Force reported some 1,100 air - to - air victories and 335 MiG combat losses, while China 's People 's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) reported 231 combat losses, mostly MiG - 15s, and 168 other aircraft lost. The KPAF reported no data, but the UN Command estimates some 200 KPAF aircraft lost in the war 's first stage, and 70 additional aircraft after the Chinese intervention. The USAF disputes Soviet and Chinese claims of 650 and 211 downed F - 86s, respectively. However, one source claims that the U.S. Air Force has more recently cited 224 losses (c. 100 to air combat) out of 674 F - 86s deployed to Korea.
The Korean War marked a major milestone not only for fixed - wing aircraft, but also for rotorcraft, featuring the first large - scale deployment of helicopters for medical evacuation (medevac). In 1944 -- 1945, during the Second World War, the YR - 4 helicopter saw limited ambulance duty, but in Korea, where rough terrain trumped the jeep as a speedy medevac vehicle, helicopters like the Sikorsky H - 19 helped reduce fatal casualties to a dramatic degree when combined with complementary medical innovations such as Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals. The limitations of jet aircraft for close air support highlighted the helicopter 's potential in the role, leading to development of the AH - 1 Cobra and other helicopter gunships used in the Vietnam War (1965 -- 75).
The initial bombing attack on North Korea was approved on the fourth day of the war, June 29, 1950, by General Douglas MacArthur immediately upon request by the commanding general of the Far East Air Forces, George E. Stratemeyer. Major bombing began in late July. On 12 August 1950, the U.S. Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea; two weeks later, the daily tonnage increased to some 800 tons.
From June through October, official U.S. policy was to pursue precision bombing aimed at communication centers (railroad stations, marshaling yards, main yards, and railways) and industrial facilities deemed vital to war making capacity. The policy was the result of debates after World War II, in which U.S. policy rejected the mass civilian bombings that had been conducted in the later stages of World War II as unproductive and immoral. In early July, General Emmett "Rosie '' O'Donnell requested permission to burn five North Korean cities. He proposed that MacArthur announce that the UN would employ the firebombing methods that "brought Japan to its knees. '' The announcement would warn the leaders of North Korea "to get women and children and other noncombatants the hell out. ''
According to O'Donnell, MacArthur responded, "No, Rosy, I 'm not prepared to go that far yet. My instructions are very explicit; however, I want you to know that I have no compunction whatever to your bombing bona fide military objectives, with high explosives, in those five industrial centers. If you miss your target and kill people or destroy other parts of the city, I accept that as a part of war. ''
In September 1950, MacArthur said in his public report the United Nations, "The problem of avoiding the killing of innocent civilians and damages to the civilian economy is continually present and given my personal attention. ''
In October 1950, FEAF commander General Stratemeyer requested permission to attack the city of Sinuiju, a provincial capital with an estimated population of 60,000, "over the widest area of the city, without warning, by burning and high explosive. '' MacArthur 's headquarters responded the following day: "The general policy enunciated from Washington negates such an attack unless the military situation clearly requires it. Under present circumstances this is not the case. ''
Following the intervention of the Chinese in November, General MacArthur ordered increased bombing on North Korea which included incendiary attacks against the country 's arsenals and communications centers and especially against the "Korean end '' of all the bridges across the Yalu River. As with the aerial bombing campaigns over Germany and Japan in World War II, the nominal objective of the U.S. Air Force was to destroy North Korea 's war infrastructure and shatter the country 's morale.
On November 3, 1950, General Stratemeyer forwarded to MacArthur the request of Fifth Air Force commander General Earle E. Partridge for clearance to "burn Sinuiju. '' As he had done previously in July and October, MacArthur again denied the request, explaining that he planned to use the town 's facilities after seizing it. However, at the same meeting, MacArthur agreed for the first time to a firebombing campaign, agreeing to Stratemeyer 's request to burn the city of Kanggye and several other towns: "Burn it if you so desire. Not only that, Strat, but burn and destroy as a lesson any other of those towns that you consider of military value to the enemy. '' The same evening, MacArthur 's chief of staff told Stratemeyer that the firebombing of Sinuiju had also been approved. In his diary, Stratemeyer summarized the instructions as follows: "Every installation, facility, and village in North Korea now becomes a military and tactical target. '' Stratemeyer sent orders to the Fifth Air Force and Bomber Command to "destroy every means of communications and every installation, factory, city, and village. ''
On November 5, 1950, General Stratemeyer gave the following order to the commanding general of the Fifth Air Force: "Aircraft under Fifth Air Force control will destroy all other targets including all buildings capable of affording shelter. '' The same day, twenty - two B - 29s attacked Kanggye, destroying 75 % of the city.
After MacArthur was removed as Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea. The U.S. dropped a total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, on Korea, more than during the whole Pacific campaign of World War II.
Almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed as a result. The war 's highest - ranking U.S. POW, U.S. Major General William F. Dean, reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow - covered wasteland. North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground, and air defenses were "non-existent. '' In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed their population to build dugouts and mud huts and to dig underground tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem. U.S. Air Force General Curtis LeMay commented, "we went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too. '' Pyongyang, which saw 75 percent of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets. On 28 November, Bomber Command reported on the campaign 's progress: 95 percent of Manpojin was destroyed, along with 90 percent of Hoeryong, Namsi and Koindong, 85 percent of Chosan, 75 percent of both Sakchu and Huichon, and 20 percent of Uiju. According to USAF damage assessments, "eighteen of twenty - two major cities in North Korea had been at least half obliterated. '' By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea.
As well as conventional bombing, the Communist side claimed that the U.S. used biological weapons. These claims have been disputed; Conrad Crane asserts that while the U.S. worked towards developing chemical and biological weapons, the U.S. military "possessed neither the ability, nor the will '', to use them in combat.
On 5 November 1950, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) issued orders for the retaliatory atomic bombing of Manchurian PRC military bases, if either their armies crossed into Korea or if PRC or KPA bombers attacked Korea from there. The President ordered the transfer of nine Mark 4 nuclear bombs "to the Air Force 's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons... (and) signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets '', which he never transmitted.
Many U.S. officials viewed the deployment of nuclear - capable (but not nuclear - armed) B - 29 bombers to Britain as helping to resolve the Berlin Blockade of 1948 -- 1949. Truman and Eisenhower both had military experience and viewed nuclear weapons as potentially usable components of their military. During Truman 's first meeting to discuss the war on 25 June 1950, he ordered plans be prepared for attacking Soviet forces if they entered the war. By July, Truman approved another B - 29 deployment to Britain, this time with bombs (but without their cores), to remind the Soviets of U.S. offensive ability. Deployment of a similar fleet to Guam was leaked to The New York Times. As United Nations forces retreated to Pusan, and the CIA reported that mainland China was building up forces for a possible invasion of Taiwan, the Pentagon believed that Congress and the public would demand using nuclear weapons if the situation in Korea required them.
As Chinese forces pushed back the United States forces from the Yalu River, Truman stated during a 30 November 1950 press conference that using nuclear weapons was "always (under) active consideration '', with control under the local military commander. The Indian ambassador, K. Madhava Panikkar, reports "that Truman announced he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed unmoved by this threat... The PRC 's propaganda against the U.S. was stepped up. The "Aid Korea to resist America '' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman 's threat came in useful to the leaders of the Revolution, to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities. ''
After his statement caused concern in Europe, Truman met on 4 December 1950 with UK prime minister and Commonwealth spokesman Clement Attlee, French Premier René Pleven, and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to discuss their worries about atomic warfare and its likely continental expansion. The United States ' forgoing atomic warfare was not because of "a disinclination by the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China to escalate '' the Korean War, but because UN allies -- notably from the UK, the Commonwealth, and France -- were concerned about a geopolitical imbalance rendering NATO defenseless while the United States fought China, who then might persuade the Soviet Union to conquer Western Europe. The Joint Chiefs of Staff advised Truman to tell Attlee that the United States would use nuclear weapons only if necessary to protect an evacuation of UN troops, or to prevent a "major military disaster ''.
On 6 December 1950, after the Chinese intervention repelled the UN Command armies from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy, General George E. Stratemeyer, and staff officers Major General Doyle Hickey, Major General Charles A. Willoughby, and Major General Edwin K. Wright met in Tokyo to plan strategy countering the Chinese intervention; they considered three potential atomic warfare scenarios encompassing the next weeks and months of warfare.
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications. Truman and his senior advisors agreed, and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea.
In 1951, the U.S. escalated closest to atomic warfare in Korea. Because China deployed new armies to the Sino - Korean frontier, pit crews at the Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, assembled atomic bombs for Korean warfare, "lacking only the essential pit nuclear cores ''. In October 1951, the United States effected Operation Hudson Harbor to establish a nuclear weapons capability. USAF B - 29 bombers practised individual bombing runs from Okinawa to North Korea (using dummy nuclear or conventional bombs), coordinated from Yokota Air Base in east - central Japan. Hudson Harbor tested "actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming ''. The bombing run data indicated that atomic bombs would be tactically ineffective against massed infantry, because the "timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare. ''
Ridgway was authorized to use nuclear weapons if a major air attack originated from outside Korea. An envoy was sent to Hong Kong to deliver a warning to China. The message likely caused Chinese leaders to be more cautious about potential U.S. use of nuclear weapons, but whether they learned about the B - 29 deployment is unclear and the failure of the two major Chinese offensives that month likely was what caused them to shift to a defensive strategy in Korea. The B - 29s returned to the United States in June.
Despite the greater destructive power deploying atomic weapons would bring to the war, their effects on determining the war 's outcome would have likely been minimal. Tactically, given the dispersed nature of Chinese and North Korean forces, the relatively primitive infrastructure for staging and logistics centers, and the small number of bombs available (most would have been conserved for use against the Soviets), atomic attacks would have limited effects against the ability of China to mobilize and move forces. Strategically, attacking Chinese cities to destroy civilian industry and infrastructure would cause the immediate dispersion of the leadership away from such areas and give propaganda value for the communists to galvanize the support of Chinese civilians. Since the Soviets were not expected to intervene with their few primitive atomic weapons on China or North Korea 's behalf if the U.S. used theirs first, factors such as little operational value and the lowering of the "threshold '' for using atomic weapons against non-nuclear states in future conflicts played more of a role in not employing them than the threat of a possible nuclear exchange.
When Eisenhower succeeded Truman in early 1953 he was similarly cautious about using nuclear weapons in Korea, including for diplomatic purposes to encourage progress in ongoing truce discussions. The administration prepared contingency plans to use them against China, but like Truman, the new president feared doing so would result in Soviet attacks on Japan. The war ended as it began, without U.S. nuclear weapons deployed near battle.
There were numerous atrocities and massacres of civilians throughout the Korean war committed by both the North and South Koreans. Many started on the first days of the war. South Korean President Syngman Rhee ordered the Bodo League massacre on 28 June, beginning killings of more than 100,000 suspected leftist sympathizers and their families by South Korean officials and right - wing groups. During the massacre, the British protested to their allies and saved some citizens.
In occupied areas, North Korean Army political officers purged South Korean society of its intelligentsia by executing every educated person -- academic, governmental, religious -- who might lead resistance against the North; the purges continued during the NPA retreat. When the North Koreans retreated north in September 1950, they abducted tens of thousands of South Korean men. The reasons are not clear, but the intention might have been to acquire skilled professionals to the North.
In addition to conventional military operations, North Korean soldiers fought the UN forces by infiltrating guerrillas among refugees. These soldiers disguised as refugees would approach UN forces asking for food and help, then open fire and attack. U.S. troops acted under a "shoot - first - ask - questions - later '' policy against any civilian refugee approaching U.S. battlefield positions, a policy that led U.S. soldiers to kill an estimated 400 civilians at No Gun Ri (26 -- 29 July 1950) in central Korea because they believed some of the refugees to be North Korean soldiers in disguise. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission defended this policy as a "military necessity ''.
Beginning in 2005, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has investigated numerous atrocities committed by the Japanese colonial government, North Korean military, U.S. military, and the authoritarian South Korean government. It has investigated atrocities before, during and after the Korean War.
The Commission verified over 14,000 civilians were killed in the Jeju uprising (1948 -- 49) that involved South Korean military and paramilitary units against pro-North Korean guerrillas. Although most of the fighting subsided by 1949, it continued until 1950. The Commission estimates 86 % of the civilians were killed by South Korean forces. The Americans on the island documented the events, but never intervened.
At Geoje prison camp on Geoje Island, Chinese POWs experienced anti-communist lecturing and missionary work from secret agents from the U.S. and Taiwan in No. 71, 72 and 86 camps. Pro-Communist POWs experienced torture, cutting off of limbs, or were executed in public. Being forced to write confession letters and receiving tattoos of an anti-Communism slogan and Flag of the Republic of China were also commonly seen, in case any wanted to go back to mainland China.
Pro-Communist POWs who could not endure the torture formed an underground group to fight the pro-Nationalist POWs secretly by assassination which led to the Geoje Uprising. The rebellion captured Francis Dodd, and was cracked down by the 187th Infantry Regiment.
In the end, 14,235 Chinese POWs went to Nationalist China (Taiwan) and less than 6,000 POWs went back to mainland China. Those who went to Taiwan are called "righteous men '' and experienced brainwashing again and were sent to the army or were arrested; while the survivors who went back to mainland China were welcomed as a "hero '' first, but experienced anti-brainwashing, strict interrogation, and house arrest eventually, after the tattoos were discovered. After 1988, the Taiwanese government allowed POWs to go back to mainland China, and helped remove anti-communist tattoos; while the mainland Chinese government started to accept old POWs to return from Taiwan.
During the first days of the war North Korean soldiers committed the Seoul National University Hospital massacre.
The United States reported that North Korea mistreated prisoners of war: soldiers were beaten, starved, put to forced labor, marched to death, and summarily executed.
The KPA killed POWs at the battles for Hill 312, Hill 303, the Pusan Perimeter, and Daejeon; these massacres were discovered afterwards by the UN forces. Later, a U.S. Congress war crimes investigation, the United States Senate Subcommittee on Korean War Atrocities of the Permanent Subcommittee of the Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations, reported that "two - thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes ''.
Although the Chinese rarely executed prisoners like their North Korean counterparts, mass starvation and diseases swept through the Chinese - run POW camps during the winter of 1950 -- 51. About 43 percent of U.S. POWs died during this period. The Chinese defended their actions by stating that all Chinese soldiers during this period were suffering mass starvation and diseases due to logistical difficulties. The UN POWs said that most of the Chinese camps were located near the easily supplied Sino - Korean border, and that the Chinese withheld food to force the prisoners to accept the communism indoctrination programs. According to Chinese reports, over a thousand U.S. POWs died by the end of June 1951, while a dozen British POWs died, and all Turkish POW survived. According to Hastings, wounded U.S. POWs died for lack of medical attention and were fed a diet of corn and millet "devoid of vegetables, almost barren of proteins, minerals, or vitamins '' with only 1 / 3 the calories of their usual diet. Especially in early 1951, thousands of prisoners lost the will to live and "declined to eat the mess of sorghum and rice they were provided. ''
The unpreparedness of U.S. POWs to resist heavy communist indoctrination during the Korean War led to the Code of the United States Fighting Force which governs how U.S. military personnel in combat should act when they must "evade capture, resist while a prisoner or escape from the enemy ''.
North Korea may have detained up to 50,000 South Korean POWs after the ceasefire. Over 88,000 South Korean soldiers were missing and the Communists ' claimed they captured 70,000 South Koreans. However, when ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, the Communists reported they held only 8,000 South Koreans. The UN Command protested the discrepancies and alleged that the Communists were forcing South Korean POWs to join the KPA.
The Communist side denied such allegations. They claimed their POW rosters were small because many POWs were killed in UN air raids and that they had released ROK soldiers at the front. They insisted only volunteers were allowed to serve in the KPA. By early 1952, UN negotiators gave up trying to get back the missing South Koreans. The POW exchange proceeded without access to South Korean POWs not on the Communist rosters.
North Korea continued to claim that any South Korean POW who stayed in the North did so voluntarily. However, since 1994, South Korean POWs have been escaping North Korea on their own after decades of captivity. As of 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Unification reported that 79 ROK POWs escaped the North. The South Korean government estimates 500 South Korean POWs continue to be detained in North Korea.
The escaped POWs have testified about their treatment and written memoirs about their lives in North Korea. They report they were not told about the POW exchange procedures, and were assigned to work in mines in the remote northeastern regions near the Chinese and Russian border. Declassified Soviet Foreign Ministry documents corroborate such testimony.
In 1997, the Geoje POW Camp in South Korea was turned into a memorial.
In December 1950, National Defense Corps was founded; the soldiers were 406,000 drafted citizens. In the winter of 1951, 50,000 to 90,000 South Korean National Defense Corps soldiers starved to death while marching southward under the Chinese offensive when their commanding officers embezzled funds earmarked for their food. This event is called the National Defense Corps Incident. There is no evidence that Syngman Rhee was personally involved in or benefited from the corruption.
In 1950, Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews called on the USO which was disbanded by 1947 to provide support for U.S. servicemen. By the end of the war, more than 113,000 USO volunteers from the U.S. were working at home front and abroad. Many stars came to Korea to give their performances. Throughout the Korean War, UN Comfort Stations were operated by South Korean officials for UN soldiers.
Postwar recovery was different in the two Koreas. South Korea stagnated in the first postwar decade. In 1953, South Korea and the United States signed a Mutual Defense Treaty. In 1960, the April Revolution occurred and students joined an anti-Syngman Rhee demonstration; 142 were killed by police; in consequence Syngman Rhee resigned and left for exile in the United States. Park Chung - hee 's May 16 coup enabled social stability. In the 1960s, prostitution and related services represented 25 percent of South Korean GNP. From 1965 to 1973, South Korea dispatched troops to Vietnam and received $235,560,000 in allowance and military procurement from the United States. GNP increased fivefold during the Vietnam War. South Korea industrialized and modernized. Contemporary North Korea remains underdeveloped. South Korea had one of the world 's fastest - growing economies from the early 1960s to the late 1990s. In 1957 South Korea had a lower per capita GDP than Ghana, and by 2010 it was ranked thirteenth in the world (Ghana was 86th).
Following extensive USAF bombing, North Korea "had been virtually destroyed as an industrial society. '' After the armistice, Kim Il - Sung requested Soviet economic and industrial assistance. In September 1953, the Soviet government agreed to "cancel or postpone repayment for all... outstanding debts '', and promised to grant North Korea one billion rubles in monetary aid, industrial equipment and consumer goods. Eastern European members of the Soviet Bloc also contributed with "logistical support, technical aid, (and) medical supplies. '' China canceled North Korea 's war debts, provided 800 million yuan, promised trade cooperation, and sent in thousands of troops to rebuild damaged infrastructure.
Postwar, about 100,000 North Koreans were executed in purges. According to Rummel, forced labor and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1945 to 1987; others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone. Estimates based on the most recent North Korean census suggest that 240,000 to 420,000 people died as a result of the 1990s North Korean famine and that there were 600,000 to 850,000 unnatural deaths in North Korea from 1993 to 2008. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18 - year - old males were 13 centimetres (5 in) shorter than South Koreans their age because of malnutrition.
South Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by the presence and behavior of U.S. military personnel (USFK) and U.S. support for the authoritarian regime, a fact still evident during the country 's democratic transition in the 1980s. However, anti-Americanism has declined significantly in South Korea in recent years, from 46 % favorable in 2003 to 74 % favorable in 2011, making South Korea one of the most pro-U.S. countries in the world.
In addition, a large number of mixed - race "G.I. babies '' (offspring of U.S. and other UN soldiers and Korean women) were filling up the country 's orphanages. Because Korean traditional society places significant weight on paternal family ties, bloodlines, and purity of race, children of mixed race or those without fathers are not easily accepted in South Korean society. International adoption of Korean children began in 1954. The U.S. Immigration Act of 1952 legalized the naturalization of non-blacks and non-whites as U.S. citizens, and made possible the entry of military spouses and children from South Korea after the Korean War. With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans, Koreans became one of the fastest - growing Asian groups in the United States.
Mao Zedong 's decision to take on the United States in the Korean War was a direct attempt to confront what the Communist bloc viewed as the strongest anti-Communist power in the world, undertaken at a time when the Chinese Communist regime was still consolidating its own power after winning the Chinese Civil War. Mao supported intervention not to save North Korea, but because he believed that a military conflict with the United States was inevitable after the United States entered the Korean War, and to appease the Soviet Union to secure military dispensation and achieve Mao 's goal of making China a major world military power. Mao was equally ambitious in improving his own prestige inside the communist international community by demonstrating that his Marxist concerns were international. In his later years Mao believed that Stalin only gained a positive opinion of him after China 's entrance into the Korean War. Inside mainland China, the war improved the long - term prestige of Mao, Zhou, and Peng, allowing the Chinese Communist Party to increase its legitimacy while weakening anti-Communist dissent.
The Chinese government have encouraged the point of view that the war was initiated by the United States and South Korea, though ComIntern documents have shown that Mao sought approval from Joseph Stalin to enter the war. In Chinese media, the Chinese war effort is considered as an example of China 's engaging the strongest power in the world with an under - equipped army, forcing it to retreat, and fighting it to a military stalemate. These successes were contrasted with China 's historical humiliations by Japan and by Western powers over the previous hundred years, highlighting the abilities of the People 's Liberation Army and the Chinese Communist Party. The most significant negative long - term consequence of the war for China was that it led the United States to guarantee the safety of Chiang Kai - shek 's regime in Taiwan, effectively ensuring that Taiwan would remain outside of PRC control through the present day. Mao had also discovered the usefulness of large - scale mass movements in the war while implementing them among most of his ruling measures over PRC. Finally, anti-U.S. sentiments, which were already a significant factor during the Chinese Civil War, was ingrained into Chinese culture during the Communist propaganda campaigns of the Korean War.
The Korean War affected other participant combatants. Turkey, for example, entered NATO in 1952, and the foundation was laid for bilateral diplomatic and trade relations with South Korea.
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how many marvel heroes are there in infinity war | Avengers: Infinity War - wikipedia
Avengers: Infinity War is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2012 's The Avengers and 2015 's Avengers: Age of Ultron, and the nineteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, written by Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely, and features an ensemble cast including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Scarlett Johansson, Benedict Cumberbatch, Don Cheadle, Tom Holland, Chadwick Boseman, Paul Bettany, Elizabeth Olsen, Anthony Mackie, Sebastian Stan, Danai Gurira, Letitia Wright, Dave Bautista, Zoe Saldana, Josh Brolin, and Chris Pratt. In the film, the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy attempt to stop Thanos from amassing the all - powerful Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. The Russo brothers came on board to direct in April 2015 and by May, Markus and McFeely had signed on to write the script for the film, which drew inspiration from Jim Starlin 's 1991 The Infinity Gauntlet comic and Jonathan Hickman 's 2013 Infinity comic. In 2016, Marvel shortened the title to Avengers: Infinity War. Filming began in January 2017 at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with a large cast consisting mostly of actors reprising their roles from previous MCU films. The production lasted until July 2017, shooting back - to - back with an untitled direct sequel. Additional filming took place in Scotland, England, the Downtown Atlanta area, and New York City. With an estimated budget in the range of $316 -- 400 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made.
Avengers: Infinity War held its world premiere on April 23, 2018 in Los Angeles and was released in the United States on April 27, 2018, in 2D, Real D 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D. The film received praise for the performances of the cast (particularly Brolin 's) and the emotional weight of the story, as well as the visual effects and action sequences. It became the fourth film and the first superhero film to gross over $2 billion worldwide, breaking numerous records and becoming the highest - grossing film of 2018 to date. The currently untitled sequel is set to be released on May 3, 2019.
Having acquired the Power Stone from the planet Xandar, Thanos and his lieutenants -- Ebony Maw, Cull Obsidian, Proxima Midnight, and Corvus Glaive -- intercept a spaceship carrying the last survivors of Asgard. As they extract the Space Stone from the Tesseract, Thanos subdues Thor, overpowers Hulk, and kills Loki. Heimdall sends Hulk to Earth using the Bifröst before being killed. Thanos departs with his lieutenants and obliterates the ship.
Hulk crash - lands at the Sanctum Sanctorum in New York City, reverting to Bruce Banner. He warns Stephen Strange and Wong about Thanos ' plan to kill half of all life in the universe; in response, Strange recruits Tony Stark. Maw and Obsidian arrive to retrieve the Time Stone from Strange, drawing the attention of Peter Parker. Maw captures Strange, but fails to take the Time Stone due to an enchantment. Stark and Parker pursue Maw 's spaceship, Banner contacts Steve Rogers, and Wong stays behind to guard the Sanctum.
In Scotland, Midnight and Glaive ambush Wanda Maximoff and Vision in order to retrieve the Mind Stone in Vision 's forehead. Rogers, Natasha Romanoff, and Sam Wilson rescue them and take shelter with James Rhodes and Banner at the Avengers Compound. Vision offers to sacrifice himself by having Maximoff destroy the Mind Stone to keep Thanos from retrieving it. Rogers suggests they travel to Wakanda, which he believes has the resources to remove the stone without destroying Vision.
The Guardians of the Galaxy respond to a distress call from the Asgardian ship and rescue Thor, who surmises Thanos seeks the Reality Stone, which is in the possession of the Collector on Knowhere. Rocket and Groot accompany Thor to Nidavellir, where they and Eitri create a battle - axe capable of killing Thanos. On Knowhere, Peter Quill, Gamora, Drax, and Mantis find Thanos with the Reality Stone already in his possession. Thanos kidnaps Gamora, his adoptive daughter, who reveals the location of the Soul Stone to save her captive adoptive sister Nebula from torture. Thanos and Gamora travel to Vormir, where Red Skull, keeper of the Soul Stone, informs him the stone can only be retrieved by sacrificing someone he loves. Thanos reluctantly kills Gamora, earning the stone.
Nebula escapes captivity and asks the remaining Guardians to meet her on Thanos ' destroyed homeworld, Titan. Stark and Parker kill Maw and rescue Strange. Landing on Titan, they meet Quill, Drax, and Mantis. The group forms a plan to remove Thanos ' Infinity Gauntlet after Strange uses the Time Stone to view millions of possible futures, seeing only one in which Thanos loses. Thanos arrives, justifying his plans as necessary to ensure the survival of a universe threatened by overpopulation. The group subdues him until Nebula deduces that Thanos has killed Gamora. Enraged, Quill attacks him, allowing Thanos to break the group 's hold and overpower them. Stark is seriously wounded by Thanos, but is spared after Strange surrenders the Time Stone to Thanos.
In Wakanda, Rogers reunites with Bucky Barnes before Thanos ' army invades. The Avengers, alongside T'Challa and the Wakandan forces, mount a defense while Shuri works to extract the Mind Stone from Vision. Banner, unable to transform into the Hulk, fights in Stark 's Hulkbuster armor. Thor, Rocket, and Groot arrive to reinforce the Avengers; Midnight, Obsidian, and Glaive are killed and their army is routed. Thanos arrives and despite Maximoff 's attempt to destroy the Mind Stone, removes it from Vision, killing him.
Thor severely wounds Thanos, but Thanos activates the completed Infinity Gauntlet and teleports away. Half of all life across the universe disintegrates, including Barnes, T'Challa, Groot, Maximoff, Wilson, Mantis, Drax, Quill, Strange, and Parker, as well as Maria Hill and Nick Fury; the latter is able to transmit a distress signal first. Stark and Nebula remain on Titan while Banner, M'Baku, Okoye, Rhodes, Rocket, Rogers, Romanoff, and Thor are left on the Wakandan battlefield. Meanwhile, Thanos watches a sunrise on another planet.
Additionally, several other actors reprise their MCU roles: Danai Gurira as Okoye, the head of the Dora Milaje; Letitia Wright as T'Challa's sister Shuri; William Hurt as Thaddeus Ross, the U.S. Secretary of State; Kerry Condon as the voice of Stark 's A.I. F.R.I.D.A.Y.; Winston Duke as M'Baku, the leader of Wakanda 's mountain tribe the Jabari; Florence Kasumba as Ayo, a member of the Dora Milaje; Jacob Batalon as Parker 's friend Ned; Isabella Amara as Parker 's classmate Sally; Tiffany Espensen as Parker 's classmate Cindy; and Ethan Dizon as Parker 's classmate Tiny. Samuel L. Jackson and Cobie Smulders make uncredited cameos as Nick Fury and Maria Hill, the former director and deputy director of S.H.I.E.L.D, respectively, in the film 's post-credits scene.
Thanos ' henchmen, known collectively in the comics as the Black Order and in the film as the "Children of Thanos '', include Terry Notary as Cull Obsidian, Tom Vaughan - Lawlor as Ebony Maw, Carrie Coon as Proxima Midnight, and Michael James Shaw as Corvus Glaive. The foursome provided voices and motion - capture performances on set for their characters. As Coon was pregnant during filming, she mainly did facial capture for Proxima Midnight with some motion - capture, with stuntwoman Monique Ganderton standing - in and providing the rest on set. Ross Marquand portrays Johann Schmidt / Red Skull, the "Stonekeeper '' and former Nazi commander of Hydra during World War II. Marquand replaces Hugo Weaving, who had expressed reluctance to reprise the character from Captain America: The First Avenger. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance in the film as Parker 's school bus driver, while screenwriter Stephen McFeely cameos as Secretary Ross 's aide. Kenneth Branagh, the director of Thor, voices an Asgardian distress caller in an uncredited cameo. David Cross was invited to make a cameo appearance as Tobias Fünke, his character from the sitcom Arrested Development, which the Russo brothers had previously worked on; this was prevented by a scheduling conflict, but Fünke still appears in the film as a specimen in the Collector 's collection, played by an uncredited extra. Jon Favreau was to reprise his role as Happy Hogan, but his scene did not make the theatrical cut of the film.
In October 2014, Marvel announced a two - part sequel to Avengers: Age of Ultron, titled Avengers: Infinity War. Part 1 was scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018, with Part 2 scheduled for May 3, 2019. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct both parts of Avengers: Infinity War, with back - to - back filming expected to begin in 2016. The same month, Kevin Feige said that the Infinity War films would be two distinct films "because they (have) such shared elements, it felt appropriate... to (subtitle the films) like that. But I would n't call it one story that 's cut in half. I would say it 's going to be two distinct movies. '' By May 2015, Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely had signed on to write the screenplays for both parts of the film, which draws inspiration from Jim Starlin 's 1991 "The Infinity Gauntlet '' comic and Jonathan Hickman 's 2013 "Infinity '' comic. Anthony Russo added the film was inspired by 1990s heist films, with Thanos "on a smash - and - grab (to acquire the Infinity Stones), and everybody 's trying to catch up the whole movie ''. In May 2016, the Russos revealed that they would retitle the two films, to further remove the misconception that they were one large film split in two, with Joe stating, "The intention is we will change (the titles), we just have n't come up with (them) yet. '' That July, Marvel revealed the film 's title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War.
Principal photography began on January 23, 2017, under the working title Mary Lou, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia, with Trent Opaloch as director of photography. Infinity War, along with its sequel, were shot using IMAX / Arri 2D cameras, thus marking the first time that a Hollywood feature film was shot entirely with IMAX digital cameras. In early February, Marvel confirmed the involvement of Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man, Chris Pratt as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, and Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man in the film. Additional filming took place in Scotland beginning in February 2017. The filming occurred in Edinburgh, Glasgow and the Scottish Highlands, with studio work taking place at Wardpark Studios in Cumbernauld. Filming also began at Durham Cathedral in Durham, England in early May 2017. In late June 2017, filming occurred in Downtown Atlanta, as well as Atlanta 's Central Park in early July, before moving to Queens, New York in the middle of the month. Filming concluded on July 14, 2017. For the film 's final scene, where Thanos emerges healed in a nipa hut, the filmmakers partnered with Indochina Productions, a studio based in Thailand, to acquire footage of the Banaue Rice Terraces at Ifugao, Philippines.
Later in July 2017, Joe Russo stated there were a couple of unfinished scenes for Infinity War that would be shot "in the next few months ''. In early March 2018, Disney moved the release of Infinity War in the United States to April 27, 2018, to have it be released the same weekend as some of its international markets. Visual effects for the film were created by Industrial Light & Magic, Framestore, Method Studios, Weta Digital, Double Negative, Cinesite, Digital Domain, Rise, Lola VFX, and Perception. With an estimated budget in the range of $316 -- 400 million, it is one of the most expensive films ever made.
In June 2016, Alan Silvestri, who composed the score for The Avengers, was revealed to be returning to score both Infinity War and its sequel. Silvestri started to record his score in January 2018, and concluded in late March. Silvestri felt working on the film "was a really different experience than anything I 'd done before, especially in regard to the approach and balancing quick shifts in tone ''. Ludwig Göransson 's theme from Black Panther is also used in the film. Hollywood Records and Marvel Music released the soundtrack album digitally on April 27, 2018, with a release on physical formats following on May 18. Two versions were released, a regular and deluxe edition, with the deluxe edition featuring some extended and additional tracks.
Avengers: Infinity War held its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018, screening also at the adjacent El Capitan Theatre and Grauman 's Chinese Theatre. It was released in most countries worldwide, including the United States, on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25, and was shown in IMAX and 3D on select screens. In the United States, the film opened in 4,474 theaters, 408 of which were IMAX; this was the widest release for a Disney title ever and the second - widest ever after Despicable Me 3 's 4,529 theaters. Three of AMC Theatres ' locations screened the film for 24 hours straight, with 53 of their locations having showtimes at either 2 am or 3 am to accommodate demand. In India, the film had the biggest release ever for a Hollywood film, opening on nearly 2,000 screens in four languages. The film also screened in 515 4DX theaters in 59 countries. It was originally scheduled to be released on May 4, 2018 in the United States. The Chinese release of the film, which opened on May 11, 2018, was originally scheduled to end on June 10, 2018, but was granted a "rare '' extension of 30 days, to end on July 9, 2018.
Select footage from the film was screened around various cities during the film 's press tour in early April, ahead of the film 's Los Angeles premiere. The Russos noted that only a limited amount of the film would be shown at these screenings to reduce the chance of spoilers being leaked. Adam Chitwood of Collider commented that this was "highly unusual as most Marvel movies are screened in their entirety for press about a month before they hit theaters ''. Ahead of the United States release, AMC Theatres in New York City and Orlando, Florida aired an eleven - MCU film marathon beginning on April 25, leading to a screening of Infinity War. The El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles also had a similar marathon ahead of the film 's release.
In May 2017, Robert Downey Jr. and his philanthropic organization Random Act Funding partnered with Omaze to initiate a contest to benefit the organization. A randomly chosen winner from those that donated would receive an Infinity War set visit. A life - sized statue of Thanos, created by Legacy Effects, was on display at D23 Expo 2017, alongside statues of the Black Order / "Children of Thanos '': Corvus Glaive, Proxima Midnight, Ebony Maw, and Cull Obsidian. Additionally, Feige, Joe Russo, Downey, Brolin, Bettany, Olsen, Klementieff, Gillan, Bautista, Cheadle, Mackie, Cumberbatch, Stan, Holland, Boseman, Ruffalo and Hemsworth appeared at D23 Expo to present a clip highlighting the 10 years of MCU films, along with footage from Infinity War. The footage, which was screened exclusively for the panel, received strong audience reaction, with fans "literally on their feet and jumping as the footage played ''. Julia Alexander of Polygon commented, "to say that there was quite a bit happening in the trailer would be one hell of an understatement, but that 's not what got me excited about the promises Infinity War may deliver upon. Seeing Spider - Man in the same movie as Iron Man, Thor, Star - Lord and the Scarlet Witch finally feels like Marvel has made the movie it always wanted to -- and the one we 've always wanted to see. For nearly ten years we dreamt of this reality and to see it play across a massive screen... it was impossible to not feel emotional. '' CinemaBlend 's Eric Eisenberg said the footage left him "literally shaking '', with the film looking "like it could be one of the most epic blockbusters ever created '', concluding "the hype (for the film) most definitely feels very, very real ''. Haleigh Foutch for Collider said, "It looks dark and dramatic, and utterly epic. It 's clear Marvel is trying to do something different here... to pay off a decade 's worth of narrative and world - building. While it 's impossible to tell from two minutes work of footage, it certainly looks like that gamble paid off. '' The D23 footage was also shown at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con International. Due to the two convention presentations, Avengers: Infinity War generated over 90,000 new conversations on social media from July 17 to 23, the third-most during that time period behind Thor: Ragnarok and Justice League, according to comScore and its PreAct service. Infinity War stayed in third the following week, with over 41,000 new social media conversations, behind Ragnarok and It. By the week of October 16, Infinity War had generated over 679,000 total social media conversations.
To promote the release of the film 's first trailer, Marvel released "a retrospective video looking back at some of its best trailers '' since Iron Man, "paired with fan reaction videos to those trailers ''. The first trailer for Avengers: Infinity War debuted on Good Morning America on November 29, 2017. Josh Spiegel of The Hollywood Reporter said, "The trailer promises, in many ways, exactly what anyone with a passing familiarity with superhero movies would expect... '' but "the most important part of the trailer is how it carefully, deliberately introduces the notion that the Infinity War films are going to function as a passing of the torch, from one set of Avengers to a newer group. '' Scott Mendelson writing, for Forbes, noted that even though the trailer was not much different from the convention footage screened earlier in the year, it was "damn impressive. Moreover, it uses Nick Fury 's big ' Avengers Initiative ' speech, along with Alan Silvestri 's Avengers theme, to excellent effect. '' Conversely to Mendelson, Alexander commented on the different marketing strategy for the film between the convention footage scenes and the trailer scenes, feeling the "two could n't be more different ''. She noted how the convention footage ("meant to please a crowd running on little sleep and jittery with anticipation '') was released between Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and Thor: Ragnarok, and "(i) t made sense to use Thor and the Guardians to hype up (Infinity War) '' because "Marvel relied on the anticipation of Thor: Ragnarok and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 's success to excite fans, and footage of older movies set to classic Marvel scores as a way to drive home how this movie is an event in itself. '' Conversely, the trailer ("designed to explain what 's about to happen, teasing it out with additional background '') heavily featured Black Panther and Wakanda, which Alexander said could not have been done earlier, without the additional marketing for Black Panther that happened after the conventions to provide additional context. Gael Cooper of CNET observed that the trailer was viewed nearly 500,000 times in its first 15 minutes after it was posted on YouTube, but questioned if the trailer broke the site after the view counter appeared to be stuck at 467,331. The trailer was viewed 230 million times in its first 24 hours, becoming the most viewed trailer in that time period, surpassing the record of It.
In January 2018, Marvel Comics published a two - issue prequel comic titled Avengers: Infinity War Prelude, which serves as a bridge between Captain America: Civil War and Avengers: Infinity War. A commercial for Infinity War aired during Super Bowl LII. The ad generated the most social media buzz out of all the films advertised during the Super Bowl, according to comScore and United Talent Agency; it was viewed 17.6 million times across YouTube and Facebook. On February 27, 2018, Disney and Marvel announced the Marvel: The Universe Unites charity campaign leading to the release of merchandise for the film on March 3. The week - long event saw stars from the film create social media challenges to provide funds and raise awareness for charities that support children and families impacted by serious illness. If their collective posts reached 1 million likes, Marvel said they would make a $250,000 donation to Starlight Children 's Foundation. Additionally, Disney planned to donate 10 % of sales of all Marvel products purchased at Disney Stores in the United States and online on the weekend of March 3 to the Make - A-Wish Foundation, up to $50,000. Hasbro donated $1 million worth of cash and products to Give Kids the World Village and Funko made a $1 million toy donation to Starlight.
A second trailer was released on March 16, 2018, which earned over 1 million views on YouTube in less than three hours after it was released. Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post was not overly enthused about another superhero film having "special - effects - heavy villains, or the sight of yet another mysterious object hanging over the Manhattan skyline '', but felt the trailer made her realize "that I 'm actually looking forward to seeing (the characters of the MCU) get to know each other ''. Josh Spiegel of The Hollywood Reporter agreed with Rosenberg about the potential for character interactions, noting the trailer "suggests that some of these meetings are going to keep up the playful tone of recent MCU movies ''. He continued, "It is arguably gimmicky to pile up all of the crossover - style introductions or combinations of heroes in a movie like this, like a superpowered version of two well liked TV shows crossing over primarily in the hopes of getting more viewers to pay attention. But the entire Marvel Cinematic Universe is built on a foundation of these heroes existing within the same space, so their eventual meetings have a level of anticipation that exceeds that of watching them face off against Thanos. '' The second trailer was viewed 179 million times in the first 24 hours, the third-most viewed trailer in that time period, behind the first trailer for the film and It, while also becoming the biggest release for a second trailer, surpassing Beauty and the Beast (128 million views).
A week before the film 's release, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was lit up each night for the film, counting down to its release. Marvel also featured tie - in events across seven of their mobile games to promote the film. In early May 2018, Marvel and Epic Games announced the "Infinity Gauntlet Limited Time Mashup '' mode for Fortnite Battle Royale, where players can find the Infinity Gauntlet hidden on the game map and become Thanos with added abilities. The Russo brothers were fans of Fortnite and approached Donald Mustard, the worldwide creative director of Epic Games, about the potential for a crossover between the properties. On November 20, 2018, Little, Brown and Company will publish Marvel 's Avengers: Infinity War: Thanos -- Titan Consumed, written by Barry Lyga. Despite not existing within Marvel Studios ' MCU canon, the novel explores the origins of Thanos before the events of the film. Lyga noted he spoke with Marvel Studios to get an "outline of who Thanos is and what he means to the movies '', and "was given great latitude and a free hand (in some areas of the story), while in others I had to tip - toe very carefully through the MCU ''.
Additional marketing partners for the film included Coca - Cola, Quicken Loans and their Rocket Mortgage service, the Infiniti QX50 (which is also featured in the film), Ziploc, Go - Gurt, Yoplait, Synchrony Bank, American Airlines, and Stand Up to Cancer. The partners created television commercials "inspired by or featuring the film 's characters and themes '', interactive digital initiatives, and robust in - store presences at numerous retailers. Duracell, Unilever, Quaker Oats Company, Chevron, and Samsung ran promotions in smaller markets. Coca - Cola, Ziploc, Go - Gurt, and Yoplait created special packaging in support of the film, with Synchrony implementing a "Save Like a Hero '' campaign, and Stand Up to Cancer and American Airlines launching a national campaign with a PSA starring Johansson and Hemsworth. In the United Kingdom, OnePlus released an Infinity War edition for one of their smartphones. Deadline Hollywood estimated the media value was $150 million, the largest for any Marvel film, with Coca - Cola contributing an estimated $40 million.
Avengers: Infinity War is scheduled to be released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on July 31, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on August 14. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes, and a blooper reel. The digital release also features a roundtable discussion between MCU directors the Russos, Jon Favreau, Joss Whedon, James Gunn, Ryan Coogler, Peyton Reed, and Taika Waititi.
As of July 15, 2018, Avengers: Infinity War has grossed $676 million in the United States and Canada, and $1.365 billion in other territories, for a worldwide total of $2.041 billion. It is the fourth highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the highest - grossing film of 2018, the highest - grossing MCU film, and the highest - grossing superhero film.
Its worldwide opening weekend of $640.5 million is the biggest of all time, beating The Fate of the Furious ' $541.9 million. It crossed the $1 billion threshold at the worldwide box office in 11 days, becoming the fastest film to reach the milestone, eclipsing Star Wars: The Force Awakens ' record of 12 days. Also in its second weekend, Infinity War passed $13.5 million from 4DX screens, which was the all - time record for the format. On June 12, 2018, Avengers: Infinity War passed the $2 billion mark at the worldwide box office, becoming the fourth film to cross that milestone after Avatar, Titanic, and The Force Awakens. Crossing the mark in 48 days was the second fastest to that point, after Avatar 's 47 - day record. With $140 million worldwide from IMAX, the film is the third - largest worldwide in the format, behind Avatar and The Force Awakens, and the largest gross for a Marvel film. In May 2018, two weeks after its release, Deadline Hollywood deduced the film had already broken even, and estimated its net profit would be around $600 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Infinity War was the most anticipated film of 2018. Fandango reported that Infinity War achieved the largest initial 24 - hour ticket pre-sales for a superhero film in just six hours, surpassing the record from Black Panther. Atom Tickets also reported that Infinity War sold more tickets in its first pre-sales day than Black Panther sold in its first month. Within 72 hours, the film generated the biggest amount of pre-sales for any superhero film at AMC Theatres. AMC noted that Infinity War 's advance ticket sales were 257.6 % ahead of Black Panther 's, 751.5 % ahead of Captain America: Civil War, and 1,106.5 % ahead of Avengers: Age of Ultron during the same time frame. Two weeks before its release, Fandango revealed that advance ticket sales for Infinity War were outpacing the last seven MCU films combined in the same timeframe, and had become the company 's top April release. It was also on pace to become the top superhero film, with Fandango 's Erik Davis noting, "Infinity War has built up such unprecedented anticipation that it 's pacing to break records, the likes of which we have never seen before for a superhero movie. '' A week before the film released, The Wall Street Journal noted the film had sold more than $50 million worth of advance tickets, behind only Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) and Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017), with Fandango reporting that more than 2,500 showtimes had sold out. On Atom Tickets, Infinity War had the most pre-sale volume, selling 7 % higher than The Last Jedi and 250 % higher than Black Panther at the same point in their sales. Atom also reported that ticket sales for Infinity War were doubling daily the week of its release, the fastest rate of increase the service has seen for any MCU title.
Avengers: Infinity War earned $106.7 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $39 million from Thursday night previews), for an opening weekend total of $258.2 million. The Thursday night preview earning was the best for an MCU film (beating Avengers: Age of Ultron 's $27.6 million) and the fourth - best of all time, behind The Force Awakens ($57 million), The Last Jedi ($45 million) and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($43.5 million). Fandango reported that $14 million of the $39 million came from ticket pre-sales from the company. The opening day gross was the second - best ever, behind The Force Awakens ' $119.1 million, its Saturday gross of $83 million was the best - ever Saturday gross, beating Jurassic World 's $69.6 million, and its Sunday gross of $69.2 million was the best - ever, beating The Force Awakens ' $60.5 million. The total weekend gross became highest - grossing opening weekend of all time, beating The Force Awakens ' $248 million. IMAX contributed $22.5 million to the opening weekend gross, which was the best opening for a Marvel film in the format and the third - biggest opening, behind The Force Awakens ($30 million) and The Last Jedi ($24.7 million). AMC reported that the film had the highest Friday and Saturday box office gross for a single title in the company 's history, while Fandango reported that approximately $84 million worth of tickets were sold through the service, approximately 30 %, which was the largest share of the weekend box office for any film in the company 's history. Avengers: Infinity War earned an additional $25 million the Monday after its opening weekend, which was the highest grossing Monday in April, beating Furious 7 ($14 million), and the second - best Monday gross for an MCU film, after Black Panther ($40.1 million). The next day, it earned $23.5 million, which was the highest grossing Tuesday for an MCU film, beating Black Panther ($20.8 million), and the highest grossing Tuesday in May, beating The Avengers ($17.6 million). It also tied The Force Awakens for the fastest to reach $300 million at five days.
The film remained number one in its second weekend, earning $115.5 million, which was the second - best second weekend ever after The Force Awakens ($149.2 million). Infinity War also surpassed $400 million in the weekend, doing so in nine days, becoming the second fastest film to reach that mark, again after The Force Awakens 's eight days. In its third weekend, Infinity War remained number one at the box office, and became the second - fastest film to surpass $500 million, doing so in 15 days (behind The Force Awakens 's 10 days). The weekend also saw its total domestic IMAX gross become $48.1 million, which was the highest for any MCU film. The film 's fourth weekend saw it come in second, behind Deadpool 2, and in its fifth it finished third behind Solo: A Star Wars Story and Deadpool 2. By May 23, Infinity War surpassed $600 million, becoming the second - fastest film to do so in 26 days, after The Force Awakens (12 days). It remained in the top ten through its ninth weekend. It is the fourth highest - grossing film of all time, and the second highest - grossing superhero film. The film is projected to gross $650 -- 675 million for its total final domestic gross.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film earned $382.7 million from 52 markets, opening number one in all, and became the number two opening internationally, behind The Fate of the Furious ($444.2 million). IMAX contributed $18.5 million, which was the best opening outside of the US, Canada, and China, surpassing The Force Awakens ($17.5 million). All - time opening weekend records were set in South Korea ($39.2 million), Mexico ($25.4 million), Brazil ($19.1 million), India (for a Western release, $18.6 million), the Philippines ($12.5 million), Thailand ($10 million), Indonesia ($9.6 million), Malaysia, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Central America, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Venezuela, Bolivia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and West Africa, with many also setting opening day records. Australia opened with $6.7 million, which was the second biggest opening day of all time, behind The Force Awakens; it went on to have the second - highest opening weekend ever, with $23.2 million. France 's opening day gross of $3.9 million was the highest ever for the month of April and the largest ever for an MCU film, while the same amount in Italy was the third - highest opening day and biggest superhero and Disney opening ever. France went on to earn $17.7 million, the biggest superhero opening in the market. Denmark, Finland, Norway, Portugal, and Sweden had the best opening for a superhero film. The United Kingdom earned $8.9 million, which was the biggest MCU opening day and third highest opening day for a Disney film; it would go on to earn $41.4 million for the weekend, which was the third - highest of all time and the second - highest Disney opening. The United Kingdom also had the highest grossing Saturday ever. Argentina had the second highest opening day of all time, while Germany had the best superhero film opening day of all time, ultimately earning $14.7 million, which was the best superhero opening ever. Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, the Middle East, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine also broke superhero film records. Japan had the second - biggest opening for an MCU film with $9 million.
Avengers: Infinity War remained number one in its 54 markets in its second weekend. The $4.9 million opening day in Russia was the biggest of all time. Infinity War was also the first film in Russia to sell more than 1 million tickets in a single day, and went on to gross $17.6 million in the market, a new opening weekend record. IMAX contributed $2.2 million in the market, which was also an opening weekend record. In its third weekend, the film remained number one in a majority of its markets. Infinity War opened in China to $200 million (RMB 1.266 billion), which was the second highest opening weekend in local currency behind The Fate of the Furious ($184 million and RMB 1.352 million). IMAX contributed $20.5 million, which was the third - largest opening in China. Infinity War also broke China 's pre-sale record of 400 million yuan ($63 million). In India, Infinity War became the first Hollywood film to earn over ₹ 2 billion net ($29.7 million), and also became the highest grossing MCU film in the United Kingdom. In its sixth weekend, the film became the highest grossing MCU film in Japan with $33 million.
The film became the highest grossing release ever in Brazil, Indonesia, the Philippines, Central America, Bolivia, Venezuela, Latin America as a region, Mexico, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Malaysia, Singapore, India (for a Western release), Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand (for a Western release), and Mongolia, the second - highest in the Asia - Pacific region (for a Western release), Hong Kong, and South Korea (for a Western release) and the third - highest in China (for a Western release). It is also the highest - grossing superhero film in Belgium, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland, the United Arab Emirates, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. As of June 17, 2018, the film 's top markets are China ($373.4 million), the United Kingdom ($95.7 million), and South Korea ($92.8 million). The film is the third highest - grossing film of all time in territories outside the United States and Canada.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 83 % approval rating based on 338 reviews, and an average rating of 7.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Avengers: Infinity War ably juggles a dizzying array of MCU heroes in the fight against their gravest threat yet, and the result is a thrilling, emotionally resonant blockbuster that (mostly) realizes its gargantuan ambitions. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 68 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 87 % overall positive score and a 68 % "definite recommend ''.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised the writers ' and directors ' ability to balance the large cast of characters, saying, "... writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely and directors Anthony and Joe Russo, under the supervision of Marvel Films maestro Kevin Feige, acknowledge the traffic jam of egos and play it for laughs ''. Owen Gleiberman of Variety concurred, stating, "Infinity War is a brashly entertaining jamboree, structured to show off each hero or heroine and give them just enough to do, and to update their mythologies without making it all feel like homework. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers said the film is "too much of a good thing '' and wrote, "The Russo brothers have clearly never learned the concept that less is more. They 've used the premise of an Avengers reunion to put on a fireworks explosion of action and laughs that wo n't quit. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times called it Marvel 's "biggest and most ambitious movie yet '', but concluded "it 's certainly not the best. However, there 's plenty of action, humor and heart -- and some genuinely effective dramatic moments. '' Roeper went on to praise the film 's cast and Josh Brolin in particular, whom he called "the film 's most interesting performance ''. Gleiberman called Brolin 's motion capture performance "supremely effective '' and said, "Brolin infuses Thanos with his slit - eyed manipulative glower, so that the evil in this movie never feels less than personal. '' McCarthy wrote, "Brolin 's calm, considered reading of the character bestows this conquering beast with an unexpectedly resonant emotional dimension, making him much more than a thick stick figure of a supervillain. '' McCarthy also praised the film 's action sequences, saying "Infinity War brims with tensely spectacular combat sequences, even if the question of who 's going to win each one has that extravagantly arbitrary could - Mighty - Mouse - beat - up - Superman? quality. '' Gleiberman called the scale of the action, "astonishing '', and Travers wrote, "Avengers: Infinity War leaves viewers up in the air, feeling exhilarated and cheated at the same time, aching for a closure that never comes... at least not yet. '' Josh Spiegel, also of The Hollywood Reporter, said the film takes "a cue from the ending of The Empire Strikes Back in its super-sized finale; this is the equivalent of Han Solo frozen in the carbonite, on steroids. ''
A.O. Scott of The New York Times criticized the film 's reliance on other films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, saying, "Considered on its own, as a single, nearly 2 - hour - 40 - minute movie, Avengers: Infinity War makes very little sense '', but conceded that it "was never meant to be viewed or judged in isolation ''. Richard Brody of The New Yorker agreed, stating, "The insubstantiality of the film is n't due to the infinite yet flimsy malleability of C.G.I. gimmickry but, instead, to the dispersion of its drama throughout the many cinematic installations set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time said, "(It) is n't really a beginning, but more of a middle or an end with a new piece of yarn attached. You need to have seen and internalized every one of the previous 18 Marvel Cinematic Universe movies to fully get it. '' Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times called it a "brisk, propulsive, occasionally rousing and borderline - gutsy continuation of a saga that finally and sensibly seems to be drawing to a close '', but called its ultimate bid for catharsis "unsuccessful '', saying, "Not even the threat of universal annihilation, it seems, will keep this assembly line from chugging ahead with its signature polished, mechanized efficiency. '' Scott also criticized the action sequences, calling them "tedious and predictable '' and writing, "The noisy, bloated spectacles of combat were surely the most expensive parts of the movie, but the money seems less like an imaginative tool than a substitute for genuine imagination. '' Likewise, Zacharek said, "There 's no pacing in Avengers: Infinity War. It 's all sensation and no pulse. Everything is big, all of the time. ''
An untitled sequel is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019, with the Russos returning to direct, and Markus and McFeely once again writing the screenplay.
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paradoxical sleep refers to which stage of sleep | Rapid eye movement sleep - wikipedia
Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep, REMS) is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, characterized by random / rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied with low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly.
The REM phase is also known as paradoxical sleep (PS) and sometimes desynchronized sleep because of physiological similarities to waking states, including rapid, low - voltage desynchronized brain waves. Electrical and chemical activity regulating this phase seems to originate in the brain stem and is characterized most notably by an abundance of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, combined with a nearly complete absence of monoamine neurotransmitters histamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
REM sleep is physiologically different from the other phases of sleep, which are collectively referred to as non-REM sleep (NREM sleep, NREMS, synchronized sleep). REM and non-REM sleep alternate within one sleep cycle, which lasts about 90 minutes in adult humans. As sleep cycles continue, they shift towards a higher proportion of REM sleep. The transition to REM sleep brings marked physical changes, beginning with electrical bursts called PGO waves originating in the brain stem. Organisms in REM sleep suspend central homeostasis, allowing large fluctuations in respiration, thermoregulation, and circulation which do not occur in any other modes of sleeping or waking. The body abruptly loses muscle tone, a state known as REM atonia.
Professor Nathaniel Kleitman and his student Eugene Aserinsky defined rapid eye movement and linked it to dreams in 1953 and further described by researchers including William Dement and Michel Jouvet. Many experiments have involved waking up test subjects whenever they begin to enter the REM phase, thereby producing a state known as REM deprivation. Subjects allowed to sleep normally again usually experience a modest REM rebound. Techniques of neurosurgery, chemical injection, electroencephalography, positron emission tomography, and reports of dreamers upon waking, have all been used to study this phase of sleep.
REM sleep is "paradoxical '' because of its similarities to wakefulness. Although the body is paralyzed, the brain acts somewhat awake, with cerebral neurons firing with the same overall intensity as in wakefulness. Electroencephalography during REM deep sleep reveal fast, low amplitude, desynchronized neural oscillation (brainwaves) that resemble the pattern seen during wakefulness which differ from the slow δ (delta) waves pattern of NREM deep sleep. An important element of this contrast is the θ (theta) rhythm in the hippocampus that show 40 -- 60 Hz gamma waves, in the cortex, as it does in waking. The cortical and thalamic neurons in the waking and REM sleeping brain are more depolarized (fire more readily) than in the NREM deep sleeping brain.
