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what's the population of the florida keys | Florida Keys - wikipedia
The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost portion of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about 15 miles (24 km) south of Miami, and extend in a gentle arc south - southwest and then westward to Key West, the westernmost of the inhabited islands, and on to the uninhabited Dry Tortugas. The islands lie along the Florida Straits, dividing the Atlantic Ocean to the east from the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and defining one edge of Florida Bay. At the nearest point, the southern part of Key West is just 90 miles (140 km) from Cuba. The Florida Keys are between about 23.5 and 25.5 degrees North latitude.
More than 95 percent of the land area lies in Monroe County, but a small portion extends northeast into Miami - Dade County, such as Totten Key. The total land area is 137.3 square miles (356 km). As of the 2010 census the population was 73,090 with an average density of 532.34 per square mile (205.54 / km), although much of the population is concentrated in a few areas of much higher density, such as the city of Key West, which has 32 % of the entire population of the Keys. The US Census population estimate for 2014 is 77,136.
The city of Key West is the county seat of Monroe County. The county consists of a section on the mainland which is almost entirely in Everglades National Park, and the Keys islands from Key Largo to the Dry Tortugas.
The Keys were originally inhabited by Calusa and Tequesta Native Americans, and were later charted by Juan Ponce de León in 1513. De León named the islands Los Martires ("The Martyrs ''), as they looked like suffering men from a distance. "Key '' is derived from the Spanish word cayo, meaning small island. For many years, Key West was the largest town in Florida, and it grew prosperous on wrecking revenues. The isolated outpost was well located for trade with Cuba and the Bahamas, and was on the main trade route from New Orleans. Improved navigation led to fewer shipwrecks, and Key West went into a decline in the late nineteenth century.
The Keys were long accessible only by water. This changed with the completion of Henry Flagler 's Overseas Railway in the early 1910s. Flagler, a major developer of Florida 's Atlantic coast, extended his Florida East Coast Railway down to Key West with an ambitious series of oversea railroad trestles. Three hurricanes disrupted the project in 1906, 1909, and 1910.
The worst hurricane to strike the U.S. made landfall near Islamorada in the Upper Keys on Labor Day, Monday, September 2. Winds were estimated to have gusted to 200 mph (320 km / h), raising a storm surge more than 17.5 feet (5.3 m) above sea level that washed over the islands. More than 400 people were killed, though some estimates place the number of deaths at more than 600.
The Labor Day Hurricane is one of four hurricanes to make landfall at Category 5 strength on the U.S. coast since reliable weather records began (about 1850). The other storms were Hurricane Camille (1969), Hurricane Andrew (1992) and Hurricane Irma (2017).
In 1935, new bridges were under construction to connect a highway through the entire Keys. Hundreds of World War I veterans working on the roadway as part of a government relief program were housed in non-reinforced buildings in three construction camps in the Upper Keys. When the evacuation train failed to reach the camps before the storm, more than 200 veterans perished. Their deaths caused anger and charges of mismanagement that led to a Congressional investigation.
The storm also ended the 23 - year run of the Overseas Railway; the damaged tracks were never rebuilt, and the Overseas Highway (U.S. Highway 1) replaced the railroad as the main transportation route from Miami to Key West.
One of the longest bridges when it was built, the Seven Mile Bridge connects Knight 's Key (part of the city of Marathon in the Middle Keys) to Little Duck Key in the Lower Keys. The piling - supported concrete bridge is 35,862 ft (10,931 m) or 6.79 miles (10.93 km) long. The current bridge bypasses Pigeon Key, a small island that housed workers building Henry Flagler 's Florida East Coast Railway in the 1900s, that the original Seven Mile Bridge crossed. A 2.2 - mile (3.5 km) section of the old bridge remains for access to the island, although it was closed to vehicular traffic on March 4, 2008. The aging structure has been deemed unsafe by the Florida Department of Transportation. Costly repairs, estimated to be as much as $34 million, were expected to begin in July 2008. Monroe County was unable to secure a $17 million loan through the state infrastructure bank, delaying work for at least a year. On June 14, 2008, the old bridge section leading to Pigeon Key was closed to fishing as well. While still open to pedestrians -- walking, biking and jogging -- if the bridge were closed altogether, only a ferry subsidized by FDOT and managed by the county would transport visitors to the island.