During REM sleep, electrical connectivity among different parts of the brain manifests differently than during wakefulness. Frontal and posterior areas are less coherent in most frequencies, a fact which has been cited in relation to the chaotic experience of dreaming. However, the posterior areas are more coherent with each other; as are the right and left hemispheres of the brain, especially during lucid dreams.
Brain energy use in REM sleep, as measured by oxygen and glucose metabolism, equals or exceeds energy use in waking. The rate in non-REM sleep is 11 -- 40 % lower.
Neural activity during REM sleep seems to originate in the brain stem, especially the pontine tegmentum and locus coeruleus. REM sleep is punctuated and immediately preceded by PGO (ponto - geniculo - occipital) waves, bursts of electrical activity originating in the brain stem. (PGO waves have long been measured directly in cats but not in humans because of constraints on experimentation; however comparable effects have been observed in humans during "phasic '' events which occur during REM sleep, and the existence of similar PGO waves is thus inferred.) These waves occur in clusters about every 6 seconds for 1 -- 2 minutes during the transition from deep to paradoxical sleep. They exhibit their highest amplitude upon moving into the visual cortex and are a cause of the "rapid eye movements '' in paradoxical sleep. Other muscles may also contract under the influence of these waves.
Research in the 1990s using positron emission tomography (PET) confirmed the role of the brain stem and suggested that, within the forebrain, the limbic and paralimbic systems showed more activation than other areas. The areas activated during REM sleep are approximately inverse to those activated during non-REM sleep and display greater activity than in quiet waking. The "anterior paralimbic REM activation area '' (APRA) includes areas linked with emotion, memory, fear, and sex, and may thus relate to the experience of dreaming during REMS. More recent PET research has indicated that the distribution of brain activity during REM sleep varies in correspondence with the type of activity seen in the prior period of wakefulness.
The superior frontal gyrus, medial frontal areas, intraparietal sulcus, and superior parietal cortex, areas involved in sophisticated mental activity, show equal activity in REM sleep as in wakefulness. The amygdala is also active during REM sleep and may participate in generating the PGO waves, and experimental suppression of the amygdala results in less REM sleep. The amygdala may also cardiac function in lieu of the less active insular cortex.
Compared to slow - wave sleep, both waking and paradoxical sleep involve higher use of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which may cause the faster brainwaves. The monoamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and histamine are completely unavailable. Injections of acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, which effectively increases available acetylcholine, have been found to induce paradoxical sleep in humans and other animals already in slow - wave sleep. Carbachol, which mimics the effect of acetylcholine on neurons, has a similar influence. In waking humans, the same injections produce paradoxical sleep only if the monoamine neurotransmitters have already been depleted.
Two other neurotransmitters, orexin and gamma - Aminobutyric acid (GABA), seem to promote wakefulness, diminish during deep sleep, and inhibit paradoxical sleep.
Unlike the abrupt transitions in electrical patterns, the chemical changes in the brain show continuous periodic oscillation.
According to the activation - synthesis hypothesis proposed by Robert McCarley and Allan Hobson in 1975 -- 1977, control over REM sleep involves pathways of "REM - on '' and "REM - off '' neurons in the brain stem. REM - on neurons are primarily cholinergic (i.e., involve acetylcholine); REM - off neurons activate serotonin and noradrenaline, which among other functions suppress the REM - on neurons. McCarley and Hobson suggested that the REM - on neurons actually stimulate REM - off neurons, thereby serving as the mechanism for the cycling between REM and non-REM sleep. They used Lotka -- Volterra equations to describe this cyclical inverse relationship. Kayuza Sakai and Michel Jouvet advanced a similar model in 1981. Whereas acetylcholine manifests in the cortex equally during wakefulness and REM, it appears in higher concentrations in the brain stem during REM. The withdrawal of orexin and GABA may cause the absence of the other excitatory neurotransmitters; researchers in recent years increasingly include GABA regulation in their models.
Most of the eye movements in "rapid eye movement '' sleep are in fact less rapid than those normally exhibited by waking humans. They are also shorter in duration and more likely to loop back to their starting point. About seven of such loops take place over one minute of REM sleep. Whereas in slow - wave sleep the eyes can drift apart, the eyes of the paradoxical sleeper move in tandem. These eye movements follow the ponto - geniculo - occipital waves originating in the brain stem. The eye movements themselves may relate to the sense of vision experienced in the dream, but a direct relationship remains to be clearly established. Congenitally blind people, who do not typically have visual imagery in their dreams, still move their eyes in REM sleep. An alternative explanation suggests that the functional purpose of REM sleep is for procedural memory processing, and the rapid eye movement is only a side effect of the brain processing the eye - related procedural memory.
Generally speaking, the body suspends homeostasis during paradoxical sleep. Heart rate, cardiac pressure, cardiac output, arterial pressure, and breathing rate quickly become irregular when the body moves into REM sleep. In general, respiratory reflexes such as response to hypoxia diminish. Overall, the brain exerts less control over breathing; electrical stimulation of respiration - linked brain areas does not influence the lungs, as it does during non-REM sleep and in waking. The fluctuations of heart rate and arterial pressure tend to coincide with PGO waves and rapid eye movements, twitches, or sudden changes in breathing.
Erections of the penis (nocturnal penile tumescence or NPT) normally accompany REM sleep in rats and humans. If a male has erectile dysfunction (ED) while awake, but has NPT episodes during REM, it would suggest that the ED is from a psychological rather than a physiological cause. In females, erection of the clitoris (nocturnal clitoral tumescence or NCT) causes enlargement, with accompanying vaginal blood flow and transudation (i.e. lubrication). During a normal night of sleep the penis and clitoris may be erect for a total time of from one hour to as long as three and a half hours during REM.
Body temperature is not well regulated during REM sleep, and thus organisms become more sensitive to temperatures outside their thermoneutral zone. Cats and other small furry mammals will shiver and breathe faster to regulate temperature during NREMS but not during REMS. With the loss of muscle tone, animals lose the ability to regulate temperature through body movement. (However, even cats with pontine lesions preventing muscle atonia during REM did not regulate their temperature by shivering.) Neurons which typically activate in response to cold temperatures -- triggers for neural thermoregulation -- simply do not fire during REM sleep, as they do in NREM sleep and waking.
Consequently, hot or cold environmental temperatures can reduce the proportion of REM sleep, as well as amount of total sleep. In other words, if at the end of a phase of deep sleep, the organism 's thermal indicators fall outside of a certain range, it will not enter paradoxical sleep lest deregulation allow temperature to drift further from the desirable value. This mechanism can be ' fooled ' by artificially warming the brain.
REM atonia, an almost complete paralysis of the body, is accomplished through the inhibition of motor neurons. When the body shifts into REM sleep, motor neurons throughout the body undergo a process called hyperpolarization: their already - negative membrane potential decreases by another 2 -- 10 millivolts, thereby raising the threshold which a stimulus must overcome to excite them. Muscle inhibition may result from unavailability of monoamine neurotransmitters (restraining the abundance of acetylcholine in the brainstem) and perhaps from mechanisms used in waking muscle inhibition. The medulla oblongata, located between pons and spine, seems to have the capacity for organism - wide muscle inhibition. Some localized twitching and reflexes can still occur. Pupils contract.
Lack of REM atonia causes REM behavior disorder, sufferers of which physically act out their dreams, or conversely "dream out their acts '', under an alternative theory on the relationship between muscle impulses during REM and associated mental imagery (which would also apply to people without the condition, except that commands to their muscles are suppressed). This is different from conventional sleepwalking, which takes place during slow - wave sleep, not REM. Narcolepsy by contrast seems to involve excessive and unwanted REM atonia -- i.e., cataplexy and excessive daytime sleepiness while awake, hypnagogic hallucinations before entering slow - wave sleep, or sleep paralysis while waking. Other psychiatric disorders including depression have been linked to disproportionate REM sleep. Patients with suspected sleep disorders are typically evaluated by polysomnogram.
Lesions of the pons to prevent atonia have induced functional "REM behavior disorder '' in animals.
Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) has since its discovery been closely associated with dreaming. Waking up sleepers during a REM phase is a common experimental method for obtaining dream reports; 80 % of neurotypical people can give some kind of dream report under these circumstances. Sleepers awakened from REM tend to give longer more narrative descriptions of the dreams they were experiencing, and to estimate the duration of their dreams as longer. Lucid dreams are reported far more often in REM sleep. (In fact these could be considered a hybrid state combining essential elements of REM sleep and waking consciousness.) The mental events which occur during REM most commonly have dream hallmarks including narrative structure, convincingness (experiential resemblance to waking life), and incorporation of instinctual themes. Sometimes they include elements of the dreamer 's recent experience taken directly from episodic memory. By one estimate, 80 % of dreams occur during REM.
Hobson and McCarley proposed that the PGO waves characteristic of "phasic '' REM might supply the visual cortex and forebrain with electrical excitement which amplifies the hallucinatory aspects of dreaming. However, people woken up during sleep do not report significantly more bizarre dreams during phasic REMS, compared to tonic REMS. Another possible relationship between the two phenomena could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.
Some dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. "Light sleepers '' can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas "deep sleepers '', upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report "thinking '' but not "dreaming ''. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have strenuously contested the importance of connecting dreaming to the REM sleep phase. The prospect that well - known neurological aspects of REM do not themselves cause dreaming suggests the need to re-examine the neurobiology of dreaming per se. Some researchers (Dement, Hobson, Jouvet, for example) tend to resist the idea of disconnecting dreaming from REM sleep.
After waking from REM sleep, the mind seems "hyperassociative '' -- more receptive to semantic priming effects. People awakened from REM have performed better on tasks like anagrams and creative problem solving.
Sleep aids the process by which creativity forms associative elements into new combinations that are useful or meet some requirement. This occurs in REM sleep rather than in NREM sleep. Rather than being due to memory processes, this has been attributed to changes during REM sleep in cholinergic and noradrenergic neuromodulation. High levels of acetylcholine in the hippocampus suppress feedback from hippocampus to the neocortex, while lower levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine in the neocortex encourage the uncontrolled spread of associational activity within neocortical areas. This is in contrast to waking consciousness, where higher levels of norepinephrine and acetylcholine inhibit recurrent connections in the neocortex. REM sleep through this process adds creativity by allowing "neocortical structures to reorganise associative hierarchies, in which information from the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes. ''
In the ultradian sleep cycle an organism alternates between deep sleep (slow, large, synchronized brain waves) and paradoxical sleep (faster, desynchronized waves). Sleep happens in the context of the larger circadian rhythm, which influences sleepiness and physiological factors based on timekeepers within the body. Sleep can be distributed throughout the day or clustered during one part of the rhythm: in nocturnal animals, during the day, and in diurnal animals, at night. The organism returns to homeostatic regulation almost immediately after REM sleep ends.
During a night of sleep, humans usually experience about four or five periods of REM sleep; they are shorter (~ 15m) at the beginning of the night and longer (~ 25m) toward the end. Many animals and some people tend to wake, or experience a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. The relative amount of REM sleep varies considerably with age. A newborn baby spends more than 80 % of total sleep time in REM.
REM sleep typically occupies 20 -- 25 % of total sleep in adult humans: about 90 -- 120 minutes of a night 's sleep. The first REM episode occurs about 70 minutes after falling asleep. Cycles of about 90 minutes each follow, with each cycle including a larger proportion of REM sleep. (The increased REM sleep later in the night is connected with the circadian rhythm and occurs even in people who did n't sleep in the first part of the night.)
In the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster - developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in REM sleep than adults. The proportion of REM sleep then decreases significantly in childhood. Older people tend to sleep less overall but sleep in REM for about the same absolute time, and therefore spend a greater proportion of sleep in REM.
Rapid eye movement sleep can be subclassified into tonic and phasic modes. Tonic REM is characterized by theta rhythms in the brain; phasic REM is characterized by PGO waves and actual "rapid '' eye movements. Processing of external stimuli is heavily inhibited during phasic REM, and recent evidence suggests that sleepers are more difficult to arouse from phasic REM than in slow - wave sleep.
Selective REMS deprivation causes a significant increase in the number of attempts to go into REM stage while asleep. On recovery nights, an individual will usually move to stage 3 and REM sleep more quickly and experience an REM rebound, which refers to an increase in the time spent in REM stage over normal levels. These findings are consistent with the idea that REM sleep is biologically necessary. However, the "rebound '' REM sleep usually does not last fully as long as the estimated length of the missed REM periods.
After the deprivation is complete, mild psychological disturbances, such as anxiety, irritability, hallucinations, and difficulty concentrating may develop and appetite may increase. There are also positive consequences of REM deprivation. Some symptoms of depression are found to be suppressed by REM deprivation; aggression, and eating behavior may increase. Higher norepinepherine is a possible cause of these results. Whether and how long - term REM deprivation has psychological effects remains a matter of controversy. Several reports have indicated that REM deprivation increases aggression and sexual behavior in laboratory test animals. Rats deprived of paradoxical sleep die in 4 -- 6 weeks (twice the time before death in case of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.
It has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and combining sleep - schedule alterations with pharmacotherapy to prolong this effect. Antidepressants (including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclics, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors) and stimulants (such as amphetamine and cocaine) interfere with REM sleep by stimulating the monoamine neurotransmitters which must be suppressed for REM sleep to occur. Administered at therapeutic doses, these drugs may stop REM sleep entirely for weeks or months. Withdrawal causes a REM rebound. Sleep deprivation stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis much as antidepressants do, but whether this effect is driven by REM sleep in particular is unknown.
Although it manifests differently in different animals, REM sleep or something like it occurs in all land mammals as well as in birds. The primary criteria used to identify REM are the change in electrical activity, measured by EEG, and loss of muscle tone, interspersed with bouts of twitching in phasic REM. The amount of REM sleep and cycling varies among animals; predators enjoy more REM sleep than prey. Larger animals also tend to stay in REM for longer, possibly because higher thermal inertia of their brains and bodies allows them to tolerate longer suspension of thermoregulation. The period (full cycle of REM and non-REM) lasts for about 90 minutes in humans, 22 minutes in cats, and 12 minutes in rats. In utero, mammals spend more than half (50 -- 80 %) of a 24 - hour day in REM sleep.
Sleeping reptiles do not seem to have PGO waves or the localized brain activation seen in mammalian REM. However they do exhibit sleep cycles with phases of REM - like electrical activity measurable by EEG. A recent study found periodic eye movements in the central bearded dragon of Australia, leading its authors to speculate that the common ancestor of amniotes may therefore have manifested some precursor to REMS.
Sleep deprivation experiments on animals can be set up differently than those on humans. The "flower pot '' method involves placing a laboratory animal above water on a platform so small that it falls off upon losing muscle tone. The naturally rude awakening which results may elicit changes in the organism which necessarily exceed the simple absence of a sleep phase. This method also stops working after about 3 days as the subjects (typically rats) lose their will to avoid the water. Another method involves computer monitoring of brain waves, complete with automatic mechanized shaking of the cage when the test animal drifts into REM sleep.
Some researchers argue that the perpetuation of a complex brain process such as REM sleep indicates that it serves an important function for the survival of mammalian and avian species. It fulfills important physiological needs vital for survival to the extent that prolonged REM sleep deprivation leads to death in experimental animals. In both humans and experimental animals, REM sleep loss leads to several behavioral and physiological abnormalities. Loss of REM sleep has been noticed during various natural and experimental infections. Survivability of the experimental animals decreases when REM sleep is totally attenuated during infection; this leads to the possibility that the quality and quantity of REM sleep is generally essential for normal body physiology. Further, the existence of a "REM rebound '' effect suggests the possibility of a biological need for REM sleep.
While the precise function of REM sleep is not well understood, several theories have been proposed.
Sleep in general aids memory. REM sleep may favor the preservation of certain types of memories: specifically, procedural memory, spatial memory, and emotional memory. In rats, REM sleep increases following intensive learning, especially several hours after, and sometimes for multiple nights. Experimental REM sleep deprivation has sometimes inhibited memory consolidation, especially regarding complex processes (e.g., how to escape from an elaborate maze). In humans, the best evidence for REM 's improvement of memory pertains to learning of procedures -- new ways of moving the body (such as trampoline jumping), and new techniques of problem solving. REM deprivation seemed to impair declarative (i.e., factual) memory only in more complex cases, such as memories of longer stories. REM sleep apparently counteracts attempts to suppress certain thoughts.
According to the dual - process hypothesis of sleep and memory, the two major phases of sleep correspond to different types of memory. "Night half '' studies have tested this hypothesis with memory tasks either begun before sleep and assessed in the middle of the night, or begun in the middle of the night and assessed in the morning. Slow - wave sleep, part of non-REM sleep, appears to be important for declarative memory. Artificial enhancement of the non-REM sleep improves the next - day recall of memorized pairs of words. Tucker et al. demonstrated that a daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative memory but not procedural memory. According to the sequential hypothesis the two types of sleep work together to consolidate memory.
Sleep researcher Jerome Siegel has observed that extreme REM deprivation does not significantly interfere with memory. One case study of an individual who had little or no REM sleep due to a shrapnel injury to the brainstem did not find the individual 's memory to be impaired. Antidepressants, which suppress REM sleep, show no evidence of impairing memory and may improve it.
Graeme Mitchison and Francis Crick proposed in 1983 that by virtue of its inherent spontaneous activity, the function of REM sleep "is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in networks of cells in the cerebral cortex '', which process they characterize as "unlearning ''. As a result, those memories which are relevant (whose underlying neuronal substrate is strong enough to withstand such spontaneous, chaotic activation) are further strengthened, whilst weaker, transient, "noise '' memory traces disintegrate. Memory consolidation during paradoxical sleep is specifically correlated with the periods of rapid eye movement, which do not occur continuously. One explanation for this correlation is that the PGO electrical waves, which precede the eye movements, also influence memory. REM sleep could provide a unique opportunity for "unlearning '' to occur in the basic neural networks involved in homeostasis, which are protected from this "synaptic downscaling '' effect during deep sleep.
REM sleep prevails most after birth, and diminishes with age. According the "ontogenetic hypothesis '', REM (also known in neonates as active sleep) aids the developing brain by providing the neural stimulation that newborns need to form mature neural connections. Sleep deprivation have shown that deprivation early in life can result in behavioral problems, permanent sleep disruption, decreased brain mass, and result in an abnormal amount of neuronal cell death. The strongest evidence for the ontogenetic hypothesis comes from experiments on REM deprivation and the development of the visual system in the Lateral geniculate nucleus and primary visual cortex.
Ioannis Tsoukalas of Stockholm University has hypothesized that REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of a well - known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex. This reflex, also known as animal hypnosis or death feigning, functions as the last line of defense against an attacking predator and consists of the total immobilization of the animal so that it appears dead. Tsoukalas argues that the neurophysiology and phenomenology of this reaction shows striking similarities to REM sleep; for example, both reactions exhibit brainstem control, paralysis, hypocampal theta rhythm, and thermoregulatory changes.
According to "scanning hypothesis '', the directional properties of REM sleep are related to a shift of gaze in dream imagery. Against this hypothesis is that such eye movements occur in those born blind and in fetuses in spite of lack of vision. Also, binocular REMs are non-conjugated (i.e., the two eyes do not point in the same direction at a time) and so lack a fixation point. In support of this theory, research finds that in goal - oriented dreams, eye gaze is directed towards the dream action, determined from correlations in the eye and body movements of REM sleep behavior disorder patients who enact their dreams.
Dr. David M. Maurice (1922 - 2002), an eye specialist and semi-retired adjunct professor at Columbia University, proposed that REM sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. Among the supportive evidences, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from iris had to reach cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. According to the theory, when the animal is awake, eye movement (or cool environmental temperature) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. When the animal is sleeping, REM provides the much - needed stir to aqueous humor. This theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye - sealed newborn animals, spend much time in REM sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person 's REM sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper into the night. However, owls have REM sleep, but do not move their head more than in non-REM sleep and is well known that owls ' eyes are nearly immobile.
Another theory suggests that monoamine shutdown is required so that the monoamine receptors in the brain can recover to regain full sensitivity.
The sentinel hypothesis of REM sleep was put forward by Frederick Snyder in 1966. It is based upon the observation that REM sleep in several mammals (the rat, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the rhesus monkey) is followed by a brief awakening. This does not occur for either cats or humans, although humans are more likely to wake from REM sleep than from NREM sleep. Snyder hypothesized that REM sleep activates an animal periodically, to scan the environment for possible predators. This hypothesis does not explain the muscle paralysis of REM sleep; however, a logical analysis might suggest that the muscle paralysis exists to prevent the animal from fully waking up unnecessarily, and allowing it to return easily to deeper sleep.
Jim Horne, a sleep researcher at Loughborough University, has suggested that REM in modern humans compensates for the reduced need for wakeful food foraging.
Other theories are that REM sleep warms the brain, stimulates and stabilizes the neural circuits that have not been activated during waking, or creates internal stimulation to aid development of the CNS; while some argue that REM lacks any purpose, and simply results from random brain activation.
Recognition of different types of sleep can be seen in the literature of ancient India and Rome. Observers have long noticed that sleeping dogs twitch and move but only at certain times.
The German scientist Richard Klaue in 1937 first discovered a period of fast electrical activity in the brains of sleeping cats. In 1944, Ohlmeyer reported 90 - minute ultradian sleep cycles involving male erections lasting for 25 minutes. At University of Chicago in 1952, Eugene Aserinsky, Nathaniel Kleitman, and William C. Dement, discovered phases of rapid eye movement during sleep, and connected these to dreaming. Their article was published September 10, 1953. Aserinsky, then Kleitman, first observed the eye movements and accompanying neuroelectrical activity in their own children.
William Dement advanced the study of REM deprivation, with experiments in which subjects were awoken every time their EEG indicated the beginning of REM sleep. He published "The Effect of Dream Deprivation '' in June 1960. ("REM deprivation '' has become the more common term following subsequent research indicating the possibility of non-REM dreaming.)
Neurosurgical experiments by Michel Jouvet and others in the following two decades added an understanding of atonia and suggested the importance of the pontine tegmentum (dorsolateral pons) in enabling and regulating paradoxical sleep. Jouvet and others found that damaging the reticular formation of the brainstem inhibited this type of sleep. Jouvet coined the name "paradoxical sleep '' in 1959 and in 1962 published results indicating that it could occur in a cat with its entire forebrain removed.
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when is the second season of dynasty coming out | Dynasty (2017 TV series) - wikipedia
Dynasty is an American prime time television soap opera reboot based on the 1980s series of the same name. Developed by Josh Schwartz, Stephanie Savage, and Sallie Patrick, the new series stars Elizabeth Gillies as Fallon Carrington, Grant Show as her father Blake Carrington, Nathalie Kelley as Blake 's new wife Cristal, James Mackay as his son Steven, with Robert Christopher Riley as chauffeur Michael Culhane, Sam Adegoke as Jeff Colby, Rafael de la Fuente as Samuel Josiah ' Sammy Jo ' Jones, Cristal 's nephew and Steven 's fiancé, and Alan Dale as Joseph Anders, the Carrington 's majordomo.
The pilot, which was announced in September 2016, was ordered to series in May 2017. Dynasty premiered on October 11, 2017, on The CW in the United States, and on Netflix internationally a day later. On November 8, 2017, The CW picked up the series for a full season of 22 episodes. On April 2, 2018, The CW renewed the series for a second season.
Dynasty begins with heiress Fallon Carrington unhappy to find her billionaire father Blake engaged to Cristal, a rival employee at the family company. When Fallon 's machinations to separate the couple backfire and cost her a promotion, she allies with Blake 's nemesis and former employee, Jeff Colby, and strikes out on her own. Meanwhile, the arrival of Cristal 's opportunistic nephew Sam -- who becomes romantically involved with Fallon 's wayward brother Steven -- threatens to expose her shady past. The Carringtons form a united front in the wake of the suspicious death of Cristal 's former lover, but things at the mansion do not remain harmonious for long.
The reboot updates several elements from the 1980s original, including moving the setting from Denver, Colorado to Atlanta, Georgia; making Steven 's homosexuality a nonissue to Blake; and changing gold digger Sammy Jo from a woman to a gay man. Additionally, in the new series, both Blake 's fiancée later wife and her nephew are Hispanic, and both chauffeur Michael Culhane and the Colby family are African - American.
In September 2016, it was announced that a reboot of the 1980s prime time soap opera Dynasty was in development at The CW, co-written by Josh Schwartz, Stephanie Savage, and Sallie Patrick. Savage said, "All of us have worked on shows that owe a huge debt to Dynasty, so it 's kind of in our writing DNA to do this show. '' The trio discussed what they found unique and attractive about the original series, and how best to preserve those elements in an update. They also met with Richard and Esther Shapiro, the creators of Dynasty, who were ultimately attached as producers. Schwartz said, "We are definitely living in an age of dynasties. Whether it 's the Trumps or the Clintons or the Kardashians or the Murdochs, our news is filled with the worlds of family dynasties and that was exciting for us. '' Savage added, "When we first sat down with the Shapiros to talk about rebooting the show, they talked a lot about family. No matter the villainous things that they did, they never stopped loving each other. I think we took that core concept and then just talked about how to place the idea in the historical context of our day. '' Patrick noted that the 1980s series was progressive for its time, dealing with issues like race, women in the workplace, and gay acceptance. She said, "We 're trying to figure out how do we respect what that show was doing then and pushing it even farther in our version. '' De la Fuente said, "We 're trying to make it stand on its own and be its own thing. But we have to pay homage to the original and the classic stuff that people remember from Dynasty, like the fashion, the catfights and the opulence of it all, is of course in our show. It would n't be Dynasty otherwise. ''
The new series finds heiress Fallon Carrington facing off against her soon - to - be stepmother Cristal, a Hispanic woman. Patrick said, "It was important to me as a working woman to have two women fighting over the future of the dynasty. '' Schwartz said of the rival characters:
Even when you watch the original, Fallon is a character who feels as if she can exist in 2017. She just pops off the screen, and she can take on Krystle, who, in the original, was pure and the moral center of the show. With this new Cristal, we liked the idea of not letting her be quite as pure and raising some questions about her past and having her stir the pot -- making her more formidable. That really let us lean into this rivalry between Fallon and Cristal.
Patrick said, "We knew in our version -- 2017 -- we wanted Steven 's conflict with Blake to be not about him being gay, but about him being liberal. '' Savage noted, "With Steven Carrington out and proud, it makes sense for Sammy Jo to be a man. '' Patrick said in August 2017 that Blake 's first wife Alexis would be introduced during the first season, but that the role had yet to be cast. She noted, "We knew Alexis was coming before we even started shooting the pilot, which allowed us to pave the way for her... throughout the season, we hear Blake, Steven, and Fallon 's memories about the woman who abandoned their family. So by the time she actually enters the series, we 've established expectations about her character -- which Alexis will happily break. '' The role was cast with Nicollette Sheridan in November 2017, and she first appeared in episode 16 in March 2018.
The setting was also moved from Denver to Atlanta, in part because of Atlanta 's diversity. Schwartz called the city "a realistic location of this family to be based out of '', noting that the Shapiros had arbitrarily picked Denver for the original series and were not creatively attached to it. Patrick said that Atlanta is "a super diverse population and a great mixture -- where there 's conflict between old money and new money. '' Kelley said, "This modern version represents a more current picture of what 's happening in America. The diversity of the cast really represents that. '' In the update, chauffeur Michael Culhane and the Colby family are African - American. Also, Cristal 's Venezuelan origins will allow the show to explore the current geopolitics of that country.
Patrick said that episode seven, "A Taste of Your Own Medicine '', "brings to a head so many of the stories that we 've been slowly building. It hits the tone of the show perfectly. '' She added:
We loved the original Dynasty -- the camp and the big, surprising soapy twists. We also felt very strongly that we needed to earn those. It would have been hard to come out of the gate with an episode like this. You have to be with the characters long enough to start caring about them. We 're cranking up the crazy moving forward.
The episode titles are lines of dialogue from the original series. In addition to reworked characters and plotlines, the reboot contains multiple visual homages to the 1980s series, including props and wardrobe.
The pilot was filmed in Atlanta. On May 10, 2017, the Dynasty reboot received a series order at The CW. A preview trailer was released on May 18, 2017. On November 8, 2017, The CW picked up the series for a full season of 22 episodes. Sheridan 's casting was a key factor in the decision to give Dynasty a back nine order of episodes after the initial 13. On April 2, 2018, The CW renewed the series for a second season.
Nathalie Kelley was cast as Cristal in January 2017, followed by Elizabeth Gillies as Fallon, Sam Adegoke as playboy Jeff Colby, and Robert Christopher Riley as Blake 's chauffeur Michael Culhane in February. Next cast were Grant Show as Fallon 's father Blake Carrington, and Rafael de la Fuente as Sam Jones, a gay male version of the original series ' Sammy Jo Carrington, in March. The remaining main cast members are James Mackay as Fallon 's gay brother Steven, and Alan Dale as Carrington majordomo Anders, Additional recurring performers include Nick Wechsler as Cristal 's ex-lover Matthew Blaisdel, Brianna Brown as Matthew 's wife Claudia, and Wakeema Hollis as Jeff 's sister Monica Colby. In November 2017, Nicollette Sheridan was cast in the role of Blake 's ex-wife Alexis Carrington. Other guest stars include Elena Tovar as Iris Machado, Cristal 's sister and Sam 's mother, Bill Smitrovich as Thomas Carrington, Blake 's estranged father, and Hakeem Kae - Kazim as Cesil Colby, Jeff and Monica 's father.
The pilot includes a flashback of a young Steven playing the original Dynasty theme by Bill Conti on piano. An updated, 15 - second version debuted as an opening credits sequence in the 1980s - themed third episode, "Guilt is for Insecure People '', but is only used in some episodes. Composer Paul Leonard - Morgan worked with Troy Nõka to get "an ' 80s - rock vibe '' for the song, to match Leonard - Morgan 's soundtrack for the series. The new theme was recorded with an orchestra at Capitol Records in Hollywood, featuring Los Angeles Philharmonic lead trumpet player Tom Hooten.
Dynasty premiered on The CW in the United States on Wednesday, October 11, 2017, with the season 2 premiere of Riverdale as its lead - in. Netflix acquired the exclusive international broadcast rights to Dynasty, making it available as an original series on the platform less than a day after their original U.S. broadcast. The series moved to Fridays starting March 9, 2018.
Leslie Moonves, the head of CBS Corporation, said in 2017, "We own 100 percent of (Dynasty), and we 've already licensed it to Netflix in 188 countries... So this means Dynasty is profitable before it even hits the air. '' The CW 's president Mark Pedowitz said in January 2018, "I 'm disappointed in the ratings, I wanted it to do more, but I 'm happy with the production values that Josh, Steph and Sallie are doing. There are changes coming, I 'm thrilled to have Nicollette (Sheridan)... I 'm looking forward to Nicollette and Liz (Gillies) really going at it as a mother - daughter situation, and I think that will add some juice to the show. ''
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 53 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.59 / 10 based on 40 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Dynasty 's revival retains enough of its predecessor 's over-the - top allure to offer a glamorous guilty pleasure in its first season, even if it never quite recaptures the magic of the original. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 52 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Chris Harnick of E! Online called the pilot "soapy and fun '', adding that the series is "a worthy heir to the original show and Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage 's previous offering Gossip Girl and The O.C. ''. Adweek called the pilot inferior to Gossip Girl and the original Dynasty, but suggested that its pairing with Riverdale "could provide audiences a guilty - pleasure double - feature ''.
Tierney Bricker of E! Online dubbed Kelley "this season 's breakout star '', with Gillies "hot on her Louboutin heels ''.
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when was 50 naira currency note introduced into nigeria | Nigerian naira - wikipedia
The naira (sign: ₦; code: NGN) is the currency of Nigeria. It is subdivided into 100 Kobo.
The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) is the sole issuer of legal tender money throughout the Nigerian Federation. It controls the volume of money supplied in the economy in order to ensure monetary and price stability. The Currency & Branch Operations Department of the CBN is in charge of currency management, through the procurement, distribution / supply, processing, reissue and disposal / disintegration of bank notes and coins.
The naira was introduced on 1 January 1973, replacing the pound at a rate of 2 naira = 1 pound. This made Nigeria the last country to abandon the £ sd currency system. There was a plan to redenominate the naira at 1 new naira = 100 old naira in 2008, but the plan was suspended. The currency sign is U + 20A6 ₦ Naira sign.
Rampant inflation has occurred in Nigeria. The Central Bank of Nigeria claimed that they attempted to control the annual inflation rate below 10 %. In 2011, the CBN increased key interest rate 6 times, rising from 6.25 % to 12 %. On 31 January 2012, the CBN decided to maintain the key interest rate at 12 %, in order to reduce the impact of inflation due to reduction in fuel subsidies.
As of 20 June 2016, the naira was allowed to float, after being pegged at 197 to one US dollar for several months. Trades speculated the natural range of the naira would be between 280 and 350 to the dollar.
In 1973, coins were introduced in denominations of 1⁄2, 1, 5, 10 and 25 kobo, with the 1⁄2 and 1 kobo in bronze and the higher denominations in cupro - nickel. The 1⁄2 kobo coins were minted only that year. In 1991, smaller 1, 10 and 25 kobo coins were issued in copper - plated - steel, along with nickel - plated - steel 50 kobo and 1 naira. On 28 February 2007, new coins were issued in denominations of 50 kobo, 1 and 2 naira, with the 1 and 2 naira bimetallic. Some Nigerians expressed concerns over the usability of the ₦ 2 coin. The deadline for exchanging the old currency was set at 31 May 2007. The central bank stated that the 1⁄2 to 25 kobo coins were withdrawn from circulation with effect from 28 February 2007.
On January 1, 1973, the Central Bank of Nigeria introduced notes for 50 kobo, 1, 5, 10 and 20 naira. The 50 kobo notes were last issued in 1989. In 1991, 50 naira notes were issued, followed by 100 naira in 1999, 200 naira in 2000, 500 naira in 2001 and 1000 naira on October 12, 2005.
On February 28, 2007, new versions of the 5 to 50 naira banknotes were introduced. Originally the 10, 20 and 50 naira were to be polymer banknotes, but the 5, 10 and 50 were delayed to late 2009 and only the 20 was released in polymer. The notes are slightly smaller (130 × 72 mm) and redesigned from the preceding issues. In mid-2009 when Sanusi Lamido Sanusi took over as CBN Governor he eventually changed the 5, 10 and 50 naira to polymer notes.
On the 1000 naira notes, there is a subtle shiny strip running down the back of the note. It is a shimmery gold colour showing 1000 naira. The triangular shape in the middle of the front of the note changes its colour from green to blue when tilted. The main feature on the front is the engraved portraits of Alhaji Aliyu Mai - Bornu and Dr Clement Isong, former governors of the Central Bank of Nigeria.
On the first prints of the 100 naira notes issued starting December 1, 1999, Zuma Rock was captioned as located in Federal Capital Territory, while actually it is situated in Niger State. Later prints removed the reference to FCT, ABUJA.
In 2012 the Central Bank of Nigeria may be contemplating the introduction of new currency denominations of N5, 000. The bank has also made plans to convert ₦ 5, ₦ 10, ₦ 20 and ₦ 50 into coins which are all presently notes.
The Central Bank of Nigeria has announced that it will no longer issue banknotes on polymer citing higher costs and environmental issues.
On November 12, 2014, the Central Bank of Nigeria issued a 100 naira commemorative note to celebrate the centennial of Nigeria 's existence. The notes are similar to its regular issue with the portrait of Chief Obafemi Awolowo on front, but is redesigned to include a new color scheme, revised security features, the text "One Nigeria, Great Promise '' in microprinting and on the back is a quickresponse code (QRC) which when scanned leads users to a website about Nigeria 's history.
The naira was scheduled for redenomination in August 2008, although this was cancelled by then - President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua), with 100 old naira to become 1 new naira. The Nigerian Central Bank stated that it will make the naira fully convertible against foreign currencies by 2009. Currently, the amount of foreign currency is regulated through weekly auctions, while the Central Bank sets the exchange rate. The naira appreciated against the dollar through 2007 due to high oil revenues. Also, the then - Bank Governor, Professor Chukwuma Soludo noted the weekly central bank auctions of foreign currency will gradually be phased out, and that the bank would "only intervene in the market as may be required to achieve defined policy objectives ''.
Coins were to be issued in denominations of:
Banknotes were to be printed in denominations of:
This table shows the historical value of one U.S. Dollar in Nigerian naira - PM = Parallel Market.
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what was the first book that charles dickens published | Charles Dickens - wikipedia
Charles John Huffam Dickens (/ ˈdɪkɪnz /; 7 February 1812 -- 9 June 1870) was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the world 's best - known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the 20th century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity.
Born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors ' prison. Despite his lack of formal education, he edited a weekly journal for 20 years, wrote 15 novels, five novellas, hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles, lectured and performed readings extensively, was an indefatigable letter writer, and campaigned vigorously for children 's rights, education, and other social reforms.
Dickens 's literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers. Within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction, which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication. Cliffhanger endings in his serial publications kept readers in suspense. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience 's reaction, and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback. For example, when his wife 's chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities, Dickens improved the character with positive features. His plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the illiterate poor chipped in ha'pennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up and inspiring a new class of readers.
Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age. His 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted, and, like many of his novels, evoke images of early Victorian London. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London and Paris, is his best - known work of historical fiction. Dickens has been praised by fellow writers -- from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G.K. Chesterton -- for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of psychological depth, loose writing, and a vein of saccharine sentimentalism. The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings, such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters.
Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace (now 393 Commercial Road), Landport in Portsea Island (Portsmouth), the second of eight children of Elizabeth Dickens (née Barrow; 1789 -- 1863) and John Dickens (1785 -- 1851). His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majesty 's Navy, gentleman, and head of an established firm, to act as godfather to Charles. Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickens 's novel Dombey and Son (1848).
In January 1815, John Dickens was called back to London, and the family moved to Norfolk Street, Fitzrovia. When Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he thought himself a "very small and not - over-particularly - taken - care - of boy ''.
Charles spent time outdoors, but also read voraciously, including the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe and Gil Blas. He read and reread The Arabian Nights and the Collected Farces of Elizabeth Inchbald. He retained poignant memories of childhood, helped by an excellent memory of people and events, which he used in his writing. His father 's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education, first at a dame school, and then at a school run by William Giles, a dissenter, in Chatham.
This period came to an end in June 1822, when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at Somerset House, and the family (except for Charles, who stayed behind to finish his final term of work) moved to Camden Town in London. The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts, and, living beyond his means, John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the Marshalsea debtors ' prison in Southwark, London in 1824. His wife and youngest children joined him there, as was the practice at the time. Charles, then 12 years old, boarded with Elizabeth Roylance, a family friend, at 112 College Place, Camden Town. Roylance was "a reduced (impoverished) old lady, long known to our family '', whom Dickens later immortalised, "with a few alterations and embellishments '', as "Mrs. Pipchin '' in Dombey and Son. Later, he lived in a back - attic in the house of an agent for the Insolvent Court, Archibald Russell, "a fat, good - natured, kind old gentleman... with a quiet old wife '' and lame son, in Lant Street in Southwark. They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in The Old Curiosity Shop.
On Sundays -- with his sister Frances, free from her studies at the Royal Academy of Music -- he spent the day at the Marshalsea. Dickens later used the prison as a setting in Little Dorrit. To pay for his board and to help his family, Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten - hour days at Warren 's Blacking Warehouse, on Hungerford Stairs, near the present Charing Cross railway station, where he earned six shillings a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking. The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays, becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio - economic and labour conditions, the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor. He later wrote that he wondered "how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age ''. As he recalled to John Forster (from The Life of Charles Dickens):
The blacking - warehouse was the last house on the left - hand side of the way, at old Hungerford Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble - down old house, abutting of course on the river, and literally overrun with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase, and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if I were there again. The counting - house was on the first floor, looking over the coal - barges and the river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work. My work was to cover the pots of paste - blacking; first with a piece of oil - paper, and then with a piece of blue paper; to tie them round with a string; and then to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary 's shop. When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a printed label, and then go on again with more pots. Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down - stairs on similar wages. One of them came up, in a ragged apron and a paper cap, on the first Monday morning, to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot. His name was Bob Fagin; and I took the liberty of using his name, long afterwards, in Oliver Twist.
When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart, busy district of Covent Garden the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street and little audiences gathered and watched them at work -- in Dickens biographer Simon Callow 's estimation, the public display was "a new refinement added to his misery ''.
A few months after his imprisonment, John Dickens 's paternal grandmother, Elizabeth Dickens, died and bequeathed him £ 450. On the expectation of this legacy, Dickens was released from prison. Under the Insolvent Debtors Act, Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors, and he and his family left Marshalsea, for the home of Mrs Roylance.
Charles 's mother, Elizabeth Dickens, did not immediately support his removal from the boot - blacking warehouse. This influenced Dickens 's view that a father should rule the family, and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home: "I never afterwards forgot, I never shall forget, I never can forget, that my mother was warm for my being sent back ''. His mother 's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women.
Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which working - class people lived became major themes of his works, and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite, and most autobiographical, novel, David Copperfield: "I had no advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no assistance, no support, of any kind, from anyone, that I can call to mind, as I hope to go to heaven! ''
Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in Camden Town, where he remained until March 1827, having spent about two years there. He did not consider it to be a good school: "Much of the haphazard, desultory teaching, poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster 's sadistic brutality, the seedy ushers and general run - down atmosphere, are embodied in Mr. Creakle 's Establishment in David Copperfield. ''
Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore, attorneys, of Holborn Court, Gray 's Inn, as a junior clerk from May 1827 to November 1828. He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him: clients, lawyers, and clerks. He went to theatres obsessively -- he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every single day. His favourite actor was Charles Mathews, and Dickens learnt his monopolylogues, (farces in which Mathews played every character), by heart. Then, having learned Gurney 's system of shorthand in his spare time, he left to become a freelance reporter. A distant relative, Thomas Charlton, was a freelance reporter at Doctors ' Commons, and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years. This education was to inform works such as Nicholas Nickleby, Dombey and Son, and especially Bleak House -- whose vivid portrayal of the machinations and bureaucracy of the legal system did much to enlighten the general public and served as a vehicle for dissemination of Dickens 's own views regarding, particularly, the heavy burden on the poor who were forced by circumstances to "go to law ''.
In 1830, Dickens met his first love, Maria Beadnell, thought to have been the model for the character Dora in David Copperfield. Maria 's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris.
In 1832, at age 20, Dickens was energetic and increasingly self - confident. He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment, lacked a clear, specific sense of what he wanted to become, and yet knew he wanted fame. Drawn to the theatre -- he became an early member of the Garrick -- he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden, where the manager George Bartley and the actor Charles Kemble were to see him. Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews, but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold. Before another opportunity arose, he had set out on his career as a writer. In 1833 he submitted his first story, "A Dinner at Poplar Walk '', to the London periodical Monthly Magazine. William Barrow, a brother of his mother, offered him a job on The Mirror of Parliament and he worked in the House of Commons for the first time early in 1832. He rented rooms at Furnival 's Inn and worked as a political journalist, reporting on Parliamentary debates, and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle. His journalism, in the form of sketches in periodicals, formed his first collection of pieces, published in 1836: Sketches by Boz -- Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years. Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname "Moses '', which he had given to his youngest brother Augustus Dickens, after a character in Oliver Goldsmith 's The Vicar of Wakefield. When pronounced by anyone with a head cold, "Moses '' became "Boses '' -- later shortened to Boz. Dickens 's own name was considered "queer '' by a contemporary critic, who wrote in 1849: "Mr Dickens, as if in revenge for his own queer name, does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations. '' He contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career. In January 1835 the Morning Chronicle launched an evening edition, under the editorship of the Chronicle 's music critic, George Hogarth. Hogarth invited Dickens to contribute Street Sketches and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house, excited by Hogarth 's friendship with a hero of his, Walter Scott, and enjoying the company of Hogarth 's three daughters -- Georgina, Mary, and nineteen - year - old Catherine.
Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially. He began a friendship with William Harrison Ainsworth, the author of the highwayman novel Rookwood (1834), whose bachelor salon in Harrow Road had become the meeting place for a set that included Daniel Maclise, Benjamin Disraeli, Edward Bulwer - Lytton, and George Cruikshank. All these became his friends and collaborators, with the exception of Disraeli, and he met his first publisher, John Macrone, at the house. The success of Sketches by Boz led to a proposal from publishers Chapman and Hall for Dickens to supply text to match Robert Seymour 's engraved illustrations in a monthly letterpress. Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment, and Dickens, who wanted to write a connected series of sketches, hired "Phiz '' to provide the engravings (which were reduced from four to two per instalment) for the story. The resulting story became The Pickwick Papers, and though the first few episodes were not successful, the introduction of the Cockney character Sam Weller in the fourth episode (the first to be illustrated by Phiz) marked a sharp climb in its popularity. The final instalment sold 40,000 copies.
In November 1836 Dickens accepted the position of editor of Bentley 's Miscellany, a position he held for three years, until he fell out with the owner. In 1836 as he finished the last instalments of The Pickwick Papers, he began writing the beginning instalments of Oliver Twist -- writing as many as 90 pages a month -- while continuing work on Bentley 's and also writing four plays, the production of which he oversaw. Oliver Twist, published in 1838, became one of Dickens 's better known stories, and was the first Victorian novel with a child protagonist.
On 2 April 1836, after a one - year engagement, and between episodes two and three of The Pickwick Papers, Dickens married Catherine Thomson Hogarth (1816 -- 1879), the daughter of George Hogarth, editor of the Evening Chronicle. They were married in St. Luke 's Church, Chelsea, London. After a brief honeymoon in Chalk in Kent the couple returned to lodgings at Furnival 's Inn. The first of their ten children, Charley, was born in January 1837, and a few months later the family set up home in Bloomsbury at 48 Doughty Street, London, (on which Charles had a three - year lease at £ 80 a year) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839. Dickens 's younger brother Frederick and Catherine 's 17 - year - old sister Mary, moved in with them. Dickens became very attached to Mary, and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837. Unusually for Dickens, as a consequence of his shock, he stopped working, and he and Kate stayed at a little farm on Hampstead Heath for a fortnight. Dickens idealised Mary - the character he fashioned after her, Rose Maylie, he found he could not now kill, as he had planned, in his fiction and according to Ackroyd he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of Little Nell and Florence Dombey. His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of Pickwick Papers and had to cancel the Oliver Twist instalment that month as well. The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop and Forster soon became his unofficial business manager, and the first to read his work.
His success as a novelist continued. The young Queen Victoria read both Oliver Twist and Pickwick, staying up until midnight to discuss them. Nicholas Nickleby (1838 -- 39), The Old Curiosity Shop (1840 -- 41) and, finally, his first historical novel, Barnaby Rudge: A Tale of the Riots of ' Eighty, as part of the Master Humphrey 's Clock series (1840 -- 41), were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books.
In the midst of all his activity during this period there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off, while Richard Bentley signed over all his rights in Oliver Twist. Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerge -- in Broadstairs he flirted with Eleanor Picken, the young fiancée of his solicitor 's best friend, and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea. He declared they were both to drown there in the "sad sea waves ''. She finally got free but afterwards kept her distance. In June 1841 he precipitately set out on a two - month tour of Scotland and then, in September 1841, telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America. Master Humphrey 's Clock was shut down, though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine, a form he liked, a liking that had begun with his childhood reading of the eighteenth - century magazines Tatler and The Spectator.
In 1842, Dickens and his wife made their first trip to the United States and Canada. At this time Georgina Hogarth, another sister of Catherine, joined the Dickens household, now living at Devonshire Terrace, Marylebone, to care for the young family they had left behind. She remained with them as housekeeper, organiser, adviser, and friend until Dickens 's death in 1870. Dickens modeled the character of Agnes Wickfield after Georgina and Mary.
He described his impressions in a travelogue, American Notes for General Circulation. Dickens includes in Notes a powerful condemnation of slavery, which he had attacked as early as The Pickwick Papers, correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters. In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America, some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens 's views on racial inequality, for instance, he has been criticized for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor Eyre 's harsh crackdown during the 1860s Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it. From Richmond, Virginia, Dickens returned to Washington, D.C., and started a trek westward to St. Louis, Missouri. While there, he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east. A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie, a trip 30 miles into Illinois.
During his American visit, Dickens spent a month in New York City, giving lectures, raising the question of international copyright laws and the pirating of his work in America. He persuaded a group of twenty - five writers, headed by Washington Irving, to sign a petition for him to take to Congress, but the press were generally hostile to this, saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated.
The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self - perception according to critic Kate Flint, who writes that he "found himself a cultural commodity, and its circulation had passed out his control '', causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels. She writes that he assumed a role of "influential commentator '', publicly and in his fiction, evident in his next few books. His trip to the U.S. ended with a trip to Canada: Niagara Falls, Toronto, Kingston and Montreal where he appeared on stage in light comedies.
Soon after his return to England, Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories, A Christmas Carol, written in 1843, which was followed by The Chimes in 1844 and The Cricket on the Hearth in 1845. Of these, A Christmas Carol was most popular and, tapping into an old tradition, did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America. The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens 's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there. This, along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane Ragged School, caused Dickens to resolve to "strike a sledge hammer blow '' for the poor. As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest, Dickens became engrossed in the book. He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he "wept and laughed, and wept again '' as he "walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed. ''
After living briefly in Italy (1844), Dickens travelled to Switzerland (1846), where he began work on Dombey and Son (1846 -- 48). This and David Copperfield (1849 -- 50) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens 's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works.
At about this time, he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother, Augustus, worked (John Chapman & Co.). It had been carried out by Thomas Powell, a clerk, who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work. Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day. After further fraudulent activities, Powell fled to New York and published a book called The Living Authors of England with a chapter on Charles Dickens, who was not amused by what Powell had written. One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey (Dombey and Son) on Thomas Chapman, one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately sent a letter to Lewis Gaylord Clark, editor of the New York literary magazine The Knickerbocker, saying that Powell was a forger and thief. Clark published the letter in the New - York Tribune, and several other papers picked up on the story. Powell began proceedings to sue these publications, and Clark was arrested. Dickens, realising that he had acted in haste, contacted John Chapman & Co. to seek written confirmation of Powell 's guilt. Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell 's embezzlement, but once the directors realised this information might have to be produced in court, they refused to make further disclosures. Owing to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations, Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court.
Angela Burdett Coutts, heir to the Coutts banking fortune, approached Dickens in May 1846 about setting up a home for the redemption of fallen women of the working class. Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores. After initially resisting, Dickens eventually founded the home, named "Urania Cottage '', in the Lime Grove section of Shepherds Bush, which he managed for ten years, setting the house rules, reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents. Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens 's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage, from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859.
As a young man Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organized religion. In 1836, in a pamphlet titled Sunday Under Three Heads, he defended the people 's right to pleasure, opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays. "Look into your churches - diminished congregations and scanty attendance. People have grown sullen and obstinate, and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this, once in every seven. They display their feeling by staying away (from church). Turn into the streets (on a Sunday) and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around ''
Dickens honoured the figure of Christ -- though some claim he may have denied his divinity. Notwithstanding, Dickens has been characterized as a professing Christian. His son, Henry Fielding Dickens, described Dickens as someone who "possessed deep religious convictions ''. In the early 1840s Dickens had shown an interest in Unitarian Christianity, and Robert Browning remarked that "Mr. Dickens is an enlightened Unitarian. '' Writer Gary Colledge, however, asserted that he "never strayed from his attachment to popular lay Anglicanism ''. He also wrote a religious work called The Life of Our Lord (1849), which was a short book about the life of Jesus Christ, written with the purpose of inculcating his faith to his children and family.
Dickens disapproved of Roman Catholicism and 19th - century evangelicalism, and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like spiritualism, all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity. Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky referred to Dickens as "that great Christian writer ''.
The Francophile Dickens often vacationed in France, and in a speech delivered in Paris in 1846 in French called the French "the first people in the universe ''. During his visit to Paris, Dickens met the French literati Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo, Eugène Scribe, Théophile Gautier, François - René de Chateaubriand and Eugène Sue. Dickens started to write David Copperfield in 1848. It was published between 1849 and 1850. Scholars consider it as Dickens 's veiled autobiography with the title character modeled after the author himself. It was Dickens 's personal favourite among his own novels.
In late November 1851, Dickens moved into Tavistock House where he wrote Bleak House (1852 -- 53), Hard Times (1854), and Little Dorrit (1856). It was here that he indulged in the amateur theatricals described in Forster 's Life. During this period he worked closely with the novelist and playwright Wilkie Collins. In 1856, his income from writing allowed him to buy Gad 's Hill Place in Higham, Kent. As a child, Dickens had walked past the house and dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of Shakespeare 's Henry IV, Part 1, and this literary connection pleased him.
In 1857, Dickens hired professional actresses for the play The Frozen Deep, written by him and his protégé, Wilkie Collins. Dickens fell in love with one of the actresses, Ellen Ternan, and this passion was to last the rest of his life. Dickens was 45 and Ternan 18 when he made the decision, which went strongly against Victorian convention, to separate from his wife, Catherine, in 1858 -- divorce was still unthinkable for someone as famous as he was. When Catherine left, never to see her husband again, she took with her one child, leaving the other children to be raised by her sister Georgina who chose to stay at Gad 's Hill.
During this period, whilst pondering a project to give public readings for his own profit, Dickens was approached through a charitable appeal by Great Ormond Street Hospital, to help it survive its first major financial crisis. His ' Drooping Buds ' essay in Household Words earlier on 3 April 1852 was considered by the hospital 's founders to have been the catalyst for the hospital 's success. Dickens, whose philanthropy was well - known, was asked by his friend, the hospital 's founder Charles West, to preside over the appeal, and he threw himself into the task, heart and soul. Dickens 's public readings secured sufficient funds for an endowment to put the hospital on a sound financial footing -- one reading on 9 February 1858 alone raised £ 3,000.
After separating from Catherine, Dickens undertook a series of hugely popular and remunerative reading tours which, together with his journalism, were to absorb most of his creative energies for the next decade, in which he was to write only two more novels. His first reading tour, lasting from April 1858 to February 1859, consisted of 129 appearances in 49 different towns throughout England, Scotland and Ireland. Dickens 's continued fascination with the theatrical world was written into the theatre scenes in Nicholas Nickleby, but more importantly he found an outlet in public readings. In 1866, he undertook a series of public readings in England and Scotland, with more the following year in England and Ireland.
Major works soon followed, including A Tale of Two Cities (1859) and Great Expectations (1861), which were resounding successes. During this time he was also the publisher, editor, and a major contributor to the journals Household Words (1850 -- 1859) and All the Year Round (1858 -- 1870).
In early September 1860, in a field behind Gad 's Hill, Dickens made a bonfire of most of his correspondence -- only those letters on business matters were spared. Since Ellen Ternan also destroyed all of his letters to her, the extent of the affair between the two remains speculative. In the 1930s, Thomas Wright recounted that Ternan had unburdened herself to a Canon Benham, and gave currency to rumours they had been lovers. That the two had a son who died in infancy was alleged by Dickens 's daughter, Kate Perugini, whom Gladys Storey had interviewed before her death in 1929. Storey published her account in Dickens and Daughter, but no contemporary evidence exists. On his death, Dickens settled an annuity on Ternan which made her a financially independent woman. Claire Tomalin 's book, The Invisible Woman, argues that Ternan lived with Dickens secretly for the last 13 years of his life. The book was subsequently turned into a play, Little Nell, by Simon Gray, and a 2013 film. In the same period, Dickens furthered his interest in the paranormal, becoming one of the early members of The Ghost Club.
In June 1862, he was offered £ 10,000 for a reading tour of Australia. He was enthusiastic, and even planned a travel book, The Uncommercial Traveller Upside Down, but ultimately decided against the tour. Two of his sons, Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens and Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens, migrated to Australia, Edward becoming a member of the Parliament of New South Wales as Member for Wilcannia between 1889 and 1894.
On 9 June 1865, while returning from Paris with Ellen Ternan, Dickens was involved in the Staplehurst rail crash. The train 's first seven carriages plunged off a cast iron bridge that was under repair. The only first - class carriage to remain on the track was the one in which Dickens was travelling. Before rescuers arrived, Dickens tended and comforted the wounded and the dying with a flask of brandy and a hat refreshed with water, and saved some lives. Before leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript for Our Mutual Friend, and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it. Dickens later used this experience as material for his short ghost story, "The Signal - Man '', in which the central character has a premonition of his own death in a rail crash. He also based the story on several previous rail accidents, such as the Clayton Tunnel rail crash of 1861. Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at the inquest to avoid disclosing that he had been travelling with Ternan and her mother, which would have caused a scandal.
Contemplating a second visit to the United States, the outbreak of the Civil War in America in 1861 delayed his plans. On 9 November 1867, over two years after the war, Dickens set sail from Liverpool for his second American reading tour. Landing at Boston, he devoted the rest of the month to a round of dinners with such notables as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and his American publisher, James Thomas Fields. In early December, the readings began. He performed 76 readings, netting £ 19,000, from December 1867 to April 1868. Dickens shuttled between Boston and New York, where he gave 22 readings at Steinway Hall. Although he had started to suffer from what he called the "true American catarrh '', he kept to a schedule that would have challenged a much younger man, even managing to squeeze in some sleighing in Central Park.
During his travels, he saw a change in the people and the circumstances of America. His final appearance was at a banquet the American Press held in his honour at Delmonico 's on 18 April, when he promised never to denounce America again. By the end of the tour Dickens could hardly manage solid food, subsisting on champagne and eggs beaten in sherry. On 23 April he boarded the Cunard liner Russia to return to Britain, barely escaping a Federal Tax Lien against the proceeds of his lecture tour.
Between 1868 and 1869, Dickens gave a series of "farewell readings '' in England, Scotland, and Ireland, beginning on 6 October. He managed, of a contracted 100 readings, to deliver 75 in the provinces, with a further 12 in London. As he pressed on he was affected by giddiness and fits of paralysis. He suffered a stroke on 18 April 1869 in Chester. He collapsed on 22 April 1869, at Preston in Lancashire, and on doctor 's advice, the tour was cancelled. After further provincial readings were cancelled, he began work on his final novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood. It was fashionable in the 1860s to ' do the slums ' and, in company, Dickens visited opium dens in Shadwell, where he witnessed an elderly addict known as "Laskar Sal '', who formed the model for the "Opium Sal '' subsequently featured in his mystery novel, Edwin Drood.
After Dickens had regained sufficient strength, he arranged, with medical approval, for a final series of readings to partially make up to his sponsors what they had lost due to his illness. There were to be 12 performances, running between 11 January and 15 March 1870, the last at 8: 00 pm at St. James 's Hall in London. Although in grave health by this time, he read A Christmas Carol and The Trial from Pickwick. On 2 May, he made his last public appearance at a Royal Academy Banquet in the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, paying a special tribute on the death of his friend, the illustrator Daniel Maclise.
On 8 June 1870, Dickens suffered another stroke at his home after a full day 's work on Edwin Drood. He never regained consciousness, and the next day, five years to the day after the Staplehurst rail crash, he died at Gads Hill Place. Biographer Claire Tomalin has suggested Dickens was actually in Peckham when he suffered the stroke, and his mistress Ellen Ternan and her maids had him taken back to Gad 's Hill so the public would not know the truth about their relationship. Contrary to his wish to be buried at Rochester Cathedral "in an inexpensive, unostentatious, and strictly private manner '', he was laid to rest in the Poets ' Corner of Westminster Abbey. A printed epitaph circulated at the time of the funeral reads:
To the Memory of Charles Dickens (England 's most popular author) who died at his residence, Higham, near Rochester, Kent, 9 June 1870, aged 58 years. He was a sympathiser with the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England 's greatest writers is lost to the world.
His last words were: "On the ground '', in response to his sister - in - law Georgina 's request that he lie down. On Sunday, 19 June 1870, five days after Dickens was buried in the Abbey, Dean Arthur Penrhyn Stanley delivered a memorial elegy, lauding "the genial and loving humorist whom we now mourn '', for showing by his own example "that even in dealing with the darkest scenes and the most degraded characters, genius could still be clean, and mirth could be innocent ''. Pointing to the fresh flowers that adorned the novelist 's grave, Stanley assured those present that "the spot would thenceforth be a sacred one with both the New World and the Old, as that of the representative of literature, not of this island only, but of all who speak our English tongue. ''
In his will, drafted more than a year before his death, Dickens left the care of his £ 80,000 estate to his longtime colleague John Forster and his "best and truest friend '' Georgina Hogarth who, along with Dickens 's two sons, also received a tax - free sum of £ 8,000 (about £ 800,000 in present terms). Although Dickens and his wife had been separated for several years at the time of his death, he provided her with an annual income of £ 600 and made her similar allowances in his will. He also bequeathed £ 19 19s to each servant in his employment at the time of his death.
Dickens favoured the style of the 18th century picaresque novels that he found in abundance on his father 's shelves. According to Ackroyd, other than these, perhaps the most important literary influence on him was derived from the fables of The Arabian Nights.
His writing style is marked by a profuse linguistic creativity. Satire, flourishing in his gift for caricature, is his forte. An early reviewer compared him to Hogarth for his keen practical sense of the ludicrous side of life, though his acclaimed mastery of varieties of class idiom may in fact mirror the conventions of contemporary popular theatre. Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers, and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an "allegorical impetus '' to the novels ' meanings. To cite one of numerous examples, the name Mr. Murdstone in David Copperfield conjures up twin allusions to "murder '' and stony coldness. His literary style is also a mixture of fantasy and realism. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery -- he calls one character the "Noble Refrigerator '' -- are often popular. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats, or dinner - party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens 's acclaimed flights of fancy.
The author worked closely with his illustrators, supplying them with a summary of the work at the outset and thus ensuring that his characters and settings were exactly how he envisioned them. He briefed the illustrator on plans for each month 's instalment so that work could begin before he wrote them. Marcus Stone, illustrator of Our Mutual Friend, recalled that the author was always "ready to describe down to the minutest details the personal characteristics, and... life - history of the creations of his fancy ''.
Dickens 's biographer Claire Tomalin regards him as the greatest creator of character in English fiction after Shakespeare. Dickensian characters are amongst the most memorable in English literature, especially so because of their typically whimsical names. The likes of Ebenezer Scrooge, Tiny Tim, Jacob Marley, Bob Cratchit, Oliver Twist, The Artful Dodger, Fagin, Bill Sikes, Pip, Miss Havisham, Sydney Carton, Charles Darnay, David Copperfield, Mr. Micawber, Abel Magwitch, Daniel Quilp, Samuel Pickwick, Wackford Squeers, and Uriah Heep are so well known as to be part and parcel of British culture, and in some cases have passed into ordinary language: a scrooge, for example, is a miser - or someone who dislikes Christmas festivity.
His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. "Gamp '' became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character Mrs Gamp, and "Pickwickian '', "Pecksniffian '', and "Gradgrind '' all entered dictionaries due to Dickens 's original portraits of such characters who were, respectively, quixotic, hypocritical, and vapidly factual. Many were drawn from real life: Mrs Nickleby is based on his mother, though she did n't recognise herself in the portrait, just as Mr Micawber is constructed from aspects of his father 's ' rhetorical exuberance ': Harold Skimpole in Bleak House is based on James Henry Leigh Hunt: his wife 's dwarfish chiropodist recognised herself in Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield. Perhaps Dickens 's impressions on his meeting with Hans Christian Andersen informed the delineation of Uriah Heep.
Virginia Woolf maintained that "we remodel our psychological geography when we read Dickens '' as he produces "characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks ''. One "character '' vividly drawn throughout his novels is London itself. From the coaching inns on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the Thames, all aspects of the capital are described over the course of his body of work.
Authors frequently draw their portraits of characters from people they have known in real life. David Copperfield is regarded by many as a veiled autobiography of Dickens. The scenes of interminable court cases and legal arguments in Bleak House reflect Dickens 's experiences as a law clerk and court reporter, and in particular his direct experience of the law 's procedural delay during 1844 when he sued publishers in Chancery for breach of copyright. Dickens 's father was sent to prison for debt, and this became a common theme in many of his books, with the detailed depiction of life in the Marshalsea prison in Little Dorrit resulting from Dickens 's own experiences of the institution. Lucy Stroughill, a childhood sweetheart, may have affected several of Dickens 's portraits of girls such as Little Em'ly in David Copperfield and Lucie Manette in A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he gathered his realistic accounts of squalor. Very few knew the details of his early life until six years after his death, when John Forster published a biography on which Dickens had collaborated. Though Skimpole brutally sends up Leigh Hunt, some critics have detected in his portrait features of Dickens 's own character, which he sought to exorcise by self - parody.
Most of Dickens 's major novels were first written in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as Master Humphrey 's Clock and Household Words, later reprinted in book form. These instalments made the stories affordable and accessible, and the series of regular cliff - hangers made each new episode widely anticipated. When The Old Curiosity Shop was being serialised, American fans waited at the docks in New York harbor, shouting out to the crew of an incoming British ship, "Is little Nell dead? '' Dickens 's talent was to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end.
Another important impact of Dickens 's episodic writing style resulted from his exposure to the opinions of his readers and friends. His friend Forster had a significant hand in reviewing his drafts, an influence that went beyond matters of punctuation. He toned down melodramatic and sensationalist exaggerations, cut long passages (such as the episode of Quilp 's drowning in The Old Curiosity Shop), and made suggestions about plot and character. It was he who suggested that Charley Bates should be redeemed in Oliver Twist. Dickens had not thought of killing Little Nell, and it was Forster who advised him to entertain this possibility as necessary to his conception of the heroine.
Dickens 's serialisation of his novels was not uncriticised by other authors. In Robert Louis Stevenson 's novel The Wrecker, there is a comment by Captain Nares, investigating an abandoned ship: "See! They were writing up the log, '' said Nares, pointing to the ink - bottle. "Caught napping, as usual. I wonder if there ever was a captain yet that lost a ship with his log - book up to date? He generally has about a month to fill up on a clean break, like Charles Dickens and his serial novels. ''
Dickens 's novels were, among other things, works of social commentary. He was a fierce critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society. In a New York address, he expressed his belief that "Virtue shows quite as well in rags and patches as she does in purple and fine linen ''. Dickens 's second novel, Oliver Twist (1839), shocked readers with its images of poverty and crime: it challenged middle class polemics about criminals, making impossible any pretence to ignorance about what poverty entailed.
Dickens is often described as using idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes to contrast with his caricatures and the ugly social truths he reveals. The story of Nell Trent in The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) was received as extraordinarily moving by contemporary readers but viewed as ludicrously sentimental by Oscar Wilde. "You would need to have a heart of stone '', he declared in one of his famous witticisms, "not to laugh at the death of little Nell. '' G.K. Chesterton, stated: "It is not the death of little Nell, but the life of little Nell, that I object to '', arguing that the maudlin effect of his description of her life owed much to the gregarious nature of Dickens 's grief, his "despotic '' use of people 's feelings to move them to tears in works like this.
The question as to whether Dickens belongs to the tradition of the sentimental novel is debatable. Valerie Purton, in her recent Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition, sees him continuing aspects of this tradition, and argues that his "sentimental scenes and characters (are) as crucial to the overall power of the novels as his darker or comic figures and scenes '', and that "Dombey and Son is (...) Dickens 's greatest triumph in the sentimentalist tradition ''. The Encyclopædia Britannica online comments that, despite "patches of emotional excess '', such as the reported death of Tiny Tim in A Christmas Carol (1843), "Dickens can not really be termed a sentimental novelist ''.
In Oliver Twist Dickens provides readers with an idealised portrait of a boy so inherently and unrealistically good that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young pickpockets. While later novels also centre on idealised characters (Esther Summerson in Bleak House and Amy Dorrit in Little Dorrit), this idealism serves only to highlight Dickens 's goal of poignant social commentary. Dickens 's fiction, reflecting what he believed to be true of his own life, makes frequent use of coincidence, either for comic effect or to emphasise the idea of providence. For example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper - class family that rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group. Such coincidences are a staple of 18th - century picaresque novels, such as Henry Fielding 's Tom Jones, which Dickens enjoyed reading as a youth.
Dickens was the most popular novelist of his time, and remains one of the best - known and most - read of English authors. His works have never gone out of print, and have been adapted continually for the screen since the invention of cinema, with at least 200 motion pictures and TV adaptations based on Dickens 's works documented. Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime, and as early as 1913, a silent film of The Pickwick Papers was made. He created some of the world 's best - known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era.
Among fellow writers, Dickens has been both lionised and mocked. Leo Tolstoy, G.K. Chesterton, and George Orwell praised his realism, comic voice, prose fluency, and satiric caricature, as well as his passionate advocacy on behalf of children and the poor. French writer Jules Verne called Dickens his favourite writer, writing his novels "stand alone, dwarfing all others by their amazing power and felicity of expression. '' Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh was inspired by Dickens 's novels in several of his paintings like Vincent 's Chair and in an 1889 letter to his sister stated that reading Dickens, especially A Christmas Carol, was one of the things that was keeping him from committing suicide. Oscar Wilde generally disparaged his depiction of character, while admiring his gift for caricature. His late contemporary William Wordsworth, by then Poet laureate, thought him a "very talkative, vulgar young person '', adding he had not read a line of his work; Dickens in return thought Wordsworth "a dreadful Old Ass ''. Henry James denied him a premier position, calling him "the greatest of superficial novelists '': Dickens failed to endow his characters with psychological depth and the novels, "loose baggy monsters '', betrayed a "cavalier organisation ''. Virginia Woolf had a love - hate relationship with his works, finding his novels "mesmerizing '' while reproving him for his sentimentalism and a commonplace style. Fyodor Dostoyevsky expressed his admiration for the author, "We understand Dickens in Russia, I am convinced, almost as well as the English, perhaps even with all the nuances. It may well be that we love him no less than his compatriots do. And yet how original is Dickens, and how very English! ''.
A Christmas Carol is most probably his best - known story, with frequent new adaptations. It is also the most - filmed of Dickens 's stories, with many versions dating from the early years of cinema. According to the historian Ronald Hutton, the current state of the observance of Christmas is largely the result of a mid-Victorian revival of the holiday spearheaded by A Christmas Carol. Dickens catalysed the emerging Christmas as a family - centred festival of generosity, in contrast to the dwindling community - based and church - centred observations, as new middle - class expectations arose. Its archetypal figures (Scrooge, Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) entered into Western cultural consciousness. A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas '', was popularised following the appearance of the story. The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, and his dismissive exclamation ' Bah! Humbug! ' likewise gained currency as an idiom. Novelist William Makepeace Thackeray called the book "a national benefit, and to every man and woman who reads it a personal kindness ''.
At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged within society. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues -- such as sanitation and the workhouse -- but his fiction probably demonstrated its greatest prowess in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and oppression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that not only allowed such abuses to exist, but flourished as a result. His most strident indictment of this condition is in Hard Times (1854), Dickens 's only novel - length treatment of the industrial working class. In this work, he uses vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalised social stratum was termed "Hands '' by the factory owners; that is, not really "people '' but rather only appendages of the machines they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in The Pickwick Papers are claimed to have been influential in having the Fleet Prison shut down. Karl Marx asserted that Dickens "issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicians, publicists and moralists put together ''. George Bernard Shaw even remarked that Great Expectations was more seditious than Marx 's Das Kapital. The exceptional popularity of Dickens 's novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (Bleak House, 1853; Little Dorrit, 1857; Our Mutual Friend, 1865), not only underscored his almost preternatural ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also ensured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored. It has been argued that his technique of flooding his narratives with an ' unruly superfluity of material ' that, in the gradual dénouement, yields up an unsuspected order, influenced the organisation of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species.
Museums and festivals celebrating Dickens 's life and works exist in many places with which Dickens was associated. These include the Charles Dickens Museum in London, the historic home where he wrote Oliver Twist, The Pickwick Papers and Nicholas Nickleby; and the Charles Dickens Birthplace Museum in Portsmouth, the house in which he was born. The original manuscripts of many of his novels, as well as printers ' proofs, first editions, and illustrations from the collection of Dickens 's friend John Forster are held at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Dickens 's will stipulated that no memorial be erected in his honour; nonetheless, a life - size bronze statue of Dickens entitled Dickens and Little Nell, cast in 1891 by Francis Edwin Elwell, stands in Clark Park in the Spruce Hill neighbourhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Another life - size statue of Dickens is located at Centennial Park, Sydney, Australia. In 2014, a life - size statue was unveiled near his birthplace in Portsmouth on the 202nd anniversary of his birth; this was supported by the author 's great - great grandsons, Ian and Gerald Dickens.
Dickens was commemorated on the Series E £ 10 note issued by the Bank of England that circulated between 1992 and 2003. His portrait appeared on the reverse of the note accompanied by a scene from The Pickwick Papers. The Charles Dickens School is a high school in Broadstairs, Kent. A theme park, Dickens World, standing in part on the site of the former naval dockyard where Dickens 's father once worked in the Navy Pay Office, opened in Chatham in 2007. To celebrate the 200th anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens in 2012, the Museum of London held the UK 's first major exhibition on the author in 40 years. In 2002, Dickens was number 41 in the BBC 's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. American literary critic Harold Bloom placed Dickens among the greatest Western Writers of all time. In the UK survey The Big Read, carried out by the BBC in 2003, five of Dickens 's books were named in the Top 100.
Dickens and his publications have appeared on a number of postage stamps including: UK (1970, 1993, 2011 and 2012), Soviet Union (1962), Antigua, Barbuda, Botswana, Cameroon, Dubai, Fujairah, St Christopher, Nevis and Anguilla, St Helena, St Lucia and Turks and Caicos Islands (1970), St Vincent (1987), Nevis (2007), Alderney, Gibraltar, Jersey and Pitcairn Islands (2012), Austria (2013), Mozambique (2014).
Dickens published well over a dozen major novels and novellas, a large number of short stories, including a number of Christmas - themed stories, a handful of plays, and several non-fiction books. Dickens 's novels were initially serialised in weekly and monthly magazines, then reprinted in standard book formats.
Footnotes
Notes
Bibliography
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when was the first version of the bible written | Dating the Bible - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The four tables give the most commonly accepted dates or ranges of dates for the Old Testament / Hebrew Bible, the Deuterocanonical books (included in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox bibles, but not in the Hebrew and Protestant bibles) and the New Testament, including, where possible, hypotheses about their formation - history.
Table I is a chronological overview. Table II treats the Old Testament / Hebrew Bible books, grouped according to the divisions of the Hebrew Bible with occasional reference to scholarly divisions. Table III gives the Deuterocanonical books. Table IV gives the books of the New Testament, including the earliest preserved fragments for each.
This table summarises the chronology of the main tables and serves as a guide to the historical periods mentioned. Much of the Hebrew Bible or the Protocanonical Old Testament may have been assembled in the 5th century BCE. The New Testament books were composed largely in the second half of the 1st century CE. The Deuterocanonical books fall largely in between.
The five books are drawn from four "sources '' (distinct schools of writers rather than individuals): the Priestly source, the Yahwist and the Elohist (these two are often referred to collectively as the "non-Priestly '' source), and the Deuteronomist. There is general agreement that the Priestly source is post-exilic, but there is no agreement over the non-Priestly source (s).
Book of Joshua Book of Judges Books of Samuel Books of Kings
Book of Isaiah Book of Jeremiah Book of Ezekiel
The Book of Jeremiah exists in two versions, Greek (the version used in Orthodox Christian Bibles) and Hebrew (Jewish, Catholic and Protestant Bibles), with the Greek representing the earlier version. The Greek version was probably finalised in the early Persian period and translated into Greek in the 3rd century BCE, and the Hebrew version dates from some point between then and the 2nd century BCE.
The Book of Ezekiel describes itself as the words of the Ezekiel ben - Buzi, a priest living in exile in the city of Babylon, and internal evidence dates the visions to between 593 and 571 BCE. While the book probably reflects much of the historic Ezekiel, it is the product of a long and complex history, with significant additions by a "school '' of later followers.
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who played robin hood on the tv series | The Adventures of Robin Hood (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Adventures of Robin Hood is a British television series comprising 143 half - hour, black and white episodes broadcast weekly between 1955 and 1959 on ITV. It stars Richard Greene as the outlaw Robin Hood and Alan Wheatley as his nemesis, the Sheriff of Nottingham. The show followed the legendary character Robin Hood and his band of merry men in Sherwood Forest and the surrounding vicinity. While some episodes dramatised the traditional Robin Hood tales, most episodes were original dramas created by the show 's writers and producers.
The programme was produced by Sapphire Films Ltd for ITC Entertainment, was filmed at Nettlefold Studios with some location work, and was the first of many pre-filmed shows commissioned by Lew Grade. In 1954, Grade was approached by American producer Hannah Weinstein to finance a series of 39 half - hour episodes, at a budget of £ 10,000 an episode, of a series she wished to make called ' The Adventures of Robin Hood ', for which she had already signed Richard Greene to the project as Robin Hood and been given the backing of US distribution company, Official Films Inc, who were confident of selling it to the US market. Grade was so impressed by her proposal that he agreed immediately to back the series, hoping to make large profits by selling programmes to the lucrative American market. In the UK, the series premiered on ATV London, on Sunday 25 September 1955 the US premiere was on Monday 26 September 1955 by CBS, ATV Midlands began the series on Friday 17 February 1956, the series had a staggered start across the other regions from 1956 -- 1961 as the ITV regional stations came on - air for the first time in the UK. The series was shot on 35mm film to provide the best possible picture quality, and had fade - outs where US commercials were intended to slot in (the series was sponsored in the US by Johnson & Johnson (Baby products, Band - Aid) and Wildroot (Hair products).
To mark the end of production on the series Mr. and Mrs. Fisher (Hannah Weinstein and her new husband John Fisher) and Richard Greene threw a final wrap party at The High Pine Club on 10 December 1958, cast members Alexander Gauge, Archie Duncan, Patricia Driscoll with husband Duncan Lamont, Paul Eddington, the Sheriff Alan Wheatley and his deputy John Arnatt attended. Also there were producer Sidney Cole, Ken Hodges (lighting cameraman), Noel Rowland (camera operator), Pip Pearson (sound), and directors including Compton Bennett, Gordon Parry, Terry Bishop, Robert Day, Peter Seabourne, and Anthony Squire, and stuntman Rupert Evans.
The show aired on the Nine Network in Australia, CBC in Canada, and on CBS in the US.
Many soon - to - be-famous faces pop up, including: Lionel Jeffries ("Murder Ahoy '' and "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang ''), Leslie Phillips, Jane Asher, Anne Reid (Coronation Street and Dinnerladies), Edward Mulhare (The Ghost & Mrs. Muir and Knight Rider), Patrick Troughton (the Second Doctor), Irene Handl, Nicholas Parsons, Desmond Llewelyn (Q in the Bond films), Sam Kydd, Sid James, Joan Sims and Bernard Bresslaw (Carry On films), Leo McKern (Rumpole of the Bailey), Alfie Bass (The Army Game), Sylvia Kay (Just Good Friends), Harry H. Corbett and Wilfrid Brambell (Steptoe and Son), Barbara Mullen (Dr Finlay 's Casebook), Richard O'Sullivan (Man About the House), Geoffrey Bayldon (Catweazle), Billie Whitelaw, Ronald Allen, Gordon Jackson, Conrad Phillips (William Tell), Martin Benson (Sword of Freedom). John Schlesinger as an actor appeared in three episodes as singing minstrels (Hale and Alan a Dale (2)).
A number of actors appeared in supporting roles in most episodes, for series one these include: Victor Woolf, Willoughby Gray, John Drake, John Longden, Charles Stapley, John Dearth, Arthur Skinner, Paul Connell, and Gabriel Toyne. And for later series include: Paul Hansard, Paul Eddington, Michael Lane, Edward Mulhare, Shaun O'Riordan, Morris Barry, Patrick Troughton, Wilfrid Brambell, Nigel Davenport, Harry H. Corbett, Kevin Stoney, Ronald Hines, and Max Faulkner, who also did stunt / double work. Frank Maher later Patrick McGoohan 's stunt double played many small non-speaking parts, and stuntman Terry Yorke, who doubled for Richard Greene, played many small roles throughout all four series.
The series is set in the 12th Century, during the reign of King Richard. Robin of Locksley, a nobleman, is forced into the life of an outlaw, dwelling in Sherwood Forest with a band of men who right the wrongs committed by the rich and powerful against the poor and defenceless. Given the name Robin Hood by the outlaw band 's leader, Will Scatlock, who was fatally wounded. Hood 's enemy in the series is the Sheriff of Nottingham who, with his cohorts, schemes to capture the outlaw by any means possible. Lady Marian Fitzwalter (Maid Marian), a young noblewoman and Robin Hood 's lover, keeps him informed of the Sheriff of Nottingham 's whereabouts and intentions. Episodes are punctuated with manly deeds of derring - do, tense escapes and pursuits, princely tournaments, the thundering hoof - beats of powerful steeds, the clattering of flashing swords, and the whizzing of fatally - placed arrows.
In "A Year and A Day '' (Series 2), a refugee peasant explains that, under English law, a peasant who escapes serfdom and lives in a city for "a year and a day '' is a free man, given the man lives openly, not in hiding. When Robin Hood helps the peasant move about the city, the Sheriff invokes "the law of hue and cry '', explaining that any man within hearing must drop his chores and help apprehend the felon. In "A Christmas Goose '' (Season 3), a boy 's goose nips a lord 's horse so the lord is thrown. The lord condemns the goose to death -- for his Christmas dinner. But Robin Hood counters that under English common law, an accused animal is entitled to a fair trial, the same as a human. While Robin Hood drags out the trial, Friar Tuck gets the cook drunk and switches geese. When the deception is revealed, the lord relents and pardons the goose. Two episodes, "Brother Battle '' (# 84) and "To Be a Student '' (# 90) emphasized the Catholic Church 's struggle to educate commoners, and even the children of serfs, despite laws forbidding the practice and in the face of opposition from the nobility.
The writers created supporting characters who were likable and occasionally resourceful. In "The Goldmaker 's Return '' (Season 2), Robin Hood is away in France on a mission. Lady Marian, Little John, and the other Merry Men carry the day without the star of the show ever showing his face. Most of the time, however, Robin is required to save the day following the usual comment about "Many men will be noticed. Only one going in will be successful, '' etc. Despite simplistic plotting required by the 30 - minute format, the writing was both professional in its handling of situations, and pointed in its dialog. Anachronisms abound: the lipsticked girl with modern hairdo in the Friar Tuck episode, for instance, wine cups for each occupant at a table in Checkmate when that only became the practice hundreds of years later, the 20th century school implements in Brother Battle, and a "bard '' in The Challenge episode who sings a song to the late 17th century tune of Lillibulero, in 13th century England. All this is typical of every series of historical fiction, but the show 's producers pointed with pride to their accuracy, courtesy of hired consultants.
There was also an element of self - parody at times that sat uneasily on the series. In one episode, The Challenge, the plot - as - such was finished halfway through the show, and during the rest, the hapless Richard of the Lea and his wife worried as their larder and wine cellar were emptied during a siege with Robin, Little John, and Tuck eating and dancing all day and night.
143 episodes were filmed in four series.
The Adventures of Robin Hood was produced by Hannah Weinstein, who had left - wing political views. Weinstein hired many blacklisted American writers to script episodes of the series: these included Ring Lardner Jr., Waldo Salt, Robert Lees, and Adrian Scott. Howard Koch, who was also blacklisted, served for a while as the series ' script editor. The blacklisted writers were credited under pseudonyms, to avoid the attention of studio executives.
(The sponsored prints of the first five episodes of series one, screened by CBS in the US on its first run, had no writer credits on their end title sequences, writers were only credited on sponsored prints from episode 6 onward, only later non-sponsored US re-run prints of series one have writer credits for these episodes, some of which differ from writer credits on UK prints. As an example, Lawrence McClellan is credited as writer of "The Coming of Robin Hood '' on US prints, for the UK the pseudonym used is Eric Heath.)
After the blacklist collapsed, Lardner said that the series ' format allowed him "plenty of opportunities to comment on issues and institutions in Eisenhower - era America; '' presumably A Tuck in Time was such an episode, in which a twin of Friar Tuck arrives boasting of his willingness to sell a weapon that could destroy the world. In addition to the redistributive themes of a hero who robs from the rich and gives to the poor, many episodes in the programme 's first two seasons included the threat that Robin and his band would be betrayed to the authorities by friends or loved ones, much as the blacklisted writers had been. But the half - hour length episodes and broad - target market precluded any political criticism that went beyond the generalities of 19th century Robin Hood revival books.
Whilst interiors were filmed at Nettlefold Studios, location shooting for the series took place on the nearby Wisley common, Wisley, Surrey, and at the adjoining Foxwarren Park estate, near Cobham, owned by Hannah Weinstein. Horses used for filming were also stabled at Foxwarren house, which had a projection room for viewing daily film rushes and completed films. In 1956 a replica castle exterior, complete with drawbridge, was built in the grounds of the estate for filming of ' The Adventures of Sir Lancelot ' series (it features prominently in title sequence for the colour episodes), this was used predominantly for castle scenes in series 3 & 4 of Robin Hood, it first appears as Chateau Marmont in ' The Bandit of Brittany ' during series 2, in place of the standing castle and village set on the backlot at Nettlefold studios used in series 1 & most of series 2.
As well as this, establishing shots and short film sequences were also shot at various medieval buildings in the UK including: Allington Castle in Kent, this was used to establish Fitzwalter Castle, Marian 's home in the series, Painshill Park, near Cobham, Saltwood Castle in Hythe, and Pencoed Castle near Magor in Monmouthshire. Three Northumberland sites were used -- Alnwick Castle, Lindisfarne Castle, and Warkworth Castle. Bodiam Castle in East Sussex, Leith Hill near Dorking, Framlingham Castle in Suffolk, Newark Priory near Ripley, Castle Mill in Dorking, and Newark Mill amongst others were used through the series.
Each episode in the first two series started with a country scene of faux - normal life in Olde England during which an introductory poem in rhymed cadence to the tune of the English folksong "Early One Morning, '' which derived from a much later period than the series. The poem was a humorous summary vignette of what could be expected in the episode. An actor portraying the Minstrel would use the same melody at the final fade to black before the end credits for 1st run CBS sponsored screenings in the USA, letting viewers know that the sponsor "now begs a word with you. ''
"Sumer Is Icumen In '' is featured throughout the series. At times it is heard as background music at parties. In "The Betrothal, '' Sir Richard 's son plays it on his flute while his betrothed sings it. In the episode "Carlotta, '' Little John sings it to his sweetheart. In "The Path of True Love, '' Marian sings it to stall Sir Charles. In one of its most prominent uses, Robin forces a group of soldiers to sing it.
The Merry Men perform the soul cake song in "The Thorkil Ghost, '' with Derwent singing a solo.
Carl Sigman wrote the words and music for the theme song which was sung by Dick James. The song is still fondly remembered:
Robin Hood, Robin Hood, Riding through the glen Robin Hood, Robin Hood, With his band of men Feared by the bad, Loved by the good Robin Hood, Robin Hood, Robin Hood He called the greatest archers to a tavern on the green They vowed to help the people of the king They handled all the trouble on the English country scene And still found plenty of time to sing
(Chorus (1st paragraph) repeat)
In 1956 the theme song was released on Parlophone records by Dick James with Stephen James and his chums and Ron Goodwin 's Orchestra and reached number 14 in the UK charts (78rpm single: R. 4117 / 45rpm single: MSP6199), and by PYE records as a 78rpm single by Gary Miller with Tony Osbourne orchestra and the Beryl Stott chorus (PYE N. 15020) and reached number 10 on the UK charts. Versions by Frankie Laine (CBS Coronet), Nelson Riddle and his Orchestra (Capitol), Alan Dale (Coral), Joe Reisman 's orchestra and chorus (RCA Victor), and Ronnie Ronaldo (Colombia) were also issued. These versions had the extended song with fives verses and the chorus six times. The sound effect at the atart of the theme tune, of the arrow being fired into a tree, was produced by record producer Joe Meek, who was also the recording engineer on the Gary Miller version.
This song was parodied by Monty Python 's Flying Circus in their Dennis Moore sketch, which depicted a masked highwayman from the 18th century (more like the Scarlet Pimpernel) stealing lupins from the rich to give to the poor. It is also played at every Nottingham Forest home match.
"Robin des Bois '' was the theme recorded for the French TV market, sung in French, it can be heard on the 3rd series episode "Farewell To Tuck '' released by Network on DVD. The series was first broadcast in France as "Aventures dans la Foret de Sherwood '' in 1965 on ORTF. Other countries to broadcast the series include Canada 1955 -- 1958 on CBOT, Toronto, and CKCO, Kitchener, Ontario, Australia 1956 -- 1961 on HSV7 (The Seven Network), Finland in 1964 on NORDEEZE, Holland in 1965 / 66 on AVRO and Germany between 1971 and 1974 on ARD.
First series episodes also exist with a variant downbeat instrumental end theme by Edwin Astley, it can be heard on the episode "The Highlander '' released by Network DVD.
Art director Peter Proud, an expert at wartime camouflage, hit on the idea of putting many props on wheels to facilitate quick set changes, since one 26 - minute episode was shot every four and a half days. The show boasted "140 set pieces (baronial fireplaces, staircases, stone walls, entrance halls, and the like) ''. There was some outdoor location filming, mainly involving horse - riding doubles and stuntmen, and without dialogue recording. Sets were designed from parchments and sketches from the British Museum, and modeled on castles of Harlech, Farleigh, and Framlingham. Some of the 100 soldiers who manned the battlements of Nottingham Castle were miniature toy soldiers.
In the US the original CBS syndication prints had a few variants to the original UK prints, after the brief title sequence the US prints would repeat this sequence but with "Brought to You By '' and after the arrow strikes the tree the sponsors name "Wildroot Cream - Oil '' superimposed, "Johnson & Johnson '' sponsored episodes had a voice - over over the opening titles "Richard Greene in The Adventures of Robin Hood '' and over the repeated sequence "presented by '' followed by the names of two Johnson & Johnson products, images of which would appear over the shot of the arrow in the tree, a commercial featuring one of the products would then be shown, the Wildroot Cream - Oil sponsored episodes would then feature an animated commercial showing a Robin Hood -- type figure with lank hair and a dinosaur. A Minstrel song would then be sung at the beginning of each episode, over the episode title, providing a playful poetic synopsis in short prose of what could be expected to be seen. After the final fade to black a sequence featuring an actor playing the Minstrel would be shown as he sang these lyrics to the tune of "Early One Morning '': "We 'll have the merry time again with Robin and his Merry Men and the folk who 'll bring him to you then now beg a word with you. '' followed by a commercial for the next week 's sponsor before the end titles would be shown, (Wildroot Cream Oil and Johnson & Johnson sponsored alternate episodes) the end credits start with the opening sequence, with Sandy Becker mentioning the sponsors name again, and the sponsors product appearing on screen through the end titles which are shown over the shot of the tree. This caption also appeared: "This film was flown to the USA via Pan American World Airways ''. The opening minstrel tunes were also sung to the tune of ' Early One Morning '. There were two sponsors of the CBS syndicated screenings, Wildroot Cream - Oil (a hair tonic company), and Johnson & Johnson (known in the UK and US for its baby powder). The commercials involved "within '' the episodes appeared originally on all three Seasons broadcast at 7.30 pm (eastern standard time) / 6.30 pm (central standard time) Monday nights on CBS (not series 4).
Alternative title captions appear over the opening sequence on some US prints. Instead of "Richard Greene in The Adventures of Robin Hood '' they state "Richard Greene plays Robin Hood -- Adventures in Sherwood Forest ''. This practice occurred because of an FCC rule demanding that reruns of a series be retitled for syndication packaging if aired while first - run episodes of the series were still being shown on one of the three major networks. Five years of "Gunsmoke '' episodes, for instance, were retitled "Marshall Dillon '' for syndicated run because "Gunsmoke '' was still going strong on CBS.
Alternate US end credit titles crediting the series as "A Hannah Weinstein Production for Sapphire Films Limited '', (and for later episodes from 1958 credited as "A Hannah Fisher Production '') also exist.
In the UK, at the time, sponsorship of programmes was not allowed and each episode had one commercial break in the middle.
The series was an immediate hit on both sides of the Atlantic, drawing 32,000,000 viewers per week. Sapphire films were commissioned to make four other series by Lew Grade: The Adventures of Sir Lancelot (1956 / 57) (broadcast by NBC on Monday nights at 8.00 pm), The Buccaneers (1956 / 57) (broadcast by CBS on Saturday nights at 7.30 pm), Sword of Freedom (1957 / 58), and The Four Just Men (1958 / 59). ITC continued to make and sell TV series to the US until the late 1970s, including The Saint, The Prisoner, Thunderbirds, Space 1999, The Muppet Show and many more.
Many licensed products and knockoffs were sold, including books, jigsaw puzzles, iron - on patches, toy bows and arrows, a series of bubble gum cards, and more. The "Robin Hood '' shoe brand sporting Richard Green 's likeness on the interior heel lasted long after the series stopped production. Magazine Enterprises featured Richard Greene photos on three Robin Hood comic books. Robin and Marian made the cover of TV Guide in the Week of 12 -- 18 May 1956.
In Region 1, Mill Creek Entertainment has released all 4 seasons on DVD. They have also released a complete series set featuring all 143 episodes of the series.
Alpha Video has released 22 single volume collections of the series, featuring various episodes.
In Region 2, Network DVD has released all 4 seasons on DVD in the UK.
Three DVD boxsets of the series have also been released in Germany by KNM Home Entertainment as "Die Abenteuer Von Robin Hood '' with German language soundtracks in 2009.
In the 1990s, three movie - length compilation features (approx. 90 min. each) were created from the series by producers Philip May & Joseph Shields, through editing parts of the various episodes, though not necessarily in chronological order. These were as follows:
In 1960, Sydney Cole and Richard Greene produced the feature film Sword of Sherwood Forest for Hammer Film Productions (in association with Yeoman Films), directed by Terence Fisher, written by Alan Hackney, director of photography was Ken Hodges, and the film editor was Lee Doig, all TV series alumni. Richard Greene starred as Robin Hood with Peter Cushing as The Sheriff of Nottingham, blonde haired Sarah Branch played Maid Marian with Nigel Green as Little John, Jack Gwillim as Archbishop Hubert Walter, and Richard Pasco as Edward, Earl of Newark. Oliver Reed also had a small role. It was filmed in colour and in a widescreen process referred to as ' Megascope ' on the opening titles. The film itself was a retelling of how Robin first met Marion.
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where are the falls of the ohio located | Falls of the Ohio state park - wikipedia
Falls of the Ohio State Park is a state park in Indiana. It is located on the banks of the Ohio River at Clarksville, Indiana, across from Louisville, Kentucky. The park is part of the Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area. The exposed fossil beds of the Jeffersonville Limestone dated from the Devonian period are the main feature of the park. The Falls was the site where Lewis & Clark met for the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
The park includes an interpretive center open to the public. In 1990 the Indiana state government hired Terry Chase, a well - established exhibit developer, to design the center 's displays. Building started in September 1992, costing $4.9 million with a total area of 16,000 sq ft (1,500 m). The center functions as a museum with exhibits that concentrate on the natural history related to findings in the nearby fossil beds as well as the human history of the Louisville area, covering pre-settlement, early settlement, and Louisville and southern Indiana history all the way up through the 20th century.
Unlike at other Indiana state parks, annual entrance permits do not allow unlimited free access (rather, only five people per pass per visit) to the interpretive center, as fees are still needed to reimburse the town of Clarksville for building the center.
The Woodland Loop Trail has ten new stainless steel markers denoting the plant life of the trails, thanks to an Eagle Scout project.
Strange wildlife has a habit of showing up in the park. Living alligators and crocodiles have also been seen in the park. In August 2006 a fisherman hooked a dead octopus. Zachary Treitz, a 21 - year - old Louisville college student, admitted he had put the octopus there after purchasing it dead from a local seafood shop for a film project.
Interpretive Center Lobby
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who did dj tanner marry in full house | Candace Cameron Bure - wikipedia
Candace Cameron Bure (/ bʊˈreɪ /; born Candace Helaine Cameron; April 6, 1976) is an American actress, producer, author, and talk show panelist. She is known for her role as D.J. Tanner on Full House, which she reprised as D.J. Tanner - Fuller on Fuller House. She is also known for her work with Hallmark Channel, playing the role of Aurora Teagarden in Hallmark Channel 's film adaptation of the novel series as well having starred in many of their Christmas films.
In 2014, she was a contestant on season 18 of Dancing with the Stars, finishing in third place. She also starred as Summer van Horne on Make It or Break It. She is the sister of actor Kirk Cameron, known for Growing Pains. From 2015 to 2016, she was a co-host of the daytime television talk show The View.
Candace Helaine Cameron was born in Panorama City, Los Angeles, California on April 6, 1976, to Robert and Barbara Cameron.
Following in the footsteps of her older brother Kirk, Candace decided to pursue acting. She started in the entertainment business by appearing in a number of television commercials. Soon after, she guest - starred in roles on shows such as St. Elsewhere, Growing Pains, and Who 's the Boss? (Among the roles for which she auditioned was the lead on Small Wonder, which ultimately went to Tiffany Brissette.) In a 1985 episode of the sitcom Punky Brewster, Cameron portrayed a girl named Jennifer Bates who had been kidnapped by her father. In 1987, she had a role as the youngest sister of Eric Stoltz in the teen comedy Some Kind of Wonderful.
Bure began the most prominent role of her career in 1987 on the ensemble sitcom Full House, as Donna Jo "D.J. '' Tanner, the oldest daughter. The long - running series ended in 1995, and she was a member of the cast during its entire run.
While on Full House, she was also featured in the made - for - TV movies No One Would Tell, playing an abused teen; She Cried No, as a date - raped teen; NightScream, a mystery; and Camp Cucamonga, an adventure comedy. Cameron guest - starred in the failed pilot Real Mature, and in an episode of Bill Nye The Science Guy as "Candace the Science Gal ''. She also appeared in the Tom Hanks and Sally Field feature film Punchline.
Bure hosted the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards in 1990 with her Full House co-star Dave Coulier and David Faustino, and again in 1994 with Joey Lawrence and Marc Weiner, becoming the first person to host twice or more (followed by Whitney Houston, Rosie O'Donnell, and Jack Black).
After Full House ended in 1995, Bure guest - starred on Cybill and Boy Meets World.
After the birth of her children, she took a self - imposed hiatus from television and film to devote her time to her family and children. In the 2000s, she appeared as an interviewee on the retrospective I Love the ' 80s and I Love the ' 80s Strikes Back. She would later co-host 50 Cutest Child Stars: All Grown Up on the E! network, along with Keshia Knight Pulliam of The Cosby Show fame.
In 2007, she guest - starred on the sitcom That 's So Raven. The following year, she co-starred with Randy Travis in The Wager and starred with Tom Arnold in the television movie Moonlight and Mistletoe for the Hallmark Channel in 2008. Cameron returned to a television series in 2009 and was cast in Make It or Break It, The series ended in 2012.
On March 4, 2014, she was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on season 18 of Dancing with the Stars. Her professional partner was Mark Ballas. The couple made it to the finals and ultimately ended in third place behind Amy Purdy and Meryl Davis who took second and first place, respectively.
It was announced in 2015 that Bure would reprise her role as D.J. Tanner in the 2016 Netflix spinoff Fuller House (her character would be renamed D.J. Tanner - Fuller). Filming began in July 2015. The following month, it was announced that Bure would become a co-host of The View, starting with season 19. In March 2016, Fuller House was picked up for a second season. ABC also announced in August 2016 that Bure would return as a co-host of The View for season 20. On December 8, 2016, Bure announced that she was leaving The View due to commitments with Fuller House and Hallmark Channel projects, and the bi-coastal commutes being tough on both her and her family.
Bure kicked off her first week on Dancing with the Stars with a score of 25 for her contemporary dance, ending up second on the first week 's leaderboard. Bure received a 10 from the judges during dances with Ballas in the semifinals.
Cameron Bure has written three books: Reshaping It All: Motivation for Physical and Spiritual Fitness (ISBN 1433669730), published in January 2011, which was a New York Times best seller; Balancing It All: My Story of Juggling Priorities and Purpose (ISBN 1433681846), published in January 2014; and Dancing Through Life: Steps of Courage and Conviction (ISBN 1433686945), published in August 2015. In a September 2015 interview, Bure said that her latest book reveals more personal issues than the others.
Bure married Russian NHL hockey player Valeri Bure on June 22, 1996. The couple was first introduced at a charity hockey game by her Full House co-star Dave Coulier. They have three children: a daughter, Natasha (born 1998), and 2 sons (born 2000 and 2002). Her daughter Natasha Bure competed in season 11 of The Voice at the age of 18. Her brother - in - law is hockey hall of famer Pavel Bure.
Bure is a conservative as well as a Republican. She became a Christian at the age of twelve, and she credits her faith as the binding force in her marriage. She has revealed she suffered from bulimia nervosa in her early twenties.
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what were the main recommendations of the rowell-sirois report | Rowell -- Sirois Commission - Wikipedia
The Rowell -- Sirois Commission officially known as the Royal Commission on Dominion -- Provincial Relations was a Canadian Royal Commission looking into the Canadian economy and federal -- provincial relations. It was called in 1937 and reported in 1940.
The Commission was chaired first by Newton Wesley Rowell and then by Joseph Sirois. James McGregor Stewart acted as chief counsel. It was called as a result of the Great Depression. The attempts to manage the Depression by the government illustrated grave flaws with the Canadian constitution. While the federal government had most of the revenue gathering powers, the provinces had unexpectedly greater expenditure responsibilities. The founders had given the provinces responsibility for health care, education, and welfare when these were only minor concerns; by 1937, however, these had all become massive expenditure areas.
The Commission recommended that the federal government take over control of unemployment insurance and pensions. It also recommended the creation of equalization payments and large transfers of money from the federal government to the province each year. Other recommendations were not adopted due to resistance from the provinces or the federal government.
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how did the cheyenne tribe get their name | Cheyenne - wikipedia
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The Cheyenne (/ ʃaɪˈæn / shy - AN) are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and their language is of the Algonquian language family. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Só'taeo'o or Só'taétaneo'o (more commonly spelled as Suhtai or Sutaio) and the Tsétsêhéstâhese (also spelled Tsitsistas). These tribes merged in the early 19th century. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized Nations: the Southern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma, and the Northern Cheyenne, who are enrolled in the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana.
At the time of their first contact with the Europeans, the Cheyenne were living in the area of what is now Minnesota. At times they have been allied with the Lakota and Arapaho, and at other points enemies of the Lakota. In the early 18th century they migrated west across the Mississippi River and into North and South Dakota, where they adopted the horse culture. Having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present - day Montana, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota bands about 1730. Allied with the Arapaho, the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains. In turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota.
The Cheyenne Nation or Tsêhéstáno was at one time composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota. They fought their traditional enemies, the Crow and later (1856 -- 79) the United States Army forces. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some bands choosing to remain near the Black Hills, while others chose to remain near the Platte Rivers of central Colorado.
The Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as Notameohmésêhese, meaning "Northern Eaters '' or simply as Ohmésêhese meaning "Eaters '', live in southeastern Montana on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate that there are approximately 10,840 members, of which about 4,939 reside on the reservation. Approximately 91 % of the population are Native Americans (full or part race), with 72.8 % identifying themselves as Cheyenne. Slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English.
The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneo'o meaning "Roped People '', together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, in western Oklahoma. Their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, although with continuing intermarriage it has become increasingly difficult to separate the tribes.
The Tsétsêhéstâhese (more commonly as the Tsitsistas; singular: Tsétsêhéstaestse), which translates to "those who are like this ''. These two tribes had companions.
Though the identity of the Šahíya is not known, many Great Plains tribes assume it means Cree or some other people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree and Cheyenne. The Cheyenne word for Ojibwe is "Sáhea'eo'o, '' a word that sounds similar to the Dakota word Šahíya. ''
Another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is "a bit like the (people of an) alien speech '' (literally, "red - talker ''). According to George Bird Grinnell, the Dakota had referred to themselves and fellow Siouan - language bands as "white talkers '', and those of other language families, such as the Algonquian Cheyenne, as "red talkers '' (Šahíyena).
The etymology of the name Tsitsistas (technically Tsétsėhéstȧhese), which the Cheyenne call themselves, is uncertain. According to the Cheyenne dictionary, offered online by Chief Dull Knife College, there is no definitive consensus and various studies of the origins and the translation of the word has been suggested. Grinnell 's record is typical; he states "They call themselves Tsistsistas (sic, Tsitsistas is the correct pronunciation), which the books commonly give as meaning "people ''. It most likely means related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people, or us. The term for the Cheyenne homeland is Tsiihistano. ''
The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as Tsêhésenêstsestôtse (common spelling: Tsisinstsistots). Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma. There are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters. The Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian - language group. Formerly, the Só'taeo'o (Só'taétaneo'o) or Suhtai (Sutaio) bands of Southern and Northern Cheyenne spoke Só'taéka'ęškóne or Só'taenęstsestôtse, a language so close to Tsêhésenêstsestôtse (Cheyenne language), that it is sometimes termed a Cheyenne dialect.
The earliest known written historical record of the Cheyenne comes from the mid-17th century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the French Fort Crevecoeur, near present - day Peoria, Illinois. The Cheyenne at this time lived between the Mississippi River and Mille Lacs Lake in present - day Minnesota. The Cheyenne economy was based on the collection of wild rice and hunting, especially of bison, which lived in the prairies 70 -- 80 miles west of the Cheyenne villages.
According to tribal history, during the 17th century, the Cheyenne had been driven by the Assiniboine (Hóheeheo'o - "wrapped ones or swaddled '', adaptive from the Lakota / Dakota word Hóhe, meaning "rebels '') from the Great Lakes region to present - day Minnesota and North Dakota, where they established villages. The most prominent of the ancient Cheyenne villages is Biesterfeldt Village, in eastern North Dakota along the Sheyenne River. The tribal history also relates that they first reached the Missouri River in 1676. A more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the Cheyenne remained in the Mille Lac region of Minnesota until about 1765, when the Ojibwe defeated the Dakota with firearms -- pushing the Cheyenne, in turn, to the Minnesota River, where they were reported in 1766.
On the Missouri River, the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring Mandan, Hidatsa (Tsé - heše'émâheónese, "people who have soil houses ''), and Arikara people (Ónoneo'o), and they adopted many of their cultural characteristics. They were first of the later Plains tribes into the Black Hills and Powder River Country. About 1730, they introduced the horse to Lakota bands (Ho'óhomo'eo'o - "the invited ones (to Cheyenne lands i.e. the Black Hills) ''). Conflict with migrating Lakota and Ojibwe people forced the Cheyenne further west, and they, in turn, pushed the Kiowa to the south.
By 1776, the Lakota had overwhelmed the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the Black Hills. In 1804, Lewis and Clark visited a surviving Cheyenne village in North Dakota. Such European explorers learned many different names for the Cheyenne, and did not realize how the different sections were forming a unified tribe.
The Cheyenne Nation is descended from two related tribes, the Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas (Cheyenne proper) and Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (better known as Suhtai or Sutaio), the latter may have joined the Tsétsêhéstâhese in the early 18th century. Their oral history relays that both tribal peoples are characterized, and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets who received divine articles from their god Ma'heo'o ('' Sacred Being, God '', commonly in English Maheo, Mahiu, this is a post-missionary term, formerly the plural Ma'heono was used), which the Só'taeo'o called He'emo ('' Goddess, Female Sacred Being, God '', equivalent to Ma'heo'o in the Tsétsêhéstâhese dialect).
The Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas prophet Motsé'eóeve (Sweet Medicine Standing, Sweet Root Standing, commonly called Sweet Medicine) had received the Maahótse (in English known as Mahuts, a bundle of (Sacred) Arrows or the (Sacred) Arrows Bundle) at Nóávóse ('' medicine (sacred) - hill '', name for Bear Butte, northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota), which they carried when they waged tribal - level war and were kept in the maahéome (Arrow Lodge or Arrow Tepee). He organized the structure of Cheyenne society, their military or war societies led by prominent warriors, their system of legal justice, and the Council of Forty - four peace chiefs, the latter was formed from four véhoo'o (chiefs or leaders) of the ten principal manaho (bands) and an additional four '' Old Man '' meeting to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings, centered around the Sun Dance.
Sweet Medicine is the Cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse, cow, whiteman, etc. to the Cheyenne. He was named for motsé'eonȯtse (sweetgrass), one of the sacred plant medicines used by many Plains peoples in ceremonies.
The Só'taeo'o prophet Tomȯsévėséhe ("Erect Horns '') had received the Ésevone (aka Is'siwun - "Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Bundle '') at Toh'nihvoos ('' Stone Hammer Mountain '') near the Great Lakes in the present state of Minnesota. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is kept in the vonȧhéome (old term) or hóhkėha'éome (new term) ("Sacred Hat Lodge, Sacred Hat Tepee ''). Erect Horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the Sun Dance. His vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt nomadic Plains horse culture. They replaced their earth lodges with portable tipis and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly bison and wild fruits and vegetables. Their lands ranged from the upper Missouri River into what is now Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, and South Dakota.
The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e ("Sacred Buffalo Hat '') is kept among the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Só'taeo'o. The Tséá'enōvȧhtse ('' Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Keeper '' or '' Keeper of the Sacred (Buffalo) Hat '') must belong to the Só'taeo'o (Northern or Southern alike). In the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with the keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper Broken Dish give up the bundle; he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the Sacred Hat and its contents; a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost. In 1908 a Cheyenne named Three Fingers gave the horn back to the Hat; the pipe came into possession of a Cheyenne named Burnt All Over who gave it to Hattie Goit of Poteau, Oklahoma who in 1911 gave the pipe to the Oklahoma Historical Society. In 1997 the Oklahoma Historal Society negoiated with the Northern Cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the Sacred Medicine Hat Bundle James Black Wolf.
The Maahótse (Sacred Arrows) are symbols of male power and the power of the Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is female. The Sacred Buffalo Hat and the Sacred Arrows together form the two great covenants of the Cheyenne Nation. Through these two bundles, Ma'heo'o assures continual life and blessings for the people.
Northern Cheyenne (known in Cheyenne either as Notameohmésêhese or Notameohmésėhétaneo'o meaning "Northern Eaters '' or simply as Ohmésêhese / Ôhmésêheseo'o meaning "Eaters '')
Lesser northern bands (not represented in the Council of Forty - Four):
Southern Cheyenne (known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneo'o meaning "Roped People '' - after the most populous band, also commonly known as Sówoniá - "the Southern People '')
lesser southern bands (not represented in the Council of Forty - Four):
The Heviksnipahis (Iviststsinihpah, also known as the Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas proper), Heévâhetaneo'o (Hevhaitaneo), Masikota (in Lakotiyapi: Sheo), Omísis (Ôhmésêheseo'o, the Notameohmésêhese proper), Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (Suhtai or Sutaio, Northern and Southern), Wotápio (Wutapai), Oévemanaho (Oivimána or Oévemana, Northern and Southern), Hesé'omeétaneo'o (Hisiometaneo or Issiometaniu), Oo'kóhta'oná (Ohktounna or Oqtóguna) and the Hónowa (Háovȯhnóvȧhese or Nėstamenóoheo'o) were the ten principal bands that had the right to send four chief delegates representing them in the Council of Forty - Four.
After the Masikota and Oo'kóhta'oná bands had been almost wiped out through a cholera epidemic in 1849, the remaining Masikota joined the Dog Soldiers warrior society (Hotamétaneo'o). They effectively became a separate band and in 1850 took over the position in the camp circle formerly occupied by the Masikota. The members often opposed policies of peace chiefs such as Black Kettle. Over time, the Dog Soldiers took a prominent leadership role in the wars against the whites. In 1867, most of the band were killed by United States Army forces in the Battle of Summit Springs.
Due to an increasing division between the Dog Soldiers and the council chiefs with respect to policy towards the whites, the Dog Soldiers became separated from the other Cheyenne bands. They effectively became a third division of the Cheyenne people, between the Northern Cheyenne, who ranged north of the Platte River, and the Southern Cheyenne, who occupied the area north of the Arkansas River.
After being pushed south and westward by the Lakota, the unified Cheyenne people began to create and expand a new territory of their own. Sometime around 1811 the Cheyenne made a formal alliance with the Arapaho people (Hetanevo'eo'o - "People of the Sky ", "Cloud People ", because of their close interaction also known as Héstanėheo'o - "people, mankind, tribe of people ''), which would remain strong throughout their history and into modern times. The alliance helped the Cheyenne expand their territory which stretched from southern Montana, through most of Wyoming, the eastern half of Colorado, far western Nebraska, and far western Kansas. As early as 1820, traders and explorers reported contact with Cheyenne at present - day Denver, Colorado and on the Arkansas River. They were probably hunting and trading in that area earlier. They may have migrated to the south for winter. The Hairy Rope band is reputed to have been the first band to move south, capturing wild horses as far south as the Cimarron River Valley. In response to the construction of Bent 's Fort by Charles Bent, a friend of the Cheyenne who established a popular trading area for the Cheyenne, a large portion of the tribe moved further south and stayed around the area. The other part of the tribe continued to live along the headwaters of the North Platte and Yellowstone rivers. The groups became the Southern Cheyenne, known as Sówoníă (Southerners) and the Northern Cheyenne, known as O'mǐ'sǐs (Eaters). The separation of the tribe was only a geographic one and the two divisions had regular and close contact.
In the southern portion of their territory the Cheyenne and Arapaho warred with the allied Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. Numerous battles were fought including a notable fight along the Washita River in 1836 with the Kiowa which resulted in the death of 48 Cheyenne warriors of the Bowstring society. In summer 1838, many Cheyenne and Arapaho attacked a camp of Kiowa and Comanche along Wolf Creek in Oklahoma resulting in heavy losses from both sides. Conflict with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache ended in 1840 when the tribes made an alliance with each other. The new alliance allowed the Cheyenne to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and northeastern New Mexico to hunt bison and trade. Their expansion in the south and alliance with the Kiowa led to their first raid into Mexico in 1853. The raid ended in disaster with heavy resistance from Mexican lancers, resulting in all but three of the war party being killed. To the north the Cheyenne made a strong alliance with the Lakota Sioux, which allowed them to expand their territory into part of their former lands around the Black Hills. They managed to escape the smallpox epidemics, which swept across the plains from white settlements in 1837 - 39, by heading into the Rocky Mountains, but were greatly affected by the Cholera epidemic in 1849. Contact with Euro - Americans was mostly light, with most contact involving mountain men, traders, explorers, treaty makers, and painters.