After the destruction of the Keys railway by the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, the railroad bridges, including the Seven Mile Bridge, were converted to automobile roadways. This roadway, U.S. Highway 1, became the Overseas Highway that runs from Key Largo south to Key West. Today this unique coastal highway allows those in automobiles to travel through the tropical islands of the Florida Keys and view exotic plants and animals found nowhere else on the US mainland. The Overseas Highway allows travelers access to the largest coral reef chain in the United States that runs through the Florida Keys.
Following the Cuban Revolution, many Cubans fled to South Florida. Key West traditionally had strong links with its neighbor ninety miles south by water, and large numbers of Cubans settled there. The Keys still attract Cubans leaving their home country, and stories of "rafters '' coming ashore are not uncommon.
In 1982, the United States Border Patrol had established a roadblock and inspection points on US Highway 1, stopping all northbound traffic returning to the mainland at Florida City, to search vehicles for illegal drugs and undocumented peoples. The Key West City Council repeatedly complained about the roadblocks, which were a major inconvenience for people traveling from Key West, and hurt the Keys ' important tourism industry.
After various unsuccessful complaints and attempts to get a legal injunction against the blockade failed in federal court in Miami, on April 23, 1982, Key West mayor Dennis Wardlow and the city council declared the independence of the city of Key West, calling it the "Conch Republic ''. After one minute of secession, he (as "Prime Minister '') surrendered to an officer of the Key West Naval Air Station (NAS), and requested one billion ($1,000,000,000) dollars in "foreign aid ''.
The stunt succeeded in generating great publicity for the Keys ' plight, and the inspection station roadblock was removed. It also provided a new source of revenue for the Keys, and the Conch Republic has participated in later protests.
The Florida Keys are the exposed portions of an ancient coral reef. The northernmost island arising from the ancient reef formation is Elliott Key, in Biscayne National Park. North of Elliott Key are several small transitional keys, composed of sand built up around small areas of exposed ancient reef. Further north, Key Biscayne and places north are barrier islands, built up of sand.
The Florida Keys have taken their present form as the result of the drastic changes in sea level associated with recent glaciations or ice ages. Beginning some 130,000 years ago the Sangamonian Stage raised sea levels to approximately 25 feet (7.5 m) above the current level. All of southern Florida was covered by a shallow sea. Several parallel lines of reef formed along the edge of the submerged Florida plateau, stretching south and then west from the present Miami area to what is now the Dry Tortugas. This reef formed the Key Largo limestone that is exposed on the surface from Soldier Key (midway between Key Biscayne and Elliott Key) to the southeast portion of Big Pine Key and the Newfound Harbor Keys. The types of coral that formed Key Largo limestone can be identified on the exposed surface of these keys.
Starting about 100,000 years ago the Wisconsin glaciation began lowering sea levels, exposing the coral reef and surrounding marine sediments. By 15,000 years ago the sea level had dropped to 300 to 350 feet (110 m) below the contemporary level. The exposed reefs and sediments were heavily eroded. Acidic water, which can result from decaying vegetation, dissolves limestone. Some of the dissolved limestone redeposited as a denser cap rock, which can be seen as outcrops overlying the Key Largo and Miami limestones throughout the Keys. The limestone that eroded from the reef formed oolites in the shallow sea behind the reef, and together with the skeletal remains of bryozoans, formed the Miami limestone that is the current surface bedrock of the lower Florida peninsula and the lower keys from Big Pine Key to Key West. To the west of Key West the ancient reef is covered by recent calcareous sand.
Just offshore of the Florida Keys along the edge of the Florida Straits is the Florida Reef (also known as the Florida Reef Tract). The Florida Reef extends 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys. It is the third - largest barrier reef system in the world.
The climate and environment of the Florida Keys are closer to that of the Caribbean than the rest of Florida, though unlike the Caribbean 's volcanic islands, the Keys were built by plants and animals. The Upper Keys islands are composed of sandy - type accumulations of limestone grains produced by plants and marine organisms. The Lower Keys are the remnants of large coral reefs, which became fossilized and exposed as sea level declined.
The natural habitats of the Keys are upland forests, inland wetlands and shoreline zones. Soil ranges from sand to marl to rich, decomposed leaf litter. In some places, "caprock '' (the eroded surface of coral formations) covers the ground. Rain falling through leaf debris becomes acidic and dissolves holes in the limestone, where soil accumulates and trees root.
The Florida Keys have distinctive plant and animals species, some found nowhere else in the United States, as the Keys define the northern extent of their ranges. The climate also allows many imported plants to thrive. Nearly any houseplant known to commerce, and most landscape plants of the South, can thrive in the Keys climate. Some exotic species which arrived as landscape plants now invade and threaten natural areas.
The native flora of the Keys is diverse, including members of both temperate families, such as red maple (Acer rubrum), slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa) and oaks (Quercus spp.), growing at the southern end of their ranges, and tropical families, including mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), stoppers (Eugenia spp.), Jamaican dogwood (Piscidia piscipula), and many others, which grow only in tropical climates. Coconut palms Cocos nucifera is endemic, and can reach massive height and size across the islands. Several other types of palms are native to the Florida Keys, including the Florida thatch palm Thrinax radiata, which grows to its greatest size in Florida on the islands of the Keys. Key Lime is endemic to the Florida Keys, growing vigorously and producing golf - ball - size yellow fruit which is particularly and uniquely fragrant. Bougainvillea, hibiscus, and papaya flourish across the Keys reaching massive size unequaled anywhere on the US mainland.
The Keys are also home to unique animal species, including the American crocodile, Key deer, protected by the National Key Deer Refuge, and the Key Largo woodrat. The Keys is the northernmost range of the American crocodile, which is endemic from South America to Panama, north to the Florida Keys. The Key Largo Woodrat is found only in the northern part of its namesake island, and is a focus of management activities in Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge. About 70 miles (110 km) west of Key West is Dry Tortugas National Park, one of the most isolated and therefore well - preserved in the world.
The waters surrounding the Keys are part of a protected area known as the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary.
The climate of the Florida Keys is tropical savanna (Köppen climate classification: Aw). Other than some areas of coastal Miami, the Florida Keys are the only areas in the United States to never report freezing temperatures since settlement. The record low in Key West is 41 ° F (5 ° C) (in both 1886 and 1981), and low temperatures below 48 ° F (8.9 ° C) are rare. Most of the Florida Keys fall into USDA zone 11a to 11b.
There are two main "seasons '' in the Florida Keys, a hot and wet season from June through October, and a dry season from November though April, that features little rainfall, sunny skies, and warm breezy conditions. The warm and sunny winter climate, with average highs in the middle 70 's ° F (24 ° C) and lows above 60 ° F (15 ° C), is the main tourist season in the Florida Keys. Key West is the driest city in Florida, and most of the Florida Keys can become quite dry at the height of the dry season. Some of the more exposed vegetation in the keys is scrub, stunted due to the intense sun, quick draining sandy soil, and arid winter climate.
The Keys are occasionally threatened by tropical storms and hurricanes, leading to evacuations to the mainland. Hurricane Georges, after destroying much of the housing and infrastructure on many of the Caribbean islands, caused damage and extensive flooding in the Lower Keys in 1998, before making landfall in Mississippi. In 2005, Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma affected the Keys (although none made a direct hit), causing widespread damage and flooding. The most severe hurricane to hit the area was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, a Category 5 hurricane.
Tropical cyclones present special dangers and challenges to the entire Keys. Because no area of the islands is more than 20 feet (6.1 m) above sea level (and many are only a few feet elevation), and water surrounds the islands, nearly every neighborhood is subject to flooding as well as hurricane winds. In response, many homes in the Keys are built on concrete stilts with the first floor being not legally habitable and enclosed by breakaway walls that are not strongly attached to the rest of the house. Nonetheless, Monroe County, as reported in the Federal Register, has estimated that there are between 8,000 and 12,000 illegal enclosures inhabited by people.