Like many other plains Indian nations, the Cheyenne were a horse and warrior people who developed as skilled and powerful mounted warriors. A warrior was viewed by the people not as a maker of war but as a protector, provider, and leader. Warriors gained rank in Cheyenne society by performing and accumulating various acts of bravery in battle known as coups. The title of war chief could be earned by any warrior who performs enough of the specific coups required to become a war chief. Specific warrior societies developed among the Cheyenne as with other plains nations. Each society had selected leaders who would invite those that they saw worthy enough to their society lodge for initiation into the society. Often, societies would have minor rivalries; however, they might work together as a unit when warring with an enemy. Military societies played an important role in Cheyenne government. Society leaders were often in charge of organizing hunts and raids as well as ensuring proper discipline and the enforcement of laws within the nation. Each of the six distinct warrior societies of the Cheyenne would take turns assuming the leadership role within the nation. The four original military societies of the Cheyenne were the Swift Fox Society, Elk Horn Scrapper or Crooked Lance Society, Shield Society, and the Bowstring Men Society. The fifth society is split between the Crazy Dog Society and the famous Dog Soldiers. The sixth society is the Contrary Warrior Society, most notable for riding backwards into battle as a sign of bravery. All six societies and their various branches exist among the Southern and Northern Cheyenne Nations in present times. Warriors used a combination of traditional weapons such as various types of war clubs, tomahawks, bows and arrows, and lances as well as non-traditional weapons such as revolvers, rifles, and shotguns acquired through raid and trade.
The enemies of the Cheyenne included the Crow (Óoetaneo'o - "crow (bird) people ''), Shoshone (Sósone'eo'o), Blackfeet (Mo'ôhtávêhahtátaneo'o, same literal meaning), Flathead (Kȧhkoestséataneo'o - "flat - headed - people ''), Nez Perce (Otaesétaneo'o - "pierced nose people ''), Arikara, Gros Ventre (Hestóetaneo'o - "beggars for meat '', "spongers '' or Môhónooneo'o - lit. "scouting all over ones ''), Assiniboine, and Plains Cree (Vóhkoohétaneo'o - "rabbit people '') to the north and west of Cheyenne territory. To the east of Cheyenne Territory they fought with the Sioux, Pawnee (Ho'néhetaneo'o - "wolf people '', possibly an adaptive from the Skiri / Skidi Pawnee or Wolf Pawnee), Ponca (Onéhao'o), Kaw (Oo'kóhtâxétaneo'o - "cut hair people ''), Iowa, Ho - Chunk and Omaha (Onéhao'o). South of Cheyenne territory they fought with the Kiowa (Vétapâhaetó'eo'o - "greasy wood ones ''), Comanche (Šé'šenovotsétaneo'o - "snake people ''), Ute (Mo'ȯhtávėhetaneo'o - "black (skinned) people ''), Plains Apache (Mȯhtséheonetaneo'o - "occupied. comp - people ''), Osage (Oo'kóhtâxétaneo'o - "cut hair people ''), Wichita people, various Apache tribes and Navajo (Hotamó'keeho - "Indians from out west ''; collective name for tribes of the Southswest and Great Basin). Many of the enemies the Cheyenne fought were only encountered occasionally, such as on a long distance raid or hunt. Some of their enemies, particularly the Indian peoples of the eastern great plains such as the Pawnee and Osage would act as Indian Scouts for the US Army, providing valuable tracking skills and information regarding Cheyenne habits and fighting strategies to US soldiers. Some of their enemies such as the Lakota would later in their history become their strong allies, helping the Cheyenne fight against the United States Army during Red Cloud 's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876. The Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache became allies of the Cheyenne towards the end of the Indian wars on the southern plains, fighting together during conflicts such as the Red River War.
The Cheyenne and Arapaho people formed an alliance around 1811 that helped them expand their territories and strengthen their presence on the plains. Like the Cheyenne, the Arapaho language is part of the Algonquian group, although the two languages are not mutually intelligible. The Arapaho remained strong allies with the Cheyenne and helped them fight alongside the Sioux during Red Cloud 's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876, also known commonly as the Black Hills War. On the southern plains, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allied with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache to fight invading settlers and US soldiers. The Arapaho were present with the Cheyenne at the Sand Creek Massacre when a peaceful encampment of mostly women, children, and the elderly were attacked and massacred by US soldiers. Both major divisions of the Cheyenne, the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne were allies to the Arapaho who like the Cheyenne are split into northern and southern divisions. The Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho were assigned to the same reservation in Oklahoma Indian Territory and remained together as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes after the reservation was opened to American settlement and into modern times. The Northern Arapaho were to be assigned a reservation of their own or share one with the Cheyenne however the government failed to provide them with either and placed them on the already established Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming with their former enemies the Shoshone.
In the summer of 1825, the tribe was visited on the upper Missouri by a US treaty commission consisting of General Henry Atkinson and Indian agent Benjamin O'Fallon, accompanied by a military escort of 476 men. General Atkinson and his fellow commissioner left Fort Atkinson on May 16, 1825. Ascending the Missouri, they negotiated treaties of friendship and trade with tribes of the upper Missouri, including the Arikara, the Cheyenne, the Crow, the Mandan, the Ponca, and several bands of the Sioux. At that time, the US had competition on the upper Missouri from British traders, who came down from Canada.
The treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the United States, vowed perpetual friendship between the US and the tribes, and, recognizing the right of the United States to regulate trade, the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders. The tribes agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries, and to return or indemnify the owner of stolen horses or other goods. The commission 's efforts to contact the Blackfoot and the Assiniboine were unsuccessful. During their return to Fort Atkinson at the Council Bluff in Nebraska, the commission had successful negotiations with the Ota, the Pawnee and the Omaha.
Increased traffic of emigrants along the related Oregon, Mormon and California trails, beginning in the early 1840s, heightened competition with Native Americans for scarce resources of water and game in arid areas. With resource depletion along the trails, the Cheyenne became increasingly divided into the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne, where they could have adequate territory for sustenance.
During the California Gold Rush, emigrants brought in cholera. It spread in mining camps and waterways due to poor sanitation. The disease was generally a major cause of death for emigrants, about one - tenth of whom died during their journeys.
Perhaps from traders, the cholera epidemic reached the Plains Indians in 1849, resulting in severe loss of life during the summer of that year. Historians estimate about 2,000 Cheyenne died, one - half to two - thirds of their population. There were significant losses among other tribes as well, which weakened their social structures. Perhaps because of severe loss of trade during the 1849 season, Bent 's Fort was abandoned and burned.
In 1846, Thomas Fitzpatrick was appointed US Indian agent for the upper Arkansas and Platte River. His efforts to negotiate with the Northern Cheyenne, the Arapaho and other tribes led to a great council at Fort Laramie in 1851. Treaties were negotiated by a commission consisting of Fitzpatrick and David Dawson Mitchell, US Superintendent of Indian Affairs, with the Indians of the northern plains.
To reduce intertribal warfare on the Plains, the government officials "assigned '' territories to each tribe and had them pledge mutual peace. In addition, the government secured permission to build and maintain roads for European - American travelers and traders through Indian country on the Plains, such as the Emigrant Trail and the Santa Fe Trail, and to maintain forts to guard them. The tribes were compensated with annuities of cash and supplies for such encroachment on their territories. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 affirmed the Cheyenne and Arapaho territory on the Great Plains between the North Platte River and the Arkansas. This territory included what is now Colorado, east of the Front Range of the Rockies and north of the Arkansas River; Wyoming and Nebraska, south of the North Platte River; and extreme western Kansas.
In April 1856, an incident at the Platte River Bridge (near present - day Casper, Wyoming), resulted in the wounding of a Cheyenne warrior. He returned to the Cheyenne on the plains. During the summer of 1856, Indians attacked travelers along the Emigrant Trail near Fort Kearny. In retaliation, the US Cavalry attacked a Cheyenne camp on Grand Island in Nebraska. They killed ten Cheyenne warriors and wounded eight or more.
Cheyenne parties attacked at least three emigrant settler parties before returning to the Republican River. The Indian agent at Fort Laramie negotiated with the Cheyenne to reduce hostilities, but the Secretary of War ordered the 1st Cavalry Regiment (1855) to carry out a punitive expedition under the command of Colonel Edwin V. Sumner. He went against the Cheyenne in the spring of 1857. Major John Sedgwick led part of the expedition up the Arkansas River, and via Fountain Creek to the South Platte River. Sumner 's command went west along the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then down along the Front Range to the South Platte. The combined force of 400 troops went east through the plains searching for Cheyenne.
Under the influence of the medicine man White Bull (also called Ice) and Grey Beard (also called Dark), the Cheyenne went into battle believing that strong spiritual medicine would prevent the soldiers ' guns from firing. They were told that if they dipped their hands in a nearby spring, they had only to raise their hands to repel army bullets. Hands raised, the Cheyenne surrounded the advancing troops as they advanced near the Solomon River. Sumner ordered a cavalry charge and the troops charged with drawn sabers; the Cheyenne fled. With tired horses after long marches, the cavalry could not engage more than a few Cheyenne, as their horses were fresh.
This was the first battle which the Cheyenne fought against the US Army. Casualties were few on each side; J.E.B. Stuart, then a young lieutenant, was shot in the breast while attacking a Cheyenne warrior with a sabre. The troops continued on and two days later burned a hastily abandoned Cheyenne camp; they destroyed lodges and the winter supply of buffalo meat.
Sumner continued to Bent 's Fort. To punish the Cheyenne, he distributed their annuities to the Arapaho. He intended further punitive actions, but the Army ordered him to Utah because of an outbreak of trouble with the Mormons (this would be known as the Utah War). The Cheyenne moved below the Arkansas into Kiowa and Comanche country. In the fall, the Northern Cheyenne returned to their country north of the Platte.
Starting in 1859 with the Colorado Gold Rush, European - American settlers moved into lands reserved for the Cheyenne and other Plains Indians. Travel greatly increased along the Emigrant Trail along the South Platte River and some emigrants stopped before going on to California. For several years there was peace between settlers and Indians. The only conflicts were related to the endemic warfare between the Cheyenne and Arapaho of the plains and the Utes of the mountains.
US negotiations with Black Kettle and other Cheyenne favoring peace resulted in the Treaty of Fort Wise: it established a small reservation for the Cheyenne in southeastern Colorado in exchange for the territory agreed to in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. Many Cheyenne did not sign the treaty, and they continued to live and hunt on their traditional grounds in the Smokey Hill and Republican basins, between the Arkansas and the South Platte, where there were plentiful buffalo.
Efforts to make a wider peace continued, but in the spring of 1864, John Evans, governor of Colorado Territory, and John Chivington, commander of the Colorado Volunteers, a citizens militia, began a series of attacks on Indians camping or hunting on the plains. They killed any Indian on sight and initiated the Colorado War. General warfare broke out and Indians made many raids on the trail along the South Platte, which Denver depended on for supplies. The Army closed the road from August 15 until September 24, 1864.
On November 29, 1864, the Colorado Militia attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment under Chief Black Kettle, although it flew a flag of truce and indicated its allegiance to the US government. The Sand Creek massacre, as it came to be known, resulted in the death of between 150 and 200 Cheyenne, mostly unarmed women and children. The survivors fled northeast and joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and Republican rivers. There warriors smoked the war pipe, passing it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho.
In January 1865, they planned and carried out an attack with about 1000 warriors on Camp Rankin, a stage station and fort at Julesburg. The Indians made numerous raids along the South Platte, both east and west of Julesburg, and raided the fort again in early February. They captured much loot and killed many European Americans. Most of the Indians moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River. (See Battle of Julesburg, Battle of Mud Springs, Battle of Rush Creek, Powder River Expedition, Battle of Platte Bridge)
Black Kettle continued to desire peace and did not join in the second raid or in the plan to go north to the Powder River country. He left the large camp and returned with 80 lodges of his tribesmen to the Arkansas River, where he intended to seek peace with the US.
Four years later, on November 27, 1868, George Armstrong Custer and his troops attacked Black Kettle 's band at the Battle of Washita River. Although his band was camped on a defined reservation, complying with the government 's orders, some of its members had been linked to raiding into Kansas by bands operating out of the Indian Territory. Custer claimed 103 Cheyenne "warriors '' and an unspecified number of women and children killed whereas different Cheyenne informants named between 11 and 18 men (mostly 10 Cheyenne, 2 Arapaho, 1 Mexican trader) and between 17 and 25 women and children killed in the village.
There are conflicting claims as to whether the band was hostile or friendly. Historians believe that Chief Black Kettle, head of the band, was not part of the war party but the peace party within the Cheyenne nation. But, he did not command absolute authority over members of his band and the European Americans did not understand this. When younger members of the band took part in raiding parties, European Americans blamed the entire band for the incidents and casualties.
The Northern Cheyenne fought in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, which took place on June 25, 1876. The Cheyenne, together with the Lakota, other Sioux warriors and a small band of Arapaho, killed General George Armstrong Custer and much of his 7th Cavalry contingent of soldiers. Historians have estimated that the population of the Cheyenne, Lakota and Arapaho encampment along the Little Bighorn River was approximately 10,000, making it one of the largest gatherings of Native Americans in North America in pre-reservation times. News of the event traveled across the United States and reached Washington, D.C., just as the nation was celebrating its Centennial. Public reaction arose in outrage against the Cheyenne.
Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the US Army increased attempts to capture the Cheyenne. In 1879, after the Dull Knife Fight, when Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson, a few Cheyenne chiefs and their people surrendered as well. They were Dull Knife, Standing Elk and Wild Hog with around 130 Cheyenne. Later that year Two Moons surrendered at Fort Keogh, with 300 Cheyenne. The Cheyenne wanted and expected to live on the reservation with the Sioux in accordance to an April 29, 1868 treaty of Fort Laramie, which both Dull Knife and Little Wolf had signed.
As part of a US increase in troops following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Army reassigned Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie and his Fourth Cavalry to the Department of the Platte. Stationed initially at Camp Robinson, they formed the core of the Powder River Expedition. It departed in October 1876 to locate the northern Cheyenne villages. On November 25, 1876, his column discovered and defeated a village of Northern Cheyenne in the Dull Knife Fight in Wyoming Territory. After the soldiers destroyed the lodges and supplies, and confiscated the horses, the Northern Cheyenne soon surrendered. They hoped to remain with the Sioux in the north but the US pressured them to locate with the Southern Cheyenne on their reservation in Indian Territory. After a difficult council, the Northern Cheyenne eventually agreed to go South.
When the Northern Cheyenne arrived at Indian Territory, conditions were very difficult: rations were inadequate, there were no buffalo near the reservation and, according to several sources, there was malaria among the people. On 9 September 1878, a portion of the Northern Cheyenne, led by Little Wolf and Dull Knife started their trek back to the north. On reaching the northern area, they split into two bands. That led by Dull Knife (mostly women, children and elders) surrendered and were taken to Fort Robinson, where subsequent events became known as the Fort Robinson tragedy. Dull Knife 's group was first offered food and firewood and then, after a week and a half, they were told to go back to Indian territory. When they said no, they were then locked in the wooden barracks with no food, water or firewood for heat for four days. Most escaped in an estimated forty degrees below zero on January 9, 1879, but all were recaptured or killed.
Eventually the US forced the Northern Cheyenne onto a reservation, in southern Montana.
The Cheyenne who traveled to Fort Keogh (present day Miles City, Montana), including Little Wolf, settled near the fort. Many of the Cheyenne worked with the army as scouts. The Cheyenne scouts were pivotal in helping the Army find Chief Joseph and his band of Nez Percé in northern Montana. Fort Keogh became a staging and gathering point for the Northern Cheyenne. Many families began to migrate south to the Tongue River watershed area, where they established homesteads.
The US established the Tongue River Indian Reservation, now named the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, of 371,200 acres (1,502 km) by the executive order of President Chester A. Arthur November 16, 1884. It excluded Cheyenne who had homesteaded further east near the Tongue River. The western boundary is the Crow Indian Reservation. On March 19, 1900, President William McKinley extended the reservation to the west bank of the Tongue River, making a total of 444,157 acres (1,797 km). Those who had homesteaded east of the Tongue River were relocated to the west of the river.
The Northern Cheyenne, who were sharing the Lakota land at Pine Ridge Indian Reservation were finally allowed to return to the Tongue River on their own reservation. Along with the Lakota and Apache, the Cheyenne were the last nations to be subdued and placed on reservations. (The Seminole tribe of Florida never made a treaty with the US government.)
The Northern Cheyenne were given the right to remain in the north, near the Black Hills, land which they consider sacred. The Cheyenne also managed to retain their culture, religion and language. Today, the Northern Cheyenne Nation is one of the few American Indian nations to have control over the majority of its land base, currently 98 %.
Over the past 400 years, the Cheyenne have changed their lifestyles. In the 16th century, they lived in the regions near the Great Lakes. They farmed corn, squash, and beans, and harvested wild rice like other indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands. They migrated west in the 18th century and hunted bison on the Great Plains. By the mid-19th century, the US forced them onto reservations.
The traditional Cheyenne government system is a politically unified system. The central traditional government system of the Cheyenne is the Arrow Keeper, followed by the Council of Forty - Four. Early in Cheyenne history, three related tribes, known as the Heviqsnipahis, the Só'taeo'o and the Masikota, unified themselves to form the Tsé - tsêhéstâhese or the "Like Hearted People '' who are known today as the "Cheyenne ''. The unified tribe then divided themselves into ten principal bands:
Each of the ten bands had four seated chief delegates; the remaining four chiefs were the principal advisers of the other delegates. Smaller bands or sub-bands had no right to send delegates to the council. This system also regulated the Cheyenne military societies that developed for planning warfare, enforcing rules, and conducting ceremonies.
Anthropologists debate about Cheyenne society organization. On the plains, it appears that they had a bilateral band kinship system. However, some anthropologists reported that the Cheyenne had a matrilineal band system. Studies into whether, and if so, how much the Cheyenne developed a matrilineal clan system are continuing.
While they participated in nomadic Plains horse culture, men hunted and occasionally fought with and raided other tribes. The women tanned and dressed hides for clothing, shelter, and other uses. They also gathered roots, berries, and other useful plants. From the products of hunting and gathering, the women also made lodges, clothing, and other equipment. Their lives were active and physically demanding. The range of the Cheyenne was first the area in and near the Black Hills, but later all the Great Plains from Dakota to the Arkansas River.
A Cheyenne woman has a higher status if she is part of an extended family with distinguished ancestors. Also, if she is friendly and compatible with her female relatives and does not have members in her extended family who are alcoholics or otherwise in disrepute. It is expected of all Cheyenne women to be hardworking, chaste, modest, skilled in traditional crafts, knowledgeable about Cheyenne culture and history and speak Cheyenne fluently. Tribal powwow princesses are expected to have these characteristics.
An infusion of the pulverized leaves and blossoms of tansy is used for dizziness and weakness.
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rotated 180 degrees on its axis is called a dome | Dome - wikipedia
A dome (from Latin: domus) is an architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. The precise definition has been a matter of controversy. There are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum, and can be supported by columns or piers that transition to the dome through squinches or pendentives. A lantern may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome.
Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back into prehistory and they have been constructed from mud, snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plastic over the centuries. The symbolism associated with domes includes mortuary, celestial, and governmental traditions that have likewise developed over time.
Domes have been found from early Mesopotamia, which may explain the form 's spread. They are found in Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Chinese architecture in the Ancient world, as well as among a number of contemporary indigenous building traditions. Dome structures were popular in Byzantine and medieval Islamic architecture, and there are numerous examples from Western Europe in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance architectural style spread from Italy in the Early modern period. Advancements in mathematics, materials, and production techniques since that time resulted in new dome types. The domes of the modern world can be found over religious buildings, legislative chambers, sports stadiums, and a variety of functional structures.
The English word "dome '' ultimately derives from the Latin domus ("house '') -- which, up through the Renaissance, labeled a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or "House of God '', regardless of the shape of its roof. This is reflected in the uses of the Italian word duomo, the German / Icelandic / Danish word dom ("cathedral ''), and the English word dome as late as 1656, when it meant a "Town - House, Guild - Hall, State - House, and Meeting - House in a city. '' The French word dosme came to acquire the meaning of a cupola vault, specifically, by 1660. This French definition gradually became the standard usage of the English dome in the eighteenth century as many of the most impressive Houses of God were built with monumental domes, and in response to the scientific need for more technical terms.
A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved segments or a shell of revolution, meaning an arch rotated around its central vertical axis. The terminology used has been a source of controversy, with inconsistency between scholars and even within individual texts, but the term "dome '' may be considered a "blanket - word to describe an hemispherical or similar spanning element. '' A half - dome or semi-dome is a semi-circular shape often used, especially in apses.
Sometimes called "false '' domes, corbel domes achieve their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones inward slightly farther than the lower one until they meet at the top. A "false '' dome may also refer to a wooden dome. "True '' domes are said to be those whose structure is in a state of compression, with constituent elements of wedge - shaped voussoirs, the joints of which align with a central point. The validity of this is unclear, as domes built underground with corbelled stone layers are also in compression from the surrounding earth. The Italian use of the term finto, meaning "false '', can be traced back to the 17th century in the use of vaulting made of reed mats and gypsum mortar.
As with arches, the "springing '' of a dome is the level from which the dome rises. The top of a dome is the "crown ''. The inner side of a dome is called the "intrados '' and the outer side is called the "extrados ''. The "haunch '' is the part of an arch that lies roughly halfway between the base and the top.
The word "cupola '' is another word for "dome '', and is usually used for a small dome upon a roof or turret. "Cupola '' has also been used to describe the inner side of a dome.
Drums, also called tholobates, are cylindrical or polygonal walls with or without windows that support a dome. A tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a dome 's oculus, supporting a cupola.
A masonry dome produces thrusts down and outward. They are thought of in terms of two kinds of forces at right angles from one another. Meridional forces (like the meridians, or lines of longitude, on a globe) are compressive only, and increase towards the base, while hoop forces (like the lines of latitude on a globe) are in compression at the top and tension at the base, with the transition in a hemispherical dome occurring at an angle of 51.8 degrees from the top. The thrusts generated by a dome are directly proportional to the weight of its materials. Grounded hemispherical domes generate significant horizontal thrusts at their haunches.
Unlike voussoir arches, which require support for each element until the keystone is in place, domes are stable during construction as each level is made a complete and self - supporting ring. The upper portion of a masonry dome is always in compression and is supported laterally, so it does not collapse except as a whole unit and a range of deviations from the ideal in this shallow upper cap are equally stable. Because voussoir domes have lateral support, they can be made much thinner than corresponding arches of the same span. For example, a hemispherical dome can be 2.5 times thinner than a semicircular arch, and a dome with the profile of an equilateral arch can be thinner still.
The optimal shape for a masonry dome of equal thickness provides for perfect compression, with none of the tension or bending forces against which masonry is weak. For a particular material, the optimal dome geometry is called the funicular surface, the comparable shape in three dimensions to a catenary curve for a two - dimensional arch. The pointed profiles of many Gothic domes more closely approximate this optimal shape than do hemispheres, which were favored by Roman and Byzantine architects due to the circle being considered the most perfect of forms. Adding a weight to the top of the pointed dome, such as the heavy cupola at the top of Florence Cathedral, changes the optimal shape to perfectly match the actual pointed shape of the dome.
The outward thrusts in the lower portion of a hemispherical masonry dome can be counteracted with the use of chains incorporated around the circumference or with external buttressing, although cracking along the meridians is natural. For small or tall domes with less horizontal thrust, the thickness of the supporting arches or walls can be enough to resist deformation, which is why drums tend to be much thicker than the domes they support.
When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the supporting walls beneath it (for example, a dome 's circular base over a square bay), techniques are employed to bridge the two. The simplest technique is to use diagonal lintels across the corners of the walls to create an octagonal base. Another is to use arches to span the corners, which can support more weight. A variety of these techniques use what are called "squinches ''. A squinch can be a single arch or a set of multiple projecting nested arches placed diagonally over an internal corner. Squinches can take a variety of other forms, as well, including trumpet arches and niche heads, or half - domes.
The invention of pendentives superseded the squinch technique. Pendentives are triangular sections of a sphere, like concave spandrels between arches, and transition from the corners of a square bay to the circular base of a dome. The curvature of the pendentives is that of a sphere with a diameter equal to the diagonal of the square bay. The precise definition of "pendentive '' has been a source of contention among academics, including whether or not corbelling is permitted under the definition and whether or not the lower portions of a sail vault should be considered pendentives.
Domes with pendentives can be divided into two kinds: simple and compound. In the case of the simple dome, the pendentives are part of the same sphere as the dome itself; however, such domes are rare. In the case of the more common compound dome, the pendentives are part of the surface of a larger sphere below that of the dome itself and form a circular base for either the dome or a drum section.
Because domes are concave from below, they can reflect sound and create echoes. A dome may have a "whispering gallery '' at its base that at certain places transmits distinct sound to other distant places in the gallery. The half - domes over the apses of Byzantine churches helped to project the chants of the clergy. Although this can complement music, it may make speech less intelligible, leading Francesco Giorgi in 1535 to recommend vaulted ceilings for the choir areas of a church, but a flat ceiling filled with as many coffers as possible for where preaching would occur.
Cavities in the form of jars built into the inner surface of a dome may serve to compensate for this interference by diffusing sound in all directions, eliminating echoes while creating a "divine effect in the atmosphere of worship. '' This technique was written about by Vitruvius in his Ten Books on Architecture, which describes bronze and earthenware resonators. The material, shape, contents, and placement of these cavity resonators determine the effect they have: reinforcing certain frequencies or absorbing them.
The earliest domes in the Middle East were built with mud - brick and, eventually, with baked brick and stone. Domes of wood allowed for wide spans due to the relatively light and flexible nature of the material and were the normal method for domed churches by the 7th century, although most domes were built with the other less flexible materials. Wooden domes were protected from the weather by roofing, such as copper or lead sheeting. Domes of cut stone were more expensive and never as large, and timber was used for large spans where brick was unavailable.
Roman concrete used an aggregate of stone with a powerful mortar. The aggregate transitioned over the centuries to pieces of fired clay, then to Roman bricks. By the sixth century, bricks with large amounts of mortar were the principle vaulting materials. Pozzolana appears to have only been used in central Italy. Brick domes were the favored choice for large - space monumental coverings until the Industrial Age, due to their convenience and dependability. Ties and chains of iron or wood could be used to resist stresses.
The new building materials of the 19th century and a better understanding of the forces within structures from the 20th century has opened up new possibilities. Iron and steel beams, steel cables, and pre-stressed concrete have eliminated the need for external buttressing and enabled far thinner domes. Whereas earlier masonry domes may have had a radius to thickness ratio of 50, the ratio for modern domes can be in excess of 800. The lighter weight of these domes has not only permitted far greater spans, but also allowed for the creation of large movable domes over modern sports stadiums.
Experimental rammed earth domes were made as part of work on sustainable architecture at the University of Kassel in 1983.
According to E. Baldwin Smith, from the late Stone Age the dome - shaped tomb was used as a reproduction of the ancestral, god - given shelter made permanent as a venerated home of the dead. The instinctive desire to do this resulted in widespread domical mortuary traditions across the ancient world, from the stupas of India to the tholos tombs of Iberia. By Hellenistic and Roman times, the domical tholos had become the customary cemetery symbol.
Domes and tent - canopies were also associated with the heavens in Ancient Persia and the Hellenistic - Roman world. A dome over a square base reflected the geometric symbolism of those shapes. The circle represented perfection, eternity, and the heavens. The square represented the earth. An octagon was intermediate between the two. The distinct symbolism of the heavenly or cosmic tent stemming from the royal audience tents of Achaemenid and Indian rulers was adopted by Roman rulers in imitation of Alexander the Great, becoming the imperial baldachin. This probably began with Nero, whose "Golden House '' also made the dome an essential feature of palace architecture.
The dual sepulchral and heavenly symbolism was adopted by early Christians in both the use of domes in architecture and in the ciborium, a domical canopy like the baldachin used as a ritual covering for relics or the church altar. The celestial symbolism of the dome, however, was the preeminent one by the Christian era. In the early centuries of Islam, domes were closely associated with royalty. A dome built in front of the mihrab of a mosque, for example, was at least initially meant to emphasize the place of a prince during royal ceremonies. Over time such domes became primarily focal points for decoration or the direction of prayer. The use of domes in mausoleums can likewise reflect royal patronage or be seen as representing the honor and prestige that domes symbolized, rather than having any specific funerary meaning. The wide variety of dome forms in medieval Islam reflected dynastic, religious, and social differences as much as practical building considerations.
Also called a corbelled dome, or false dome, these are different from a ' true dome ' in that they consist of purely horizontal layers. As the layers get higher, each is slightly cantilevered, or corbeled, toward the center until meeting at the top. A monumental example is the Mycenaean Treasury of Atreus from the late Bronze Age.
A single layer space frame in the form of a dome, a braced dome is a generic term that includes ribbed, Schwedler, three - way grid, lamella or Kiewitt, lattice, and geodesic domes. The different terms reflect different arrangements in the surface members. Braced domes often have a very low weight and are usually used to cover spans of up to 150 meters.
Called domical vaults (a term sometimes also applied to sail vaults), polygonal domes, coved domes, gored domes, segmental domes (a term sometimes also used for saucer domes), paneled vaults, or pavilion vaults, these are domes that maintain a polygonal shape in their horizontal cross section. The earliest known examples date to the first century BC, such as the Tabularium of Rome from 78 BC. Others include the Baths of Antoninus in Carthage (145 -- 160) and the Palatine Chapel at Aachen (13th -- 14th century). The most famous example is the Renaissance octagonal dome of Filippo Brunelleschi over the Florence Cathedral. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, installed an octagonal dome above the West front of his plantation house, Monticello.
Also called domes on pendentives or pendentive domes (a term also applied to sail vaults), compound domes have pendentives that support a smaller diameter dome immediately above them, as in the Hagia Sophia, or a drum and dome, as in many Renaissance and post-Renaissance domes, with both forms resulting in greater height.
One of the earliest types of ribbed vault, the first known examples are found in the Great Mosque of Córdoba in the 10th century. Rather than meeting in the center of the dome, the ribs characteristically intersect one another off - center, forming an empty polygonal space in the center. Geometry is a key element of the designs, with the octagon being perhaps the most popular shape used. Whether the arches are structural or purely decorative remains a matter of debate. The type may have an eastern origin, although the issue is also unsettled. Examples are found in Spain, North Africa, Armenia, Iran, France, and Italy.
Geodesic domes are the upper portion of geodesic spheres. They are composed of a framework of triangles in a polyhedron pattern. The structures are named for geodesics and are based upon geometric shapes such as icosahedrons, octahedrons or tetrahedrons. Such domes can be created using a limited number of simple elements and joints and efficiently resolve a domes internal forces. Their efficiency is said to increase with size. Although not first invented by Buckminster Fuller, they are associated with him because he designed many geodesic domes and patented them in the United States.
The hemispherical dome is half of a sphere. According to E. Baldwin Smith, it was a shape likely known to the Assyrians, defined by Greek theoretical mathematicians, and standardized by Roman builders.
Bulbous domes bulge out beyond their base diameters, offering a profile greater than a hemisphere. An onion dome is a greater than hemispherical dome with a pointed top in an ogee profile. They are found in the Near East, Middle East, Persia, and India and may not have had a single point of origin. Their appearance in northern Russian architecture predates the Tatar occupation of Russia and so is not easily explained as the result of that influence. They became popular in the second half of the 15th century in the Low Countries of Northern Europe, possibly inspired by the finials of minarets in Egypt and Syria, and developed in the 16th and 17th centuries in the Netherlands before spreading to Germany, becoming a popular element of the baroque architecture of Central Europe. German bulbous domes were also influenced by Russian and Eastern European domes. The examples found in various European architectural styles are typically wooden. Examples include Kazan Church in Kolomenskoye and the Brighton Pavilion by John Nash. In Islamic architecture, they are typically made of masonry, rather than timber, with the thick and heavy bulging portion serving to buttress against the tendency of masonry domes to spread at their bases. The Taj Mahal is a famous example.
An oval dome is a dome of oval shape in plan, profile, or both. The term comes from the Latin ovum, meaning "egg ''. The earliest oval domes were used by convenience in corbelled stone huts as rounded but geometrically undefined coverings, and the first examples in Asia Minor date to around 4000 B.C. The geometry was eventually defined using combinations of circular arcs, transitioning at points of tangency. If the Romans created oval domes, it was only in exceptional circumstances. The Roman foundations of the oval plan Church of St. Gereon in Cologne point to a possible example. Domes in the Middle Ages also tended to be circular, though the church of Santo Tomás de las Ollas in Spain has an oval dome over its oval plan. Other examples of medieval oval domes can be found covering rectangular bays in churches. Oval plan churches became a type in the Renaissance and popular in the Baroque style. The dome built for the basilica of Vicoforte by Francesco Gallo was one of the largest and most complex ever made.
A parabolic dome is a unique structure in which bending stress due to the uniformly distributed load of its dead load is zero. Hence it was widely used in buildings in ancient times, before the advent of composite structures. However, if a point load is applied on the apex of a parabolic dome, the bending stress becomes infinite. Hence it is found in most ancient structures, the apex of the dome is stiffened or the shape modified to avoid the infinite stress.
Also called sail vaults, handkerchief vaults, domical vaults (a term sometimes also applied to cloister vaults), pendentive domes (a term that has also been applied to compound domes), Bohemian vaults, or Byzantine domes, this type can be thought of as pendentives that, rather than merely touching each other to form a circular base for a drum or compound dome, smoothly continue their curvature to form the dome itself. The dome gives the impression of a square sail pinned down at each corner and billowing upward. These can also be thought of as saucer domes upon pendentives.
Also called segmental domes (a term sometimes also used for cloister vaults), or calottes, these have profiles of less than half a circle. Because they reduce the portion of the dome in tension, these domes are strong but have increased radial thrust. Many of the largest existing domes are of this shape.
Masonry saucer domes, because they exist entirely in compression, can be built much thinner than other dome shapes without becoming unstable. The trade - off between the proportionately increased horizontal thrust at their abutments and their decreased weight and quantity of materials may make them more economical, but they are more vulnerable to damage from movement in their supports.
Also called gadrooned, fluted, organ - piped, pumpkin, melon, ribbed, parachute, scalloped, or lobed domes, these are a type of dome divided at the base into curved segments, which follow the curve of the elevation. "Fluted '' may refer specifically to this pattern as an external feature, such as was common in Mamluk Egypt. The "ribs '' of a dome are the radial lines of masonry that extend from the crown down to the springing. The central dome of the Hagia Sophia uses the ribbed method, which accommodates a ring of windows between the ribs at the base of the dome. The central dome of St. Peter 's Basilica also uses this method.
Cultures from pre-history to modern times constructed domed dwellings using local materials. Although it is not known when the first dome was created, sporadic examples of early domed structures have been discovered. The earliest discovered may be four small dwellings made of Mammoth tusks and bones. The first was found by a farmer in Mezhirich, Ukraine, in 1965 while he was digging in his cellar and archaeologists unearthed three more. They date from 19,280 -- 11,700 BC.
In modern times, the creation of relatively simple dome - like structures has been documented among various indigenous peoples around the world. The wigwam was made by Native Americans using arched branches or poles covered with grass or hides. The Efé people of central Africa construct similar structures, using leaves as shingles. Another example is the igloo, a shelter built from blocks of compact snow and used by the Inuit people, among others. The Himba people of Namibia construct "desert igloos '' of wattle and daub for use as temporary shelters at seasonal cattle camps, and as permanent homes by the poor. Extraordinarily thin domes of sun - baked clay 20 feet in diameter, 30 feet high, and nearly parabolic in curve, are known from Cameroon.
The historical development from structures like these to more sophisticated domes is not well documented. That the dome was known to early Mesopotamia may explain the existence of domes in both China and the West in the first millennium BC. Another explanation, however, is that the use of the dome shape in construction did not have a single point of origin and was common in virtually all cultures long before domes were constructed with enduring materials.
Corbelled stone domes have been found from the Neolithic period in the ancient Near East, and in the Middle East to Western Europe from antiquity. The kings of Achaemenid Persia held audiences and festivals in domical tents derived from the nomadic traditions of central Asia. Simple domical mausoleums existed in the Hellenistic period. The remains of a large domed circular hall in the Parthian capital city of Nyssa has been dated to perhaps the first century AD, showing "... the existence of a monumental domical tradition in Central Asia that had hitherto been unknown and which seems to have preceded Roman Imperial monuments or at least to have grown independently from them. '' It likely had a wooden dome.
Persian architecture likely inherited an architectural tradition of dome - building dating back to the earliest Mesopotamian domes. Due to the scarcity of wood in many areas of the Iranian plateau, domes were an important part of vernacular architecture throughout Persian history. The Persian invention of the squinch, a series of concentric arches forming a half - cone over the corner of a room, enabled the transition from the walls of a square chamber to an octagonal base for a dome in a way reliable enough for large constructions and domes moved to the forefront of Persian architecture as a result. Pre-Islamic domes in Persia are commonly semi-elliptical, with pointed domes and those with conical outer shells being the majority of the domes in the Islamic periods.
The area of north - eastern Iran was, along with Egypt, one of two areas notable for early developments in Islamic domed mausoleums, which appear in the tenth century. The Samanid Mausoleum in Transoxiana dates to no later than 943 and is the first to have squinches create a regular octagon as a base for the dome, which then became the standard practice. Cylindrical or polygonal plan tower tombs with conical roofs over domes also exist beginning in the 11th century.
The Seljuq Turks built tower tombs, called "Turkish Triangles '', as well as cube mausoleums covered with a variety of dome forms. Seljuk domes included conical, semi-circular, and pointed shapes in one or two shells. Shallow semi-circular domes are mainly found from the Seljuk era. The double - shell domes were either discontinuous or continuous. The domed enclosure of the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, built in 1086 - 7 by Nizam al - Mulk, was the largest masonry dome in the Islamic world at that time, had eight ribs, and introduced a new form of corner squinch with two quarter domes supporting a short barrel vault. In 1088 Tāj - al - Molk, a rival of Nizam al - Mulk, built another dome at the opposite end of the same mosque with interlacing ribs forming five - pointed stars and pentagons. This is considered the landmark Seljuk dome, and may have inspired subsequent patterning and the domes of the Il - Khanate period. The use of tile and of plain or painted plaster to decorate dome interiors, rather than brick, increased under the Seljuks.
Beginning in the Ilkhanate, Persian domes achieved their final configuration of structural supports, zone of transition, drum, and shells, and subsequent evolution was restricted to variations in form and shell geometry. Characteristic of these domes are the use of high drums and several types of discontinuous double - shells, and the development of triple - shells and internal stiffeners occurred at this time. The construction of tomb towers decreased. The 7.5 meter wide double dome of Soltan Bakht Agha Mausoleum (1351 -- 1352) is the earliest known example in which the two shells of the dome have significantly different profiles, which spread rapidly throughout the region. The development of taller drums also continued into the Timurid period. The large, bulbous, fluted domes on tall drums that are characteristic of 15th century Timurid architecture were the culmination of the Central Asian and Iranian tradition of tall domes with glazed tile coverings in blue and other colors.
The domes of the Safavid dynasty (1501 -- 1732) are characterized by a distinctive bulbous profile and are considered the last generation of Persian domes. They are generally thinner than earlier domes and are decorated with a variety of colored glazed tiles and complex vegetal patterns, and they were influential on those of other Islamic styles, such as the Mughal architecture of India. An exaggerated style of onion dome on a short drum, as can be seen at the Shah Cheragh (1852 -- 1853), first appeared in the Qajar period. Domes have remained important in modern mausoleums, and domed cisterns and icehouses remain common sights in the countryside.
Very little has survived of ancient Chinese architecture, due to the extensive use of timber as a building material. Brick and stone vaults used in tomb construction have survived, and the corbeled dome was used, rarely, in tombs and temples. The earliest true domes found in Chinese tombs were shallow cloister vaults, called simian jieding, derived from the Han use of barrel vaulting. Unlike the cloister vaults of western Europe, the corners are rounded off as they rise.
A model of a tomb found with a shallow true dome from the late Han Dynasty (206 BC -- 220 AD) can be seen at the Guangzhou Museum (Canton). Another, the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb, found in Hong Kong in 1955, has a design common among Eastern Han Dynasty (25 AD -- 220 AD) tombs in South China: a barrel vaulted entrance leading to a domed front hall with barrel vaulted chambers branching from it in a cross shape. It is the only such tomb that has been found in Hong Kong and is exhibited as part of the Hong Kong Museum of History.
During the Three Kingdoms period (220 -- 280), the "cross-joint dome '' (siyuxuanjinshi) was developed under the Wu and Western Jin dynasties south of the Yangtze River, with arcs building out from the corners of a square room until they met and joined at the center. These domes were stronger, had a steeped angle, and could cover larger areas than the relatively shallow cloister vaults. Over time, they were made taller and wider. There were also corbel vaults, called diese, although these are the weakest type. Some tombs of the Song Dynasty (960 -- 1279) have beehive domes.
Roman domes are found in baths, villas, palaces, and tombs. Oculi are common features. They are customarily hemispherical in shape and partially or totally concealed on the exterior. To buttress the horizontal thrusts of a large hemispherical masonry dome, the supporting walls were built up beyond the base to at least the haunches of the dome, and the dome was then also sometimes covered with a conical or polygonal roof.
Domes reached monumental size in the Roman Imperial period. Roman baths played a leading role in the development of domed construction in general, and monumental domes in particular. Modest domes in baths dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in Pompeii, in the cold rooms of the Terme Stabiane and the Terme del Foro. However, the extensive use of domes did not occur before the 1st century AD. The growth of domed construction increases under Emperor Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century AD, and during the 2nd century. Centrally - planned halls become increasingly important parts of palace and palace villa layouts beginning in the 1st century, serving as state banqueting halls, audience rooms, or throne rooms. The Pantheon, a temple in Rome completed by Emperor Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa, is the most famous, best preserved, and largest Roman dome. Segmented domes, made of radially concave wedges or of alternating concave and flat wedges, appear under Hadrian in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of this style date from this period.
In the 3rd century, Imperial mausoleums began to be built as domed rotundas, rather than as tumulus structures or other types, following similar monuments by private citizens. The technique of building lightweight domes with interlocking hollow ceramic tubes further developed in North Africa and Italy in the late third and early fourth centuries. In the 4th century, Roman domes proliferated due to changes in the way domes were constructed, including advances in centering techniques and the use of brick ribbing. The material of choice in construction gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells. Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed mausoleums during the 4th century in Italy. The octagonal Lateran baptistery or the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre may have been the first, and the style spread during the 5th century. By the 5th century, structures with small - scale domed cross plans existed across the Christian world.
With the end of the Western Roman Empire, domes became a signature feature of the church architecture of the surviving Eastern Roman -- or "Byzantine '' -- Empire. 6th - century church building by the Emperor Justinian used the domed cross unit on a monumental scale, and his architects made the domed brick - vaulted central plan standard throughout the Roman east. This divergence with the Roman west from the second third of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of a "Byzantine '' architecture. Justinian 's Hagia Sophia was an original and innovative design with no known precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome and semi-domes. Periodic earthquakes in the region have caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessitated repairs.
"Cross-domed units '', a more secure structural system created by bracing a dome on all four sides with broad arches, became a standard element on a smaller scale in later Byzantine church architecture. The Cross-in - square plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern, became widely popular in the Middle Byzantine period (c. 843 -- 1204). It is the most common church plan from the tenth century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Resting domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with windows eventually became the standard style, with regional characteristics.
In the Byzantine period, domes were normally hemispherical and had, with occasional exceptions, windowed drums. All of the surviving examples in Constantinople are ribbed or pumpkin domes, with the divisions corresponding to the number of windows. Roofing for domes ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expensive, more durable, and more form - fitting lead sheeting. Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks, metal tie rods, and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed construction. The technique of using double shells for domes, although revived in the Renaissance, originated in Byzantine practice.
The Syria and Palestine area has a long tradition of domical architecture, including wooden domes in shapes described as "conoid '', or similar to pine cones. When the Arab Muslim forces conquered the region, they employed local craftsmen for their buildings and, by the end of the 7th century, the dome had begun to become an architectural symbol of Islam. In addition to religious shrines, such as the Dome of the Rock, domes were used over the audience and throne halls of Umayyad palaces, and as part of porches, pavilions, fountains, towers and the calderia of baths. Blending the architectural features of both Byzantine and Persian architecture, the domes used both pendentives and squinches and were made in a variety of shapes and materials. Although architecture in the region would decline following the movement of the capital to Iraq under the Abbasids in 750, mosques built after a revival in the late 11th century usually followed the Umayyad model. Early versions of bulbous domes can be seen in mosaic illustrations in Syria dating to the Umayyad period. They were used to cover large buildings in Syria after the eleventh century.
Italian church architecture from the late sixth century to the end of the eighth century was influenced less by the trends of Constantinople than by a variety of Byzantine provincial plans. With the crowning of Charlemagne as a new Roman Emperor, Byzantine influences were largely replaced in a revival of earlier Western building traditions. Occasional exceptions include examples of early quincunx churches at Milan and near Cassino. Another is the Palatine Chapel. Its domed octagon design was influenced by Byzantine models. It was the largest dome north of the Alps at that time. Venice, Southern Italy and Sicily served as outposts of Middle Byzantine architectural influence in Italy.
The Great Mosque of Córdoba contains the first known examples of the crossed - arch dome type. The use of corner squinches to support domes was widespread in Islamic architecture by the 10th and 11th centuries. After the ninth century, mosques in North Africa often have a small decorative dome over the mihrab. Additional domes are sometimes used at the corners of the mihrab wall, at the entrance bay, or on the square tower minarets. Egypt, along with north - eastern Iran, was one of two areas notable for early developments in Islamic mausoleums, beginning in the 10th century. Fatimid mausoleums were mostly simple square buildings covered by a dome. Domes were smooth or ribbed and had a characteristic Fatimid "keel '' shape profile.
Domes in Romanesque architecture are generally found within crossing towers at the intersection of a church 's nave and transept, which conceal the domes externally. They are typically octagonal in plan and use corner squinches to translate a square bay into a suitable octagonal base. They appear "in connection with basilicas almost throughout Europe '' between 1050 and 1100. The Crusades, beginning in 1095, also appear to have influenced domed architecture in Western Europe, particularly in the areas around the Mediterranean Sea. The Knights Templar, headquartered at the site, built a series of centrally planned churches throughout Europe modeled on the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, with the Dome of the Rock also an influence. In southwest France, there are over 250 domed Romanesque churches in the Périgord region alone. The use of pendentives to support domes in the Aquitaine region, rather than the squinches more typical of western medieval architecture, strongly implies a Byzantine influence. Gothic domes are uncommon due to the use of rib vaults over naves, and with church crossings usually focused instead by a tall steeple, but there are examples of small octagonal crossing domes in cathedrals as the style developed from the Romanesque.
Star - shaped domes found at the Moorish palace of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain, the Hall of the Abencerrajes (c. 1333 -- 91) and the Hall of the two Sisters (c. 1333 -- 54), are extraordinarily developed examples of muqarnas domes. In the first half of the fourteenth century, stone blocks replaced bricks as the primary building material in the dome construction of Mamluk Egypt and, over the course of 250 years, around 400 domes were built in Cairo to cover the tombs of Mamluk sultans and emirs. Dome profiles were varied, with "keel - shaped '', bulbous, ogee, stilted domes, and others being used. On the drum, angles were chamfered, or sometimes stepped, externally and triple windows were used in a tri-lobed arrangement on the faces. Bulbous cupolas on minarets were used in Egypt beginning around 1330, spreading to Syria in the following century. In the fifteenth century, pilgrimages to and flourishing trade relations with the Near East exposed the Low Countries of northwest Europe to the use of bulbous domes in the architecture of the Orient and such domes apparently became associated with the city of Jerusalem. Multi-story spires with truncated bulbous cupolas supporting smaller cupolas or crowns became popular in the sixteenth century.
The multidomed church is a typical form of Russian church architecture that distinguishes Russia from other Orthodox nations and Christian denominations. Indeed, the earliest Russian churches, built just after the Christianization of Kievan Rus ', were multi-domed, which has led some historians to speculate about how Russian pre-Christian pagan temples might have looked. Examples of these early churches are the 13 - domed wooden Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (989) and the 25 - domed stone Desyatinnaya Church in Kiev (989 -- 996). The number of domes typically has a symbolical meaning in Russian architecture, for example 13 domes symbolize Christ with 12 Apostles, while 25 domes means the same with an additional 12 Prophets of the Old Testament. The multiple domes of Russian churches were often comparatively smaller than Byzantine domes.
The earliest stone churches in Russia featured Byzantine style domes, however by the Early Modern era the onion dome had become the predominant form in traditional Russian architecture. The onion dome is a dome whose shape resembles an onion, after which they are named. Such domes are often larger in diameter than the drums they sit on, and their height usually exceeds their width. The whole bulbous structure tapers smoothly to a point. Though the earliest preserved Russian domes of such type date from the 16th century, illustrations from older chronicles indicate they have existed since the late 13th century. Like tented roofs -- which were combined with, and sometimes replaced domes in Russian architecture since the 16th century -- onion domes initially were used only in wooden churches. Builders introduced them into stone architecture much later, and continued to make their carcasses of either of wood or metal on top of masonry drums.
Russian domes are often gilded or brightly painted. A dangerous technique of chemical gilding using mercury had been applied on some occasions until the mid-19th century, most notably in the giant dome of Saint Isaac 's Cathedral. The more modern and safe method of gold electroplating was applied for the first time in gilding the domes of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, the tallest Eastern Orthodox church in the world.
The rise of the Ottoman Empire and its spread in Asia Minor and the Balkans coincided with the decline of the Seljuk Turks and the Byzantine Empire. Early Ottoman buildings, for almost two centuries after 1300, were characterized by a blending of Ottoman culture and indigenous architecture, and the pendentive dome was used throughout the empire. The Byzantine dome form was adopted and further developed. Ottoman architecture made exclusive use of the semi-spherical dome for vaulting over even very small spaces, influenced by the earlier traditions of both Byzantine Anatolia and Central Asia. The smaller the structure, the simpler the plan, but mosques of medium size were also covered by single domes. The earliest Ottoman mosques were single oblong rooms with either simple tiled pitched roofs of wood or a wooden interior dome. Most of these wooden domes have been lost to fires and replaced by flat ceilings. The earliest masonry domes covered square single room mosques, the archetype of Ottoman architecture. Examples include the Mosque of Orhan Gazi in Gebze and Karagöz Bey Mosque in Mostar. This domed - square unit is the defining element of the three basic Ottoman mosque plans: the single unit mosque, multi-unit mosque, and eyvan (or "iwan '') mosque.
The multi-unit mosque uses several domed - squares of similar size along the length of a mosque, or across its width, or both, with the central dome sometimes larger than the others. A style common in the Bursa period, and known as the "Bursa type '', is like a duplication of the single - domed square, with one long space divided by an arch into two square bays that are each covered by a dome. A variation of this type has the room covered by one dome and one semi-dome, with additional side chambers. A multi-domed style derived from Seljuk architecture is that of the Ulu Camii, or Great Mosque, which consists of a number of domes of the same size supported by pillars.
The eyvan mosque type (the eyvan being derived from Seljuk architecture) uses domed - square units in a variety of sizes, heights, and details, with only the possible pair of side units being similar sizes.
Early experiments with large domes include the domed square mosques of Çine and Mudurnu under Bayezid I, and the later domed "zawiya - mosques '' at Bursa. The Üç Şerefeli Mosque at Edirne developed the idea of the central dome being a larger version of the domed modules used throughout the rest of the structure to generate open space. This idea became important to the Ottoman style as it developed.
The Beyazidiye Mosque (1501 -- 1506) in Istanbul begins the Classical period in Ottoman architecture, in which the great Imperial Mosques, with variations, resemble the former Byzantine basilica of Hagia Sophia in having a large central dome with semi-domes of the same span to the east and west. Hagia Sophia 's central dome arrangement is faithfully reproduced in three Ottoman mosques in Istanbul: the Beyazidiye Mosque, the Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque, and the Süleymaniye Mosque. Three other Imperial mosques in Istanbul also add semi-domes to the north and south, doing away with the basilica plan: Şehzade Camii, Sultan Ahmed I Camii, and Yeni Cami. The peak of this classical period, which lasted into the 17th century, came with the architecture of Mimar Sinan. In addition to large Imperial mosques, he produced hundreds of other monuments, including medium - sized mosques such as the Mihrimah, Sokollu, and Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the tomb of Suleiman the Magnificent. Süleymaniye Mosque, built in Constantinople (modern Istanbul) from 1550 to 1557, has a main dome 53 meters high with a diameter of 26.5 meters. At the time it was built, the dome was the highest in the Ottoman Empire when measured from sea level, but lower from the floor of the building and smaller in diameter than that of the nearby Hagia Sophia.
Another Classical domed mosque type is, like the Byzantine church of Sergius and Bacchus, the domed polygon within a square. Octagons and hexagons were common, such as those of Üç Şerefeli Mosque (1437 -- 1447) and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. The Selimiye Mosque was the first structure built by the Ottomans that had a larger dome than that of the Hagia Sophia. The dome rises above a square bay. Corner semi-domes convert this into an octagon, which muqarnas transition to a circular base. The dome has an average internal diameter of about 31.5 meters, while that of Hagia Sophia averages 31.3 meters. Designed and built by architect Mimar Sinan between 1568 and 1574, when he finished it he was 86 years old, and he considered the mosque his masterpiece.
The first large Imperial Mosque of Istanbul in the imported Baroque style was the Nuruosmaniye Mosque (1748 -- 1755). One of the finest was the Laleli Mosque of 1759 -- 1764.
Filippo Brunelleschi 's octagonal brick domical vault over Florence Cathedral was built between 1420 and 1436 and the lantern surmounting the dome was completed in 1467. The dome is 42 meters wide and made of two shells. The dome is not itself Renaissance in style, although the lantern is closer. A combination of dome, drum, pendentives, and barrel vaults developed as the characteristic structural forms of large Renaissance churches following a period of innovation in the later fifteenth century. Florence was the first Italian city to develop the new style, followed by Rome and then Venice. Brunelleschi 's domes at San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel established them as a key element of Renaissance architecture. His plan for the dome of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence 's Basilica of Santa Croce (1430 -- 52) illustrates the Renaissance enthusiasm for geometry and for the circle as geometry 's supreme form. This emphasis on geometric essentials would be very influential.
De Re Aedificatoria, written by Leon Battista Alberti around 1452, recommends vaults with coffering for churches, as in the Pantheon, and the first design for a dome at St. Peter 's Basilica in Rome is usually attributed to him, although the recorded architect is Bernardo Rossellino. This would culminate in Bramante 's 1505 -- 06 projects for a wholly new St. Peter 's Basilica, marking the beginning of the displacement of the Gothic ribbed vault with the combination of dome and barrel vault, which proceeded throughout the sixteenth century. Bramante 's initial design was for a Greek cross plan with a large central hemispherical dome and four smaller domes around it in a quincunx pattern. Work began in 1506 and continued under a succession of builders over the next 120 years. The dome was completed by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana. The publication of Sebastiano Serlio 's treatise, one of the most popular architectural treatises ever published, was responsible for the spread of the oval in late Renaissance and Baroque architecture throughout Italy, Spain, France, and central Europe.
The Villa Capra, also known as "La Rotunda '', was built by Andrea Palladio from 1565 to 1569 near Vicenza. Its highly symmetrical square plan centers on a circular room covered by a dome, and it proved highly influential on the Georgian architects of 18th century England, architects in Russia, and architects in America, Thomas Jefferson among them. Palladio 's two domed churches in Venice are San Giorgio Maggiore (1565 -- 1610) and Il Redentore (1577 -- 92), the latter built in thanksgiving for the end of a bad outbreak of plague in the city. The spread of the Renaissance - style dome outside of Italy began with central Europe, although there was often a stylistic delay of a century or two.
Islamic rule over northern and central India brought with it the use of domes constructed with stone, brick and mortar, and iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India, and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforcement. The synthesis of styles created by this introduction of new forms to the Hindu tradition of trabeate construction created a distinctive architecture. Domes in pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape with a lotus design and bulbous finial at the top, derived from Hindu architecture. Because the Hindu architectural tradition did not include arches, flat corbels were used to transition from the corners of the room to the dome, rather than squinches. In contrast to Persian and Ottoman domes, the domes of Indian tombs tend to be more bulbous.
The earliest examples include the half - domes of the late 13th century tomb of Balban and the small dome of the tomb of Khan Shahid, which were made of roughly cut material and would have needed covering surface finishes. Under the Lodi dynasty there was a large proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans reserved for royalty and square plans used for others of high rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India in this period. The first major Mughal building is the domed tomb of Humayun, built between 1562 and 1571 by a Persian architect. The central double dome covers an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is accompanied by small domed chattri made of brick and faced with stone. Chatris, the domed kiosks on pillars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from their Hindu use as cenotaphs. The fusion of Persian and Indian architecture can be seen in the dome shape of the Taj Mahal: the bulbous shape derives from Persian Timurid domes, and the finial with lotus leaf base is derived from Hindu temples. The Gol Gumbaz, or Round Dome, is one of the largest masonry domes in the world. It has an internal diameter of 41.15 meters and a height of 54.25 meters. The dome was the most technically advanced built in the Deccan. The last major Islamic tomb built in India was the tomb of Safdar Jang (1753 -- 54). The central dome is reportedly triple - shelled, with two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under the lotus leaf finial at the top.
In the early sixteenth century, the lantern of the Italian dome spread to Germany, gradually adopting the bulbous cupola from the Netherlands. Russian architecture strongly influenced the many bulbous domes of the wooden churches of Bohemia and Silesia and, in Bavaria, bulbous domes less resemble Dutch models than Russian ones. Domes like these gained in popularity in central and southern Germany and in Austria in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly in the Baroque style, and influenced many bulbous cupolas in Poland and Eastern Europe in the Baroque period. However, many bulbous domes in eastern Europe were replaced over time in the larger cities during the second half of the eighteenth century in favor of hemispherical or stilted cupolas in the French or Italian styles.
The construction of domes in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries relied primarily on empirical techniques and oral traditions rather than the architectural treatises of the times, which avoided practical details. This was adequate for domes up to medium size, with diameters in the range of 12 to 20 meters. Materials were considered homogeneous and rigid, with compression taken into account and elasticity ignored. The weight of materials and the size of the dome were the key references. Lateral tensions in a dome were counteracted with horizontal rings of iron, stone, or wood incorporated into the structure.
Over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, developments in mathematics and the study of statics led to a more precise formalization of the ideas of the traditional constructive practices of arches and vaults, and there was a diffusion of studies on the most stable form for these structures: the catenary curve. Robert Hooke, who first articulated that a thin arch was comparable to an inverted hanging chain, may have advised Wren on how to achieve the crossing dome of St. Paul 's Cathedral. Wren 's structural system became the standard for large domes well into the 19th century. The ribs in Guarino Guarini 's San Lorenzo and Il Sidone were shaped as catenary arches. The idea of a large oculus in a solid dome revealing a second dome originated with him. He also established the oval dome as a reconciliation of the longitudinal plan church favored by the liturgy of the Counter-Reformation and the centralized plan favored by idealists. Because of the imprecision of oval domes in the Rococo period, drums were problematic and the domes instead often rested directly on arches or pendentives.
In the eighteenth century, the study of dome structures changed radically, with domes being considered as a composition of smaller elements, each subject to mathematical and mechanical laws and easier to analyse individually, rather than being considered as whole units unto themselves. Although never very popular in domestic settings, domes were used in a number of 18th century homes built in the Neo-Classical style. In the United States, most public buildings in the late 18th century were only distinguishable from private residences because they featured cupolas.
The historicism of the 19th century led to many domes being re-translations of the great domes of the past, rather than further stylistic developments, especially in sacred architecture. New production techniques allowed for cast iron and wrought iron to be produced both in larger quantities and at relatively low prices during the Industrial Revolution. Russia, which had large supplies of iron, has some of the earliest examples of iron 's architectural use. Excluding those that simply imitated multi-shell masonry, metal framed domes such as the elliptical dome of Royal Albert Hall in London (57 to 67 meters in diameter) and the circular dome of the Halle au Blé in Paris may represent the century 's chief development of the simple domed form. Cast - iron domes were particularly popular in France.
The practice of building rotating domes for housing large telescopes was begun in the 19th century, with early examples using papier - mâché to minimize weight. Unique glass domes springing straight from ground level were used for hothouses and winter gardens. Elaborate covered shopping arcades included large glazed domes at their cross intersections. The large domes of the 19th century included exhibition buildings and functional structures such as gasometers and locomotive sheds. The "first fully triangulated framed dome '' was built in Berlin in 1863 by Johann Wilhelm Schwedler and, by the start of the 20th century, similarly triangulated frame domes had become fairly common. Vladimir Shukhov was also an early pioneer of what would later be called gridshell structures and in 1897 he employed them in domed exhibit pavilions at the All - Russia Industrial and Art Exhibition.
Domes built with steel and concrete were able to achieve very large spans. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Guastavino family, a father and son team who worked on the eastern seaboard of the United States, further developed the masonry dome, using tiles set flat against the surface of the curve and fast - setting Portland cement, which allowed mild steel bar to be used to counteract tension forces. The thin domical shell was further developed with the construction by Walther Bauersfeld of two planetarium domes in Jena, Germany in the early 1920s. They consisting of a triangulated frame of light steel bars and mesh covered by a thin layer of concrete. These are generally taken to be the first modern architectural thin shells. These are also considered the first geodesic domes. Geodesic domes have been used for radar enclosures, greenhouses, housing, and weather stations. Architectural shells had their heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, peaking in popularity shortly before the widespread adoption of computers and the finite element method of structural analysis.
The first permanent air supported membrane domes were the radar domes designed and built by Walter Bird after World War II. Their low cost eventually led to the development of permanent versions using teflon - coated fiberglass and by 1985 the majority of the domed stadiums around the world used this system. Tensegrity domes, patented by Buckminster Fuller in 1962, are membrane structures consisting of radial trusses made from steel cables under tension with vertical steel pipes spreading the cables into the truss form. They have been made circular, elliptical, and other shapes to cover stadiums from Korea to Florida. Tension membrane design has depended upon computers, and the increasing availability of powerful computers resulted in many developments being made in the last three decades of the 20th century. The higher expense of rigid large span domes made them relatively rare, although rigidly moving panels is the most popular system for sports stadiums with retractable roofing.
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who did new zealand lose to in 1994 | 1994 South Africa rugby union tour of New Zealand - wikipedia
The 1994 South Africa rugby union tour of New Zealand was a series of rugby union matches played in New Zealand by the South African national rugby union team, from June - August 1994. The team played 14 matches in total; 11 against several provincial rugby teams and 3 against the New Zealand national rugby union team. South Africa won 10 out of the 11 matches against provincial sides, losing one match to Otago. They lost their first two test matches against the New Zealand national side and drew the last test. The South African coach for the tour was Ian McIntosh. This was the South African team 's first tour to New Zealand since the controversial 1981 South Africa rugby union tour, which was received negatively by New Zealanders due to South Africa 's Apartheid legislation at the time.
Gavin Johnson, Andre Joubert, Theo van Rensburg, Chris Badenhorst, James Small, JF (Cabous) van der Westhuizen, Chester Williams, Jannie Claassens, Francois Meiring, Japie Mulder, Pieter Muller, Brendan Venter, Hennie le Roux, Lance Sherrell, Johan Roux, Joost van der Westhuizen
Adriaan Richter, Tiaan Strauss, Wahl Bartmann, Ruben Kruger, Francois Pienaar, Rudolf Straeuli, Fritz van Heerden, Mark Andrews, Stephen Atherton, Adrian Geldenhuys, Krynauw Otto, George Wegner, Kobus Wiese, Keith Andrews, Guy Kebble, Ollie le Roux, Johan le Roux, Balie Swart
Stephen Jones, ed. (1995). Rothmans Rugby Union Yearbook 1995 -- 96. Headline. ISBN 0 - 7472 - 7816 - 4.
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what countries do i need a visa for with american passport | Visa Requirements for United States Citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for United States citizens and non-citizen nationals are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the United States.
As of 10 July 2018, holders of a United States passport could travel to 186 countries and territories without a travel visa, or with visa on arrival. The United States passport currently ranks 4th in terms of travel freedom (tied with the passports of Austria, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the UK) according to the Henley Passport Index.
General visa requirements of sovereign countries towards United States citizens:
Visa requirements for United States citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries not mentioned in the list above, and restricted zones:
The United States Passport Card can be used as an alternative to the booklet passport when travelling to and from Canada, Mexico, Bermuda and many Caribbean islands at maritime ports - of - entry or land border crossings.
The APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) is meant to facilitate travel for U.S. citizens engaged in verified business in the APEC region.
The U.S. ABTC should enable access to a dedicated fast - track lane for expedited immigration processing at some participating foreign APEC member airports. U.S. APEC Business Travel Card holders may also use the Global Entry kiosks at participating airports upon their U.S. return. However, the U.S. APEC Business Travel Card ca n't be used in lieu of a visa to enter an APEC member country in the way that some other countries ' APEC cards can be used in lieu of visas. This is because the U.S. has decided not to participate in the visa reciprocity part of the program because the US government is unwilling to waive visa interviews. Legislation authorizes the Department of Homeland Security to issue U.S. APEC Business Travel Cards only until 30 September 2018, unless the law is amended to extend that date.
The United States has the most diplomatic missions of any country in the world. See also List of diplomatic missions of the United States.
The Department of State regularly publishes travel warnings or travel alerts.
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having a valid visa or visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. However, some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals); Albania; Belarus; Georgia; Honduras; Iceland; Jordan; Kuwait, Lebanon; Liechtenstein; Moldova; Monaco; Nauru; Panama, Saint Barthélemy; San Marino; Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of late 2017 the list contains 699 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example, Canada and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors that need to apply for a visa.
These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
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explain dma based data transfer. give various applications in which it can be used | Direct memory access - wikipedia
Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of computer systems that allows certain hardware subsystems to access main system memory (Random - access memory), independent of the central processing unit (CPU).
Without DMA, when the CPU is using programmed input / output, it is typically fully occupied for the entire duration of the read or write operation, and is thus unavailable to perform other work. With DMA, the CPU first initiates the transfer, then it does other operations while the transfer is in progress, and it finally receives an interrupt from the DMA controller when the operation is done. This feature is useful at any time that the CPU can not keep up with the rate of data transfer, or when the CPU needs to perform work while waiting for a relatively slow I / O data transfer. Many hardware systems use DMA, including disk drive controllers, graphics cards, network cards and sound cards. DMA is also used for intra-chip data transfer in multi-core processors. Computers that have DMA channels can transfer data to and from devices with much less CPU overhead than computers without DMA channels. Similarly, a processing element inside a multi-core processor can transfer data to and from its local memory without occupying its processor time, allowing computation and data transfer to proceed in parallel.
DMA can also be used for "memory to memory '' copying or moving of data within memory. DMA can offload expensive memory operations, such as large copies or scatter - gather operations, from the CPU to a dedicated DMA engine. An implementation example is the I / O Acceleration Technology.
Standard DMA, also called third - party DMA, uses a DMA controller. A DMA controller can generate memory addresses and initiate memory read or write cycles. It contains several hardware registers that can be written and read by the CPU. These include a memory address register, a byte count register, and one or more control registers. Depending on what features the DMA controller provides, these control registers might specify some combination of the source, the destination, the direction of the transfer (reading from the I / O device or writing to the I / O device), the size of the transfer unit, and / or the number of bytes to transfer in one burst.
To carry out an input, output or memory - to - memory operation, the host processor initializes the DMA controller with a count of the number of words to transfer, and the memory address to use. The CPU then commands peripheral device to initiate data transfer. The DMA controller then provides addresses and read / write control lines to the system memory. Each time a byte of data is ready to be transferred between the peripheral device and memory, the DMA controller increments its internal address register until the full block of data is transferred.
In a bus mastering system, also known as a first - party DMA system, the CPU and peripherals can each be granted control of the memory bus. Where a peripheral can become bus master, it can directly write to system memory without involvement of the CPU, providing memory address and control signals as required. Some measure must be provided to put the processor into a hold condition so that bus contention does not occur.
DMA transfers can either transfer one byte at a time or all at once in burst mode. If they transfer a byte at a time, this can allow the CPU to access memory on alternate bus cycles -- this is called cycle stealing since the CPU and either the DMA controller or the bus master contend for memory access. In burst mode DMA, the CPU can be put on hold while the DMA transfer occurs and a full block of possibly hundreds or thousands of bytes can be moved. When memory cycles are much faster than processor cycles, an interleaved DMA cycle is possible, where the DMA controller uses memory while the CPU can not.
An entire block of data is transferred in one contiguous sequence. Once the DMA controller is granted access to the system bus by the CPU, it transfers all bytes of data in the data block before releasing control of the system buses back to the CPU, but renders the CPU inactive for relatively long periods of time. The mode is also called "Block Transfer Mode ''.
The cycle stealing mode is used in systems in which the CPU should not be disabled for the length of time needed for burst transfer modes. In the cycle stealing mode, the DMA controller obtains access to the system bus the same way as in burst mode, using BR (Bus Request) and BG (Bus Grant) signals, which are the two signals controlling the interface between the CPU and the DMA controller. However, in cycle stealing mode, after one byte of data transfer, the control of the system bus is deasserted to the CPU via BG. It is then continually requested again via BR, transferring one byte of data per request, until the entire block of data has been transferred. By continually obtaining and releasing the control of the system bus, the DMA controller essentially interleaves instruction and data transfers. The CPU processes an instruction, then the DMA controller transfers one data value, and so on. On the one hand, the data block is not transferred as quickly in cycle stealing mode as in burst mode, but on the other hand the CPU is not idled for as long as in burst mode. Cycle stealing mode is useful for controllers that monitor data in real time.
Transparent mode takes the most time to transfer a block of data, yet it is also the most efficient mode in terms of overall system performance. In transparent mode, the DMA controller transfers data only when the CPU is performing operations that do not use the system buses. The primary advantage of transparent mode is that the CPU never stops executing its programs and the DMA transfer is free in terms of time, while the disadvantage is that the hardware needs to determine when the CPU is not using the system buses, which can be complex.
DMA can lead to cache coherency problems. Imagine a CPU equipped with a cache and an external memory that can be accessed directly by devices using DMA. When the CPU accesses location X in the memory, the current value will be stored in the cache. Subsequent operations on X will update the cached copy of X, but not the external memory version of X, assuming a write - back cache. If the cache is not flushed to the memory before the next time a device tries to access X, the device will receive a stale value of X.
Similarly, if the cached copy of X is not invalidated when a device writes a new value to the memory, then the CPU will operate on a stale value of X.
This issue can be addressed in one of two ways in system design: Cache - coherent systems implement a method in hardware whereby external writes are signaled to the cache controller which then performs a cache invalidation for DMA writes or cache flush for DMA reads. Non-coherent systems leave this to software, where the OS must then ensure that the cache lines are flushed before an outgoing DMA transfer is started and invalidated before a memory range affected by an incoming DMA transfer is accessed. The OS must make sure that the memory range is not accessed by any running threads in the meantime. The latter approach introduces some overhead to the DMA operation, as most hardware requires a loop to invalidate each cache line individually.
Hybrids also exist, where the secondary L2 cache is coherent while the L1 cache (typically on - CPU) is managed by software.
In the original IBM PC, there was only one Intel 8237 DMA controller capable of providing four DMA channels (numbered 0 -- 3), as part of the so - called Industry Standard Architecture, or ISA. These DMA channels performed 8 - bit transfers and could only address the first megabyte of RAM. With the IBM PC / AT, a second 8237 DMA controller was added (channels 5 -- 7; channel 4 is dedicated as a cascade channel for the first 8237 controller), and the page register was rewired to address the full 16 MB memory address space of the 80286 CPU. This second controller performed 16 - bit transfers.
Due to their lagging performance (2.5 Mbit / s), these devices have been largely obsolete since the advent of the 80386 processor in 1985 and its capacity for 32 - bit transfers. They are still supported to the extent they are required to support built - in legacy PC hardware on modern machines. The only pieces of legacy hardware that use ISA DMA and are still fairly common are Super I / O devices on motherboards that often integrate a built - in floppy disk controller, an IrDA infrared controller when FIR (fast infrared) mode is selected, and a IEEE 1284 parallel port controller when ECP mode is selected.
Each DMA channel has a 16 - bit address register and a 16 - bit count register associated with it. To initiate a data transfer the device driver sets up the DMA channel 's address and count registers together with the direction of the data transfer, read or write. It then instructs the DMA hardware to begin the transfer. When the transfer is complete, the device interrupts the CPU.
Scatter - gather or vectored I / O DMA allows the transfer of data to and from multiple memory areas in a single DMA transaction. It is equivalent to the chaining together of multiple simple DMA requests. The motivation is to off - load multiple input / output interrupt and data copy tasks from the CPU.
DRQ stands for Data request; DACK for Data acknowledge. These symbols, seen on hardware schematics of computer systems with DMA functionality, represent electronic signaling lines between the CPU and DMA controller. Each DMA channel has one Request and one Acknowledge line. A device that uses DMA must be configured to use both lines of the assigned DMA channel.
Standard ISA DMA assignments:
A PCI architecture has no central DMA controller, unlike ISA. Instead, any PCI component can request control of the bus ("become the bus master '') and request to read from and write to system memory. More precisely, a PCI component requests bus ownership from the PCI bus controller (usually the southbridge in a modern PC design), which will arbitrate if several devices request bus ownership simultaneously, since there can only be one bus master at one time. When the component is granted ownership, it will issue normal read and write commands on the PCI bus, which will be claimed by the bus controller and will be forwarded to the memory controller using a scheme which is specific to every chipset.
As an example, on a modern AMD Socket AM2 - based PC, the southbridge will forward the transactions to the northbridge (which is integrated on the CPU die) using HyperTransport, which will in turn convert them to DDR2 operations and send them out on the DDR2 memory bus. As can be seen, there are quite a number of steps involved in a PCI DMA transfer; however, that poses little problem, since the PCI device or PCI bus itself are an order of magnitude slower than the rest of the components (see list of device bandwidths).
A modern x86 CPU may use more than 4 GB of memory, utilizing Physical Address Extension (PAE), a 36 - bit addressing mode, or the native 64 - bit mode of x86 - 64 CPUs. In such a case, a device using DMA with a 32 - bit address bus is unable to address memory above the 4 GB line. The new Double Address Cycle (DAC) mechanism, if implemented on both the PCI bus and the device itself, enables 64 - bit DMA addressing. Otherwise, the operating system would need to work around the problem by either using costly double buffers (DOS / Windows nomenclature) also known as bounce buffers (FreeBSD / Linux), or it could use an IOMMU to provide address translation services if one is present.
As an example of DMA engine incorporated in a general - purpose CPU, newer Intel Xeon chipsets include a DMA engine called I / O Acceleration Technology (I / OAT), which can offload memory copying from the main CPU, freeing it to do other work. In 2006, Intel 's Linux kernel developer Andrew Grover performed benchmarks using I / OAT to offload network traffic copies and found no more than 10 % improvement in CPU utilization with receiving workloads, and no improvement when transmitting data.
Further performance - oriented enhancements to the DMA mechanism have been introduced in Intel Xeon E5 processors with their Data Direct I / O (DDIO) feature, allowing the DMA "windows '' to reside within CPU caches instead of system RAM. As a result, CPU caches are used as the primary source and destination for I / O, allowing network interface controllers (NICs) to talk directly to the caches of local CPUs and avoid costly fetching of the I / O data from system RAM. As a result, DDIO reduces the overall I / O processing latency, allows processing of the I / O to be performed entirely in - cache, prevents the available RAM bandwidth from becoming a performance bottleneck, and lowers the power consumption by allowing RAM to remain longer in low - powered state.
In systems - on - a-chip and embedded systems, typical system bus infrastructure is a complex on - chip bus such as AMBA High - performance Bus. AMBA defines two kinds of AHB components: master and slave. A slave interface is similar to programmed I / O through which the software (running on embedded CPU, e.g. ARM) can write / read I / O registers or (less commonly) local memory blocks inside the device. A master interface can be used by the device to perform DMA transactions to / from system memory without heavily loading the CPU.
Therefore, high bandwidth devices such as network controllers that need to transfer huge amounts of data to / from system memory will have two interface adapters to the AHB: a master and a slave interface. This is because on - chip buses like AHB do not support tri-stating the bus or alternating the direction of any line on the bus. Like PCI, no central DMA controller is required since the DMA is bus - mastering, but an arbiter is required in case of multiple masters present on the system.
Internally, a multichannel DMA engine is usually present in the device to perform multiple concurrent scatter - gather operations as programmed by the software.
As an example usage of DMA in a multiprocessor - system - on - chip, IBM / Sony / Toshiba 's Cell processor incorporates a DMA engine for each of its 9 processing elements including one Power processor element (PPE) and eight synergistic processor elements (SPEs). Since the SPE 's load / store instructions can read / write only its own local memory, an SPE entirely depends on DMAs to transfer data to and from the main memory and local memories of other SPEs. Thus the DMA acts as a primary means of data transfer among cores inside this CPU (in contrast to cache - coherent CMP architectures such as Intel 's cancelled general - purpose GPU, Larrabee).
DMA in Cell is fully cache coherent (note however local stores of SPEs operated upon by DMA do not act as globally coherent cache in the standard sense). In both read ("get '') and write ("put ''), a DMA command can transfer either a single block area of size up to 16 KB, or a list of 2 to 2048 such blocks. The DMA command is issued by specifying a pair of a local address and a remote address: for example when a SPE program issues a put DMA command, it specifies an address of its own local memory as the source and a virtual memory address (pointing to either the main memory or the local memory of another SPE) as the target, together with a block size. According to an experiment, an effective peak performance of DMA in Cell (3 GHz, under uniform traffic) reaches 200 GB per second.
Processors with scratchpad memory and DMA (such as digital signal processors and the Cell processor) may benefit from software overlapping DMA memory operations with processing, via double buffering or multibuffering. For example, the on - chip memory is split into two buffers; the processor may be operating on data in one, while the DMA engine is loading and storing data in the other. This allows the system to avoid memory latency and exploit burst transfers, at the expense of needing a predictable memory access pattern.
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once upon a time three lives three worlds ten miles peach blossoms movie | Once Upon a Time (2017 film) - wikipedia
Once Upon a Time (Chinese: 三 生 三世 十里 桃花) is a Chinese romantic drama fantasy film produced by Alibaba Pictures and directed by Zhao Xiaoding and Anthony LaMolinara. It is based on the fantasy novel Three Lives Three Worlds, Ten Miles Peach Blossoms, also known as To the Sky Kingdom, by TangQi Gongzi. The film stars Liu Yifei and Yang Yang. Originally slated to be released in China on July 21, 2017, the film 's release date was later pushed back to August 3, 2017.
Bai Qian is the youngest of five in the Bai family, a family of fox deities and the rulers of the mystical land Qing Qiu. One day, Bai Qian is invited to the East Sea to attend a party. There, she runs into a little boy who steals her fan. When she notices the boy missing, she spots a lady dropping the fan. The lady is revealed to be Xuan Nu, the Demon Clan 's Queen. Xuan Nu runs away, only for a man to come running to the boy, calling him Ah Li. Bai Qian, thinking that he is Xuan Nu, tries to stop him from approaching the Ah Li. While fighting, the man stops and calls her Su Su. The man is revealed to be Ye Hua, her betrothed, Ah Li 's father, and the Heaven Tribe 's Crown Prince. After Ye Hua apologizes, she leaves.
Back in Qing Qiu, Ye Hua and Ah Li has decided to stay with Bai Qian. While Bai Qian is with Zhe Yan, Mi Gu, a tree spirit, informs her that someone has come to Qing Qiu to take Ah Li away. The lady sees a man in an ice block in a cave. She recognizes the man as Mo Yuan and rushes out when she hears Bai Qian calling for Ah Li. The lady reveals herself to be Su Jin, a princess consort of the Heaven Tribe, who happens to be in love with Ye Hua. Ye Hua walks in and tells both of them that Ah Li will be returning to the Heaven Tribe after celebrating his birthday in the mortal realm with his mom and dad.
In the mortal realm, Ye Hua explains that three hundred years ago, he was mortally wounded in a battle and was too exhausted to use his powers. Su Su ended up taking care of him, and as a repayment for her kindness, Ye Hua agreed to marry her. Ye Hua realizes that Su Su and her are the same person and wishes that Bai Qian could remember and forget all that happened in the past.
Back in Qing Qiu, Bai Qian visits Mo Yuan, preserving him with her blood. She talks to him and calls him her master, saying that she has been waiting for him to awaken for seventy thousand years after he had trapped the Demon King, Qing Cang, in a bell. She tells him that she met someone recently who reminded her of Mo Yuan.
Bai Qian and Zhe Yan then rush to the Demon Clan, planning to rescue Mo Yuan, who Xuan Nu took while Bai Qian spent time with Zhe Yan. After rescuing him, Ye Hua recalls that in the books, it was told that after locking up Qing Cang, Mo Yuan went to live in seclusion with his favorite disciple, Si Yin, who was Bai Qian. She tells him that after Mo Yuan died, she brought him here and waited for him to come back.
During their wedding, Su Jin tells Bai Qian more of the story between Su Su and Ye Hua. Ye Hua took Su Su to the Heaven Palace and abandoned her there, driving Su Su to commit suicide. Su Jin warns her and says that Ye Hua is only with her because of the guilt he feels for Su Su. Bai Qian, filled with doubts, leaves him at the altar.
Later on, Bai Qian comes back planning to receive the soul - binding lamp from Ye Hua, so it could speed up the process of her master waking up. He finally confesses that Su Su and Bai Qian are actually the same person. She refuses to believe him. Finally, Ye Hua lends her the lamp and tells her that he hopes she can forgive him. Her memories are released and it is revealed that Su Jin, who was jealous, had Su Su 's eyes removed to replace her own. Su Su asked Ye Hua to name their baby after the word ' parting ' and jumped off of the Execution Platform. After snapping back to reality, Su Jin approaches her and pushes her off the Execution Platform, but Ye Hua catches her. Ye Hua tries to console Bai Qian, but she leaves him and returns to Qing Qiu.
Nai Nai, Bai Qian / Su Su 's maid in the Heaven Palace, pleads Bai Qian to forgive Ye Hua. Nai Nai tells Bai Qian the true story of what actually happened. All the time that Ye Hua abandoned her, he was trying to get permission from the heavenly lord to marry her. And when she jumped off the Execution Platform, Ye Hua jumped after her, harming himself. He even took the lightning punishment that was meant for her for pushing Su Jin.
At the Bell, Su Jin awakens Qing Cang. Ye Hua decides to go fight Qing Cang. Bai Qian learns of the news and rushes to go help him, but she is too late. Ye Hua sacrifices himself, just like how Mo Yuan did, to lock up Qing Cang. The river freezes and Ye Hua floats away with Bai Qian following him. Ye Hua watches her and sinks to the bottom, his last wish being that she could forget him for all the pain that he has cause her.
Mo Yuan 's ice block cracks and he awakens. As Bai Qian runs to finally see her master, she is stopped by Mo Yuan / Ye Hua standing there and asking her (Qian Qian, a nickname that only Ye Hua called her) to come closer.
On June 16, 2015, it was announced that Liu Yifei will play the leading role of Bai Qian / Si Yin / Su Su. The role of Ye Hua, the male lead, was announced to be portrayed by Yang Yang on October 29.
Principal photography started on December 18, 2015, and wrapped in March 21, 2016. The dress design of the film was Lawrence Xu.
The film is scheduled for release in China (August 3), Vietnam (August 4), Cambodia (August 4), North America (August 11), Myanmar (August 11), Malaysia (August 17), UK (August 18), Singapore (August 24), Australia (August 31), Germany, Thailand, South Korea (in September) and Japan.
The film 's opening day gross was CN ¥ 175 million. It grossed a total of US $82, 3 million in China. Variety reported that Once Upon a Time would open in North American screens on August 11, 2017. It grossed US $485,728 in North America. Wanda Vietnam company reported that Once Upon a Time have collected VND10 billion (US $440,000) after 9 days released, it can be considered very impressive in box office Vietnam. It collected US $13,732 in UK, and was last reported to have collected US $54,932 in Australia.
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top european international goal scorers of all time | List of top International association football goal scorers by country - wikipedia
This page lists the top all - time male goal scorer for each national football team where the top scorer has a minimum 20 goals in official international matches for his country. Players who are currently active at international level are indicated in bold type.
This list is not an all - time top international goal scorers list, as some country 's second - top scorer could have scored more than another country 's top scorer. It lists only the top scorer for each country.
This list is for Men 's association football only.
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which aws service is used as a global content delivery network service | Content delivery network - wikipedia
A content delivery network or content distribution network (CDN) is a geographically distributed network of proxy servers and their data centers. The goal is to distribute service spatially relative to end - users to provide high availability and high performance. CDNs serve a large portion of the Internet content today, including web objects (text, graphics and scripts), downloadable objects (media files, software, documents), applications (e-commerce, portals), live streaming media, on - demand streaming media, and social media sites.
CDNs are a layer in the internet ecosystem. Content owners such as media companies and e-commerce vendors pay CDN operators to deliver their content to their end users. In turn, a CDN pays ISPs, carriers, and network operators for hosting its servers in their data centers.
CDN is an umbrella term spanning different types of content delivery services: video streaming, software downloads, web and mobile content acceleration, licensed / managed CDN, transparent caching, and services to measure CDN performance, load balancing, multi-CDN switching and analytics and cloud intelligence. CDN vendors may cross over into other industries like security, with DDoS protection and web application firewalls (WAF), and WAN optimization.
CDN nodes are usually deployed in multiple locations, often over multiple backbones. Benefits include reducing bandwidth costs, improving page load times, or increasing global availability of content. The number of nodes and servers making up a CDN varies, depending on the architecture, some reaching thousands of nodes with tens of thousands of servers on many remote points of presence (PoPs). Others build a global network and have a small number of geographical PoPs.
Requests for content are typically algorithmically directed to nodes that are optimal in some way. When optimizing for performance, locations that are best for serving content to the user may be chosen. This may be measured by choosing locations that are the fewest hops, the least number of network seconds away from the requesting client, or the highest availability in terms of server performance (both current and historical), so as to optimize delivery across local networks. When optimizing for cost, locations that are least expensive may be chosen instead. In an optimal scenario, these two goals tend to align, as edge servers that are close to the end - user at the edge of the network may have an advantage in performance or cost.
Most CDN providers will provide their services over a varying, defined, set of PoPs, depending on the coverage desired, such as United States, International or Global, Asia - Pacific, etc. These sets of PoPs can be called "edges '', "edge nodes '' or "edge networks '' as they would be the closest edge of CDN assets to the end user.
The CDN 's Edge Network grows outward from the origins through further acquisitions (via purchase, peering, or exchange) of co-locations facilities, bandwidth, and servers.
The Internet was designed according to the end - to - end principle. This principle keeps the core network relatively simple and moves the intelligence as much as possible to the network end - points: the hosts and clients. As a result, the core network is specialized, simplified, and optimized to only forward data packets.
Content Delivery Networks augment the end - to - end transport network by distributing on it a variety of intelligent applications employing techniques designed to optimize content delivery. The resulting tightly integrated overlay uses web caching, server - load balancing, request routing, and content services. These techniques are briefly described below.
Web caches store popular content on servers that have the greatest demand for the content requested. These shared network appliances reduce bandwidth requirements, reduce server load, and improve the client response times for content stored in the cache. Web caches are populated based on requests from users (pull caching) or based on preloaded content disseminated from content servers (push caching).
Server - load balancing uses one or more techniques including service - based (global load balancing) or hardware - based, i.e. layer 4 -- 7 switches, also known as a web switch, content switch, or multilayer switch to share traffic among a number of servers or web caches. Here the switch is assigned a single virtual IP address. Traffic arriving at the switch is then directed to one of the real web servers attached to the switch. This has the advantage of balancing load, increasing total capacity, improving scalability, and providing increased reliability by redistributing the load of a failed web server and providing server health checks.
A content cluster or service node can be formed using a layer 4 -- 7 switch to balance load across a number of servers or a number of web caches within the network.
Request routing directs client requests to the content source best able to serve the request. This may involve directing a client request to the service node that is closest to the client, or to the one with the most capacity. A variety of algorithms are used to route the request. These include Global Server Load Balancing, DNS - based request routing, Dynamic metafile generation, HTML rewriting, and anycasting. Proximity -- choosing the closest service node -- is estimated using a variety of techniques including reactive probing, proactive probing, and connection monitoring.
CDNs use a variety of methods of content delivery including, but not limited to, manual asset copying, active web caches, and global hardware load balancers.
Several protocol suites are designed to provide access to a wide variety of content services distributed throughout a content network. The Internet Content Adaptation Protocol (ICAP) was developed in the late 1990s to provide an open standard for connecting application servers. A more recently defined and robust solution is provided by the Open Pluggable Edge Services (OPES) protocol. This architecture defines OPES service applications that can reside on the OPES processor itself or be executed remotely on a Callout Server. Edge Side Includes or ESI is a small markup language for edge level dynamic web content assembly. It is fairly common for websites to have generated content. It could be because of changing content like catalogs or forums, or because of the personalization. This creates a problem for caching systems. To overcome this problem, a group of companies created ESI.
In peer - to - peer (P2P) content - delivery networks, clients provide resources as well as use them. This means that unlike client - server systems, the content centric networks can actually perform better as more users begin to access the content (especially with protocols such as Bittorrent that require users to share). This property is one of the major advantages of using P2P networks because it makes the setup and running costs very small for the original content distributor.
If content owners are not satisfied with the options or costs of a commercial CDN service, they can create their own CDN. This is called a private CDN. A private CDN consists of POPs (points of presence) that are only serving content for their owner. These POPs can be caching servers, reverse proxies or application delivery controllers. It can be as simple as two caching servers, or large enough to serve petabytes of content.
Large content distribution networks may even build and set up their own private network to distribute copies of content across cache locations. Such private networks are usually used in conjunction with public networks as a backup option in case the capacity of private network is not enough or there is a failure which leads to capacity reduction. Since the same content has to be distributed across many locations, a variety of multicasting techniques may be used to reduce bandwidth consumption. Over private networks, it has also been proposed to select multicast trees according to network load conditions to more efficiently utilize available network capacity.
The rapid growth of streaming video traffic uses large capital expenditures by broadband providers in order to meet this demand and to retain subscribers by delivering a sufficiently good quality of experience.
To address this, telecommunications service providers (TSPs) have begun to launch their own content delivery networks as a means to lessen the demands on the network backbone and to reduce infrastructure investments.
Because they own the networks over which video content is transmitted, telco CDNs have advantages over traditional CDNs.
They own the last mile and can deliver content closer to the end user because it can be cached deep in their networks. This deep caching minimizes the distance that video data travels over the general Internet and delivers it more quickly and reliably.
Telco CDNs also have a built - in cost advantage since traditional CDNs must lease bandwidth from them and build the operator 's margin into their own cost model.
In addition, by operating their own content delivery infrastructure, telco operators have a better control over the utilization of their resources. Content management operations performed by CDNs are usually applied without (or with very limited) information about the network (e.g., topology, utilization etc.) of the telco - operators with which they interact or have business relationships. These pose a number of challenges for the telco - operators which have a limited sphere of actions in face of the impact of these operations on the utilization of their resources.
In contrast, the deployment of telco - CDNs allow operators to implement their own content management operations, which enables them to have better control over the utilization of their resources and, as such, provide better quality of service and experience to their end users.
In June 2011, StreamingMedia.com reported that a group of TSPs had founded an Operator Carrier Exchange (OCX) to interconnect their networks and compete more directly against large traditional CDNs like Akamai and Limelight Networks, which have extensive PoPs worldwide. This way, telcos are building a Federated CDN offering, which is more interesting for a content provider willing to deliver its content to the aggregated audience of this federation.
It is likely that in a near future, other telco CDN federations will be created. They will grow by enrollment of new telcos joining the federation and bringing network presence and their Internet subscriber bases to the existing ones.
In August 2011, a global consortium of leading Internet service providers led by Google announced their official implementation of the edns - client - subnet IETF Internet - Draft, which is intended to accurately localize DNS resolution responses. The initiative involves a limited number of leading DNS and CDN service providers. With the edns - client - subnet EDNS0 option, the recursive DNS servers of CDNs will utilize the IP address of the requesting client subnet when resolving DNS requests. If a CDN relies on the IP address of the DNS resolver instead of the client when resolving DNS requests, it can incorrectly geo - locate a client if the client is using Google anycast addresses for their DNS resolver, which can create latency problems. Initially, Google 's 8.8. 8.8 DNS addresses geo - located to California, potentially far from the location of the requesting client, but now the Google Public DNS servers are available worldwide.
Generally speaking, all Internet service providers can provide a content delivery network.
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effectiveness of doctrine of ministerial responsibility in malaysia | Doctrine of Ministerial responsibility - wikipedia
In Malaysia, the Doctrine of Ministerial Responsibility is based on Article 43, section 3 of the Malaysian Constitution that states:
This responsibility refers to the responsibility of ministers to accept and defend the decisions made jointly by the Parliament even if a minister does not agree with the decision. While a Minister is free to introduce an opposing viewpoint for debate in Parliament, once a decision is taken by the Parliament, all ministers are bound to abide by the decision. A minister who does not agree with a Parliamentary decision should resign.
The Doctrine of Ministerial Responsibility may be used to avoid confusion regarding government policy or the government 's position on a given issue, as well as to show solidarity of the government to maintain its credibility.
The Doctrine prevents minority party ministers from expressing dissenting opinions in public. Although free to speak within Parliament, as a minority, their votes are unlikely to change the outcome of a bill that may adversely affect their minority constituency.
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when was the last time newcastle won the fa cup | Newcastle United F.C. - Wikipedia
Newcastle United Football Club is an English professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne, that currently plays in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. Newcastle United was founded in 1892 by the merger of Newcastle East End and Newcastle West End, and has played at its current home ground, St James ' Park, ever since. The ground was developed into an all - seater stadium in the mid-1990s and now has a capacity of 52,354.
The club has been a member of the Premier League for all but three years of the competition 's history, spending 85 seasons in the top tier as of May 2016, and has never dropped below English football 's second tier since joining the Football League in 1893. They have won four League Championship titles, six FA Cups and a Charity Shield, as well as the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup. Newcastle United has the ninth highest total of trophies won by an English club. The club 's most successful period was between 1904 and 1910, when they won an FA Cup and three of their First Division titles. The club were highly successful in the Premier League in the 1990s and early 2000s without winning any trophies, but have been mostly struggling since the 2006 -- 07 season, and were relegated in 2009 and 2016. They returned to the Premiership for the 2017 -- 18 season after winning the Championship title the preceding year.
Newcastle has a fierce local rivalry with Sunderland, and the two clubs have engaged in the Tyne -- Wear derby since 1898. The club 's traditional kit colours are black and white striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. Their traditional crest takes elements of the city coat of arms, which features two grey seahorses. Prior to each home game the team enters the field to "Local Hero '', written by Newcastle native Mark Knopfler, while "Blaydon Races '' is invariably sung during games.
The club has been owned by Mike Ashley since 2007, succeeding long term chairman and owner Sir John Hall. The club is the seventeenth highest revenue producing club in the world in terms of annual revenue, generating € 169.3 m in 2015. Historically, Newcastle 's highest placing was in 1999 when they were the fifth highest revenue producing football club in the world, and second in England only behind Manchester United.
The first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club. Later that year, Newcastle 's first football club, Tyne Association, was formed. The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a football club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881. This team was renamed Newcastle East End F.C. in October 1882, to avoid confusion with the cricket club in Stanley, County Durham. Rosewood F.C. of Byker merged with Newcastle East End a short time later. In 1886, Newcastle East End moved from Byker to Heaton. In August 1882, Newcastle West End F.C. formed from West End Cricket Club, and in May 1886, the club moved into St James ' Park. The two clubs became rivals in the Northern League. In 1889, Newcastle East End became a professional team, before becoming a limited company the following March. However, on the other hand, Newcastle West End were in serious financial trouble and approached East End with a view to a take over. Newcastle West End were eventually dissolved, and a number of their players and backroom staff joined Newcastle East End, effectively merging the two clubs, with Newcastle East End taking over the lease on St James ' Park in May 1892.
With only one senior club in the city for fans to support, development of the club was much more rapid. Despite being refused entry to the Football League 's First Division at the start of the 1892 -- 93 season, they were invited to play in their new Second Division. However, with no big names playing in the Second Division, they turned down the offer and remained in the Northern League, stating "gates would not meet the heavy expenses incurred for travelling ''. In a bid to start drawing larger crowds, Newcastle East End decided to adopt a new name in recognition of the merger. Suggested names included Newcastle F.C., Newcastle Rangers, Newcastle City and City of Newcastle, but Newcastle United was decided upon on 9 December 1892, to signify the unification of the two teams. The name change was accepted by the Football Association on 22 December, but the club was not legally constituted as Newcastle United Football Club Co. Ltd. until 6 September 1895. At the start of the 1893 -- 94 season, Newcastle United were once again refused entry to the First Division and so joined the Second Division, along with Liverpool and Woolwich Arsenal. They played their first competitive match in the division that September against Woolwich Arsenal, with a score of 2 -- 2.
Turnstile numbers were still low, and the incensed club published a statement stating, "The Newcastle public do not deserve to be catered for as far as professional football is concerned ''. However, eventually figures picked up by 1895 -- 96, when 14,000 fans watched the team play Bury. That season Frank Watt became secretary of the club, and he was instrumental in promotion to the First Division for the 1898 -- 99 season. However, they lost their first game 4 -- 2 at home to Wolves and finished their first season in thirteenth place.
In 1903 -- 04, the club built up a promising squad of players, and went on to dominate English football for almost a decade, the team known for their "artistic play, combining team - work and quick, short passing ''. Long after his retirement, Peter McWilliam, the team 's defender at the time, said "The Newcastle team of the 1900s would give any modern side a two goal start and beat them, and further more, beat them at a trot. '' Newcastle United went on to win the League on three occasions during the 1900s; 1904 -- 05, 1906 -- 07 and 1908 -- 09. In 1904 -- 05, they nearly did the double, losing to Aston Villa in the 1905 FA Cup Final. They were beaten again the following year by Everton in the 1906 FA Cup Final. They reached the final again in 1908 where they lost to Wolves. They finally won the FA Cup in 1910 when they beat Barnsley in the final. They lost again the following year in the final against Bradford City.
The team returned to the FA Cup final in 1924, in the second final held at the then new Wembley Stadium. They defeated Aston Villa, winning the club 's second FA Cup. Three years later they won the First Division championship a fourth time in 1926 -- 27, with Hughie Gallacher, one of the most prolific goal scorers in the club 's history, captaining the team. Other key players in this period were Neil Harris, Stan Seymour and Frank Hudspeth. In 1930, Newcastle United came close to relegation, and at the end of the season Gallacher left the club for Chelsea, and at the same time Andy Cunningham became the club 's first team manager. In 1931 -- 32, the club won the FA Cup a third time. However, a couple of years later, at the end of the 1933 -- 34 season, the team were relegated to the Second Division after 35 seasons in the top. Cunningham left as manager and Tom Mather took over.
The club found it difficult to adjust to the Second Division and were nearly further relegated in the 1937 -- 38 season, when they were spared on goal averages. However, when World War II broke in 1939, Newcastle had a chance to regroup, and in the War period, they brought in Jackie Milburn, Tommy Walker and Bobby Cowell. They were finally promoted back to the First Division at the end of the 1947 -- 48 season. During the 1950s, Newcastle won the FA Cup trophy on three occasions within a five - year period, beating Blackpool in 1951, Arsenal in 1952, and Manchester City in 1955. However, after this last FA Cup victory the club fell back into decline and were relegated to the Second Division once again at the end of the 1960 -- 61 season under the management of Charlie Mitten. Mitten left after one season in the Second Division and was replaced by former player Joe Harvey. Newcastle returned to the First Division at the end of the 1964 -- 65 season after winning the Second Division title. Under Harvey, the club qualified for European competition for the first time after a good run in the 1967 -- 68 season and the following year won the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final, triumphing 6 -- 2 over two legs against Hungary 's Újpest in the final.
Harvey bought striker Malcolm Macdonald in the summer of 1971, for a club record transfer fee of £ 180,000 (worth ₤ 2294499 in 2016). He was an impressive goal scorer, who led United 's attack to Wembley in their 1974 FA Cup Final defeat at the hands of Liverpool. The club also had back to back triumphs in the Texaco Cup in 1974 and 1975. Harvey left the club in 1975, with Gordon Lee brought in to replace him. Lee took the team to the 1976 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City, but failed to bring the trophy back to Tyneside. However, he sold Macdonald to Arsenal at the end of the season, a decision of which Macdonald later said "I loved Newcastle, until Gordon Lee took over ''. Lee left for Everton in 1977, and was replaced by Richard Dinnis.
United dropped once again to the Second Division at the end of the 1977 -- 78 season. Dinnis was replaced by Bill McGarry, and then he was replaced by Arthur Cox. Cox steered Newcastle back to the First Division at the end of the 1983 -- 84 season, with players such as Peter Beardsley, Chris Waddle, and ex-England captain Kevin Keegan the fulcrum of the team. However, with a lack of funds, Cox left for Derby County and Keegan retired. With managers such as Jack Charlton and then Willie McFaul, Newcastle remained in the top - flight, until key players such as Waddle, Beardsley and Paul Gascoigne were sold, and the team was relegated once more in 1989. McFaul left the managerial post, and was replaced by Jim Smith. Smith left at the start of the 1991 -- 92 season and the board appointed Osvaldo Ardiles his replacement.
Sir John Hall became the club 's chairman in 1992, and replaced Ardiles with Keegan, who managed to save the team from relegation to the Third Division. Keegan was given more money for players, and he brought in Rob Lee, Paul Bracewell and Barry Venison and the club won the then First Division Championship at the end of the 1992 -- 93 season, earning promotion to the then new Premier League. At the end of the 1993 -- 94 season, their first year back in the top flight they finished in third, their highest league finish since 1927. The attacking philosophy of Keegan led to the team being labelled "The Entertainers '' by Sky Sports.
Keegan took Newcastle to two consecutive runners - up finishes in the league in 1995 -- 96 and 1996 -- 97, coming very close to winning the title in the former season. This success was in part due to the talent of players like David Ginola, Les Ferdinand and Alan Shearer, who was signed on 30 July 1996 for a then world record fee of £ 15 million.
Keegan left Newcastle in January 1997 and was replaced by Kenny Dalglish, however the club endured a largely unsuccessful season with a 13th - place finish in the 1997 -- 98 FA Premier League, failure to progress beyond the group stages of the 1997 -- 98 UEFA Champions League despite beating Barcelona and group winners Dynamo Kiev at St James Park as well as coming from 2 -- 0 down to draw 2 -- 2 with Valery Lobanovsky 's team in Ukraine and defeat in the 1998 FA Cup Final. Dalglish was replaced as manager early in the following season by Ruud Gullit.
The club once again finished thirteenth in the league and lost the 1999 FA Cup Final. Gullit fell into disagreements with the squad and chairman Freddy Shepherd, and quit the club four games into the 1999 -- 2000 season with the team bottom of the table to be replaced by Bobby Robson. The club managed to reach an FA Cup Semi-final and to stay in the Premier League.
A title challenge emerged during the 2001 -- 02 season, and Newcastle 's fourth - place finish saw them qualify for the Champions League. The following season, Robson guided the team to another title challenge and finished third in the League, and the second group stage of the Champions League. Newcastle finished fifth in the league at the end of the 2003 -- 04 season, and exited the Champions League in the qualifying rounds, but despite this Robson was sacked in August 2004 following a series of disagreements with the club.
Graeme Souness was brought in to manage by the start of the 2004 -- 05 season. In his time at the helm, he broke the club 's transfer record by signing Michael Owen. Souness also took the geordies to the quarterfinals of the 2005 UEFA Cup with Alan Shearer winning the tournament 's golden boot as well. However, he was sacked in February 2006 after a bad start to the club 's 2005 -- 06 season. Glenn Roeder took over, initially on a temporary basis, before being appointed full - time manager at the end of the season. Shearer retired at the end of the 2005 -- 06 season as the club 's all - time record goal scorer, with a total of 206 goals.
Despite finishing the 2005 -- 06 season in seventh, Roeder 's fortunes changed in the 2006 -- 07 season, with a terrible injury run to the senior squad, and he left the club by mutual consent on 6 May 2007.
Sam Allardyce was appointed Roeder 's replacement as manager on 15 May 2007. On 7 June, Freddy Shepherd 's final shares in the club were sold to Mike Ashley and Shepherd was replaced as chairman by Chris Mort on 25 July.
Allardyce departed the club on in January 2008 by mutual consent after a bad start to the 2007 -- 08 season, and Kevin Keegan was reappointed as Newcastle manager. Mort stepped down as chairman in June and was replaced by Derek Llambias, a long - term associate of Ashley. Newcastle finished the 2007 -- 08 season in twelfth place, but as the season drew to a close, Keegan publicly criticised the board, claiming they were not providing the team enough financial support.
In September 2008 Keegan resigned as manager, stating "It 's my opinion that a manager must have the right to manage and that clubs should not impose upon any manager any player that he does not want ''. Former Wimbledon manager Joe Kinnear was appointed as his replacement, but in February 2009, due to his heart surgery, Alan Shearer was appointed interim manager in his absence. Under Shearer, the club were relegated to the Football League Championship at the end of the 2008 -- 09 season, the first time the club had left the Premier League since joining it in 1993.
Following their relegation, the club was put up for sale in June 2009, with an asking price of £ 100 million. Chris Hughton was given the manager job on a caretaker basis before taking over full - time on 27 October 2009. On the same day, Ashley announced that the club was no longer for sale.
Hughton led Newcastle to win the 2009 -- 10 Football League Championship, securing automatic promotion on 5 April 2010 with five games remaining, and securing the title on 19 April; Newcastle were promoted back to the Premier League after just one season away.
Under Hughton, Newcastle enjoyed a strong start to the 2010 -- 11 season, but he was sacked on 6 December 2010. The club 's board stated that they felt "an individual with more managerial experience (was) needed to take the club forward. '' Three days later, Alan Pardew was appointed as manager with a five - and - a-half - year contract. Further controversy was caused on 31 January 2011, when striker Andy Carroll was sold to Liverpool for a club record of £ 35 million. Despite this turbulence, Newcastle were able to finish 12th at the end of the season, with one particular highlight being a 4 -- 4 home draw against Arsenal that saw Newcastle come back from four goals down to claim a point.
The start of the 2011 -- 12 season saw an overhaul in the first team, with the sale of influential first team players Kevin Nolan, Joey Barton and José Enrique during the summer and the elevation of Tim Krul as first choice goalkeeper and centre back Fabricio Coloccini as captain. Signings such as Yohan Cabaye, Italian international Davide Santon and Senegalese striker Demba Ba in cut - price deals saw Newcastle adopt a new transfer policy, one which would be met with success in the season. They went on to enjoy one of their strongest openings to a season, playing 11 consecutive games unbeaten. before losing away to Manchester City. Another Senegalese striker, Papiss Cissé, joined in the January transfer window, and Newcastle had a strong second half of the season, eventually securing a place in the 2012 -- 13 Europa League. Newcastle finished in fifth place, their highest league position since the Bobby Robson days. Further honours were to come as Pardew won both the Premier League Manager of the Season and the LMA Manager of the Year awards, captain Coloccini was named in the PFA Team of the Year, and Cissé won the Goal of the Season award for a goal against Chelsea.
The 2012 -- 13 season saw Newcastle regain European football for the first time since 2007. Newcastle made few acquisitions in the summer and suffered injuries over the season, including layoffs to key midfielders Yohan Cabaye and Hatem Ben Arfa, and defenders Steven and Ryan Taylor. As a result, the first half of the season was marred by a run of ten losses in 13 games, which saw the club sink near the relegation zone. In January, Newcastle signed five French players, and advanced to the Europa League quarter - finals before bowing out to eventual finalists Benfica. Domestically, Newcastle struggled, and stayed up after a 2 -- 1 victory over already - relegated Queens Park Rangers on the penultimate game of the season.
The 2014 -- 15 season saw Newcastle fail to win any of their first seven games, prompting fans to start a campaign to get Pardew sacked as manager before a six - game winning run in all competitions (including knocking holders Manchester City out of the League Cup) saw them climb to fifth in the table. After they ended Chelsea 's unbeaten start to the season, Pardew left for Crystal Palace. On 26 January 2015, his assistant John Carver was put in charge for the remainder of the season but came close to relegation, staying up on the final day with a 2 -- 0 home win against West Ham, with Jonás Gutiérrez, who beat testicular cancer earlier in the season, scoring the team 's second goal.
On 9 June 2015, Carver and his assistant Steve Stone were both sacked and replaced by Steve McClaren the following day. On 11 March 2016, McClaren was sacked after nine months as manager, with Newcastle in 19th place in the Premier League and the club winning just six of 28 Premier League games during his time at the club. He was replaced by Spaniard Rafael Benítez on the same day, who signed a three - year deal, but was not able to prevent the club from being relegated. Newcastle returned to the Premier League at the first attempt, winning the Championship title on 7 May 2017 with a 3 -- 0 win against Barnsley.
The club 's home colours are a black and white striped shirt. Shorts and socks are usually black with white trim, though white socks are sometimes worn under some managers who consider them "lucky ''. Newcastle 's colours at the outset was generally the home kit of Newcastle East End F.C., comprising plain red shirts with white shorts and red socks. In 1894, the club adopted the black and white striped shirts, which had been used as the reserve team 's colours. These colours were chosen for the senior team because they were not associated with either of the two teams United were merged from. They played in grey shorts until 1897, and between 1897 and 1921, they played in blue shorts before adopting the black shorts they play in now.
United 's away colours have changed a number of times over the years. They played in white shirts and black shorts from 1914 until 1961, and then white shorts until 1966. They then played in yellow shirts and blue shorts for the 1967 -- 68 season, but from 1969 to 1974 played in all red with an all blue third kit. In 1974, they returned to a yellow shirt, which they played with various coloured shorts until 1983. They played in all grey from 1983 to 1988, before once again returning to the yellow kit until 1993. Since 1995, the away kit has changed consistently and has not been the same for more than a single season. Through owner Mike Ashley, the club also has a relationship with the Sports Direct retail chain which he founded.
On 4 January 2012, Virgin Money, who had just bought Northern Rock, signed a two - year deal to sponsor Newcastle United. In January 2010, Puma became the official supplier and licensee of replica merchandise for Newcastle. The deal meant Puma supplied the team kit, replica kit and training equipment for the 2010 -- 11 and 2011 -- 12 seasons.
The current club crest was first used in the 1988 -- 89 season. The crest includes elements from the coat of arms of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne -- the two sea horses representing Tyneside 's strong connections with the sea, the castle representing the city 's Norman keep. The city 's coat of arms were first embroidered on the team 's shirts in 1969 and worn as standard until 1976. A scroll at the bottom featured the city 's motto in Latin; fortiter defendit triumphans which translates into English as "triumphing by brave defence. '' From 1976 until 1983, the club wore a specific badge which was developed to wear in place of the city 's coat of arms. The design was of a circular shape, which featured the club 's name in full, it contained a magpie standing in front of the River Tyne with the historic Norman castle of Newcastle in the background. A more simplistic design followed in 1983, featuring the initials of the club 's name, NUFC with the small magpie used in the previous crest within the horizontally laid "C, '' this logo was relatively short lived and was discontinued after 1988.
On 16 May 2013, Newcastle released the away shirt for the 2013 -- 14 season which for the first time featured the Wonga.com logo, which attracted criticism from many Newcastle supporters; the shirt was navy blue with light blue bands. The shirt received mixed reviews from Newcastle supporters, who described the shirt as both "awesome '' and "bland, '' as quoted in the Newcastle daily Evening Chronicle. In July 2013, Newcastle striker and practicing Muslim Papiss Cissé refused to wear any official kit or training wear with reference to Wonga.com, subsequently failing to travel to the team 's 2013 pre-season tour of Portugal. The matter has since been resolved.
On 15 May 2017, the home shirt for the 2017 -- 18 season was revealed, featuring the logo of new sponsors Fun88. The shirt was shown to include a gold and silver commemorative crest to mark the club 's 125th football season, based on the city 's coat of arms. It was also announced that the kit would feature red numbers for the first time since the 1992 -- 93 season.
Previous kit sponsors include Newcastle Breweries (1980 -- 86), Greenall 's Beers (1986 -- 90), McEwan 's Lager and Newcastle Brown Ale (1990 -- 2000), NTL (2000 -- 03), Northern Rock (2003 -- 12), and Virgin Money (2012 -- 13).
Newcastle 's current kit manufacturers are Puma, in a deal that started in 2010. Previous kit manufacturers include Bukta (1974 -- 75, 1976 -- 80), Umbro (1975 -- 76, 1980 -- 86), Asics (1993 -- 95) and Adidas (1995 -- 2010). Other current team sponsors include Fun88, Carling, Coral, Pulman, Thomas Cook Group and Stelrad. Newcastle United have named Indian tyre conglomerate Madras Rubber Factory Limited -- more commonly known as MRF -- as the club 's new shirt sleeve sponsor for the 2017 / 18 Premier League season. Founded in 1946, MRF is the largest manufacturer of tyres in India and has more than 15,000 employees. The publicly listed company also produces treads, tubes and conveyor belts, as well as toys and paint.