Because of the threat from storm surge, evacuations are routinely ordered when the National Weather Service issues a hurricane watch or warning, and are sometimes ordered for a tropical storm warning. Evacuation of the Keys depends on causeways and the two - lane highway to the mainland. Time estimates for evacuating the entire Keys range from 12 to 24 hours. Evacuation estimates are significant in emergency planning, of course, but also because they are a factor in local and state regulations for controlling development. The building permit allocation was increased in 2005 when local governments reduced estimates for evacuation.
On September 10, 2017, Hurricane Irma made landfall in Cudjoe Key. The storm destroyed an estimated 25 % of the houses on the Keys and another 65 % suffered major damage. Most residents had evacuated before the storm hit the area. On September 12, parts of the Keys were still inaccessible by causeway and some areas were closed to the public. Governor Rick Scott reported devastation; most areas were without power or water. The damage was the worst in the Lower Keys, though less severe in Key West; parts of the Lower Keys may be uninhabitable for months.
U.S. Highway 1, the "Overseas Highway '', runs over most of the inhabited islands of the Florida Keys. The islands are listed in order from southwest to north. Mile markers are listed for keys that the Overseas Highway runs across or near.
The Seven Mile Bridge (MM 40 - 463⁄4) separates the Lower Keys from the Middle Keys.
(Knights, Vaca, Boot, Long Point, Crawl, and Grassy Keys, as well as most of Fat Deer Key, are incorporated in the city of Marathon. The remaining portion of Fat Deer Key and most of Shelter Key are part of Key Colony Beach.)
The Long Key Bridge (MM 631⁄4 - 651⁄4) separates the Middle Keys from the Upper Keys.
(Lower Matecumbe through Plantation Keys are incorporated as Islamorada, Village of Islands. The "towns '' of Key Largo, North Key Largo and Tavernier, all on the island of Key Largo, are not incorporated.)
All keys north of Broad Creek are in Biscayne National Park and Miami - Dade County. The following are "true '' Florida Keys (exposed ancient coral reefs):
The following are "transitional keys '', made of exposed ancient reef surrounded by sand.
Key Biscayne is not one of the Florida Keys, but the first of the Atlantic barrier islands.
The main chain of Keys islands can be traveled by motor vehicles on the Overseas Highway, a 127 - mile (204 km) section of U.S. 1, which runs from Key West to Fort Kent, Maine in its entirety. The highway was built parallel to the original route of the Overseas Railway, which was not rebuilt following the Labor Day hurricane of 1935. Even before the hurricane, road sections and highway bridges allowed automobile traffic to travel from Miami to Lower Matecumbe Key, where a car ferry connected with another roadway section through the Lower Keys. Following the hurricane, some of the original railway bridges were converted to carry the highway roadbeds. These bridges were used until the 1980s, when new highway bridges were built alongside. Many of the original railroad and highway bridges remain today as pedestrian fishing piers.
The Florida Keys has public bus transportation.
Despite this reconstruction, U.S. 1 was not widened on a large scale, and today most of the route consists of just two lanes. Due to their tropical climate, the Florida Keys attract several hundred thousand tourists annually. While some visitors arrive via Key West International Airport and Florida Keys Marathon Airport in Marathon, cruise ship or ferry from Miami, Fort Myers, or Marco Island, Florida, the vast majority of tourists drive down from the mainland on U.S. 1. This influx of traffic, coupled with the two - lane nature of U.S. 1 through most of its length in the Keys, and the fact that no alternative road routes are available mean that Monroe County has the highest per capita rate of fatal automobile accidents in the state of Florida.
The major industries are fishing and tourism, including ecotourism, with many visitors scuba diving in the area 's protected waters. A ferry now takes riders between Key West and Fort Myers, as well as Marco Island due north on the mainland, along the western edge of Florida Bay.
Middle and Lower Florida Keys are among a few remaining South Florida dark skies locations accessible by car, thanks to their position along Atlantic Ocean, and therefore, with southern skies unobstructed by light pollution associated with urban development.