Throughout Newcastle United 's history, their home venue has been St James ' Park, the oldest and largest football stadium in North East England, as well as the sixth - largest football stadium in the United Kingdom. It has hosted ten international football matches at senior level, the first in 1901 and the most recent in 2005. It was used as a venue for both the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2015 Rugby World Cup.
Football had been played at St James ' Park as early as 1880, the ground being occupied by Newcastle Rangers, before becoming the home of Newcastle West End F.C. in 1886. Its lease was then bought by Newcastle East End F.C. in 1892, before they changed their name to Newcastle United. At the turn of the 19th century, the ground 's capacity was given as 30,000 before being redeveloped between 1900 and 1905, increasing the capacity to 60,000 and making it the biggest stadium in England for a time. For most of the 20th century, the stadium changed very little, despite various plans for development of the ground. The old West Stand was replaced with the Milburn Stand in 1987, the Sir John Hall Stand replacing the Leazes End in 1993, and the rest of the ground renovated making the ground a 37,000 capacity all - seater stadium. Between 1998 and 2000, double tiers were added to the Milburn and John Hall stands to bring the venue up to its current capacity of 52,420. There were plans to build a new 90,000 seater stadium in Leazes park, just behind St James ' with Newcastle Falcons taking over St James ' Park, but due to protests the plans were dropped. St James ' Park currently seats 52,420 people, but club owner Mike Ashley would consider taking the roof off The Gallowgate end and adding another 6,000 seats making the total capacity to 58,420, but only if the team manage to finish in the top six places of the Premier League.
In October 2009, Mike Ashley announced that he planned to lease the name of the ground in a bid to increase revenue, and in November the stadium was temporarily renamed sportsdirect.com @ St James ' Park Stadium. This name was only supposed to be used until the end of the 2009 -- 10 season, but lasted until November 2011. On 10 November 2011, the club officially changed the name of the stadium to the Sports Direct Arena, although this will most likely be an interim name, as it is only being used to showcase the sponsorship capabilities of the stadium. The company, owned by Ashley, were not paying anything for the deal. However, if another company purchases the naming rights, they will be expected to pay between £ 8 million and £ 10 million. Many fans voiced their anger at the renaming, but Managing Director Derek Llambias has said that it was necessary to give Newcastle extra money so that they compete with the bigger clubs in the league.
Since 1982, the stadium is served by St James Metro station on the Tyne and Wear Metro. The station is decorated in a black and white colour scheme, with archive photographs of the club 's players.
The club 's current training ground is located at Darsley Park, which is north of the city at Benton. The facility was opened in July 2003 and is also used by the Newcastle Falcons rugby team.
Newcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895. The club traded in this way for much of the 20th century, dominated by McKeag, Westwood and Seymour family ownership, until April 1997, when John Hall, who bought 72.9 % of the club for £ 3 million in 1991, floated the club on the stock exchange as a public limited company, with less than half the shares sold to the Hall family and the majority holding going to his business partner Freddy Shepherd. Later that year, Hall stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Shepherd, with the Hall family represented on the board by John 's son Douglas. In December 1998, after buying a 6.3 % stake in the club for £ 10 million, the media group NTL had considered a full takeover of the club. This was later dropped after the April 1999 Competition Commission, brought in due to government concerns about football clubs being owned by media companies.
In 2007, businessman Mike Ashley purchased the combined stakes of both Douglas and John Hall, 41 % share in the club, through a holding company St James Holdings, with a view to buy the rest. Upon purchasing this share, he appointed Chris Mort as chairman, while gaining more shares, owning 93.19 % of the club by 29 June 2007. This figure reached 95 % on 11 July 2007, forcing the remaining shareholders to sell their shares.
Since completing the purchase of the club, Ashley has twice announced that he planned to sell the club. The first occurred after fan protests over the resignation of Kevin Keegan on 14 September 2008, when Ashley stated, "I have listened to you. You want me out. That is what I am now trying to do. '' However, he took it off the market on 28 December 2008 after being unable to find a buyer. On 31 May 2009, it was reported that Ashley was attempting to sell the club again. On 8 June 2009, Ashley confirmed that the club was up for sale at an asking price of £ 100 million. By the end of August 2009, the club was back off the market.
Newcastle United established the Newcastle United Foundation in summer 2008, which seeks to encourage learning and promote healthy living amongst disadvantaged children, young people and families in the North East region, as well as promoting equality and diversity. The Foundation 's manager Kate Bradley told charity news website The Third Sector, "Children look up to players as their heroes, and anything they say is instantly taken on board. If Newcastle defender Steven Taylor tells them not to eat a Mars bar for breakfast, they 'll listen. '' In 2010, the charity taught over 5,000 children about healthy living.
The Foundation 's commitment, along with a similar foundation run by West Bromwich Albion, the unique relationship that Aston Villa has with Acorns Children 's Hospice and Tottenham Hotspur has with SOS Children 's Villages UK, are some leading examples of commitment in the highest level of football to responsibility and change in the communities in which they work and who enrich them through their support and ticket sales. The work of these clubs, and others, is changing the way professional sport interacts with their communities and supporters.
In December 2012, the club announced that it had become the world 's first carbon positive football club.
Supporters of Newcastle United are drawn from all over the North East and beyond, with supporters ' clubs in some countries across the world. The club 's nickname is ' The Magpies ', while the club 's supporters are also known as the Geordies or the Toon Army. The name Toon originates from the Geordie pronunciation of town. In a 2004 survey by Co-operative Financial Services, it was found that Newcastle United topped the league table for the cost incurred and distance travelled by Newcastle - based fans wishing to travel to every Premier League away game. The total distance travelled for a fan to attend every away game from Newcastle was found to be equivalent to a round - the - world trip. In the 2009 -- 10 season, when the club were playing in English football 's second tier, the Football League Championship, the average attendance at St James ' Park was 43,388, the fourth - highest for an English club that season. At the end of the 2011 -- 12 Premier league season, Newcastle United held the third - highest average attendance for the season, at 49,935. This figure was only surpassed by Arsenal and Manchester United, the only two clubs in the Premier League with larger stadiums.
The club 's supporters publish a number of fanzines including True Faith and The Mag, along with NUFC.com, which was established in 1996. They set up Newcastle United Supporters Trust in September 2008, aiming to "represent the broad church of Newcastle United 's support. ''
In addition to the usual English football chants, Newcastle 's supporters sing the traditional Tyneside song "Blaydon Races. ''
Traditionally, Newcastle 's main rivals are Sunderland, against whom the Tyne -- Wear derby is competed.
To date, inclusive of the 2015 -- 16 season, Newcastle United have spent 85 seasons in the top - flight. They are eighth in the All - time FA Premier League table and have the ninth - highest total of major honours won by an English club with 11 wins. The holder of the record for the most appearances is Jimmy Lawrence, having made 496 first team appearances between 1904 and 1921. The club 's top goal scorer is Alan Shearer, who scored 206 goals in all competitions between 1996 and 2006. Andy Cole holds the record for the most goals scored in a season: 41 in the 1993 -- 94 season in the Premier League. Shay Given is the most capped international for the club, with 134 appearances for Republic of Ireland.
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was in the 13 -- 0 win against Newport County in the Second Division in 1946. Their heaviest defeat in the league was 9 -- 0 against Burton Wanderers in the Second Division in 1895. The club 's longest number of consecutive seasons in the top flight of English football was 36 from 1898 -- 99 until 1933 -- 34.
Newcastle 's record home attendance is 68,386 for a First Division match against Chelsea on 3 September 1930. The club 's highest attendance in the Premier League is 52,389, in a match against Manchester City on 6 May 2012. Newcastle lost the game 2 -- 0. The highest transfer fee received for a Newcastle player is £ 35 million, from Liverpool for Andy Carroll in January 2011, while the most spent by the club on a player was £ 16 million for striker Michael Owen from Real Madrid in August 2005.
The current Newcastle United first team squad consist of the following players:
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
The following players have made a league or cup appearance for Newcastle United or were assigned squad numbers for the current season, but are not listed on the first team squad page:
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
The following former first team players are currently on loan at other clubs.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
For details on former players, see List of Newcastle United F.C. players and Category: Newcastle United F.C. players
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mother ancestor is the goddess of the sea and the queen of heaven | Mazu - wikipedia
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Mazu, also known by several other names and titles, is a Chinese sea goddess. She is the deified form of the purported historical Lin Mo or Lin Moniang, a Fujianese shamaness whose life span is traditionally dated from 960 to 987. Revered after her death as a tutelary deity of seafarers, including fishermen and sailors, her worship spread throughout China 's coastal regions and overseas Chinese communities throughout Southeast Asia. She was thought to roam the seas, protecting her believers through miraculous interventions. She is now generally regarded by her believers as a powerful and benevolent Queen of Heaven. Mazuism is popular on Taiwan; her temple festival is a major event in the region, with the largest celebrations around her temples at Dajia and Beigang.
In addition to Mazu or Ma - tsu, meaning "Maternal Ancestor '' "Mother '', "Granny '', or "Grandmother '', Lin Moniang is worshipped under various other names and titles:
Although many of Mazu 's temples honor her titles Tianhou and Tianfei, it became customary to never pray to her under those names during an emergency since it was believed that, hearing one of her formal titles, Mazu might feel obligated to groom and dress herself as properly befitting her station before receiving the petition. Prayers invoking her as Mazu were thought to be answered more quickly.
Very little is known of the historical Lin Moniang. She was apparently a shamaness from a small fishing village on Meizhou Island, part of Fujian 's Putian County, in the late 10th century. Her Meizhou was an uneducated and superstitious place, where out of "perhaps a thousand households... not one person (could) read ''. She probably did not live there, however, but on the nearby mainland. During this era, Fujian was greatly sinicized by influxes of refugees fleeing invasions of northern China and Mazu 's cult may represent a hybridization of Chinese and local culture. The earliest record of her cult is from two centuries later, an 1150 inscription that mentions "she could foretell a man 's good and ill luck '' and, "after her death, the people erected a temple for her on her home island ''.
The legends around Lin Moniang 's life were broadly established by the 13th century.
She was said to have been born under the reign of the Quanzhounese warlord Liu Congxiao (d. 962), which eventually developed into the specific date of the 23rd day of the third month of the Chinese lunar calendar in AD 960, the first year of the Song. The late Ming Great Collection of the Three Teachings ' Origin and Development and Research into the Divine (三 教 源 流 搜 神 大 全, Sānjiào Yuánliú Sōushén Dàquán), however, placed her birth much earlier, in 742.
The early sources speak of her as "Miss Lin ''; her given name Mo ("Silent One '') or Moniang ("the Silent Girl '') appeared later. It was said to have been chosen when she did not cry during birth or during the first month afterwards; she remained a quiet and pensive child as late as four. She was said to have been the sixth or seventh daughter of Lin Yuan (林 愿). He is now usually remembered as one of the local fisherman, although the 1593 edition of the Records of Research into the Divine made him Putian 's chief military inspector. The family was helpful and popular within their village. Late legends intended to justify Mazu 's presence in Buddhist temples held that her parents had prayed to Guanyin for a son but received yet another daughter. In one version, her mother dreamt of Guanyin giving her a magical pill to induce pregnancy and woke to find the pill still in her hand; rather than being born in the conventional way, Mazu shot from her mother at birth in the form of a fragrant flash of red light. Guanyin was said to have been especially devoted to Mazu or even to have been incarnated as Mazu; for her part, Mazu was said to have been entranced by a statue of Guanyin at a temple she visited as a child, after which she became an ardent Buddhist.
She is now often said to have studied religious literature, mastering Confucius by 8 and the principal Buddhist sutras by 11. The Account of the Blessings Revealed by the Princess of Heaven (t 天 妃 顯 聖 錄, s 天 妃 显 圣 录, Tiānfēi Xiǎnshèng Lù) collected by her supposed descendants Lin Yaoyu (t 林 堯 俞, s 林 尧 俞, Lín Yáoyú; fl. 1589) and Lin Linchang (林 麟 焻, Lín Línchàng; fl. 1670) claimed that, while still a girl, she was visited by a Taoist master (elsewhere a Buddhist monk) named Xuantong (玄 通, Xuántōng) who recognized her Buddha nature. By 13, she had mastered the book of lore he had left her (玄 微 袐 法, Xuánwēi Bìfǎ) and gained the abilities to see the future and visit places in spirit without travel. She was able to manifest herself at a distance as well and used this power to visit gardens in the surrounding countryside, although she asked owners ' permission before gathering any flowers to take home. Although she only started swimming at the relatively late age of 15, she soon excelled at it. She was said to have stood on the shore in red garments to guide fishing boats home, regardless of harsh or dangerous weather. She met a Taoist immortal at a fountain at sixteen and received an amulet or two bronze tablets which she translated or used to exorcize demons, to heal the sick, and to avert disasters. She was also said to be a rainmaker during times of drought.
Mazu 's principal legend concerns her saving one or some members of her family when they were caught offshore during a typhoon, usually when she was 16. It appears in several forms. In one, the women at home feared Lin Yuan and his son were lost but Mazu fell into a trance while weaving at her loom. Her spiritual power began to save the men from drowning but her mother roused her, causing her to drop her brother into the sea. The father returned and told the other villagers of the miracle; this version of the story is preserved in murals at Fengtin in Fujian. One variant is that her brothers were saved but her father was lost; she then spent three days and nights searching for his body before finding it. Another version is that all the men returned safely. Another is that Mazu was praying to Guanyin; another that she was sleeping and assisting her family through her dream. Still another is that the boats were crewed by her four brothers and that she saved three of them, securing their boats together, with the eldest lost owing to the interference of her parents, who mistook her trance for a seizure and woke her.
In earlier records, Mazu died unmarried at 27 or 28. (Her celibacy was sometimes ascribed to a vow she took after losing her brother at sea.) The date of her passing eventually became the specific date of the Double Ninth Festival in 987, making her 27 by western reckoning and 28 by traditional Chinese dating. She was said to have died in meditation, though in some accounts she did not die but climbed a mountain alone and ascended into Heaven as a goddess in a beam of bright light. In others, she died protesting an unwanted betrothal. Still another places her death at age 16, saying she drowned after exhausting herself in a failed attempt to find her lost father, underlining her filial piety. Her corpse then washed ashore on Nangan Island, which preserves a gravesite said to be hers.
In addition to the legends surrounding her earthly life, Mazu figures in a number of Chinese myths.
In one, the demons Qianliyan ("Thousand - Mile Eye '') and Shunfeng'er ("Wind - Following Ear '') both fell in love with her and she conceded that she would marry the one who defeated her in combat. Using her martial arts skills, however, she subdued them both and, after becoming friends, hired them as her guardian generals.
In a book of the Taoist Canon (t 太 上 老 君 說 天 妃 救 苦 靈 驗 經, s 太 上 老 君 说 天 妃 救 苦 灵 验 经, Tàishàng Lǎojūn Shuō Tiānfēi Jiùkǔ Língyàn Jīng), the Jade Woman of Marvelous Deeds (妙 行 玉 女) is a star from the Big Dipper brought to earth by Laojun, the divine form of Laozi, to show his compassion for those who might be lost at sea. She is incarnated as Mazu and swears not only to protect sailors but to oversee all facets of life and death, providing help to anyone who might call upon her.
-- Tianfei Xiansheng Lu (early 17th century) about Lu Yundi 's encounter with the goddess
Mazuism is first attested in Huang Gongdu 's c. 1140 poem "On the Shrine of the Smooth Crossing '' (t 順 濟 廟, s 顺 济 庙, Shùnjì Miào), which considered her a menial and misguided shamaness whose continued influence was inexplicable. He notes that her devotees danced and sang together and with their children. Shortly afterwards, Liao Pengfei (廖鵬飛) 's 1150 inscription at the village of Ninghai (now Qiaodou Village) in Putian was more respectful. It states that, "after her death, the people erected a temple for her on her home island '' and that the Temple of the Sacred Mound (t 聖 墩 廟, s 圣 墩 庙, Shèngdūn Miào) was raised in 1086 after some people in Ninghai saw it glowing, discovered a miraculous old raft or stump, and experienced a vision of "the goddess of Meizhou ''. This structure had been renamed the Smooth Crossing Temple by Emperor Huizong of Song in 1123 after his envoy Lu Yundi (路 允 迪, Lù Yǔndí) was miraculously saved during a storm the year before while on an official mission to pay respects to the court of Goryeo upon the death of its king, Yejong, and to replace the Liao dynasty as the formal suzerains investing his successor, Injong.
Her worship subsequently spread: Li Junfu 's early - 13th century Putian Bishi records temples on Meizhou and at Qiaodou, Jiangkou, and Baihu. By 1257, Liu Kezhuang was noting Putian 's "large market towns and small villages all have... shrines to the Princess '' and that they had spread to Fengting to the south. By the end of the Song, there were at least 31 temples to Mazu, reaching at least as far as Shanghai in the north and Guangzhou in the south.
-- Admiral Zheng He and his associates (Changle inscription, early 15th century) about witnessing the goddess ' divine lantern, which represented the natural phenomena Saint Elmo 's fire
As Mazuism spread, it began to absorb the cults of other local shamanesses such as the other two of Xianyou 's "Three Princesses '' and even some lesser maritime and agricultural gods, including Liu Mian and Zhang the Heavenly Instructor. By the 12th century, she had already become a guardian to the people of Qiaodou when they suffered drought, flood, epidemic, piracy, or brigandage. She protected women during childbirth and when they sought contraception. As the patron of the seas, her temples were among the first erected by arriving overseas Chinese, as they gave thanks for their safe passage. Despite his Islamic upbringing, the Ming admiral and explorer Zheng He credited Mazu for protecting one of his journeys, prompting a new title in 1409. He patronized the Mazu temples of Nanjing and prevailed upon the Yongle Emperor to construct the city 's Tianfei Palace; because of its imperial patronage and prominent location in the empire 's southern capital, this was long the largest and highest - status center of Mazuism in China. During the Southern Ming resistance to the Qing, Mazu was credited with helping Koxinga 's army capture Taiwan from the Dutch; she was later said to have personally aided some of Shi Lang 's men in defeating Liu Guoxuan at Penghu in 1683, ending the independent kingdom of Koxinga 's descendants and placing Taiwan under Qing control. The Ming prince Zhu Shugui 's palace was converted into Tainan 's Grand Matsu Temple, the first to bear her new title of "Heavenly Empress ''.
In late imperial China, sailors often carried effigies of Mazu to ensure safe crossings. Some boats still carry small shrines on their bows. Mazu charms are also used as medicine, including as salves for blistered feet. As late as the 19th century, the Qing government officially credited her divine intervention with their 1884 victory over the French at Tamsui District during the Sino - French War and specially honored the town 's temple to her, which had served as General Sun Kaihua 's headquarters during the fighting.
Today, Mazuism is practiced in about 1500 temples in 26 countries around the world, mostly in the Sinosphere or the overseas Chinese communities. Of these temples, almost 1000 are on Taiwan, representing a doubling of the 509 temples recorded in 1980 and more than a dozen times the number recorded before 1911. These temples are generally registered as Taoist, although some are considered Buddhist. There are more than 90 Mazu Temples in Hong Kong. In Mainland China, Mazuism is formally classified as a cult outside of Buddhism and Taoism, although numerous Buddhist and Taoist temples include shrines to her. Her worship is generally permitted but not encouraged, with most surviving temples concentrated around Putian in Fujian. Including the twenty on Meizhou Island, there are more than a hundred in the prefecture and another 70 elsewhere in the province, mostly in the settlements along its coast. There are more than 40 temples in Guangdong and Hainan and more than 30 in Zhejiang and Jiangsu, but many historical temples are now treated as museums and operated by local parks or cultural agencies. The A-Ma Temple on Macao Island is the probable source of its name in Portuguese and English; the historic and protected Tin Hau Temple, Causeway Bay in Hong Kong is the source of the Tin Hau area 's name from the Cantonese pronunciation of one of Mazu 's titles, "Empress of Heaven ''. The Mazu temple in Melbourne is the largest Chinese temple in Australia.
A major project to build the world 's tallest Mazu statue at Tanjung Simpang Mengayau in Kudat, Borneo, was officially launched by Sabah. The statue was to be 10 stories high, but was canceled due to protests from Muslims in Sabah and political interference. In its absence, the world 's tallest statue of the goddess is the 42.3 - meter (139 ft) Mazu of Tianjin that was erected in 2012.
Informal centers of pilgrimage for Mazu 's believers include Meizhou Island and the Zhenlan Temple in Taichung on Taiwan.
The primary temple festival in Mazuism is Lin Moniang 's traditional birthday on the 23rd day of the 3rd month of the Chinese lunar calendar. It is celebrated widely in Taiwan, with the largest festivities around the 8 - day, 250 - kilometer (160 mi) annual "inspection tour '' of a Mazu idol from the Zhenlan Temple in Taichung to Chaotian Temple in Beigang and back again. The highlight is an incense - cutting ritual used to restore the fires of the Taichung temple. As many as 6,000 join the tour itself, some dressed as medieval standard - bearers and foot - soldiers, and more than 30,000 sometimes arrive for the idol 's entry into Beigang. Another major festival is that around the Tianhou Temple in Lukang. Depending on the year, Mazu 's festival day may fall as early as mid-April or as late as mid-May:
The anniversary of her death or supposed ascension into Heaven is also celebrated, usually on the Double Ninth Festival (the ninth day of the ninth month of the lunar calendar).
After her death, Mazu was remembered as a young lady who wore a red dress as she roamed over the seas. In religious statuary, she is usually clothed in the attire of an empress, and decorated with accessories such as a ceremonial hu tablet and a flat - topped imperial cap (mian'guan) with rows of beads (liu) hanging from the front and back. Her temples are usually protected by the door gods Qianliyan and Shunfeng'er. These vary in appearance but are frequently demons, Qianliyan red with two horns and two yellow sapphire eyes and Shunfeng'er green with one horn and two ruby eyes.
Lin Moniang (2000), a minor Fujianese TV series, was a dramatization of Mazu 's life as a mortal. Mazu (海 之 傳說 媽祖, 2007) was a Taiwanese animated feature film from the Chinese Cartoon Production Co. depicting her life as a shamaness and goddess. Its production director Teng Chiao admitted the limited appeal to the domestic market: "If young people were our primary target audience, we would n't tell the story of Mazu in the first place since they are not necessarily interested in the ancient legend (;) neither do they have loyalty to made - in - Taiwan productions ''. Instead, "when you look to global markets, the question that foreign buyers always ask is what can best represent Taiwan ''. Mazu, with its story about "a magic girl and two cute sidekicks (Mazu 's door gods Qianliyan and Shunfeng'er) spiced up with a strong local flavor '' was instead designed with an intent to appeal to international markets interested in Taiwan.
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what are the most developed countries in latin america | List of Latin American countries by Human Development Index - wikipedia
The following tables covers the list of Latin American countries by Human Development Index as released by the United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Report. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living for regions worldwide.
Countries fall into four broad categories based on their HDI: very high (for developed countries), high and medium (for developing countries) and low (for least developing countries).
The table below presents the latest Human Development Index (HDI) for countries in Latin America and the Caribbean as included in a United Nations Development Programme 's Human Development Report (released in 2016). Previous HDI values and rankings are retroactively recalculated using the same updated data sets and current methodologies, as presented in Table 2 of the Statistical Annex of the Human Development Report. The HDI rankings and values in the 2016 Human Development Report can not therefore be compared directly to HDI rankings and values published in previous Human Development Reports.
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who designed the costumes for my fair lady | My Fair Lady (film) - wikipedia
My Fair Lady is a 1964 American musical film adapted from the Lerner and Loewe eponymous stage musical based on the 1913 stage play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. With a screenplay by Alan Jay Lerner and directed by George Cukor, the film depicts a poor Cockney flower seller named Eliza Doolittle who overhears an arrogant phonetics professor, Henry Higgins, as he casually wagers that he could teach her to speak "proper '' English, thereby making her presentable in the high society of Edwardian London.
The film stars Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison as Eliza Doolittle and Henry Higgins respectively, with Stanley Holloway, Gladys Cooper and Wilfrid Hyde - White in supporting roles. A critical and commercial success, it won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Director. In 1998, the American Film Institute named it the 91st greatest American film of all time.
In Edwardian London, Professor Henry Higgins (Rex Harrison), a scholar of phonetics, believes that the accent and tone of one 's voice determines a person 's prospects in society. In Covent Garden one evening, he boasts to a new acquaintance, Colonel Hugh Pickering (Wilfrid Hyde - White), himself an expert in phonetics, that he could teach any person to speak in a way that he could pass them off as a duke or duchess at an embassy ball. Higgins selects as an example a young flower seller, Eliza Doolittle (Audrey Hepburn), who has a strong Cockney accent. Eliza 's ambition is to work in a flower shop, but her thick accent makes her unsuitable. Having come from India to meet Higgins, Pickering is invited to stay with the professor. The following morning, Eliza shows up at Higgins ' home, seeking lessons. Pickering is intrigued and offers to cover all expenses if the experiment should be successful.
Eliza 's father, Alfred P. Doolittle (Stanley Holloway), a dustman, shows up three days later, ostensibly to protect his daughter 's virtue, but in reality simply to extract some money from Higgins, and is bought off with £ 5. Higgins is impressed by the man 's honesty, his natural gift for language, and especially his brazen lack of morals. Higgins recommends Alfred to a wealthy American who is interested in morality. Eliza goes through many forms of speech training, such as speaking with marbles in her mouth, enduring Higgins ' harsh approach to teaching and his treatment of her personally. She makes little progress, but just as she, Higgins, and Pickering are about to give up, Eliza finally "gets it ''; she instantly begins to speak with an impeccable upper class accent.
As a test, Higgins takes her to Ascot Racecourse, where she makes a good impression initially, only to shock everyone by a sudden lapse into vulgar Cockney while cheering on a horse. Higgins, who dislikes the pretentiousness of the upper class, partly conceals a grin behind his hand. Eliza poses as a mysterious lady at an embassy ball and even dances with a foreign prince. At the ball is Zoltan Karpathy (Theodore Bikel), a Hungarian phonetics expert trained by Higgins. After a brief conversation with Eliza, he certifies that she is not only Hungarian, but of royal blood, declaring her to be a Princess.
After all the effort she has put in, however, Eliza 's actions are n't even acknowledged; all the praise going to Higgins. This, and his callous treatment towards her afterwards, especially his indifference to her future, causes her to throw Higgins ' slippers at him, and to walk out on him, leaving him mystified by her ingratitude. Accompanied by Freddy Eynsford - Hill (Jeremy Brett), a young man she met at Ascot and who is charmed by her, Eliza returns to her old life, but finds that she no longer fits in. She meets her father, who has been left a large fortune by the wealthy American to whom Higgins had recommended him, and is resigned to marrying Eliza 's stepmother. Alfred feels that Higgins has ruined him, since he is now bound by morals and responsibility. Eventually, Eliza ends up visiting Higgins ' mother (Gladys Cooper), who is enraged at her son 's behaviour.
The next day, Higgins finds Eliza gone and searches for her, eventually finding her at his mother 's house. Higgins attempts to talk Eliza into coming back to him. He becomes angered when Eliza announces that she is going to marry Freddy and become Karpathy 's assistant. He makes his way home, stubbornly predicting that she will come crawling back. However, he comes to the realization that he has "grown accustomed to her face. '' Henry returns to his study to lament his loneliness. As he listens to Eliza 's recorded voice, she reappears in the doorway behind him, turning off the recording and saying in her old Cockney accent, "I washed my hands and face before I come I did. '' Higgins looks surprised then pleased before asking for his slippers once more as Eliza smiles on behind him, leaving the audience to decide what happens next.
Uncredited Cast
The head of CBS, William S. Paley, put up the money for the original Broadway production in exchange for the rights to the cast album (through Columbia Records). When Warner bought the film rights in February 1962 for the then - unprecedented sum of $5 million, it was agreed that the rights to the film would revert to CBS seven years following release.
The order of the songs in the show was followed faithfully, except for "With a Little Bit of Luck ''. The song is listed as being the third musical number in the play; in the film it is the fourth. Onstage, the song is split into two parts sung in two different scenes. Part of the song is sung by Doolittle and his cronies just after Eliza gives him part of her earnings, immediately before she makes the decision to go to Higgins 's house to ask for speech lessons. The second half of the song is sung by Doolittle just after he discovers that Eliza is now living with Higgins. In the film, the entire song is sung in one scene that takes place just after Higgins has sung "I 'm an Ordinary Man ''. However, the song does have a dialogue scene (Doolittle 's conversation with Eliza 's landlady) between verses.
The instrumental "Busker Sequence '', which opens the play immediately after the Overture, is the only musical number from the play omitted in the film version. However, there are several measures from this piece that can be heard as we see Eliza in the rain, making her way through the cars and carriages in Covent Garden.
All of the songs in the film were performed near complete; however, there were some verse omissions, as there sometimes are in film versions of Broadway musicals. For example, in the song "With a Little Bit of Luck '', the verse "He does not have a Tuppence in his pocket '', which was sung with a chorus, was omitted, due to space and its length. The original verse in "Show Me '' was used instead.
The stanzas of "You Did It '' that came after Higgins says "she is a Princess '' were originally written for the Broadway version, but Harrison hated the lyrics, and refused to perform the song unless and until those lyrics were omitted, which they were in most Broadway versions. However, Cukor insisted that the omitted lyrics be restored for the film version or he would not direct at all, causing Harrison to oblige. The omitted lyrics end with the words "Hungarian Rhapsody '' followed by the servants shouting "Bravo '' three times, to the strains of Liszt 's "Hungarian Rhapsody '' before the servants sing "Congratulations, Professor Higgins ''.
Hepburn 's singing was judged inadequate, and she was dubbed by Marni Nixon, who sang all songs except "Just You Wait '', where Hepburn 's voice was left undubbed during the harsh - toned chorus of the song and Nixon sang the melodic bridge section. Some of Hepburn 's original vocal performances for the film were released in the 1990s, affording audiences an opportunity to judge whether the dubbing was necessary. Less well known is the dubbing of Jeremy Brett 's songs (as Freddy) by Bill Shirley.
Harrison declined to pre-record his musical numbers for the film, explaining that he had never talked his way through the songs the same way twice and thus could not convincingly lip - sync to a playback during filming (as musical stars had, according to Jack L. Warner, been doing for years. "We even dubbed Rin - Tin - Tin ''). George Groves decided to use a wireless microphone, the first such use during filming of a motion picture. The sound department earned an Academy Award for its efforts.
One of the few differences in structure between the stage version and the film is the placement of the intermission. In the stage play, the intermission comes after the embassy ball where Eliza dances with Karpathy. In the film, the intermission comes before the ball, as Eliza, Higgins, and Pickering are seen departing for the embassy.
Gene Allen, Cecil Beaton, and George James Hopkins won an Academy Award for Best Production Design for art direction of the film. Beaton 's inspiration for the library in Higgins ' home, where much of the action takes place, was a room at the Château de Groussay, Montfort - l'Amaury, in France, which had been decorated opulently by its owner Carlos de Beistegui. Hats were created by Parisian milliner Paulette at Beaton 's request.
All tracks played by the Warner Bros. Studio Orchestra conducted by André Previn. Between brackets the singers.
With a production budget of $17 million, My Fair Lady was the most expensive film shot in the United States up to that time. The film was re-released in 1971 and earned North American rentals of $2 million. It was re-released again in 1994 after a thorough restoration.
My Fair Lady currently holds a 96 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The general consensus states: "George Cukor 's elegant, colorful adaptation of the beloved stage play is elevated to new heights thanks to winning performances by Audrey Hepburn and Rex Harrison. '' Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film four stars out of four, and, in 2006, he put it on his "Great Movies '' list, praising Hepburn 's performance, and calling the film "the best and most unlikely of musicals. ''
My Fair Lady won eight Oscars:
My Fair Lady won three Golden Globes:
The film was restored in 1994 by James C. Katz and Robert A. Harris, who had restored Spartacus three years earlier. The restoration was commissioned and financed by CBS, to which the film rights reverted from Warner Bros. in 1971. CBS would later hire Harris to lend his expertise to a new 4K restoration of the film for a 2015 Blu - ray release, working from 8K scans of the original camera negative and other surviving 65mm elements.
A new film of the musical was planned in 2008 with a screenplay by Emma Thompson but the project did not materialize. Keira Knightley, Carey Mulligan, and Colin Firth were among those in consideration for the lead roles.
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who is the song do re mi about | Do re mi (Blackbear song) - Wikipedia
"Do Re Mi '' (stylized as "do re mi '') is a song written and performed by American R&B singer blackbear. The original version was released on June 17, 2017, as the first promotional single from his studio album, Digital Druglord (2017). The original version peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what happened to the cast of the great escape | The Great Escape (film) - wikipedia
The Great Escape is a 1963 American World War II epic film based on an escape by British Commonwealth prisoners of war from a German POW camp, starring Steve McQueen, James Garner, and Richard Attenborough, filmed in Panavision.
The film is based on Paul Brickhill 's 1950 book of the same name, a non-fiction first - hand account of the mass escape from Stalag Luft III in Sagan (now Żagań, Poland), in the province of Lower Silesia, Nazi Germany. The characters are based on real men, and in some cases are composites of several men. However, many details of the actual escape attempt were changed for the film, and the role of American personnel in both the planning and the escape was largely fabricated. The Great Escape was made by The Mirisch Company, released by United Artists, and produced and directed by John Sturges.
The film had its Royal World Premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London 's West End on 20 June 1963.
In 1943, having expended enormous resources on recapturing escaped Allied POWs, the Germans move those POWs most determined to escape to a new, high - security prisoner of war camp. The commandant, Luftwaffe Colonel von Luger, tells the senior British officer, Group Captain Ramsey, "There will be no escapes from this camp. ''
Meanwhile, Gestapo agents Kuhn and Preissen and SS Lieutenant Dietrich bring RAF Squadron Leader Roger Bartlett to the camp. Known as "Big X '', Bartlett is introduced as the principal escape organiser. As Kuhn leaves, he warns Bartlett that if he escapes again, he will be shot. However, locked up with "every escape artist in Germany '', he immediately plans the greatest escape ever attempted, with tunnels to break out 250 prisoners.
The POWs organise into teams. Flight Lieutenant Robert Hendley is "the scrounger '' who finds needed materials, from a camera to clothes and identity cards. Australian Flying Officer Louis Sedgwick, "the manufacturer, '' makes tools like picks for digging and bellows for pumping air into the tunnels. Flight Lieutenants Danny Velinski and William "Willie '' Dickes are "the tunnel kings '' in charge of the digging. Flight Lieutenant Andrew MacDonald acts as intelligence provider and Bartlett 's second - in - command. Lieutenant Commander Eric Ashley - Pitt of the Royal Navy devises a method of spreading soil from the tunnels over the camp, under the guards ' noses. Flight Lieutenant Griffith acts as "the tailor '', creating civilian outfits from scavenged cloth. Forgery is handled by Flight Lieutenant Colin Blythe, who becomes nearly blind due to progressive myopia caused by intricate work by candlelight; Hendley takes it upon himself to be Blythe 's guide in the escape. The prisoners work on three tunnels simultaneously, calling them "Tom '', "Dick '', and "Harry ''.
USAAF Captain Virgil Hilts, the "Cooler King '', irritates guards with frequent escape attempts and irreverence. Hilts and Scottish RAF Flying Officer Archibald "Archie '' Ives conceive an escape attempt through a short tunnel at a blind spot near the edge of the camp, a proposal which is accepted by Bartlett on the grounds that vetoing every independent escape attempt would raise suspicion of the collective escape attempt being planned. However, Hilts and Ives are caught and returned to the "cooler ''. Upon release from the cooler, Bartlett requests that Hilts use his next escape attempt as an opportunity for a reconnaissance of the area immediately surrounding the camp; Hilts turns down Bartlett 's request but does assist the prisoners as a scrounger. Meanwhile, Hendley forms a friendship with German guard Werner, which he exploits as a means of obtaining his private documents, and then as blackmail to get hold of other items for the escape. Soon, Bartlett orders "Dick '' and "Harry '' to be sealed off, as "Tom '' is closest to completion.
While the POWs enjoy a 4th of July celebration arranged by the three Americans in the camp, the guards discover "Tom ''. The mood drops to despair, and Ives walks in a daze to the barbed wire surrounding the camp and climbs it in view of guards; Hilts runs to stop him but is too late, and Ives is shot dead. The prisoners switch their efforts to "Harry '', and Hilts agrees to reconnoiter outside the camp and allow himself to be recaptured. The information he brings back is used to create maps to guide the escapees.
The last part of the tunnel is completed on the scheduled night, but it proves to be twenty feet short of the woods. Knowing there are no other options, Bartlett orders the escape to go ahead, and Hilts improvises a rope signal system to allow them to exit the tunnel between sweeps of the guards on patrol. The claustrophobic Danny nearly refuses to go, but is helped along by Willie. 76 prisoners escape, aided by an air - raid blackout: once back on the rope, however, Griffith impatiently exits the tunnel in view of the guards, and the escape is discovered.
After attempts to reach neutral Switzerland, Sweden, or Spain, almost all the POWs are recaptured or killed. Hendley and Blythe steal a plane to fly over the Swiss border, but the engine fails, and they crash - land. Soldiers arrive and Blythe, his eyesight damaged, stands and is shot. Hendley surrenders as Blythe dies.
When Bartlett is identified in a railway station by Gestapo agent Kuhn, Ashley - Pitt overpowers and shoots Kuhn with his own gun but is killed by soldiers while fleeing the station. The resulting confusion allows Bartlett and MacDonald to slip away, but they are later caught while boarding a bus. MacDonald is quickly apprehended, but Bartlett escapes until he is recognized and arrested by SS Lieutenant Steinach. Hilts steals a motorcycle at a checkpoint and is pursued by German soldiers; he jumps a first - line barbed wire fence at the German - Swiss border but before he 's able to jump the second - line fence, the motorcycle is shot, causing it and him to become entangled in the bigger, second line of the fence and is captured.
Three truckloads of recaptured POWs are driven down a country road and split off in three directions. One truck, containing Bartlett, MacDonald, Cavendish, Haynes, and others, stops in a field and the POWs are told to get out to "stretch their legs ''. As Bartlett expresses that he 's "never been happier, '' the prisoners are shot dead under the pretense that they were trying to escape. In all, 50 escapees are murdered; Hendley and ten others are returned to the camp. Von Luger is relieved of command of the camp by SS Lieutenant Steinach for having failed to prevent the breakout.
Only three POWs make it to safety: Danny and Willie steal a rowboat and proceed downriver to the Baltic coast, where they sneak aboard a Swedish merchant ship, Alta, while Sedgwick slips through the countryside on a stolen bicycle before hiding aboard a freight train to France, where he is guided by the Resistance into Spain. Hilts is returned to the camp in handcuffs and taken back to the cooler, just as von Luger is relieved of his command. Lieutenant Goff, one of the Americans, fetches Hilts 's baseball and glove and throws them to him when Hilts and his guards pass. The guard locks him in his cell and walks away but pauses when he hears Hilts bouncing his baseball against a cell wall.
The story was adapted by James Clavell, W.R. Burnett, and Walter Newman from Paul Brickhill 's book The Great Escape. Brickhill had been a prisoner at Stalag Luft III during World War II.
The film was to a significant extent fictional, based on real events but with numerous changes made to increase its drama and appeal, and as a vehicle for its box - office stars. While some of its characters were fictitious, most were amalgams of several real characters and others based on real people. In reality there were no escapes by aircraft or motorcycle: the motorcycle sequence was asked for by McQueen, a keen motorcyclist, who did the stunt riding himself (except for the final jump, done by Bud Ekins). Nor were the recaptured prisoners executed at the same time. The screenwriters significantly increased the involvement of American POWs; the real escape was by largely British and other allied personnel. A few American officers in the camp initially helped dig the tunnels, and worked on the early plans; however, they were moved away seven months before the escape, ending their involvement. In addition, the film suggests the three prisoners who escaped to freedom were British, Polish, and Australian; in reality, they were Norwegian (Jens Müller and Per Bergsland) and Dutch (Bram van der Stok).
The film omits to mention the crucial role Canadians played in building the tunnels and in the escape itself. Of the 1,800 or so POWs, 600 were involved in preparations out of which 150 were Canadian. Wally Floody, an RCAF pilot and mining engineer who was the real - life "tunnel king '', was engaged as a technical advisor for the film.
Ex-POWs asked film - makers to exclude details about the help they received from their home countries, such as maps, papers, and tools hidden in gift packages, lest it jeopardise future POW escapes. The film - makers complied.
Steve McQueen, in a role based on at least three pilots, David M. Jones, John Dortch Lewis, and William Ash, has been credited with the most significant performance. Critic Leonard Maltin wrote that "the large, international cast is superb, but the standout is McQueen; it 's easy to see why this cemented his status as a superstar. ''
Richard Attenborough was cast as Sqn Ldr Roger Bartlett RAF ("Big X ''), a character based on Roger Bushell, the South African - born British POW who was the mastermind of the real Great Escape. This was the film that first brought Attenborough to wide popular attention in the United States. During the Second World War, Attenborough served in the Royal Air Force. He volunteered to fly with the Film Unit and after further training, where he sustained permanent ear damage, qualified as a sergeant, flying on several missions over Europe filming from the rear gunner 's position to record the outcome of Bomber Command sorties.
Group Captain Ramsey RAF (the "SBO '') was based on Group Captain Herbert Massey, a WWI veteran who had volunteered in WWII. He is played by James Donald. Massey walked with a limp, and so did Ramsey in the movie who walked with a cane. Massey had suffered severe wounds to the same leg in both wars. There would be no escape for him but as Senior British Officer, he had to know what was going on. Group Captain Massey had been a veteran escaper himself and had been in trouble with the Gestapo. His experience allowed him to offer sound advice to the X-Organisation. Another officer that had most likely inspired the character of Ramsey was Wing Commander Harry Day. There was an uncanny resemblance between Harry Day and James Donald as Group Captain Ramsey in this picture.
Flt Lt Colin Blythe RAF ("The Forger '') was based on Tim Walenn and played by Donald Pleasence. Pleasence himself had served in the Royal Air Force during World War II. He was shot down and spent a year in German prisoner - of - war camp Stalag Luft I.
Charles Bronson had been a gunner in the USAAF and was wounded, but had not been shot down. Like his character, Danny Valinski, he was a coal miner and suffered from claustrophobia.
James Garner had been a soldier in the Korean War and was twice wounded. He was a scrounger during that time, as is his character Flt Lt Hendley.
Hannes Messemer was cast as the Kommandant of Stalag Luft III, "Colonel von Luger, '' a character based on Oberst Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner - Wildau. He had been a POW in Russia during World War II and had escaped by walking hundreds of miles to the German border.
Angus Lennie 's Flying Officer Archibald Ives, "The Mole '', was based on Jimmy Kiddel, who was shot dead while trying to scale the fence.
The film is accurate in showing that only three escapees made home runs, although the people who made them differed from those in the film. The escape of Danny and Willie in the film is based on two Norwegians who escaped by boat to Sweden, Per Bergsland and Jens Müller. The successful escape of James Coburn 's Australian character Sedgwick (the manufacturer) via Spain was based on Dutchman Bram van der Stok. Coburn, an American, was cast in the role of Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Flying Officer Louis Sedgwick who was an amalgamation of Flt Lt Albert Hake, an Australian serving in the RAF and the camps compass maker, and Johnny Travis, the real manufacturer.
Tilman ' Til Kiwe ' Kiver played the German guard "Frick ''. He is the one who fires his pistol at Steve McQueen 's character during the escape. Kiwe had been a German paratrooper officer who was captured and held prisoner at a POW camp in Colorado. He made several escape attempts, dyeing his uniform and carrying forged papers. He was captured in the St. Louis train station during one escape attempt. He won the Knight 's Cross before his capture and was the cast member who had actually done many of the exploits shown in the film.
The film was made at the Bavaria Film Studio in the Munich suburb of Geiselgasteig in rural Bavaria, where sets for the barrack interiors and tunnels were constructed. The camp was built in a clearing of the Perlacher forest near the studio. The German town near the real camp was Sagan (now Żagań, Poland); it was renamed Neustadt in the film. Many scenes were filmed in and around the town of Füssen in Bavaria, including its railway station. The nearby district of Pfronten with its distinctive St. Nikolaus Church and scenic background also features often in the film. Many scenes involving the railway were filmed near Deisenhofen station and on the Großhesselohe - Holzkirchen line. The castle Hendley and Blythe fly by while attempting to escape is Neuschwanstein Castle.
The film depicts the tunnel codenamed Tom as having its entrance under a stove and Harry 's as in a drain sump in a washroom. In reality, Dick 's entrance was the drain sump, Harry 's was under the stove, and Tom 's was in a darkened corner next to a stove chimney.
The motorcycle chase scenes with the barbed wire fences were shot on meadows outside Füssen, and the "barbed wire '' that Hilts crashes into before being recaptured was simulated by strips of rubber tied around barbless wire, constructed by the cast and crew in their spare time. The final jump scene was performed by stuntman Bud Ekins in place of Steve McQueen. Other parts of the chase were done by McQueen, playing both Hilts and the soldiers chasing him, because of his ability on a motorcycle. The motorcycle was a Triumph TR6 Trophy which was painted to look like a German machine. The restored machine is currently on display at Triumph 's factory at Hinckley, UK.
The Great Escape grossed $11.7 million at the box office, after a budget of $4 million. It became one of the highest - grossing films of 1963, despite heavy competition. In the years since its release, its audience has broadened, cementing its status as a cinema classic. It was entered into the 3rd Moscow International Film Festival where McQueen won the Silver Prize for Best Actor.
Critical and public response has mostly been enthusiastic, with a 93 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes. In 1963 New York Times critic Bosley Crowther wrote: "But for much longer than is artful or essential, The Great Escape grinds out its tormenting story without a peek beneath the surface of any man, without a real sense of human involvement. It 's a strictly mechanical adventure with make - believe men. '' British film critic Leslie Halliwell described it as "pretty good but overlong POW adventure with a tragic ending ''. In Time magazine 1963: "The use of color photography is unnecessary and jarring, but little else is wrong with this film. With accurate casting, a swift screenplay, and authentic German settings, Producer - Director John Sturges has created classic cinema of action. There is no sermonizing, no soul probing, no sex. The Great Escape is simply great escapism ''.
In a 2006 poll in the United Kingdom, regarding the family film that television viewers would most want to see on Christmas Day, The Great Escape came in third, and was first among the choices of male viewers.
In 2009, seven POWs returned to Stalag Luft III for the 65th anniversary of the escape and watched the film. According to the veterans, many details of the first half depicting life in the camp were authentic, e.g. the machine - gunning of Ives, who snaps and tries to scale the fence, and the actual digging of the tunnels. In 2014, the RAF staged a commemoration of the escape attempt, with 50 serving personnel carrying a photograph of one of the men shot.
References to scenes and motifs from the film, as well as Elmer Bernstein 's theme, have appeared in other films, television series, and video games.
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what is the total length of state highway in haryana | List of state highways in Haryana - Wikipedia
The state highways are arterial routes of a state, linking district headquarters and important towns within the state and connecting them with national highways or Highways of the neighboring states.
Haryana state has a good road network. There are 29 national highways with total length of 1,461 km and many state highways with total length of 2,494 km.
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what happened to henry in the book of henry | The Book of Henry - wikipedia
The Book of Henry is a 2017 American drama film directed by Colin Trevorrow and written by Gregg Hurwitz. The film stars Naomi Watts, Jaeden Lieberher, Jacob Tremblay, Sarah Silverman, Lee Pace, Maddie Ziegler, and Dean Norris. The story concerns a plan hatched by a young genius to save the girl next door from abuse.
The film premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival on June 14, 2017. It was released in theaters by Focus Features on June 16, 2017, and received generally negative reviews from critics, mostly focused on the film 's plot twists and tonal shifts, and Trevorrow 's direction, although the cast received some praise.
In a small suburban town in the Hudson Valley, 11 - year - old boy genius Henry Carpenter and his younger brother Peter are being raised by their single mother Susan, a waitress who is working on writing children 's picture books. Henry has used his intellect to invest successfully in the stock market, building up a very substantial nest egg for his family. Henry also protects Peter from a school bully and builds Rube Goldberg machines in their tree house. Henry and Susan are both fond of their next - door neighbor (and Henry 's classmate), Christina Sickleman, who has recently become glum.
Henry sees Christina being abused by her stepfather, Glenn, the local police commissioner. Henry reports the abuse to social services and the school principal, Janice Wilder, but Glenn has connections throughout the local government, and Wilder is reluctant to challenge the commissioner without "conclusive evidence ''. Henry is unable to get the authorities to launch a serious investigation that would protect Christina. Henry tells his mother that when someone is in trouble, those who can help must take action. He develops a detailed plan to rescue Christina that he memorializes in a notebook. After a violent seizure, Henry is taken to the hospital, where he is diagnosed with a brain tumor and undergoes surgery. Anticipating his death, he tells Peter to give Susan the notebook. Days later, Henry dies in Susan 's arms in the hospital.
Susan is distraught at Henry 's death and has difficulty functioning, but when Peter gives her the notebook, she focuses on Henry 's plan. Susan tries, but fails, to interest a nearby social services agency in opening an investigation. One night, from the window in Peter 's bedroom, she sees Glenn in Christina 's room and decides to carry out the plan. The notebook and an accompanying cassette tape describe Henry 's step - by - step plan to kill Glenn with a sniper rifle while covering Susan 's tracks so that it will be impossible to trace the murder back to her. Susan 's alibi is to be provided by executing the murder while both Christina and Peter are performing at a school talent show.
Susan slips away from the talent show and puts the plan into motion. As she is about to pull the trigger, however, she realizes that Henry 's plan, though ingenious, is the construct of a child, and that she must act as an adult. She immediately confronts Glenn and tells him that she is going to expose him for what he has done to Christina. Glenn replies that everyone will believe him, not her, and he tells her that he is going to call his police chief to come and bring her in. At the same time, affected by Christina 's dance performance at the talent show, Principal Wilder decides to follow through on the abuse accusation and contacts the authorities. Glenn returns home, calls his relative at Social Services, and learns that an investigation is being opened into his abuse of Christina. As the police arrive at his house, Glenn kills himself. Susan legally adopts Christina as her daughter. She also finishes writing one of her children 's books, as Henry had urged her to do.
Hurwitz wrote the first draft of the screenplay by 1998. The film was eventually optioned by Jenette Kahn, and Sidney Kimmel Entertainment joined as a producer. An executive at Kimmel Entertainment thought that Colin Trevorrow would be right to direct The Book of Henry. Trevorrow and Hurwitz found each other to be congenial, but then Trevorrow was hired to direct Jurassic World. Another director was considered. By early 2015, after Trevorrow finished Jurassic World, he returned to The Book of Henry. Kimmel Entertainment and Double Nickel Entertainment financed and co-produced the film; producers are Sidney Kimmel, Kahn and Adam Richman. Focus Features obtained worldwide distribution rights.
Principal photography on the film began in September 2015 in and around New York City, and concluded in November. The music was composed by Michael Giacchino. Stevie Nicks sang a new song in the film.
The Book of Henry was scheduled to be released on September 16, 2016, but Focus rescheduled the film 's release to June 16, 2017, concluding that during the summer, the film release schedule would offer fewer adult - oriented films that might compete against The Book of Henry for older viewers. The film premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival on June 14, 2017. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $1.4 million from 579 theaters (an average of $2,460 per theater), finishing 13th at the box office, and making it "by far the biggest start among the new Specialties '' opening that weekend.
The film was featured at the July 2017 Ischia Film Festival, where Trevorrow was honored with the Breakout Director award for the film.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20 % based on 118 reviews, with an average rating of 4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Book of Henry deserves a few points for ambition, but its tonal juggling act -- and a deeply maudlin twist -- may leave viewers gaping in disbelief rather than choking back tears. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a weighted average score of 31 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. PostTrak reported audiences gave the film an 86 % overall positive score and a 65 % "definite recommend ''. Caroline McVitty commented in The Island Packet that the film was one "that critics hate and audiences love. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "There 's the kind of bad movie that just sits there, unfolding with grimly predictable monotony. Then there 's the kind where the badness expands and metastasizes, taking on a jaw - dropping life of its own, pushing through to ever - higher levels of garishness. The Book of Henry... is of the latter, you 've - got - to - see - it - to - disbelieve - it variety. '' The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw, in a critical review, said that, "in its pure misjudged ickiness, bad - acting ropiness, and its quirksy, smirksy passive - aggressive tweeness, this insidiously terrible film could hardly get any more skin - crawling. '' Writing for Vulture, Emily Yoshida opined, "It does not suffice to call The Book of Henry bad; it 's nonfunctional, so poorly conceived from the ground up as to slip out of the grasp of the usual standards one applies to narrative film. It might be admirable if it was n't such torture to watch. ''
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote: "Director Colin Trevorrow... lacks any of the eccentricities that might make this quirky and contrived material work, even at face value, '' though he added, "its above - average performances and insistence on following through on an off - beat premise give it a hint of battiness. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave it 1.5 stars out of 4, saying: "The Book of Henry starts well, begins flirting with absurdity in the middle -- and ends in crashing disaster. But the feeling persists that director Colin Treverrow believes every word in the shambles of a 20 - year - old screenplay by crime novelist Gregg Hurwitz. '' Stephen Schaefer of the Boston Herald was one of the minority of critics who praised the film, as was Colin Covert of the Chicago Tribune, who concluded: "This is a poignant, frequently funny film that moves into unexpected dark subjects. ''
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where does the series the rain take place | The rain (tv series) - wikipedia
Denmark
The Rain is a Danish post-apocalyptic web television series created by Jannik Tai Mosholt, Esben Toft Jacobsen and Christian Potalivo. It premiered on Netflix on May 4, 2018.
On May 30, 2018, Netflix renewed The Rain for a second season.
When a virus that is carried by rainfall wipes out almost all humans in Scandinavia, Danish siblings Simone and Rasmus take shelter in a bunker. Six years later, they emerge to search for their father, a scientist who left them in the bunker but never returned. Along the way they join a group of young survivors and together they travel across Denmark and Sweden, searching for a safe place, and for the siblings ' father, who may be able to provide the answers and the cure.
Production on Season 1 commenced in late June 2017 in Denmark and Sweden.
Netflix announced on May 30, 2018, that the series will go into production for a second season late this year for a 2019 launch.
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when were passports first required to enter the us | United States passport - wikipedia
United States passports are passports issued to citizens and nationals of the United States of America. They are issued exclusively by the U.S. Department of State. Besides passports (in booklet form), limited use passport cards are issued by the same organization subject to the same requirements. It is unlawful for U.S. citizens and nationals to enter or exit the United States without a valid U.S. passport or Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative - compliant passport - replacement document, though there are many exceptions, waivers are generally granted for U.S. citizens returning without a passport, and the exit requirement is not enforced.
U.S. passport booklets are valid for travel by Americans to certain countries and / or for certain purposes though it may require a visa and the U.S. itself restricts its nationals from traveling to or engaging in commercial transactions in certain countries. They conform with recommended standards (i.e., size, composition, layout, technology) of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). There are five types of passport booklets; as well, the Department of State has issued only biometric passports as standard since August 2007, though non-biometric passports remained valid until their expiration dates. United States passports are property of the United States and must be returned to the US Government upon demand.
By law, a valid unexpired U.S. passport (or passport card) is conclusive (and not just prima facie) proof of U.S. citizenship, and has the same force and effect as proof of United States citizenship as certificates of naturalization or of citizenship, if issued to a U.S. citizen for the full period allowed by law. U.S. law does not prohibit U.S. citizens from holding passports of other countries, though they are required to use their U.S. passport to enter and leave the U.S.
American consular officials issued passports to some citizens of some of the thirteen states during the War for Independence (1775 -- 1783). Passports were sheets of paper printed on one side, included a description of the bearer, and were valid for three to six months. The minister to France, Benjamin Franklin, based the design of passports issued by his mission on that of the French passport.
From 1776 to 1783, no state government had a passport requirement. The Articles of Confederation government (1783 -- 1789) did not have a passport requirement.
The Department of Foreign Affairs of the war period also issued passports, and the department, carried over by the Articles of Confederation government (1783 -- 1789), continued to issue passports. In July 1789, the Department of Foreign Affairs was carried over by the government established under the Constitution. In September of that year, the name of the department was changed to Department of State. The department handled foreign relations and issued passports, and, until the mid-19th century had various domestic duties.
For decades thereafter, passports were issued not only by the Department of State but also by states and cities, and by notaries public. For example, an internal passport dated 1815 was presented to Massachusetts citizen George Barker to allow him to travel as a free black man to visit relatives in Southern slave states. Passports issued by American authorities other than the Department of State breached propriety and caused confusion abroad. Some European countries refused to recognize passports not issued by the Department of State, unless United States consular officials endorsed them. The problems led the Congress in 1856 to give to the Department of State the sole authority to issue passports.
From 1789 through late 1941, the constitutionally established government required passports of citizens only during two periods: during the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865), as well as during and shortly after World War I (1914 -- 1918). The passport requirement of the Civil War era lacked statutory authority. During World War I (1914 -- 1918), European countries instituted passport requirements. The Travel Control Act of May 22, 1918, permitted the president, when the United States was at war, to proclaim a passport requirement, and President Wilson issued such a proclamation on August 18, 1918. World War I ended on November 11, 1918, but the passport requirement lingered until March 3, 1921, the last day of the Wilson administration.
In Europe, general peace between the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) and the beginning of World War I (1914), and development of rail roads, gave rise to international travel by large numbers of people. Countries such as Czarist Russia and the Ottoman Empire maintained passport requirements. After World War I, many European countries retained their passport requirements. Foreign passport requirements undercut the absence of a passport requirement for Americans exiting the country, under United States law, between 1921 and 1941.
The contemporary period of required passports for Americans under United States law began on November 29, 1941. A 1978 amendment to the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 made it unlawful to enter or depart the United States without an issued passport even in peacetime.
Even when passports were not usually required, Americans requested U.S. passports. Records of the Department of State show that 130,360 passports were issued between 1810 and 1873, and that 369,844 passports were issued between 1877 and 1909. Some of those passports were family passports or group passports. A passport application could cover, variously, a wife, a child, or children, one or more servants, or a woman traveling under the protection of a man. The passport would be issued to the man. Similarly, a passport application could cover a child traveling with his or her mother. The passport would be issued to the mother. The number of Americans who traveled without passports is unknown.
The League of Nations held a conference in 1920 concerning passports and through - train travel, and conferences in 1926 and 1927 concerning passports. The 1920 conference put forward guidelines on the layout and features of passports, which the 1926 and 1927 conferences followed up. Those guidelines were steps in the shaping of contemporary passports. One of the guidelines was about 32 - page passport booklets, such as the U.S. type III mentioned in this section, below. Another guideline was about languages in passports. See Languages, below. A conference on travel and tourism held by the United Nations in 1963 did not result in standardised passports. Passport standardization was accomplished in 1980 under the auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization.
The design and contents of U.S. passports changed over the years. Prior to World War I the passport was typically a large (11 x 17 inch) diploma, with a large engraved seal of the Department of State at the top, repeated in red wax at the bottom, the bearer 's description and signature on the left, and his name on the right above space for data such as "accompanied by his wife, '' all in ornate script. In 1926, the Department of State introduced the type III passport. This had a stiff red cover, with a window cutout through which the passport number was visible. That style of passport contained 32 pages. American passports had green covers from 1941 until 1976, when the cover was changed to blue, as part of the U.S. bicentennial celebration. Green covers were again issued from April 1993, until March 1994, and included a special one - page tribute to Benjamin Franklin in commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the United States Consular Service. Currently blue passports, with the pages showing historical and natural scenes of the U.S., are issued. Initially a U.S. passport was issued for two years, although by the 1950s on application by the holder a passport could be stamped so that this time was extended without reissue. In the succeeding decades the initial lengths for adult applicants were extended to three, five, and eventually to ten years, the current standard. At this time stamping for a further extension is not allowed.
In 1981, the United States became the first country to introduce machine - readable passports. In 2000, the Department of State started to issue passports with digital photos, and as of 2010, all previous series have expired. In 2006, the Department of State began to issue biometric passports to diplomats and other officials. Later in 2006, biometric passports were issued to the public. Since August 2007, the department has issued only biometric passports, which include RFID chips.
In 2019, the United States Department of State is expected to begin issuing diplomatic and official versions of a next generation of the US biometric passport. The passport will have an embedded data chip on the information page protected by a polycarbonate coating; this will help prevent the book from getting wet and bending, and -- should a passport be stolen -- the chip will keep thieves from stealing personal information and falsifying an identity. The passport number will also be laser cut as tapered, perforated holes through pages -- just one of several components of the "Next Generation '' passport, including artwork upgrade, new security features such as a watermark, "tactile features, '' and more "optically variable '' inks. In other words: Some designs on pages will be raised, and ink -- depending on the viewing angle -- will appear to be different colors.
Authority for issuing passports is conferred on the Secretary of State by the Passport Act of 1926, subject to such rules as the President of the United States may prescribe. The Department of State has issued regulations governing such passports, and its internal policy concerning issuance of passports, passport waivers, and travel letters is contained in the Foreign Affairs Manual.
The responsibility for passport issuance lies with Passport Services, which is within the Department of State, and a unit of the Bureau of Consular Affairs. They operate 26 regional passport agencies in the United States to serve the general public. Additionally, Passport Services opened regional agencies in Atlanta, El Paso, Texas, and San Diego in 2011. Passport applications at most of these locations require that citizens provide proof of travel within 14 days of the application date, or who need to obtain foreign visas before traveling.
There are about 9,000 passport acceptance facilities in the United States, designated by Passport Services, at which routine passport applications may be filed. These facilities include United States courts, state courts, post offices, public libraries, county offices, and city offices. In fiscal year 2015, the Department of State issued 15,556,216 (includes 1,647,413 passport cards) and there were 125,907,176 valid U.S. passports in circulation. The passport possession rate of the U.S. was approximately 39 % of the population in 2015.
It is unlawful to enter or exit the United States without a valid passport or Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative - compliant passport - replacement document, or without an exception or waiver.
The use of passports may be restricted for foreign policy reasons. In September 1939, in order to preserve the United States ' neutrality in relation to the breakout of World War II, then Secretary of State Cordell Hull issued regulations declaring that outstanding passports, together with passports issued thereafter, could not be used for travel to Europe without specific validation by the Department of State, and such validation could not last more than six months. Similar restrictions can still be invoked upon notice given in the Federal Register, and such notice was issued in 2017, so that passports were "declared invalid for travel to, in, or through the DPRK unless specially validated for such travel. ''
As confirmed in Haig v. Agee, the administration may deny or revoke passports for foreign policy or national security reasons at any time, as well as for other reasons as prescribed by regulations. A notable example of enforcement of this was the 1948 denial of a passport to U.S. Representative Leo Isacson, who sought to go to Paris to attend a conference as an observer for the American Council for a Democratic Greece, a Communist front organization, because of the group 's role in opposing the Greek government in the Greek Civil War. Denial or revocation of a passport does not prevent the use of outstanding valid passports. The physical revocation of a passport is often difficult, and an apparently valid passport can be used for travel until officially taken by an arresting officer or by a court.
It should be noted that the lack of a valid passport (for whatever reason, including revocation) does not render the U.S. citizen either unable to leave the United States, or inadmissible into the United States. The United States is a signatory of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees residents of its signatories wide - ranging rights to enter or depart their own countries. In Nguyen v. INS, the Supreme Court stated that U.S. citizens are entitled "... to the absolute right to enter its borders. '' Lower federal courts went as far as to declare that "... the Government can not say to its citizen, standing beyond its border, that his reentry into the land of his allegiance is a criminal offense; and this we conclude is a sound principle whether or not the citizen has a passport, and however wrongful may have been his conduct in effecting his departure. '' Therefore, even in the absence of a valid passport, U.S. citizens are not denied entry into the United States, though these travelers may be delayed while the CBP attempts to verify their identity and citizenship status. The U.S. does not exercise passport control on exit from the country, so the individual attempting to depart from the U.S. only needs to have valid documents granting him / her right to entry into the country of destination.
Travel of U.S. citizens and nationals around the United States and across its international borders is generally controlled by means other than passports, such as the No Fly List.
United States passports are issuable only to persons who owe permanent allegiance to the United States -- i.e., citizens and non-citizen nationals of the United States.
"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States... '' Under this provision, "United States '' means the 50 states and the District of Columbia only.
By acts of Congress, every person born in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands is a United States citizen by birth. Also, every person born in the former Panama Canal Zone whose father or mother (or both) was a citizen is a United States citizen by birth.
Other acts of Congress provide for acquisition of citizenship by persons born abroad.
Every citizen is a national of the United States, but not every national is a citizen. There is a small class of American Samoans, born in American Samoa, including Swains Island, who are nationals but not citizens of the United States, This is because people born in American Samoa are not automatically granted US citizenship by birth. See Passport message, below.
United States law permits dual nationality. Consequently, it is permissible to have and use a foreign passport. However, U.S. citizens are required to use a U.S. passport when leaving or entering the United States. This requirement extends to a U.S. citizen who is a dual national.
Separate passports are issued to U.S. citizens on official business, and to diplomats, a process followed by all countries. The United Nations laissez - passer is a similar document issued by that international organization.
Few requests for certificates of non-citizenship nationality are made to the Department of State, which are issuable by the department. Production of a limited number of certificates would be costly, which if produced certificates would have to meet stringent security standards. Due to this, the Department of State chooses not to issue certificates of non-citizen nationality; instead, passports are issued to non-citizen nationals. The issued passport certifies the status of a non-citizen national. The certification is in the form of "U.S. National '' instead of "USA '' on the front of the passport card, or an endorsement in the passport book: "The bearer is a United States national and not a United States citizen. ''
An application is required for the issuance of a passport. If a fugitive being extradited to the United States refuses to sign a passport application, the consular officer can sign it "without recourse. ''
An application for a United States passport made abroad is forwarded by a U.S. embassy or consulate to Passport Services for processing in the United States. The resulting passport is sent to the embassy or consulate for issuance to the applicant. An emergency passport is issuable by the embassy or consulate. Regular issuance takes approximately 4 -- 6 weeks. As per Haig v. Agee, the Presidential administration may deny or revoke passports for foreign policy or national security reasons at any time.
Places where a U.S. passport may be applied for include post offices and libraries.
DS11 Standard
All applicants using a form DS - 11 must appear in person, and pay and additional $35 execution fee, in addition to the cost of their passport book and / or card. In addition, the first time an applicant applies for a passport following or during gender reassignment must also use a Form DS - 11.
DS82 Renewal
The applicant 's most recent U.S. passport:
The advantage of the renewal form is a traveller can mail in the form, and avoid paying an extra $35.
DS64 Lost
Lost or stolen passport requires DS64 in addition to DS11 only if the lost passport is valid due to the second passport rule:
More than one valid United States passport of the same type may not be held, except if authorized by the Department of State.
It is routine for the Department of State to authorize a holder of a regular passport to hold, in addition, a diplomatic passport or an official passport or a no - fee passport.
One circumstance which may call for issuance of a second passport of a particular type is a prolonged visa - processing delay. Another is safety or security, such as travel between Israel and a country which refuses to grant entry to a person with a passport which indicates travel to Israel. The period of validity of a second passport issued under either circumstance is generally 4 years from the date of issue.
Those who need a second identification document in addition to the U.S. passport may hold a U.S. passport card. This passport card is used by U.S. citizens living abroad when they need to renew their regular passport book, renew their residency permit or apply for a visa - in other words, when they can not show their regular passport yet are required by local law to carry valid identification.
Passport photo requirements are very specific. Official U.S. state department photographic guidelines are available online.
Fees for applying vary based on whether or not an applicant is applying for a new passport or they are renewing an expiring passport. Fees also vary depending on whether an applicant is under the age of 16.
First - time adult applicants are charged $110 per passport book and $30 per passport card. Additionally, a $35 execution fee is charged per transaction, but only for first applications and not for renewals. This means that if a person were to apply for the passport book and card simultaneously on the same application, he or she would pay only one execution fee.
All minor applicants are considered first - time applicants until they reach age 16. Minor applicants pay an $80 application fee for the passport book and a $15 application fee for the passport card. The same $35 execution fee is charged per application.
Adults wishing to renew their passports may do so up to five years after expiration at a cost of $110 for the passport book and $30 for the passport card. Passports for minors under age 16 can not be renewed.
If a person is already in possession of a passport book and would like a passport card additionally (or vice versa), they may submit their currently valid passport book or card as evidence of citizenship and apply for a renewal to avoid paying a $35 execution fee. However, if the passport book or card holder is unable or unwilling to relinquish their currently valid passport for the duration of the processing, they may submit other primary evidence of citizenship, such as a U.S. birth certificate or naturalization certificate, and apply as a first time applicant, paying the execution fee and submitting a written explanation as to why they are applying in this manner.
On the front cover, a representation of the Coat of arms of the United States is at the center. "PASSPORT '' (in all capital letters) appears above the representation of the Great Seal, and "United States of America '' (in Garamond italic) appears below.
An Official passport has "OFFICIAL '' (in all capital letters) above "PASSPORT ''. The capital letters of "OFFICIAL '' are somewhat smaller than the capital letters of "PASSPORT ''.
A Diplomatic passport has "DIPLOMATIC '' (in all capital letters) above "PASSPORT ''. The capital letters of "DIPLOMATIC '' are somewhat smaller than the capital letters of "PASSPORT ''.
A Travel Document, in both forms (Refugee Travel Document and Permit to Re-Enter), features the seal of the Department of Homeland Security instead of the Great Seal of the United States. Above the seal the words "TRAVEL DOCUMENT '' appears in all capital letters. Below the seal is the legend "Issued by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services '' in upper and lower case.
In 2007, the passport was redesigned, after previous redesign in 1993. There are 13 quotes in the 28 - page version of the passport and patriotic - themed images on the background of the pages.
A biometric passport has the e-passport symbol at the bottom. There are 32 pages in a biometric passport. Frequent travelers may request 52 - page passports for no additional cost. Extra visa pages could previously be added to a passport, but, as of January 1, 2016, the service was discontinued entirely for security reasons.
Each passport has a data page and a signature page.
A data page has a visual zone and a machine - readable zone. The visual zone has a digitized photograph of the passport holder, data about the passport, and data about the passport holder:
The machine - readable zone is present at the bottom of the page and contains P < USA (SURNAME) < < (GIVEN NAME (S)) < < < < < < < < < < in the first line and (PASSPORT NO. + 1 DIGIT) USA (DATE OF BIRTH + 1 DIGIT + SEX + DATE OF EXPIRATION + 10 DIGITS) < (6 DIGITS) in the second line. Both lines contain 44 characters in a fixed - width all - caps font, with the top line ending with enough left angle brackets to fill the 44 character limit.
A signature page has a line for the signature of a passport holder. A passport is not valid until it is signed by the passport holder. If a holder is unable to sign his passport, it is to be signed by a person who has legal authority to sign on the holder 's behalf.
Place of birth was first added to U.S. passports in 1917. The standards for the names of places of birth that appear in passports are listed in volume 7 of the Foreign Affairs Manual, published by the Department of State. A request to list no place of birth in a passport is never accepted.
For birthplaces within the United States and its territories, it contains the name of the state or territory followed by "U.S.A. '', except for the U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa. For persons born in the District of Columbia, passports indicate "Washington, D.C., U.S.A. '' as the place of birth.
For places of birth located outside the United States, only the country or dependent territory is mentioned. The name of the country is the current name of the country that is presently in control of the territory the place of birth and thus changes upon a change of a country name. For example, people born before 1991 in the former Soviet Union (including the Baltic states, whose annexation by the Soviet Union was never recognized by the U.S.) would have the post-Soviet country name listed as the place of birth. Another example is that for birth in the former Panama Canal Zone, "Panama '' is listed as the place of birth. A citizen born outside the United States may be able to have his city or town of birth entered in his passport, if he or she objects to the standard country name. However, if a foreign country denies a visa or entry due to the place - of - birth designation, the Department of State will issue a replacement passport at normal fees, and will not facilitate entry into the foreign country.
Provisions exist to deal with the complexities of the Greater China Region. Per the One - China policy, the United States recognizes the People 's Republic of China as the sole legal government of China, and acknowledges the Chinese position that Taiwan is a part of China, while considering the status of Taiwan to be undetermined. However, people born in Taiwan can choose to have either "Taiwan '', "China '' or their city of birth listed as place of birth. People born in Hong Kong or Macau would have their place of birth as "Hong Kong SAR '' or "Macau SAR, '' but the option of listing the city of birth only (e.g. "Hong Kong '' without "SAR '') is not available. As Tibet is recognized as part of China, the place of birth for people born in Tibet is written as "China '', with the option of listing only the city of birth.
Special provisions are in place for people born in Israel and Israeli - occupied territories. For birth in places other than Jerusalem (using its 1948 municipal borders) and the Golan Heights, "Israel '', "West Bank '' or "Gaza Strip '' is used. If born before 1948, "Palestine '' may be used. For birth in the Golan Heights, "Syria '' is used regardless of date of birth. Due to the legal uncertainty of the status of Jerusalem, for birth in Jerusalem within its 1948 municipal borders, "Jerusalem '' is used regardless of date of birth. In 2002, Congress passed legislation that said that American citizens born in Jerusalem may list "Israel '' as their country of birth, although Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama have not allowed it. A federal appeals court declared the 2002 law invalid on July 23, 2013, and the Supreme Court upheld that decision on June 8, 2015. In all cases, the city or town of birth may be used in place of the standard designations.
For birth aboard aircraft and ships, if the birth occurs in an area where no country has sovereignty (i.e. over international waters), the place of birth is listed as "in the air '' or "at sea '' where appropriate.
Passports of many countries contain a message, nominally from the official who is in charge of passport issuance (e.g., secretary of state, minister of foreign affairs), addressed to authorities of other countries. The message identifies the bearer as a citizen of the issuing country, requests that he or she be allowed to enter and pass through the other country, and requests further that, when necessary, he or she be given help consistent with international norms. In American passports, the message is in English, French, and Spanish. The message reads:
In English:
in French:
and in Spanish:
The term "citizen / national '' and its equivalent terms ("citoyen ou ressortissant ''; "ciudadano o nacional '') are used in the message as some people born in American Samoa, including Swains Island, are nationals but not citizens of the United States.
The masculine inflections of "Le Secrétaire d'État '' and "El Secretario de Estado '' are used in all passports, regardless of the sex of the Secretary of State at the time of issue.
In November 2017, pursuant to the International Megan 's Law, the U.S. Department of State announced that passports of US citizens previously convicted of sex crimes against minors would be endorsed with the message, "The bearer was convicted of a sex offense against a minor, and is a covered sex offender pursuant to (U.S. law). ''
At a League of Nations conference in 1920 about passports and through - train travel, a recommendation was that passports be written in French (historically, the language of diplomacy) and one other language.
English, the de facto national language of the United States, has always been used in U.S. passports. At some point subsequent to 1920, English and French were used in passports. Spanish was added during the second Clinton administration, in recognition of Spanish - speaking Puerto Rico.
The field names on the data page, the passport message, the warning on the second page that the bearer is responsible for obtaining visas, and the designations of the amendments - and - endorsements pages, are printed in English, French, and Spanish.
The legal driving force of biometric passports is the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002, which states that smart - card Identity cards may be used in lieu of visas. That law also provides that foreigners who travel to the U.S., and want to enter the U.S. visa - free under the Visa Waiver Program, must bear machine - readable passports that comply with international standards. If a foreign passport was issued on or after October 26, 2006, that passport must be a biometric passport.
The electronic chip in the back cover of a U.S. passport stores an image of the photograph of the passport holder, passport data, and personal data of the passport holder; and has capacity to store additional data. The capacity of the Radio - frequency identification (RFID) chip is 64 kilobytes, which is large enough to store additional biometric identifiers in the future, such as fingerprints and iris scans.
Data in a passport chip is scannable by electronic readers, a capability which is intended to speed up immigration processing. A passport does not have to be plugged into a reader in order for the data to be read. Like toll - road chips, data in passport chips can be read when passport chips are proximate to readers. The passport cover contains a radio - frequency shield, so the cover must be opened for the data to be read.
According to the Department of State, the Basic Access Control (BAC) security protocol prevents access to that data unless the printed information within the passport is also known or can be guessed.
According to privacy advocates, the BAC and the shielded cover are ineffective when a passport is open, and a passport may have to be opened for inspection in a public place such as a hotel, a bank, or an Internet cafe. An open passport is subject to unwelcome reading of chip data, such as by a government agent who is tracking a passport holder 's movements or by a criminal who is intending identity theft.
Visa requirements for the United States citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of United States. According to the 2018 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a United States passport can visit 174 countries and territories visa - free or with visa on arrival. The United States passport is currently ranked 5th alongside Ireland, Portugal, and South Korea.
These are the numbers of visits by U.S. nationals to various countries in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
5,900 2,000 2,700 1,200
Cover of a non-biometric passport issued prior to August 2007
Cover of one of the first blue passports (the color was introduced for the Bicentennial in 1976)
Cover of a passport (1930)
B) The Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey are not part of the European Union, but Manxmen and Channel Islanders are citizens of the European Union; the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey, and Manxmen and Channel Islanders themselves (unless they qualify and apply for recognition of a change in status), are however excluded from the benefits of the Four Freedoms of the European Union.
C) The Government of the United Kingdom also issue passports to British nationals who are not British citizens with the right of abode in the United Kingdom and who are also not otherwise citizens of the European Union.
Non-EU country that has open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Turkey has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Kazakhstan has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and Western Asia. Egypt has a small part of its territory in Western Asia called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
Not recognized by any other state.
Special administrative regions of China
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who proposed that the earth rotates around the sun once a year | Heliocentrism - wikipedia
Heliocentrism is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System. Historically, Heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos, but at least in the medieval world, Aristarchus 's Heliocentrism attracted little attention -- possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the Hellenistic Era.
It was not until the 16th century that a geometric mathematical model of a heliocentric system was presented, by the Renaissance mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric Nicolaus Copernicus, leading to the Copernican Revolution. In the following century, Johannes Kepler elaborated upon and expanded this model to include elliptical orbits, and Galileo Galilei presented supporting observations made using a telescope.
With the observations of William Herschel, Friedrich Bessel, and other astronomers, it was realized that the sun, while near the Barycenter of the solar system, was not at any center of the universe.
While the sphericity of the Earth was widely recognized in Greco - Roman astronomy from at least the 3rd century BC, the Earth 's daily rotation and yearly orbit around the Sun was never universally accepted until the Copernican Revolution.
While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in Pythagoreanism, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the geocentric model described in Ptolemy 's Almagest.
The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his Almagest, points out that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used. However, he rejected the idea of a spinning earth as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. His planetary hypotheses were sufficiently real that the distances of moon, sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits ' celestial spheres as contiguous realities. This made the stars ' distance less than 20 Astronomical Units, a regression, since Aristarchus of Samos 's heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier necessarily placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.
Problems with Ptolemy 's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the Copernican heliocentrism developed in Renaissance astronomy.
The non-geocentric model of the Universe was proposed by the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus (d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the Universe was a "central fire '', around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and Planets revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth '' invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans ' "central fire '' as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid (e) their teachings ''.
Heraclides of Pontus (4th century BC) said that the rotation of the Earth explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed Mercury and Venus to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth. Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (AD 395 -- 423) later described this as the "Egyptian System, '' stating that "it did not escape the skill of the Egyptians, '' though there is no other evidence it was known in ancient Egypt.
The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system, however, was Aristarchus of Samos (c. 270 BC). Like Eratosthenes, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth, and measured the size and distance of the Moon and Sun, in a treatise which has survived. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth and thus hundreds of times more voluminous. His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information is known from surviving descriptions and critical commentary by his contemporaries, such as Archimedes. Some have suggested that his calculation of the relative size of the Earth and Sun led Aristarchus to conclude that it made more sense for the Earth to be moving than for the huge Sun to be moving around it. Though the original text has been lost, a reference in Archimedes ' book The Sand Reckoner describes another work by Aristarchus in which he advanced an alternative hypothesis of the heliocentric model. Archimedes wrote:
You King Gelon are aware the ' universe ' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the ' universe ' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface.
Aristarchus believed the stars to be very far away, and saw this as the reason why there was no visible parallax, that is, an observed movement of the stars relative to each other as the Earth moved around the Sun. The stars are in fact much farther away than the distance that was generally assumed in ancient times, which is why stellar parallax is only detectable with telescopes.
Archimedes says that Aristarchus made the stars ' distance larger, suggesting that he was answering the natural objection that Heliocentrism requires stellar parallactic oscillations. He apparently agreed to the point but placed the stars so distant as to make the parallactic motion invisibly minuscule. Thus Heliocentrism opened the way for realization that the universe was larger than the geocentrists taught.
Heliocentrism had been in conflict with religion before Copernicus: One of the few pieces of information we have about the reception of Aristarchus 's heliocentric system comes from a passage in Plutarch 's dialogue, Concerning the Face which Appears in the Orb of the Moon. According to one of Plutarch 's characters in the dialogue, the philosopher Cleanthes had held that Aristarchus should be charged with impiety for "moving the hearth of the world ''.
Since Plutarch mentions the "followers of Aristarchus '' in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused Heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus ' heliocentric model was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a Hellenistic astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the Seleucid empire. Seleucus adopted the heliocentric system of Aristarchus and is said to have proved the heliocentric theory. According to Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by Rhazes (b. 865).
Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of tides, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth - Moon ' center of mass '.
There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In Roman Carthage, the pagan Martianus Capella (5th century A.D.) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella 's model was discussed in the Early Middle Ages by various anonymous 9th - century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.
The Ptolemaic system was also received in Indian astronomy. Aryabhata (476 -- 550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata 's model included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.
Muslim astronomers often, but not entirely accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model.
Beginning in the 11th century, a tradition criticizing Ptolemy developed within Islamic astronomy, beginning with Ibn al - Haytham of Basra 's Al - Shukūk ' alā Baṭalamiyūs ("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy ''). Several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth 's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe.
Abu Sa'id al - Sijzi (d.c. 1020) accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.
According to Al - Biruni, Sijzi invented an astrolabe called al - zūraqī based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "That the motion we see is due to the Earth 's movement and not to that of the sky. '' The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states:
According to the Geometers (or engineers) (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars.
Early in the 11th century Alhazen wrote a scathing critique of Ptolemy 's model in his Doubts on Ptolemy (c. 1028), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy 's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy 's model rather than his geocentrism. Abu Rayhan Biruni (b. 973) discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and around the Sun, but in his Masudic Canon, he set forth the principles that the Earth is at the center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, this would be consistent with his astronomical parameters, but he considered it a problem of natural philosophy rather than mathematics.
In the 12th century, some Islamic astronomers developed complete alternatives to the Ptolemaic system (although not heliocentric), such as Nur ad - Din al - Bitruji, who considered the Ptolemaic model as mathematical, and not physical. Al - Bitruji 's alternative system spread through most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued up to the 16th century.
The Maragha school of astronomy in Ilkhanid - era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic '' planetary models involving Earth 's rotation. Notable astronomers of this school are Al - Urdi (d. 1266) Al - Katibi (d. 1277), and Al - Tusi (d. 1274).
The arguments and evidence used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth 's motion. The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by Averroes and by the Maragha school explicitly address the Earth 's rotation but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism. The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid - era Samarkand observatory under Qushji (1403 -- 1474).
European scholarship in the later medieval period actively received astronomical models developed in the Islamic world and by the 13th century was well aware of the problems of the Ptolemaic model. In the 14th century, bishop Nicole Oresme discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in his Learned Ignorance asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world (machina mundi) will quasi have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere. ''
In India, Nilakantha Somayaji (1444 -- 1544), in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata 's Aryabhatiya, developed a computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. In the Tantrasangraha (1500), he further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and Copernican models, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha 's planetary system also incorporated the Earth 's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics seem to have accepted his planetary model.
Some historians maintain that the thought of the Maragheh observatory, in particular the mathematical devices known as the Urdi lemma and the Tusi couple, influenced Renaissance - era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance - era European astronomy and thus by Copernicus. Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. Furthermore, the exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the Commentariolus was found in an earlier work by Ibn al - Shatir (d.c. 1375) of Damascus. Ibn al - Shatir 's lunar and Mercury models are also identical to those of Copernicus.
The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in Georg von Peuerbach 's Theoricae Novae Planetarum (printed in 1472 by Regiomontanus). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus. While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the Maragha school, postulated by Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957, remains an open question. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "Islamic Golden Age '' (10th to 12th centuries) in De Revolutionibus: Albategnius (Al - Battani), Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra), Arzachel (Al - Zarqali), and Alpetragius (Al - Bitruji), but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school.
It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from Proclus 's Commentary on the First Book of Euclid, which Copernicus cited. Another possible source for Copernicus 's knowledge of this mathematical device is the Questiones de Spera of Nicole Oresme, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al - Tusi.
Nicolaus Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ("On the revolution of heavenly spheres '', first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his Almagest. Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved Heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus 's system did not predict the planets ' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than real: it was a parallax effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric Tychonic system; the latter, however, while eliminating the major epicycles, retained as a physical reality the irregular back - and - forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a "pretzel ''.
Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of De Revolutionibus (which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion. '' However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by Cicero he had found an account of the theories of Hicetas and that Plutarch had provided him with an account of the Pythagoreans, Heraclides Ponticus, Philolaus, and Ecphantus. These authors had proposed a moving earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun.
The first information about the heliocentric views of Nicolaus Copernicus was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. Although only in manuscript, Copernicus ' ideas were well known among astronomers and others. His ideas contradicted the then - prevailing understanding of the Bible. In the King James Bible (first published in 1611), First Chronicles 16: 30 states that "the world also shall be stable, that it be not moved. '' Psalm 104: 5 says, "(the Lord) Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever. '' Ecclesiastes 1: 5 states that "The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose. ''
Nonetheless, in 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus ' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals. On November 1, 1536, Archbishop of Capua Nikolaus von Schönberg wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome encouraging him to publish a full version of his theory.
However, in 1539, Martin Luther said:
"There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes around instead of the sky, the sun, the moon, just as if somebody were moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and the trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must... invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside - down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth. ''
This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith. Melanchthon, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years.
Nicolaus Copernicus published the definitive statement of his system in De Revolutionibus in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, the published form contained an unsigned preface by Osiander defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be heretical during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among Dominicans that the teaching of Heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.
Some years after the publication of De Revolutionibus John Calvin preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature '' by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns ''.
On the other hand, Calvin is not responsible for another famous quotation which has often been misattributed to him: "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit? '' It has long been established that this line can not be found in any of Calvin 's works. It has been suggested that the quotation was originally sourced from the works of Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius.
Prior to the publication of De Revolutionibus, the most widely accepted system had been proposed by Ptolemy, in which the Earth was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it. Tycho Brahe, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus 's heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo - heliocentric system now known as the Tychonic system in which the five then known planets orbit the sun, while the sun and the moon orbit the earth.
Tycho appreciated the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The Aristotelian physics of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, whereas it could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called aether that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that. '' Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Aristarchus and Copernicus had assumed in order to explain the lack of any visible parallax. Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory -- see stellar magnitude), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as Heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (much larger than the sun; the size of Earth 's orbit or larger). Regarding this Tycho wrote, "Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption (of the motion of the earth) by inference. '' He also cited the Copernican system 's "opposition to the authority of Sacred Scripture in more than one place '' as a reason why one might wish to reject it, and observed that his own geoheliocentric alternative "offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture ''.
The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho 's system; the most prominent, Clavius, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have Mars lower than the Sun. '' However, after the advent of the telescope showed problems with some geocentric models (by demonstrating that Venus circles the sun, for example), the Tychonic system and variations on that system became very popular among geocentrists, and the Jesuit astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli would continue Tycho 's use of physics, stellar astronomy (now with a telescope), and religion to argue against Heliocentrism and for Tycho 's system well into the seventeenth century (see Riccioli).
Galileo was able to look at the night sky with the newly invented telescope. Then he published his discoveries in Sidereus Nuncius including (among other things) the moons of Jupiter and that Venus exhibited a full range of phases. These discoveries were not consistent with the Ptolemeic model of the solar system. As the Jesuit astronomers confirmed Galileo 's observations, the Jesuits moved toward Tycho 's teachings.
In a Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo defended Heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to Scriptures (see Galileo affair). He took Augustine 's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is in a Bible book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth 's rotation which gives the impression of the sun in motion across the sky.
In February 1615, prominent Dominicans including Thomaso Caccini and Niccolò Lorini brought Galileo 's writings on Heliocentrism to the attention of the Inquisition, because they appeared to violate Holy Scripture and the decrees of the Council of Trent. Cardinal and Inquisitor Robert Bellarmine was called upon to adjudicate, and wrote in April that treating Heliocentrism as a real phenomenon would be "a very dangerous thing, '' irritating philosophers and theologians, and harming "the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false. ''
In January 1616 Msgr. Francesco Ingoli addressed an essay to Galileo disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the ban against Copernicanism that followed in February. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis '' for the ban. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against Heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned the problem that Heliocentrism requires the stars to be much larger than the sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself. '' Ingoli included four theological arguments in the essay, but suggested to Galileo that he focus on the physical and mathematical arguments. Galileo did not write a response to Ingoli until 1624.
In February 1616, the Inquisition assembled a committee of theologians, known as qualifiers, who delivered their unanimous report condemning Heliocentrism as "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture. '' The Inquisition also determined that the Earth 's motion "receives the same judgement in philosophy and... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith. '' Bellarmine personally ordered Galileo
"to abstain completely from teaching or defending this doctrine and opinion or from discussing it... to abandon completely... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing. ''
In March, after the Inquisition 's injunction against Galileo, the papal Master of the Sacred Palace, Congregation of the Index, and Pope banned all books and letters advocating the Copernican system, which they called "the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to Holy Scripture. '' In 1618 the Holy Office recommended that a modified version of Copernicus ' De Revolutionibus be allowed for use in calendric calculations, though the original publication remained forbidden until 1758.
In Astronomia nova (1609), Johannes Kepler had used an elliptical orbit to explain the motion of Mars. In Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae he developed a heliocentric model of the solar system in which all the planets have elliptical orbits. This provided significantly increased accuracy in predicting the position of the planets. Kepler 's ideas were not immediately accepted. Galileo for example completely ignored Kepler 's work. Kepler proposed Heliocentrism as a physical description of the solar system and Epitome astronomia Copernicanae was placed on the index of prohibited books despite Kepler being a Protestant.
Pope Urban VIII encouraged Galileo to publish the pros and cons of Heliocentrism. Galileo 's response, Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems (1632), clearly advocated Heliocentrism, despite his declaration in the preface that,
I will endeavour to show that all experiments that can be made upon the Earth are insufficient means to conclude for its mobility but are indifferently applicable to the Earth, movable or immovable...
and his straightforward statement,
I might very rationally put it in dispute, whether there be any such centre in nature, or no; being that neither you nor any one else hath ever proved, whether the World be finite and figurate, or else infinite and interminate; yet nevertheless granting you, for the present, that it is finite, and of a terminate Spherical Figure, and that thereupon it hath its centre...
Some ecclesiastics also interpreted the book as characterizing the Pope as a simpleton, since his viewpoint in the dialogue was advocated by the character Simplicio. Urban VIII became hostile to Galileo and he was again summoned to Rome. Galileo 's trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching '' and "holding and defending as true ''. For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was forced to recant Copernicanism and was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life.
According to J.L. Heilbron, informed contemporaries of Galileo 's:
"appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance. ''
René Descartes postponed, and ultimately never finished, his treatise The World, which included a heliocentric model, but the Galileo affair did little to slow the spread of Heliocentrism across Europe, as Kepler 's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy became increasingly influential in the coming decades. By 1686 the model was well enough established that the general public was reading about it in Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, published in France by Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and translated into English and other languages in the coming years. It has been called "one of the first great popularizations of science. ''
In 1687, Isaac Newton published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which provided an explanation for Kepler 's laws in terms of universal gravitation and what came to be known as Newton 's laws of motion. This placed Heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation, although Newton 's Heliocentrism was of a somewhat modern kind. Already in the mid-1680s he recognized the "deviation of the Sun '' from the centre of gravity of the solar system. For Newton it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem 'd the Centre of the World '', and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line ''. Newton adopted the "at rest '' alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest.
Meanwhile, the Church remained opposed to Heliocentrism as a literal description, but this did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar observatories called meridiane; i.e., they were turned into "reverse sundials '', or gigantic pinhole cameras, where the Sun 's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral 's lantern onto a meridian line.
In 1664, Pope Alexander VII published his Index Librorum Prohibitorum Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus (Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, P.M.) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books.
In the mid-eighteenth century the Church 's opposition began to fade. An annotated copy of Newton 's Principia was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic mathematicians, with a preface stating that the author 's work assumed Heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books advocating Heliocentrism from the Index of Forbidden Books. The Observatory of the Roman College was established by Pope Clement XIV in 1774 (nationalized in 1878, but re-founded by Pope Leo XIII as the Vatican Observatory in 1891). In spite of dropping its active resistance to Heliocentrism, the Catholic Church did not lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus 's De Revolutionibus or Galileo 's Dialogue. The affair was revived in 1820, when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Church 's chief censor), Filippo Anfossi, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact. Settele appealed to pope Pius VII. After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi 's decision was overturned. Pius VII approved a decree in 1822 by the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition to allow the printing of heliocentric books in Rome. Copernicus 's De Revolutionibus and Galileo 's Dialogue were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the Index when it appeared in 1835.
Already in the Talmud, Greek philosophy and science under general name "Greek wisdom '' were considered dangerous. They were put under ban then and later for some periods.
The first Jewish scholar to describe the Copernican system, albeit without mentioning Copernicus by name, was Maharal of Prague, his book "Be'er ha - Golah '' (1593). Maharal makes an argument of radical skepticism, arguing that no scientific theory can be reliable, which he illustrates by the new - fangled theory of heliocentrism upsetting even the most fundamental views on the cosmos.
Copernicus is mentioned in the books of David Gans (1541 -- 1613), who worked with Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Gans wrote two books on astronomy in Hebrew: a short one "Magen David '' (1612) and a full one "Nehmad veNaim '' (published only in 1743). He described objectively three systems: Ptolemy, Copernicus and of Tycho Brahe without taking sides. Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (1591 -- 1655) in his "Elim '' (1629) says that the arguments of Copernicus are so strong, that only an imbecile will not accept them. Delmedigo studied at Padua and was acquainted with Galileo.
An actual controversy on the Copernican model within Judaism arises only in the early 18th century. Most authors in this period accept Copernican heliocentrism, with opposition from David Nieto and Tobias Cohn. Both of these authors argued against heliocentrism on grounds of contradictions to scripture. Nieto merely rejected the new system on those grounds without much passion, whereas Cohn went so far as to call Copernicus "a first - born of Satan '', though he also acknowledged that he would have found it difficult to counter one particular objection based on a passage from the Talmud.
In the 19th century two students of the Hatam sofer wrote books that were given approbations by him even though one supported heliocentrism and the other geocentrism. The one, a commentary on Genesis Yafe'ah le - Ketz written by R. Israel David Schlesinger resisted a heliocentric model and supported geocentrism. The other, Mei Menuchot written by R. Eliezer Lipmann Neusatz encouraged acceptance of the heliocentric model and other modern scientific thinking.
Since the 20th century most Jews have not questioned the science of heliocentrism. Exceptions include Shlomo Benizri and R.M.M. Schneerson of Chabad who argued that the question of heliocentrism vs. geocentrism is obsolete because of the relativity of motion. Schneerson 's followers in Chabad continue to deny the heliocentric model.
Kepler 's laws of planetary motion were used as arguments in favor of the heliocentric hypothesis. Three apparent proofs of the heliocentric hypothesis were provided in 1727 by James Bradley, in 1838 by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel and in 1851 by Foucault. Bradley discovered the stellar aberration, proving the relative motion of the earth. Bessel proved that the parallax of a star was greater than zero by measuring the parallax of 0.314 arcseconds of a star named 61 Cygni. In the same year Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve and Thomas Henderson measured the parallaxes of other stars, Vega and Alpha Centauri.
The thinking that the heliocentric view was also not true in a strict sense was achieved in steps. That the Sun was not the center of the universe, but one of innumerable stars, was strongly advocated by the mystic Giordano Bruno. Over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the status of the Sun as merely one star among many became increasingly obvious. By the 20th century, even before the discovery that there are many galaxies, it was no longer an issue.
The concept of an absolute velocity, including being "at rest '' as a particular case, is ruled out by the principle of relativity, also eliminating any obvious "center '' of the universe as a natural origin of coordinates. Some forms of Mach 's principle consider the frame at rest with respect to the distant masses in the universe to have special properties.
Even if the discussion is limited to the solar system, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet 's orbit, but rather approximately at one focus of the elliptical orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet 's mass can not be neglected in comparison to the Sun 's mass, the center of gravity of the solar system is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly Jupiter, amount to 0.14 % of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an extrasolar planet would observe a small "wobble '' in the Sun 's motion.
In modern calculations the terms "geocentric '' and "heliocentric '' are often used to refer to reference frames. In such systems the origin in the center of mass of the Earth, of the Earth -- Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire solar system can be selected; see center - of - mass frame. Right Ascension and Declination are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth - based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations. This leads to such terms as "heliocentric velocity '' and "heliocentric angular momentum ''. In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of mechanical energy because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller body (either artificial or natural) may gain heliocentric velocity due to gravity assist -- this effect can change the body 's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric '' or "heliocentric '' frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or scientific model. From the point of view of General Relativity, inertial reference frames do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space - time, which can have higher or lower precision.
All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al - Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al - Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere... concentrically envelops the other.
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when do new episode of rick and morty | Rick and Morty - Wikipedia
Rick and Morty is an American adult animated science - fiction sitcom created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon for Cartoon Network 's late - night programming block Adult Swim. The series follows the misadventures of cynical mad scientist Rick Sanchez and his fretful, easily influenced grandson Morty Smith, who split their time between domestic life and interdimensional adventures. The series premiered on December 2, 2013 and its third season concluded on October 1, 2017. A fourth season has been mentioned first by Harmon in a September 2017 interview, and later in the post-credits scene of the third season 's finale.
Roiland voices the eponymous characters, with Chris Parnell, Spencer Grammer, and Sarah Chalke voicing the rest of the family. The series originated from an animated short parody film of Back to the Future, The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, created by Roiland for Channel 101, a short film festival co-founded by Harmon. When Adult Swim approached Harmon for television show ideas, he and Roiland decided to develop a program based on the short. The series has received universal acclaim for its originality, creativity and humor.
The show revolves around the adventures of the members of the Smith household, which consists of parents Jerry and Beth, their kids Summer and Morty, and Beth 's father, Rick Sanchez, who lives with them as a guest.
Rick is an eccentric and alcoholic mad scientist, who eschews many ordinary conventions such as school, marriage, love, and family. He frequently goes on adventures with his 14 - year - old grandson, Morty, a kind but easily distressed boy, whose naive but grounded moral compass plays counterpoint to Rick 's Machiavellian ego. Morty 's 17 - year - old sister, Summer, is a more conventional teenager, who worries about improving her status among her peers and sometimes follows Rick and Morty on their adventures. The kids ' mother, Beth, is a generally level - headed person and assertive force in the household, though self - conscious about her professional role as a horse doctor. She is dissatisfied with her marriage with Jerry, a simple - minded and insecure person, who disapproves of Rick 's influence over his family.
Different versions of the characters inhabit other dimensions throughout the multiverse and their personal characteristics can vary from one reality to another. The show 's original Rick identifies himself as "Rick Sanchez of Earth Dimension C - 137 '', in reference to his original universe, but this does n't necessarily apply to every other member of the Smith household. For instance, in the first - season episode "Rick Potion # 9 '', after turning the entire world population into monsters, Rick and Morty move to a different dimension, leaving Summer, Beth and Jerry behind.
According to Justin Roiland, the family lives outside of Seattle in the U.S. state of Washington. The adventures of Rick and Morty, however, take place across an infinite number of realities, with the characters travelling to other planets and dimensions through portals and Rick 's flying car.
Rick and Morty was created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon. The duo first met at Channel 101, a non-profit monthly short film festival in Los Angeles co-founded by Harmon. At Channel 101, participants submit a short film in the format of a pilot, and a live audience decides which pilots continue as a series. Roiland, then a producer on reality programming, began submitting content to the festival a year after its launch, in 2004. His pilots typically consisted of shock value -- "sick and twisted '' elements that received a confused reaction from the audience. Nevertheless, Harmon took a liking to his humor and the two began collaborating. In 2006, Roiland was fired from working on a television series he regarded as intensely creatively stifling, and funneled his creative energies into creating a webisode for Channel 101. The result was The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, an animated short starring Doc Brown and Marty McFly, characters from the Back to the Future film trilogy. In the short, which Harmon would dub "a bastardization, a pornographic vandalization '', Doc Smith urges Mharti that the solution to all of his problems is to give him oral sex. The audience reacted to it wildly, and Roiland began creating more shorts involving the characters, which soon evolved beyond his original intentions and their obvious origin within the film from which it was culled. Harmon would later create and produce Community, an NBC sitcom, while Roiland would work primarily in voice acting for Disney 's Fish Hooks and Cartoon Network 's Adventure Time.
In 2012, Harmon was briefly fired from Community. Adult Swim, searching for a more prime - time, "hit '' show, approached Harmon shortly afterward, who initially viewed the channel as unfit for his style. He also was unfamiliar with animation, and his process for creating television focuses more heavily on dialogue, characters, and story. Instead, he phoned Roiland to inquire if he had any ideas for an animated series. Roiland immediately brought up the idea of using the Doc and Mharti characters, renamed Rick and Morty. Roiland initially wanted the show 's run time to consist of one eleven - minute segment, but Adult Swim pushed for a half - hour program. Harmon felt the best way to extend the voices into a program would be to build a family around the characters, while Adult Swim development executive Nick Weidenfeld suggested that Rick be Morty 's grandfather. Having pitched multiple television programs that did not get off the ground, Roiland was initially very unreceptive to others attempting to give notes on his pitch. Prior to developing Rick and Morty, he had created three failed animated pilots for Fox, and he had begun to feel "burned out '' with developing television.
The first draft was completed in six hours on the Paramount Pictures lot in Dan Harmon 's unfurnished Community office. The duo had broken the story that day, sold the pilot, and then sat down to write. Roiland, while acknowledging a tendency for procrastination, encouraged Harmon to stay and write the entire first draft. "We were sitting on the floor, cross-legged with laptops and I was about to get up and go home and he said, ' Wait, if you go home, it might take us three months to write this thing. Stay here right now and we can write it in six hours. ' He just had a premonition about that, '' recalled Harmon. Adult Swim was initially unsure of Roiland doing both voices, partially due to the undeveloped nature of the character of Morty. Harmon wrote four short premises in which Morty took a more assertive role and sent it to Mike Lazzo. Adult Swim placed a tamer TV - 14 rating on the program, which initially was met with reluctance from the show 's staff. The network 's reason behind the rating was that it would soon begin broadcasting in prime - time, competing with major programs.
The main theme for Rick and Morty by Ryan Elder was originally used in a rejected Cartoon Network pilot Roiland made called "Dog World '', which was referenced in the episode "Lawnmower Dog ''.
The general formula of Rick and Morty consists of the juxtaposition of two conflicting scenarios: an extremely selfish, alcoholic grandfather dragging his grandson across space for intergalactic and / or interdimensional adventures, intercut with domestic family drama. This has led Harmon to describe the series as a cross between Matt Groening 's two shows The Simpsons and Futurama, balancing family life with heavy science fiction. The series is inspired by British - style storytelling, as opposed to traditional American family TV stories. Roiland has stated his and Harmon 's intentions for the series to lack traditional continuity, opting for discontinuous storylines "not bound by rules ''. In producing the series ' first season, episodes were occasionally written out of order. For example, "Rick Potion # 9 '' was the second episode written for the series, but was instructed to be animated as the fifth, as it would make more sense within the series ' continuity.
Many episodes are structured with use of a story circle, a Harmon creation based largely on Joseph Campbell 's monomyth, or The Hero 's Journey. Its two - act structure places the act break at an odd location in the stages of the monomyth: after The Meeting with the Goddess, instead of Atonement with the Father. Harmon has stated that his inspiration behind much of the concept and humor for the series comes from various British television series, such as The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy and Doctor Who. He figures that the audience will only understand developments from Morty 's point of view, but stated "we do n't want to be the companions. We want to hang out with the Doctor, we idolize the Doctor, but we do n't think like him, and that 's really interesting, Rick is diseased, he 's mentally ill, he 's an absolute lunatic because he lives on this larger scale. ''
Harmon has noted that the writers room at the show 's studio bears a striking resemblance to the one used for Community. In comparing the two, he noted that the writing staff of Rick and Morty was significantly smaller, and more "rough and tumble verbally ''. The first season writing staff consisted of Roiland, Harmon, Tom Kauffman, Ryan Ridley, Wade Randolph, and Eric Acosta, while writer 's assistant Mike McMahan was also given writing credit. Described as a "very, very tiny little writers ' room with a lot of heavy lifting from everybody, '' the show 's writing staff, like many Adult Swim productions, is not unionized with the Writers ' Guild of America. The writing staff first meets and discusses ideas, which evolve into a story. Discussions often include anecdotes from personal life as well as thoughts on the science fiction genre. After breaking the story -- which consists of developing its consistency and logical beginning, middle, and conclusion -- a writer is assigned to create an outline. Roiland and Harmon do a "pass '' on the outline, and from there the episode undergoes several more drafts. The final draft of the script is last approved by either of the co-creators. Harmon has admitted that his perfectionism can some times be disruptive and cause writing schedule delays. For the most part, this was the reason why the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended.
Animation for the show is done using Toon Boom Harmony, post-production work is done in Adobe After Effects, and background art is done in Adobe Photoshop. Production of animation is handled by Bardel Entertainment in Canada. Roiland 's cartooning style is heavily indebted to The Simpsons, a factor he acknowledged in a 2013 interview, while also comparing his style to that of Pendleton Ward (Adventure Time) and J.G. Quintel (Regular Show): "You 'll notice mouths are kind of similar and teeth are similar, but I think that 's also a stylistic thing that... all of us are kind of the same age, and we 're all inspired by The Simpsons and all these other shows we 're kind of subconsciously tapping into. '' John Kricfalusi 's The Ren & Stimpy Show was another strong influence for Rick and Morty, which is why, according to Roiland, the small "w - shaped mouths '' that the characters occasionally make is a reference to a similar expression that Ren frequently makes. When recording dialogue, Roiland does a considerable amount of improvisation, in order to make the characters feel more natural.
Althought there has n't been an official renewal announcement by Adult Swim, Dan Harmon talked about the possibility of creating more than ten episodes per season, in a September 2017 interview, where he stated "I 'm about to do season 4 of Rick and Morty and want to prove that I 've grown. '' On October 1, 2017, similarly to the second - season finale, the animated character Mr. Poopybutthole re-appeared in the post-credits scene of the third - season finale and said that it will be a long wait until the fourth season of the show.
There has been discussion among viewers about the philosophy of Rick and Morty. The show most frequently adopts an existentialist perspective, while Harmon has described Rick as an anarchist, who does n't like being told what to do. Other philosophies that have been referenced in the characters behavior and observations include: absurdism, nihilism and the work of Friedrich Nietzsche. The series addresses the insignificance of human existence as compared to the size of the universe, with no recognizable divine presence, as described by Lovecraft 's philosophy of cosmicism. The characters of the show find ways to deal with cosmic horror and existential dread, either by asserting the utility of science over magic or choosing life in ignorant bliss.
The series was first announced during Adult Swim 's 2012 Upfront presentation. Adult Swim ordered 10 half - hour episodes (not including the pilot) to comprise the first season. Matt Roller, a writer for the series, confirmed via Twitter that the network renewed Rick and Morty for a second season, which premiered on July 26, 2015. In August 2015, Adult Swim renewed the series for a third season, which consists of 10 episodes. It premiered unannounced on April 1, 2017, with the rest of the season beginning on July 30, 2017.
Adult Swim has made all of the episodes available on iTunes, Google Play, Amazon, YouTube, and Vudu, as well as a 37 - minute interview between creators Harmon and Roiland at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con International, and a panel at the 2015 ATX Television Festival. Episodes have also been made available to stream on the series ' official website with a cable provider login. The episode "Rixty Minutes '' was released early by the network via 109 15 - second videos on Instagram. Some of the episodes are available for free streaming on Adult Swim 's website; for the rest a U.S. cable subscription is required. Season one was made available for on - demand viewing on Hulu in June 2015. Season two is also available as of June 2016. Seasons 1 - 3 are available on Netflix in some countries.
Following the conclusion of the show 's third season, Adult Swim has made a livestream marathon of Rick and Morty available to watch on its official website in select regions, hoping to dissuade viewers from watching the illegal livestreams on YouTube, which constitute copyright infringement.
The complete first season was released on DVD (Region 1) and Blu - ray on October 7, 2014. Before its release, Roiland had confirmed that it would contain uncensored audio tracks. The complete second season was released on DVD (Region 1) and Blu - ray on June 7, 2016.
Rick and Morty has received universal critical acclaim, holding a 97 % approval rating by critics on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes. Additionally, the first season of Rick and Morty holds a Metacritic score of 85 based on eight reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. David Weigand of San Francisco Chronicle described it as "offbeat and occasionally coarse... the take - away here is that it works ''. He praised the animation direction by James McDermott for being "fresh, colorful and as wacky as the script '', and states that the series possesses "shades of Futurama, South Park and even Beetlejuice '', ultimately opining that its humor felt "entirely original ''. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times praised the series and stated that it was "Grandparenting at its unhinged finest. '' Todd Spangler of Variety gave the series a lukewarm review; while he found the series was passable, he contrasted it with other Adult Swim series as "often seems overly reliant on simply being frenetic at the expense of being witty '' and enjoyed it as "a welcome attempt to dream just a little bigger ''. David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the series an "A − ''. In reviewing the first two episodes, he complimented the animation for its "clean, simple style ''. He stated that while the series has "a dark, sick sensibility '', he praised its "effort to give each character a little bit of depth '', further applauding Roiland 's voice talent for the eponymous characters.
Informational notes
Citations
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who wrote the song lovely to look at | Lovely to Look At - wikipedia
Lovely to Look At, an adaptation of the Broadway musical Roberta, is a 1952 MGM musical film directed by Mervyn LeRoy. Other than keeping the musical score and retaining the idea of a dress shop being inherited by someone, it bears almost no resemblance to the show or 1935 film.
Tony Naylor, Al Marsh and Jerry Ralby are looking for backers for their new Broadway show. They have just run out of options when Al gets a letter from his aunt 's attorneys and finds he is a part - owner of a dress salon in Paris. Thinking to sell his share, he, Jerry, and Tony fly to Paris, only to find the shop is almost bankrupt. There they also find Stephanie and Clarisse, who own the other shares of the business. Tony is able to convince the anxious creditors to back a fashion show, hoping to put the shop back on top. As the plot progresses, Tony is torn between his growing affection for Stephanie and his desire to finance his show. Meanwhile, Jerry falls for Clarisse, and Al has a crush on Stephanie. Eventually, Al goes for Bubbles, who has followed the boys from New York.
The film was originally announced as a vehicle for Gene Kelly and Frank Sinatra, who had teamed together several times previously.
The music was written by Jerome Kern.
According to MGM records the film earned $2,571,000 in the U.S. and Canada, and $1,203,000 elsewhere, resulting in an overall loss of $735,000.
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where is the light between two oceans set | The Light Between Oceans (film) - wikipedia
The Light Between Oceans is a 2016 romantic period drama film written and directed by Derek Cianfrance and based on the 2012 novel of the same name by M.L. Stedman. An international co-production between the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand, the film stars Michael Fassbender, Alicia Vikander, Rachel Weisz, Bryan Brown, and Jack Thompson. The film tells the story of a lighthouse keeper and his wife who rescue and adopt an infant girl adrift at sea. Years later, the couple discovers the child 's true parentage and are faced with the moral dilemma of their actions.
The Light Between Oceans had its world premiere at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival on September 1, 2016, where it competed for the Golden Lion. The film was released by Touchstone Pictures in North America on September 2, 2016, being the last DreamWorks Pictures film distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through their 2011 output deal. The film was released in the United Kingdom on November 1, 2016, by Entertainment One Films. It received mixed reviews and grossed $26 million worldwide.
Tom Sherbourne, a traumatised and withdrawn hero of World War I, is hired as a lightkeeper at Janus Rock, a lighthouse off the coast of Western Australia. He falls in love with a local girl, Isabel Graysmark, and they marry in 1921. Isabel loses two pregnancies in three years, and fears she may never become a mother.
Shortly after Isabel 's second miscarriage, a rowboat containing a dead man and a newborn baby girl washes up on the shore near the lighthouse. Tom knows that regulations require him to report the discovery. However, Isabel fears that the baby will almost certainly be sent to an orphanage, and persuades Tom to pass the baby off as their own. Tom grudgingly agrees. He buries the man on the island and they name the girl Lucy.
As Tom and Isabel are about to have Lucy christened on the mainland, Tom sees a woman, Hannah Roennfeldt, kneeling in front of a grave, bearing the names of Frank Roennfeldt and his baby daughter Grace Ellen, who were lost at sea on the day they found Lucy, 26 April 1923. Tom fears that Lucy might very well be Hannah 's missing daughter. He writes anonymously to her to tell her that her husband is dead but that her baby is safe and well cared - for.
Four years later, Tom, Isabel, and Lucy, who have enjoyed an idyllic life together, attend a ceremony for the anniversary of Tom 's lighthouse, and they strike up a conversation with Hannah and her sister, Gwen Potts. They learn that Frank was a German native, and had been accosted in the street by a drunken crowd. He jumped into a rowboat and fled along with his baby daughter. Tormented by his conscience, Tom sends Hannah a small rattle that was found with Lucy on the boat. One of Tom 's co-workers recognizes the rattle on a reward poster, and reports him to the police.
Tom takes full responsibility, claiming he bullied Isabel into complying. Isabel is enraged that Tom is willing to give Lucy away, and breaks off contact with him after his arrest. Lucy is returned to her birth family, but initially rejects and hates them, having no memory of them. She refuses to answer to "Grace '', and even runs away in an effort to go back to the lighthouse.
The police accuse Tom of murdering Frank, and are unable to draw an answer from the distraught Isabel as to whether he was dead when they discovered him. Just as Tom is about to be taken to Albany for trial, Isabel reads a letter which Tom had sent her, writing of how he had not deserved his happiness with her and how carrying the blame will assuage his guilt for surviving the war. She jumps on the boat and confesses everything. Moved by their gesture, Hannah offers to speak on their behalf at trial. Lucy has at last begun to bond with her natural mother and grandfather, who agrees to call her "Lucy - Grace '' as a compromise.
In 1950, an adult Lucy - Grace Rutherford, accompanied by her baby son Christopher, tracks Tom down. She has not been in contact with the Sherbournes for over twenty years, as they had agreed not to contact her for the rest of her childhood. Isabel has recently died, still tormented with guilt for her actions, and Tom gives Lucy - Grace a letter that she wrote for her in case she ever made contact. An emotional Lucy - Grace thanks Tom, the only father she knew, for rescuing and raising her for the few years on Janus, and they promise to stay in touch.
DreamWorks acquired the rights to the novel on November 27, 2012, with David Heyman and Jeffrey Clifford producing through Heyday Films. DreamWorks approached Derek Cianfrance at the behest of Steven Spielberg, who was impressed by Cianfrance 's Blue Valentine. In September 2013, Cianfrance was announced to direct the film. In May 2014, Michael Fassbender was announced in the film. In June 2014, Alicia Vikander joined the cast of the film, followed by Rachel Weisz in July 2014. Participant Media joined the production in August 2014.
Principal photography started in September 2014, with filming locations in New Zealand and Australia. Filming took place in Dunedin, Port Chalmers and on the Otago Peninsula, Saint Bathans in Central Otago and at the Cape Campbell Lighthouse in Marlborough. Filming sites included the former Dunedin Prison in Dunedin and Stuart Street at the former King Edward Technical College building.
Footage aboard a steam train was filmed in October inside a refurbished wooden "bird cage '' passenger carriage from the Pleasant Point Railway in South Canterbury. Mainline Steam Heritage Trust used Ja 1240 "Jessica '' for the movie and it was transferred from the trust 's Christchurch depot to Dunedin for filming to take place. While the scene in which the locomotive is used was set in 1918, locomotive Ja 1240 was built in 1947 and was the second New Zealand Railways JA class locomotive to be built. Built at New Zealand Railways Hillside workshops in Dunedin it ran exclusively in the South Island of New Zealand from 1947 until 1971.
In November the production moved to Australia and filming began in Stanley, Tasmania where the crews transformed some locations in the town including the pier, which was refurbished, and the road, which was covered in gravel. Production wrapped on November 24, 2014.
Cianfrance spent a year editing the film, with little breaks in between with the first cut of the film ending up at 2 hours and 20 minutes.
The Light Between Oceans held its world premiere at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival on September 1, 2016. The film was distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through the Touchstone Pictures banner, being the last DreamWorks film to be released under the original agreement with Walt Disney Studios. Disney released the film in the United States on September 2, 2016. Disney opted not to give the film a limited release, a method often used by studios for adult dramas, and instead issued the film in general wide release at 1,500 locations with focus on upscale venues.
Disney also distributed The Light Between Oceans overseas, except for territories in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, where distribution was handled by Mister Smith Entertainment through other third - party film distributors; Entertainment One Films in the United Kingdom, Reliance in India, Arthouse in Russia, Eagle Pictures in Italy, and Phantom Film in Japan.
The Light Between Oceans was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray, DVD, and digital download on January 24, 2017.
The Light Between Oceans grossed $12.5 million in North America and $13.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $26 million, against a budget of $20 million.
In the United States, the film was released on September 2, 2016, alongside Morgan, and was projected to gross $6 -- 9 million from around 1,500 theaters in its opening weekend. It grossed $1.4 million on its first day and $4.8 million in its opening weekend, finishing 6th at the box office.
The Light Between Oceans received mixed reviews from critics. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 59 %, based on 184 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Light Between Oceans presents a well - acted and handsomely mounted adaptation of its bestselling source material, but ultimately tugs on the heartstrings too often to be effective. '' On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 60 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. According to CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '', on an A+ to F scale.
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when did rise of the guardians come out | Rise of the Guardians - Wikipedia
Rise of the Guardians is a 2012 American 3D computer - animated fantasy film based on William Joyce 's The Guardians of Childhood book series and The Man in the Moon short film by Joyce and Reel FX Creative Studios. Peter Ramsey directed the film, while Joyce and Guillermo del Toro were executive producers with voice acting by Chris Pine, Alec Baldwin, Hugh Jackman, Isla Fisher, and Jude Law. Produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures, it was released on November 21, 2012.
Set about 300 years after the book series, the film tells a story about Guardians Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy, the Easter Bunny, and the Sandman, who enlist Jack Frost to stop Pitch Black from engulfing the world in darkness. The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film. This was the last DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Paramount Pictures.
Jack Frost awakens from a frozen pond with amnesia. Upon realizing no one can see or hear him, he disappears. Three hundred years later Jack, as the spirit of Winter, enjoys delivering snow days to school kids, but resents that they do n't believe in him. At the North Pole, the Man in the Moon warns Nicholas St. North that Pitch Black is threatening the children of the world with his nightmares. He calls E. Aster Bunnymund, Sandy, and Tooth, to arms. They are then told that Jack Frost has been chosen to be a new Guardian. Jack is unimpressed by this position, as he still resents not being believed in, but North convinces him to aid them.
Visiting Tooth 's world, Jack learns that baby teeth contain childhood memories of the children who lost them; Jack 's teeth are included, but tells Tooth he does n't remember. However, Pitch raids Tooth 's home in order to kidnap all of her subordinate tooth fairies except Baby Tooth, whom Jack saved, so that the children 's teeth ca n't be collected and steals all the teeth, thus preventing Tooth from sharing Jack 's memories and causing children to not believe in Tooth. In order to thwart Pitch 's plan, the group decides to collect children 's teeth. During their journey, a quarrel between North and Bunnymund awakens a boy, Jamie. Since he still believes, he can see everybody except for Jack. Pitch 's nightmares then attack, provoking Sandy as the Guardian of Dreams. Jack aids, but Sandy is killed by Pitch.
As Easter approaches, the dejected Guardians gather in Bunnymund 's home. With the unexpected aid of Jamie 's little sister, Sophie, they begin the process of painting eggs for Easter. After Jack takes Sophie home, he is lured to Pitch 's lair by a voice. Pitch taunts him with his memories and fear of non-belief, distracting him long enough for Pitch to destroy the eggs, causing children to stop believing in Easter and Bunnymund. Losing his trust in the Guardians, Jack isolates himself in Antarctica, where Pitch tries to convince him to join his side. When Jack refuses, Pitch threatens to kill Baby Tooth unless Jack gives him his staff. He agrees, but Pitch breaks Jack 's staff and throws him down a chasm. Unlocking his memories, he learns that he was a mortal teenager who fell into ice while saving his younger sister. Inspired, Jack fixes his staff and returns to the lair to rescue the kidnapped baby fairies.
Due to Pitch, every child in the world except Jamie disbelieves, weakening the Guardians. Finding Jamie 's belief wavering, Jack makes it snow in his room, renewing belief and causing Jack to be seen and heard for the first time. Jack and Jamie gather the boy 's friends, whose renewed belief bolsters their fight against Pitch. Pitch threatens them, but their dreams prove stronger than his nightmares, resulting in Sandy 's resurrection. Defeated and disbelieved in, Pitch tries to retreat, but his nightmares, sensing his fear, turn on him and trap him in his lair. Afterward, Jamie and his friends bid goodbye to the Guardians as Jack accepts his place as the Guardian of Fun.
In 2005, William Joyce and Reel FX launched a joint venture, Aimesworth Amusements, to produce CG - animated feature films, one of which was set to be The Guardians of Childhood, based on Joyce 's idea. The film was not realized, but they did create a short animated film, The Man in the Moon, directed by Joyce, which introduced the Guardians idea, and served as an inspiration for the film.
Early in 2008, Joyce sold the film rights to DreamWorks Animation, after the studio assured him it would respect his vision for the characters and that he would be involved with the creative process. In November 2009, it was revealed that DreamWorks had hired Peter Ramsey to make his feature debut as director of what was then titled The Guardians, and playwright David Lindsay - Abaire to script. Joyce acted as a co-director for the first few years, but left this position after the death of his daughter Mary Katherine, who died of a brain tumor. Joyce continued to assist as an executive producer, while Ramsey took over full directing, making him the first African American to direct a big - budget CG animated film. As with some previous DreamWorks films, Guillermo del Toro came on board as an executive producer. Present almost from the beginning, he was able to help shape the story, character design, theme and structure of the film. He said he was proud that the filmmakers were making parts of the film "dark and moody and poetic, '' and expressed hope this might "set a different tone for family movies, for entertainment movies. '' The final title, Rise of the Guardians was announced in early 2011, along with the first cast.
Roger Deakins, the cinematographer who had already worked on the previous DreamWorks ' film, How to Train Your Dragon, advised on the lighting to achieve its real look. He selected photographic references for color keys, and during the production gave notes on contrast, saturation, depth of field and light intensity. The film contains a lot of special effects, particularly the volumetric particles for depicting Sandman and Pitch. For this, DreamWorks Animation developed OpenVDB, a more efficient tool and format for manipulating and storing volume data, like smoke and other amorphous materials. OpenVDB had been already used on Puss in Boots and Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted, and was released in August 2012 for free as an open source project with a hope to become an industry standard.
Although the film is based on the Joyce 's book series, it contains differences from the books. The book series, begun in 2011, explains the origins of the characters, while the film takes place about 300 years after the books, and shows how the characters function in present time. Joyce explained, "Because I do n't want people to read the book and then go see the movie and go, ' Oh, I like the book better, ' and I also did n't want them to know what happens in the movie. And I also knew that during the progress of film production, a lot of things can change. So I wanted to have a sort of distance, so we were able to invoke the books and use them to help us figure out the world of the movie, but I did n't want them to be openly competitive to each other. '' The idea for the Guardians came from Joyce 's daughter, who asked him "if he thought Santa Claus had ever met the Easter Bunny. '' The film includes a dedication to her, as well a song, "Still Dream, '' sung over the end credits.
Originally, the film was set to be released on November 2, 2012, but DreamWorks Animation pushed the film to November 21, 2012 to avoid competition with Pixar 's upcoming film Monsters University, which in turn had been pushed to November 2, 2012 to avoid competition with The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2. Monsters University was then pushed to June 21, 2013, with Disney 's Wreck - It Ralph taking its place.
French composer Alexandre Desplat composed the original music for the film, which was released on November 13, 2012 by Varèse Sarabande. The score was recorded in London at Abbey Road Studios and Air Studios, and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, with a choral contribution by London Voices. David Lindsay - Abaire wrote the lyrics for the end - credit song, "Still Dream, '' which was performed by soprano Renée Fleming. Stravinsky 's Firebird Suite can also be heard during the scene where North first appears. This film marks the first time that a DreamWorks Animation film has not been composed by Hans Zimmer or a member of his Remote Control Productions family of composers (mainly John Powell, Henry Jackman, Harry Gregson - Williams or his brother Rupert Gregson - Williams).
Rise of the Guardians had its premiere on October 10, 2012, at The Mill Valley Film Festival in Mill Valley, California, followed by the international premiere at The International Rome Film Festival on November 13, 2012. Under distribution by Paramount Pictures, the film was released on November 21, 2012, in American theaters. Digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, it was shown in limited international and domestic IMAX theaters. It was the second film released in the firm Barco 's Auro 11.1 3D audio format, after Red Tails. The film was also shown in Dolby Atmos, a surround sound technology introduced in 2012. Rise of the Guardians was the last DreamWorks Animation film distributed by Paramount, as DreamWorks has signed a five - year distribution deal with 20th Century Fox, which started in 2013 with The Croods.
Rise of the Guardians was released on Blu - ray Disc (2D and 3D) and DVD on March 12, 2013.
That was the last DreamWorks Animation home media release to be distributed by Paramount Home Entertainment, since 20th Century Fox announced its distribution agreement with DreamWorks Animation a few months before the theatrical release. The film was more successful at home media sales than at the box office, having at the end of the second quarter of 2013 "the highest box office to DVD conversion ratio among major releases. '' In the first quarter of 2013, it sold 3.2 million home entertainment units worldwide, and in the second quarter 0.9 million units, for a total of 4.1 million units. As of August 2013, 2 million DVDs were sold domestically.
It was re-released on DVD on November 5, 2013 and comes with a wind - up marching elf toy.
Based on 148 reviews, the film holds a rating of 74 % on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 6.5 / 10, based on 149 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads: "A sort of Avengers for the elementary school set, Rise of the Guardians is wonderfully animated and briskly paced, but it 's only so - so in the storytelling department. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 57 based on 34 reviews, or "Mixed or average. '' The film earned an "A '' from audiences polled by CinemaScore.
Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three - and - a-half out of four stars and found the film 's characters to have "a primal familiarity, as though they were developed by a tag team of Maurice Sendak and Walt Disney. '' Olly Richards of Empire wrote, "It 's gorgeously designed, deftly written and frequently laugh - out - loud funny. For child or adult, this is a fantasy to get lost in. '' The Washington Post 's Michael O'Sullivan also gave the film a positive review and said, "Thoughts become things. That 's the message of Rise of the Guardians, a charming if slightly dark and cobwebbed animated feature about how believing in something makes it real, or real enough. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three stars and wrote in his review, "There 's an audience for this film. It 's not me. I gather younger children will like the breakneck action, the magical ability to fly and the young hero who has tired of only being a name. '' Though he did say, "Their parents and older siblings may find the 89 - minute running time quite long enough. ''
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "a lively but derivative 3D storybook spree for some unlikely action heroes. '' Conversely, Justin Chang in Variety said, "Even tots may emerge feeling slightly browbeaten by this colorful, strenuous and hyperactive fantasy, which has moments of charm and beauty but often resembles an exploding toy factory rather than a work of honest enchantment. '' Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal found that the film "lacks a resonant center, '' and that the script, "seems to have been written by committee, with members lobbying for each major character, and the action, set in vast environments all over the map, spreads itself so thin that a surfeit of motion vitiates emotion. ''
Rise of the Guardians grossed $103,412,758 in North America, and $203,528,912 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $306,941,670.
In North America, the film opened to $32.3 million over its extended five - day weekend, and with $23.8 million over the three - day weekend, it reached fourth place behind The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2, Skyfall, and Lincoln. The film 's opening was the lowest debut for a DreamWorks Animation film since Flushed Away. While the film did gross more than double of its $145 million budget, it still did not turn a profit for DreamWorks Animation due to its high production and marketing costs, forcing the studio to take an $83 million write - down. This marked the first time that the studio had lost money on an animated film since Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas. As a result of this combined with other factors, in February 2013, the studio announced it was laying off 350 employees as part of a company - wide restructuring.
The Rome Film Festival and Vanity Fair magazine awarded the new Vanity Fair International Award for Cinematic Excellence in November 2012 to Rise of the Guardians. The film also received the Hollywood Animation Award at the 16th Annual Hollywood Film Festival, held on October 22, 2012.
A video game based on the film was released by D3 Publisher on November 20, 2012 in North America, and released on November 23, 2012 in Europe. It allows gamers to lead the Guardians in their battle against Pitch. The game is a 3D beat - em - up, where the player travels through each of the worlds: Burgess, North Pole, Bunnymund Valley, Tooth Palace, and Sandman 's Ship, to fight Pitch 's army of Nightmares. The player can switch between all five guardians at any time, and freely customize their powers, and they learn new special abilities as they level up. All the game versions support up to 4 player gameplay. It is available on the Wii, Wii U, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS.
After the release of the film, the creators of Rise of the Guardians expressed hope that the strong A - Cinemascore average for the film and an enthusiastic word - of - mouth would gather support for the "chance to make a sequel or two. '' Author and co-producer of the series, William Joyce, also mentioned in March 2013 that he was still in talks about a sequel with DreamWorks Animation: "There is something that we are proposing that we hope they will want to do. ''
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who is the mom in the liberty mutual commercial | Christina Jun - wikipedia
Christina Jun (Korean: 전 예림) is a Korean -- American theatre and film actor, writer and filmmaker based in New York City and Los Angeles. As an actress, she has worked with theatres in various cities around the country including NYC, LA, Chicago and Miami such as the Miami Theatre Center, New American Theatre and the Goodman Theatre. She has also worked on several national print and commercial campaigns including Liberty Mutual, Walmart and VH1. As a filmmaker, her films have been screened and awarded in multiple film festivals including the Philadelphia Asian American Film Festival, Hollywood Reel Independent Film Festival and Sacramento International Film Festival. Her latest film, "My Best Friend, Ben '' premiered at ICM Partners in Los Angeles in May 2015 and has received honorable mentions for best actress and best supporting actor at the 2016 Asians on Film Festival. Christina is currently a MFA candidate in film & TV production at the USC School of Cinematic Arts
Christina was born in Madrid, Spain to Chong Ok Lim and Ki Sun Chun. Her mother, Chong Ok Lim is an acupuncturist and her father, Ki Sun Chun is the director of the Spanish Department at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies. She also has a step - father, Walter K. Rothfuss who is a forensic engineer. Christina immigrated to the United States with her mother and older brother in 1992, moving to Columbia, MD. During their entry into the states, US customs misspelled their surname and it was changed from "Chun '' to "Jun ''. As a child, Christina studied traditional Korean fan dance and drumming (Buk) performing in various community events including the annual Baltimore Korean Festival. She has also studied classical violin since the age of 5, competing and performing statewide as a soloist and with orchestras, including the Maryland All - state orchestra. Having attended Korean language school, she is also fluent in Korean.
After graduating from Centennial High School, Christina moved to Chicago to attend the University of Illinois at Chicago. While earning her B.A. in English Literature, she began her acting career by working with theatre companies throughout the city, including Chicago Dramatists and Act One Studios. She then moved to New York City to attend the 2 - year conservatory at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.
Shortly after graduating from the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City, Christina was cast as Ling Shih, the lead role in the original production of The Red Thread produced by the Miami theatre Center (formerly known as The Playground Theatre). She also wrote and produced her first full - length play, Accidents directed by Scott Cooper and produced at the Manhattan Repertory Theatre in New York City. In 2011, Christina moved to Los Angeles where she worked with various theatre companies including the East West Players, The Vagrancy and the New American Theatre where she studied under Alfred Molina. She was cast in The Blank Theatre 's production of Peter Pan: The Boy Who Hated Mothers. The play received 4 LA weekly nominations and won a Broadway World Award for Best Play in 2013. In 2014, she was cast in the production of The World of Extreme Happiness at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago.
In 2011, Christina co-wrote, co-directed and starred in Sawaru as a part of the Asian American Film Lab 72 - hour competition. The film received a nomination for best actress, best direction and was chosen as one of the top ten finalist. She then wrote and directed In the Big City (2012), which was selected and screened at the Williamsburg Film Festival and the Hollywood Reel Independent Film Festival where Christina received the Emerging Actor Spotlight Award. In 2013, Christina co-wrote and starred in Wedlocked, which has been selected and screened at multiple film festivals including the Philadelphia Asian American Film Festival (2014) presented by HBO, the Hollyshorts (2015), the California Women 's Film Festival (2015), Sacramento International Film Festival (2015) and Asians on Film where it received an honorable mention for best comedy. Christina 's latest film, My Best Friend, Ben received its premiere at ICM Partners in Los Angeles, was a semi-finalist at the Screencraft 's comedy script competition and is currently in post production.
As an actor, Christina has also worked on multiple print and commercial campaigns including Toys "R '' Us, Facebook, Dolby, DTS, Walmart, Liberty Mutual, Pearson Education, EA Games, VH1 and Pepsi.
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what are the chemical properties of the moon | Geology of the Moon - wikipedia
The geology of the Moon (sometimes called selenology, although the latter term can refer more generally to "lunar science '') is quite different from that of Earth. The Moon lacks a significant atmosphere, which eliminates erosion due to weather; it does not have any form of plate tectonics, it has a lower gravity, and because of its small size, it cooled more rapidly. The complex geomorphology of the lunar surface has been formed by a combination of processes, especially impact cratering and volcanism. The Moon is a differentiated body, with a crust, mantle, and core.
Geological studies of the Moon are based on a combination of Earth - based telescope observations, measurements from orbiting spacecraft, lunar samples, and geophysical data. Six locations were sampled directly during the crewed Apollo program landings from 1969 to 1972, which returned 380.96 kilograms (839.9 lb) of lunar rock and lunar soil to Earth. In addition, three robotic Soviet Luna spacecraft returned another 326 grams (11.5 oz) from 1970 to 1976. The Moon is the only extraterrestrial body for which we have samples with a known geologic context. A handful of lunar meteorites have been recognized on Earth, though their source craters on the Moon are unknown. A substantial portion of the lunar surface has not been explored, and a number of geological questions remain unanswered.
Elements known to be present on the lunar surface include, among others, oxygen (O), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), aluminium (Al), manganese (Mn) and titanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The oxygen content is estimated at 45 % (by weight). Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) appear to be present only in trace quantities from deposition by solar wind.
Neutron spectrometry data from Lunar Prospector indicate the presence of hydrogen (H) concentrated at the poles.
For a long period of time, the fundamental question regarding the history of the Moon was of its origin. Early hypotheses included fission from Earth, capture, and co-accretion. Today, the giant - impact hypothesis is widely accepted by the scientific community.
The geological history of the Moon has been defined into six major epochs, called the lunar geologic timescale. Starting about 4.5 billion years ago, the newly formed Moon was in a molten state and was orbiting much closer to Earth resulting in tidal forces. These tidal forces deformed the molten body into an ellipsoid, with the major axis pointed towards Earth.
The first important event in the geologic evolution of the Moon was the crystallization of the near global magma ocean. It is not known with certainty what its depth was, but several studies imply a depth of about 500 km or greater. The first minerals to form in this ocean were the iron and magnesium silicates olivine and pyroxene. Because these minerals were denser than the molten material around them, they sank. After crystallization was about 75 % complete, less dense anorthositic plagioclase feldspar crystallized and floated, forming an anorthositic crust about 50 km in thickness. The majority of the magma ocean crystallized quickly (within about 100 million years or less), though the final remaining KREEP - rich magmas, which are highly enriched in incompatible and heat - producing elements, could have remained partially molten for several hundred million (or perhaps 1 billion) years. It appears that the final KREEP - rich magmas of the magma ocean eventually became concentrated within the region of Oceanus Procellarum and the Imbrium basin, a unique geologic province that is now known as the Procellarum KREEP Terrane.
Quickly after the lunar crust formed, or even as it was forming, different types of magmas that would give rise to the Mg - suite norites and troctolites began to form, although the exact depths at which this occurred are not known precisely. Recent theories suggest that Mg - suite plutonism was largely confined to the region of the Procellarum KREEP Terrane, and that these magmas are genetically related to KREEP in some manner, though their origin is still highly debated in the scientific community. The oldest of the Mg - suite rocks have crystallization ages of about 3.85 Ga. However, the last large impact that could have excavated deep into the crust (the Imbrium basin) also occurred at 3.85 Ga before present. Thus, it seems probable that Mg - suite plutonic activity continued for a much longer time, and that younger plutonic rocks exist deep below the surface.
Analysis of the lunar samples seems to imply that a significant percentage of the lunar impact basins formed within a very short period of time between about 4 and 3.85 Ga ago. This hypothesis is referred to as the lunar cataclysm or late heavy bombardment. However, it is now recognized that ejecta from the Imbrium impact basin (one of the youngest large impact basins on the Moon) should be found at all of the Apollo landing sites. It is thus possible that ages for some impact basins (in particular Mare Nectaris) could have been mistakenly assigned the same age as Imbrium.
The lunar maria represent ancient flood basaltic eruptions. In comparison to terrestrial lavas, these contain higher iron abundances, have low viscosities, and some contain highly elevated abundances of the titanium - rich mineral ilmenite. The majority of basaltic eruptions occurred between about 3 and 3.5 Ga ago, though some mare samples have ages as old as 4.2 Ga, and the youngest (based on the method of crater counting) are believed to have erupted only 1 billion years ago. Along with mare volcanism came pyroclastic eruptions, which launched molten basaltic materials hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. A large portion of the mare formed, or flowed into, the low elevations associated with the nearside impact basins. However, Oceanus Procellarum does not correspond to any known impact structure, and the lowest elevations of the Moon within the farside South Pole - Aitken basin are only modestly covered by mare (see lunar mare for a more detailed discussion).
Impacts by meteorites and comets are the only abrupt geologic force acting on the Moon today, though the variation of Earth tides on the scale of the Lunar anomalistic month causes small variations in stresses. Some of the most important craters used in lunar stratigraphy formed in this recent epoch. For example, the crater Copernicus, which has a depth of 3.76 km and a radius of 93 km, is believed to have formed about 900 million years ago (though this is debatable). The Apollo 17 mission landed in an area in which the material coming from the crater Tycho might have been sampled. The study of these rocks seem to indicate that this crater could have formed 100 million years ago, though this is debatable as well. The surface has also experienced space weathering due to high energy particles, solar wind implantation, and micrometeorite impacts. This process causes the ray systems associated with young craters to darken until it matches the albedo of the surrounding surface. However, if the composition of the ray is different from the underlying crustal materials (as might occur when a "highland '' ray is emplaced on the mare), the ray could be visible for much longer times.
After resumption of Lunar exploration in the 1990s, it was discovered there are scarps across the globe that are caused by the contraction due to cooling of the Moon.
On the top of the lunar stratigraphical sequence rayed impact craters can be found. Such youngest craters belong to the Copernican unit. Below it can be found craters without the ray system, but with rather well developed impact crater morphology. This is the Eratosthenian unit. The two younger stratigraphical units can be found in crater sized spots on the Moon. Below them two extending strata can be found: mare units (earlier defined as Procellarian unit) and the Imbrium basin related ejecta and tectonic units (Imbrian units). Another impact basin related unit is the Nectarian unit, defined around the Nectarian Basin. At the bottom of the lunar stratigraphical sequence the pre-Nectarian unit of old crater plains can be found. The stratigraphy of Mercury is very similar to the lunar case.
The lunar landscape is characterized by impact craters, their ejecta, a few volcanoes, hills, lava flows and depressions filled by magma.
The most distinctive aspect of the Moon is the contrast between its bright and dark zones. Lighter surfaces are the lunar highlands, which receive the name of terrae (singular terra, from the Latin for Earth), and the darker plains are called maria (singular mare, from the Latin for sea), after Johannes Kepler who introduced the name in the 17th century. The highlands are anorthositic in composition, whereas the maria are basaltic. The maria often coincide with the "lowlands, '' but it is important to note that the lowlands (such as within the South Pole - Aitken basin) are not always covered by maria. The highlands are older than the visible maria, and hence are more heavily cratered.
The major products of volcanic processes on the Moon are evident to Earth - bound observers in the form of the lunar maria. These are large flows of basaltic lava that correspond to low - albedo surfaces covering nearly a third of the near side. Only a few percent of the farside has been affected by mare volcanism. Even before the Apollo missions confirmed it, most scientists already thought that the maria are lava - filled plains, because they have lava flow patterns and collapses attributed to lava tubes.
The ages of the mare basalts have been determined both by direct radiometric dating and by the technique of crater counting. The oldest radiometric ages are about 4.2 Ga, whereas the youngest ages determined from crater counting are about 1 Ga (1 Ga = 1 billion years). Volumetrically, most of the mare formed between about 3 and 3.5 Ga before present. The youngest lavas erupted within Oceanus Procellarum, whereas some of the oldest appear to be located on the farside. The maria are clearly younger than the surrounding highlands given their lower density of impact craters.
A large portion of maria erupted within, or flowed into, the low - lying impact basins on the lunar nearside. However, it is unlikely that a causal relationship exists between the impact event and mare volcanism because the impact basins are much older (by about 500 million years) than the mare fill. Furthermore, Oceanus Procellarum, which is the largest expanse of mare volcanism on the Moon, does not correspond to any known impact basin. It is commonly suggested that the reason the mare only erupted on the nearside is that the nearside crust is thinner than the farside. Although variations in the crustal thickness might act to modulate the amount of magma that ultimately reaches the surface, this hypothesis does not explain why the farside South Pole - Aitken basin, whose crust is thinner than Oceanus Procellarum, was only modestly filled by volcanic products.
Another type of deposit associated with the maria, although it also covers the highland areas, are the "dark mantle '' deposits. These deposits can not be seen with the naked eye, but they can be seen in images taken from telescopes or orbiting spacecraft. Before the Apollo missions, scientists believed that they were deposits produced by pyroclastic eruptions. Some deposits appear to be associated with dark elongated ash cones, reinforcing the idea of pyroclasts. The existence of pyroclastic eruptions was later confirmed by the discovery of glass spherules similar to those found in pyroclastic eruptions here on Earth.
Many of the lunar basalts contain small holes called vesicles, which were formed by gas bubbles exsolving from the magma at the vacuum conditions encountered at the surface. It is not known with certainty which gases escaped these rocks, but carbon monoxide is one candidate.
The samples of pyroclastic glasses are of green, yellow, and red tints. The difference in color indicates the concentration of titanium that the rock has, with the green particles having the lowest concentrations (about 1 %), and red particles having the highest concentrations (up to 14 %, much more than the basalts with the highest concentrations).
Rilles on the Moon sometimes resulted from the formation of localized lava channels. These generally fall into three categories, consisting of sinuous, arcuate, or linear shapes. By following these meandering rilles back to their source, they often lead to an old volcanic vent. One of the most notable sinuous rilles is the Vallis Schröteri feature, located in the Aristarchus plateau along the eastern edge of Oceanus Procellarum. An example of a sinuous rille exists at the Apollo 15 landing site, Rima Hadley, located on the rim of the Imbrium Basin. Based on observations from the mission, it is generally believed that this rille was formed by volcanic processes, a topic long debated before the mission took place.
A variety of shield volcanoes can be found in selected locations on the lunar surface, such as on Mons Rümker. These are believed to be formed by relatively viscous, possibly silica - rich lava, erupting from localized vents. The resulting lunar domes are wide, rounded, circular features with a gentle slope rising in elevation a few hundred meters to the midpoint. They are typically 8 -- 12 km in diameter, but can be up to 20 km across. Some of the domes contain a small pit at their peak.
Wrinkle ridges are features created by compressive tectonic forces within the maria. These features represent buckling of the surface and form long ridges across parts of the maria. Some of these ridges may outline buried craters or other features beneath the maria. A prime example of such an outlined feature is the crater Letronne.
Grabens are tectonic features that form under extensional stresses. Structurally, they are composed of two normal faults, with a down - dropped block between them. Most grabens are found within the lunar maria near the edges of large impact basins.
The origin of the Moon 's craters as impact features became widely accepted only in the 1960s. This realization allowed the impact history of the Moon to be gradually worked out by means of the geologic principle of superposition. That is, if a crater (or its ejecta) overlaid another, it must be the younger. The amount of erosion experienced by a crater was another clue to its age, though this is more subjective. Adopting this approach in the late 1950s, Gene Shoemaker took the systematic study of the Moon away from the astronomers and placed it firmly in the hands of the lunar geologists.
Impact cratering is the most notable geological process on the Moon. The craters are formed when a solid body, such as an asteroid or comet, collides with the surface at a high velocity (mean impact velocities for the Moon are about 17 km per second). The kinetic energy of the impact creates a compression shock wave that radiates away from the point of entry. This is succeeded by a rarefaction wave, which is responsible for propelling most of the ejecta out of the crater. Finally there is a hydrodynamic rebound of the floor that can create a central peak.
These craters appear in a continuum of diameters across the surface of the Moon, ranging in size from tiny pits to the immense South Pole -- Aitken basin with a diameter of nearly 2,500 km and a depth of 13 km. In a very general sense, the lunar history of impact cratering follows a trend of decreasing crater size with time. In particular, the largest impact basins were formed during the early periods, and these were successively overlaid by smaller craters. The size frequency distribution (SFD) of crater diameters on a given surface (that is, the number of craters as a function of diameter) approximately follows a power law with increasing number of craters with decreasing crater size. The vertical position of this curve can be used to estimate the age of the surface.
The most recent impacts are distinguished by well - defined features, including a sharp - edged rim. Small craters tend to form a bowl shape, whereas larger impacts can have a central peak with flat floors. Larger craters generally display slumping features along the inner walls that can form terraces and ledges. The largest impact basins, the multiring basins, can even have secondary concentric rings of raised material.
The impact process excavates high albedo materials that initially gives the crater, ejecta, and ray system a bright appearance. The process of space weathering gradually decreases the albedo of this material such that the rays fade with time. Gradually the crater and its ejecta undergo impact erosion from micrometeorites and smaller impacts. This erosional process softens and rounds the features of the crater. The crater can also be covered in ejecta from other impacts, which can submerge features and even bury the central peak.
The ejecta from large impacts can include large blocks of material that reimpact the surface to form secondary impact craters. These craters are sometimes formed in clearly discernible radial patterns, and generally have shallower depths than primary craters of the same size. In some cases an entire line of these blocks can impact to form a valley. These are distinguished from catena, or crater chains, which are linear strings of craters that are formed when the impact body breaks up prior to impact.
Generally speaking, a lunar crater is roughly circular in form. Laboratory experiments at NASA 's Ames Research Center have demonstrated that even very low - angle impacts tend to produce circular craters, and that elliptical craters start forming at impact angles below five degrees. However, a low angle impact can produce a central peak that is offset from the midpoint of the crater. Additionally, the ejecta from oblique impacts show distinctive patterns at different impact angles: asymmetry starting around 60 _̊ and a wedge - shaped "zone of avoidance '' free of ejecta in the direction the projectile came from starting around 45 _̊.
Dark - halo craters are formed when an impact excavates lower albedo material from beneath the surface, then deposits this darker ejecta around the main crater. This can occur when an area of darker basaltic material, such as that found on the maria, is later covered by lighter ejecta derived from more distant impacts in the highlands. This covering conceals the darker material below, which is later excavated by subsequent craters.
The largest impacts produced melt sheets of molten rock that covered portions of the surface that could be as thick as a kilometer. Examples of such impact melt can be seen in the northeastern part of the Mare Orientale impact basin.
The surface of the Moon has been subject to billions of years of collisions with both small and large asteroidal and cometary materials. Over time, these impact processes have pulverized and "gardened '' the surface materials, forming a fine - grained layer termed regolith. The thickness of the lunar regolith varies between 2 meters (6.6 ft) beneath the younger maria, to up to 20 meters (66 ft) beneath the oldest surfaces of the lunar highlands. The regolith is predominantly composed of materials found in the region, but also contains traces of materials ejected by distant impact craters. The term mega-regolith is often used to describe the heavily fractured bedrock directly beneath the near - surface regolith layer.
The regolith contains rocks, fragments of minerals from the original bedrock, and glassy particles formed during the impacts. In most of the lunar regolith, half of the particles are made of mineral fragments fused by the glassy particles; these objects are called agglutinates. The chemical composition of the regolith varies according to its location; the regolith in the highlands is rich in aluminium and silica, just as the rocks in those regions. The regolith in the maria is rich in iron and magnesium and is silica - poor, as are the basaltic rocks from which it is formed.
The lunar regolith is very important because it also stores information about the history of the Sun. The atoms that compose the solar wind -- mostly helium, neon, carbon and nitrogen -- hit the lunar surface and insert themselves into the mineral grains. Upon analyzing the composition of the regolith, particularly its isotopic composition, it is possible to determine if the activity of the Sun has changed with time. The gases of the solar wind could be useful for future lunar bases, because oxygen, hydrogen (water), carbon and nitrogen are not only essential to sustain life, but are also potentially very useful in the production of fuel. The composition of the lunar regolith can also be used to infer its source origin.
Lunar lava tubes form a potentially important location for constructing a future lunar base, which may be used for local exploration and development, or as a human outpost to serve exploration beyond the Moon. A lunar lava cave potential has long been suggested and discussed in literature and thesis. Any intact lava tube on the Moon could serve as a shelter from the severe environment of the lunar surface, with its frequent meteorite impacts, high - energy ultraviolet radiation and energetic particles, and extreme diurnal temperature variations. Following the launch of the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, many lunar lava tubes have been imaged. These lunar pits are found in several locations across the Moon, including Marius Hills, Mare Ingenii and Mare Tranquillitatis.
The first rocks brought back by Apollo 11 were basalts. Although the mission landed on Mare Tranquillitatis, a few millimetric fragments of rocks coming from the highlands were picked up. These are composed mainly of plagioclase feldspar; some fragments were composed exclusively of anorthositic plagioclase. The identification of these mineral fragments led to the bold hypothesis that a large portion of the Moon was once molten, and that the crust formed by fractional crystallization of this magma ocean.
A natural outcome of the hypothetical giant - impact event is that the materials that re-accreted to form the Moon must have been hot. Current models predict that a large portion of the Moon would have been molten shortly after the Moon formed, with estimates for the depth of this magma ocean ranging from about 500 km to complete melting. Crystallization of this magma ocean would have given rise to a differentiated body with a compositionally distinct crust and mantle and accounts for the major suites of lunar rocks.
As crystallization of the lunar magma ocean proceeded, minerals such as olivine and pyroxene would have precipitated and sank to form the lunar mantle. After crystallization was about three - quarters complete, anorthositic plagioclase would have begun to crystallize, and because of its low density, float, forming an anorthositic crust. Importantly, elements that are incompatible (i.e., those that partition preferentially into the liquid phase) would have been progressively concentrated into the magma as crystallization progressed, forming a KREEP - rich magma that initially should have been sandwiched between the crust and mantle. Evidence for this scenario comes from the highly anorthositic composition of the lunar highland crust, as well as the existence of KREEP - rich materials.
The Apollo program brought back 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar surface material, most of which is stored at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston, Texas, and the uncrewed Soviet Luna programme returned 326 grams (11.5 oz) of lunar material. These rocks have proved to be invaluable in deciphering the geologic evolution of the Moon. Lunar rocks are in large part made of the same common rock forming minerals as found on Earth, such as olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase feldspar (anorthosite). Plagioclase feldspar is mostly found in the lunar crust, whereas pyroxene and olivine are typically seen in the lunar mantle. The mineral ilmenite is highly abundant in some mare basalts, and a new mineral named armalcolite (named for Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins, the three members of the Apollo 11 crew) was first discovered in the lunar samples.
The maria are composed predominantly of basalt, whereas the highland regions are iron - poor and composed primarily of anorthosite, a rock composed primarily of calcium - rich plagioclase feldspar. Another significant component of the crust are the igneous Mg - suite rocks, such as the troctolites, norites, and KREEP - basalts. These rocks are believed to be genetically related to the petrogenesis of KREEP.
Composite rocks on the lunar surface often appear in the form of breccias. Of these, the subcategories are called fragmental, granulitic, and impact - melt breccias, depending on how they were formed. The mafic impact melt breccias, which are typified by the low - K Fra Mauro composition, have a higher proportion of iron and magnesium than typical upper crust anorthositic rocks, as well as higher abundances of KREEP.
The main characteristics of the basaltic rocks with respect to the rocks of the lunar highlands is that the basalts contain higher abundances of olivine and pyroxene, and less plagioclase. They are more rich in iron than terrestrial basalts, and also have lower viscosities. Some of them have high abundances of a ferro - titanic oxide called ilmenite. Because the first sampling of rocks contained a high content of ilmenite and other related minerals, they received the name of "high titanium '' basalts. The Apollo 12 mission returned to Earth with basalts of lower titanium concentrations, and these were dubbed "low titanium '' basalts. Subsequent missions, including the Soviet robotic probes, returned with basalts with even lower concentrations, now called "very low titanium '' basalts. The Clementine space probe returned data showing that the mare basalts have a continuum in titanium concentrations, with the highest concentration rocks being the least abundant.
The current model of the interior of the Moon was derived using seismometers left behind during the crewed Apollo program missions, as well as investigations of the Moon 's gravity field and rotation.
The mass of the Moon is sufficient to eliminate any voids within the interior, so it is believed to be composed of solid rock throughout. Its low bulk density (~ 3346 kg m) indicates a low metal abundance. Mass and moment of inertia constraints indicate that the Moon likely has an iron core that is less than about 450 km in radius. Studies of the Moon 's physical librations (small perturbations to its rotation) furthermore indicate that the core is still molten. Most planetary bodies and moons have iron cores that are about half the size of the body. The Moon is thus anomalous in having a core whose size is only about one quarter of its radius.
The crust of the Moon is on average about 50 km thick (though this is uncertain by about ± 15 km). It is widely believed that the far - side crust is on average thicker than the near side by about 15 km. Seismology has constrained the thickness of the crust only near the Apollo 12 and 14 landing sites. Although the initial Apollo - era analyses suggested a crustal thickness of about 60 km at this site, recent reanalyses of this data suggest that it is thinner, somewhere between about 30 and 45 km.
Compared with that of Earth, the Moon has only a very weak external magnetic field. Other major differences are that the Moon does not currently have a dipolar magnetic field (as would be generated by a geodynamo in its core), and the magnetizations that are present are almost entirely crustal in origin. One hypothesis holds that the crustal magnetizations were acquired early in lunar history when a geodynamo was still operating. The small size of the lunar core, however, is a potential obstacle to this hypothesis. Alternatively, it is possible that on airless bodies such as the Moon, transient magnetic fields could be generated during impact processes. In support of this, it has been noted that the largest crustal magnetizations appear to be located near the antipodes of the largest impact basins. Although the Moon does not have a dipolar magnetic field like Earth 's, some of the returned rocks do have strong magnetizations. Furthermore, measurements from orbit show that some portions of the lunar surface are associated with strong magnetic fields.
Lunar near side
Lunar far side
Lunar north pole
Lunar south pole
Cited references
Scientific references
General references
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who are the two teams playing in super bowl 2018 | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2017 season. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the American Football Conference (AFC) and defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, to win their first Super Bowl and their first NFL title since 1960. The game was played on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was the second time that a Super Bowl was played in Minneapolis, the northernmost city to ever host the event, after Super Bowl XXVI at the Metrodome during the 1991 season, and the sixth Super Bowl held in a cold - weather city.
New England finished the regular season with an AFC - best 13 -- 3 record, then extended their record Super Bowl appearances to ten, their third in four years, and their eighth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. Philadelphia also finished the regular season with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 record, a year after Dallas did it in 2016, but became underdogs entering the playoffs after starting quarterback Carson Wentz suffered a season - ending injury late in the regular season and was replaced by journeyman backup Nick Foles. Still, the Eagles advanced to their third Super Bowl appearance, having previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
Several records were set during Super Bowl LII, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined (1,151), the fewest punts from both teams in a Super Bowl (one), and the most points scored by a Super Bowl losing team (33). The game was settled after the Eagles converted a fumble recovery deep within Patriots territory to a field goal with 1: 05 remaining to extend their lead to eight points, and Brady 's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete as time expired. Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP. Foles ' touchdown catch later became known as The Philly Special and joined NFL lore.
The broadcast of the game on NBC had the smallest Super Bowl audience in nine years, with an average of 103.4 million viewers. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Justin Timberlake, was 106.6 million American television viewers, 9 percent less than the previous year.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles lost a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. The previous season 's top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. The defense came together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one - game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards, 32 touchdowns and just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change that helped make up for the loss of Edelman was the acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first - round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola was the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game, in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV (who, coincidentally, had also worn green jerseys).
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities, while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 that included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available. NBC employed 73 cameras within the stadium, and introduced "volumetric - AR '' graphics featuring 3D body scanning of players.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
As NBC Sports Regional Networks operates regional sports networks in the markets of both teams which participated, the NBC Sports Boston and NBC Sports Philadelphia channels were used to provide additional coverage of the game from a local perspective. Both networks aired coverage from Minneapolis, including pre-game specials focusing on their respective team, followed by a joint broadcast immediately prior to the game.
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. As they began five days after the Super Bowl, NBC offered advertising packages that covered both Super Bowl LII and the 2018 Winter Olympics (which marked the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network had aired both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year); the network estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company reduced the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
Fiat Chrysler subsidiary Ram Trucks was met with swift and harsh criticism for its use of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr 's sermon "The Drum Major Instinct ''. Major news outlets and social media erupted in the controversy. Particularly disturbing to many viewers was the selective exploitation of King 's anti-consumerist, anti-advertising speech in an attempt to sell trucks.
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, titled "Super Bowl Sunday '', alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''. Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance. No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2017 and 2016 seasons.
Fifteen Medal of Honor recipients participated in the coin toss ceremony. World War II hero Hershel W. Williams was the honorary captain and had the honors of flipping the coin.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked off to the Eagles, who opened the game with a 14 - play, 67 - yard drive that took 7: 05 off the clock and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who completed 6 of 9 passes to five different receivers for 61 yards, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi mixed in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later found Torrey Smith for a 15 - yard completion on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady completed 6 of 8 passes for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard strike to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, which tied the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point attempt from Elliott was missed wide right, which made the score 9 -- 3 in favor of the Eagles. The Patriots responded by advancing the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line on their next drive, which was set up by a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game with a concussion. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed and brought the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6. The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown, when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch, and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run. Gostkowski missed the ensuing extra point, but the score was now 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later, on third down - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Clement then ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line on the next play. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 -- 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he threw a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail as time expired. The Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960, ending what was the third - longest championship drought in the NFL at 57 years.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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what poem inspired a raisin in the sun | A Raisin in the Sun - wikipedia
A Raisin in the Sun is a play by Lorraine Hansberry that debuted on Broadway in 1959. The title comes from the poem "Harlem '' (also known as "A Dream Deferred '') by Langston Hughes. The story tells of a black family 's experiences in the Washington Park Subdivision of Chicago 's Woodlawn neighborhood as they attempt to "better '' themselves with an insurance payout following the death of the father. The New York Drama Critics ' Circle named it the best play of 1959.
Walter and Ruth Younger, their son Travis, along with Walter 's mother Lena (Mama) and Walter 's sister Beneatha, live in poverty in a dilapidated one - bedroom apartment on Chicago 's south side. Walter is barely making a living as a limousine driver. Though Ruth is content with their lot, Walter is not and desperately wishes to become wealthy. His plan is to invest in a liquor store in partnership with Willy and Bobo, street - smart acquaintances of Walter 's.
At the beginning of the play, Walter and Beneatha 's father has recently died, and Mama is waiting for a life insurance check for $10,000. Walter has a sense of entitlement to the money, but Mama has religious objections to alcohol and Beneatha has to remind him it is Mama 's call how to spend it. Eventually Mama puts some of the money down on a new house, choosing an all - white neighborhood over a black one for the practical reason that it happens to be much cheaper. Later she relents and gives the rest of the money to Walter to invest with the provision that he reserve $3,000 for Beneatha 's education. Walter passes the money on to Willy 's naive sidekick Bobo, who gives it to Willy, who absconds with it, depriving Walter and Beneatha of their dreams, though not the Youngers of their new home. Meanwhile, Karl Lindner, a white representative of the neighborhood they plan to move to, makes a generous offer to buy them out. He wishes to avoid neighborhood tensions over interracial population, which to the three women 's horror Walter prepares to accept as a solution to their financial setback. Lena says that while money was something they try to work for, they should never take it if it was a person 's way of telling them they were n't fit to walk the same earth as them.
Meanwhile, Beneatha 's character and direction in life are being defined for us by two different men: Beneatha 's wealthy and educated boyfriend George Murchison, and Joseph Asagai. Neither man is actively involved in the Youngers ' financial ups and downs. George represents the "fully assimilated black man '' who denies his African heritage with a "smarter than thou '' attitude, which Beneatha finds disgusting, while dismissively mocking Walter 's lack of money and education. Asagai patiently teaches Beneatha about her African heritage; he gives her thoughtfully useful gifts from Africa, while pointing out she is unwittingly assimilating herself into white ways. She straightens her hair, for example, which he characterizes as "mutilation. ''
When Beneatha becomes distraught at the loss of the money, she is upbraided by Joseph for her materialism. She eventually accepts his point of view that things will get better with a lot of effort, along with his proposal of marriage and his invitation to move with him to Nigeria to practice medicine.
Walter is oblivious to the stark contrast between George and Joseph: his pursuit of wealth can be attained only by liberating himself from Joseph 's culture, to which he attributes his poverty, and by rising to George 's level, wherein he sees his salvation. Walter redeems himself and black pride at the end by changing his mind and not accepting the buyout offer, stating that the family is proud of who they are and will try to be good neighbors. The play closes with the family leaving for their new home but uncertain future.
The character Mrs. Johnson and a few scenes are often cut in reproductions. Mrs. Johnson is the Younger family 's neighbor. She is nosy and loud, and can not understand how the family can consider moving to a white neighborhood. Her lines are employed as comic relief, but Hansberry also uses this scene to mock those who are too scared to stand up for their rights.
Langston Hughes (1951)
Experiences in this play echo a lawsuit (Hansberry v. Lee, 311 U.S. 32 (1940)), to which the playwright Lorraine Hansberry 's family was a party when they fought to have their day in court because a previous class action about racially motivated restrictive covenants (Burke v. Kleiman, 277 Ill. App. 519 (1934)) had been similar to their situation. This case was heard prior to the passage of the Fair Housing Act (Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968), which prohibited discrimination in housing and created the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity. The Hansberrys won their right to be heard as a matter of due process of law in relation to the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court held that the Hansberry defendants were not bound by the Burke decision because the class of defendants in the respective cases had conflicting goals, and thus could not be considered to be the same class.
Interestingly, the plaintiff in the first action in 1934 was Olive Ida Burke, who brought the suit on behalf of a property owners ' association to enforce racial restrictions. Her husband, James Burke, later sold a house to Carl Hansberry (Lorraine 's father) when he changed his mind about the validity of the covenant. Mr. Burke 's decision may have been motivated by the changing demographics of the neighborhood, but it was also influenced by the Depression. The demand for houses was so low among white buyers that Mr. Hansberry may have been the only prospective purchaser available.
Lorraine reflects upon the litigation in her book To Be Young, Gifted, and Black:
"Twenty - five years ago, (my father) spent a small personal fortune, his considerable talents, and many years of his life fighting, in association with NAACP attorneys, Chicago 's ' restrictive covenants ' in one of this nation 's ugliest ghettos. That fight also required our family to occupy disputed property in a hellishly hostile ' white neighborhood ' in which literally howling mobs surrounded our house... My memories of this ' correct ' way of fighting white supremacy in America include being spat at, cursed and pummeled in the daily trek to and from school. And I also remember my desperate and courageous mother, patrolling our household all night with a loaded German Luger (pistol), doggedly guarding her four children, while my father fought the respectable part of the battle in the Washington court. ''
The Hansberry house, a red - brick three - flat at 6140 S. Rhodes in Washington Park that they bought in 1937, was given landmark status by the Chicago City Council 's Committee on Historical Landmarks Preservation in 2010.
With a cast in which all but one character is African - American, A Raisin in the Sun was considered a risky investment, and it took over a year for producer Philip Rose to raise enough money to launch it. There was disagreement with how it should be played, with focus on the mother or focus on the son. When the play hit New York, Poitier played it with the focus on the son and found not only his calling but also an audience enthralled.
After touring to positive reviews, the play premiered on Broadway at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on March 11, 1959. It transferred to the Belasco Theatre on October 19, 1959, and closed on June 25, 1960, after 530 total performances. Directed by Lloyd Richards, the cast comprised:
Ossie Davis later took over as Walter Lee Younger, and Frances Williams as Lena Younger.
Waiting for the curtain to rise on opening night, Hansberry and producer Rose did not expect the play to be a success, for it had already received mixed reviews from a preview audience the night before. Though it won popular and critical acclaim, reviewers argued about whether the play was "universal '' or particular to African - American experience. It was then produced on tour.
A Raisin in the Sun was the first play written by a black woman to be produced on Broadway, as well as the first with a black director, Mr. Richards.
Hansberry noted that her play introduced details of black life to the overwhelmingly white Broadway audiences, while director Richards observed that it was the first play to which large numbers of black people were drawn. Frank Rich, writing in The New York Times in 1983, stated that A Raisin in the Sun "changed American theater forever. '' In 2016, Claire Brennan wrote in The Guardian that "The power and craft of the writing make A Raisin in the Sun as moving today as it was then. ''
In 1960 A Raisin In The Sun was nominated for four Tony Awards:
Some five months after its Broadway opening, Hansberry 's play appeared in London 's West End, playing at the Adelphi Theatre from August 4, 1959. As on Broadway, the director was Lloyd Richards, and the cast was as follows:
The play was presented (as before) by Philip Rose and David J. Cogan, in association with the British impresario Jack Hylton.
In 1961, a film version of A Raisin in the Sun was released featuring its original Broadway cast of Sidney Poitier, Ruby Dee, Claudia McNeil, Diana Sands, Ivan Dixon, Louis Gossett, Jr. and John Fiedler. Hansberry wrote the screenplay, and the film was directed by Daniel Petrie. It was released by Columbia Pictures and Ruby Dee won the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress. Both Poitier and McNeil were nominated for Golden Globe Awards, and Petrie received a special "Gary Cooper Award '' at the Cannes Film Festival.
A musical version of the play, Raisin, ran on Broadway from October 18, 1973, to December 7, 1975. The book of the musical, which stayed close to the play, was written by Hansberry 's former husband, Robert Nemiroff. Music and lyrics were by Judd Woldin and Robert Brittan. The cast included Joe Morton (Walter Lee), Virginia Capers (Momma), Ernestine Jackson (Ruth), Debbie Allen (Beneatha) and Ralph Carter (Travis, the Youngers ' young son). The show won the Tony Award for Best musical.
In 1989 the play was adapted into a TV film for PBS ' American Playhouse series, starring Danny Glover (Walter Lee) and Esther Rolle (Mama), with Kim Yancey (Beneatha), Starletta DuPois (Ruth), and John Fiedler (Karl Lindner). This production received three Emmy Award nominations, but all were for technical categories. Bill Duke directed the production, while Chiz Schultz produced. This production was based on an off - Broadway revival produced by the Roundabout Theatre.
On 3 March 1996 the BBC broadcast a production of the play by director / producer Claire Grove, with the following cast:
A revival ran on Broadway at the Royale Theatre from April 26, 2004, to July 11, 2004 at the Royale Theatre with the following cast:
The director was Kenny Leon with David Binder and Vivek Tiwary producers.
The play won two 2004 Tony Awards: Best Actress in a Play (Phylicia Rashad) and Best Featured Actress in a Play (Audra McDonald), and was nominated for Best Revival of a Play and Best Featured Actress in a Play (Sanaa Lathan).
In 2008, Sean Combs, Phylicia Rashad and Audra McDonald starred in a television film directed by Kenny Leon. The film debuted at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival and was broadcast by ABC on February 25, 2008. McDonald received an Emmy nomination for her portrayal of Ruth. According to Nielsen Media Research, the program was watched by 12.7 million viewers and ranked # 9 in the ratings for the week ending March 2, 2008.
In 2010 Michael Buffong directed a widely acclaimed production at the Royal Exchange Theatre in Manchester, described by Dominic Cavendish in The Daily Telegraph as -- "A brilliant play, brilliantly served. ''. Michael Buffong, Ray Fearon and Jenny Jules all won MEN Awards. The cast were: --
A second revival ran on Broadway from April 3, 2014, to June 15, 2014, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre. The play won three 2014 Tony Awards: Best Revival of a Play, Best Performance by an Actress in a Featured Role in a Play (Sophie Okonedo) and Best Direction of a Play (Kenny Leon).
On 31 January 2016 the BBC broadcast a new production of the play by director / producer Pauline Harris. This version restores the character of Mrs Johnson and a number of scenes that were cut from the Broadway production and subsequent film, with the following cast:
The play opened April 6, 2017, at Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., directed by Tazewell Thompson, with the following cast:
The 2010 Bruce Norris play Clybourne Park depicts the white family that sold the house to the Youngers. The first act takes place just before the events of A Raisin in the Sun, involving the selling of the house to the African American family; the second act takes place 50 years later.
The 2013 play by Kwame Kwei - Armah entitled Beneatha 's Place follows Beneatha after she leaves with Asagai to Nigeria and, instead of becoming a doctor, becomes the Dean of Social Sciences at a respected (unnamed) California university.
The two above plays were referred to by Kwei - Armah as "The Raisin Cycle '' and were produced together by Baltimore 's Center Stage in the 2012 -- 2013 season.
Season 1, Episode 3 of Strangers with Candy is based around a school production of A Raisin in the Sun, and features an excerpt from the 1961 movie as well as Stephen Colbert reciting "A Dream Deferred '' just before the closing credits.
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