Scout Key is home to Winter Star Party, a prominent annual amateur astronomy event in the United States, and one of the Top 10 star parties in the world according to BBC Sky at Night. It 's an international amateur astronomers gathering that attracts 500 + people each year who enjoy stargazing, astrophotography and Milky - Way photography.
Bahia Honda State Park is a well known dark skies location among locals offering unobstructed views of the southern night sky year around and hosts amateur astronomy gatherings.
Coordinates: 24 ° 40 ′ 01 '' N 81 ° 32 ′ 39 '' W / 24.66694 ° N 81.54417 ° W / 24.66694; - 81.54417
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who was the only president that never lived in the white house | Grover Cleveland - wikipedia
Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 -- June 24, 1908) was an American politician and lawyer who was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, the only president in American history to serve two non-consecutive terms in office (1885 -- 89 and 1893 -- 97). He won the popular vote for three presidential elections -- in 1884, 1888, and 1892 -- and was one of two Democrats (with Woodrow Wilson) to be elected president during the era of Republican political domination dating from 1861 to 1933.
Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs, Free Silver, inflation, imperialism, and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans on libertarian philosophical grounds. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era. Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self - reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism. He fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer Cleveland had such prestige that the like - minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps '', largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election.
As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression, which Cleveland was unable to reverse. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era.
Cleveland was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism. His intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party. Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation 's economic disasters -- depressions and strikes -- in his second term. Even so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "(I) n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not. '' By the end of his second term, public perception showed him to be one of the most unpopular U.S. presidents, and was by then rejected even by most Democrats. Today, Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, generally ranked among the upper - mid tier of American presidents.
Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey, to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland. Cleveland 's father was a Congregational and Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut. His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller. On his father 's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland, England in 1635. His father 's maternal grandfather, Richard Falley Jr., fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill, and was the son of an immigrant from Guernsey. On his mother 's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo - Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia. Cleveland was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named.
Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time. He became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, where Grover spent much of his childhood. Neighbors later described him as "full of fun and inclined to play pranks, '' and fond of outdoor sports.
In 1850, Cleveland 's father moved to Clinton, Oneida County, New York, to work as district secretary for the American Home Missionary Society. Despite his father 's dedication to his missionary work, the income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school into a two - year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville. The experience was valuable and brief, and the living conditions quite austere. Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at the completion of the apprentice contract. In 1853, when missionary work began to take a toll on his health, Cleveland 's father took an assignment in Holland Patent, New York (near Utica) and the family moved again. Shortly after, he died from a gastric ulcer, with Grover reputedly hearing of his father 's death from a boy selling newspapers.
Cleveland received his elementary education at the Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Liberal Academy. After his father died in 1853, he again left school to help support his family. Later that year, Cleveland 's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. He returned home to Holland Patent at the end of 1854, where an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he would promise to become a minister. Cleveland declined, and in 1855 he decided to move west. He stopped first in Buffalo, New York, where his uncle, Lewis F. Allen, gave him a clerical job. Allen was an important man in Buffalo, and he introduced his nephew to influential men there, including the partners in the law firm of Rogers, Bowen, and Rogers. Millard Fillmore, the 13th president of the United States, had previously worked for the partnership. Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm, began to read the law, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1859.
Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years, then left in 1862 to start his own practice. In January 1863, he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County. With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863, requiring able - bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute. Cleveland chose the latter course, paying $150 to George Benninsky, a thirty - two - year - old Polish immigrant, to serve in his place.
As a lawyer, Cleveland became known for his single - minded concentration and dedication to hard work. In 1866, he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid, working on a pro bono basis (free of charge). In 1868, Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo 's Commercial Advertiser. During this time, Cleveland assumed a lifestyle of simplicity, taking residence in a plain boarding house; Cleveland dedicated his growing income instead to the support of his mother and younger sisters. While his personal quarters were austere, Cleveland enjoyed an active social life and "the easy - going sociability of hotel - lobbies and saloons. '' He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle 's family traveled.
From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned with the Democratic Party. He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln, and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats. In 1865, he ran for District Attorney, losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass, the Republican nominee. In 1870, with the help of friend Oscar Folsom, Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for Sheriff of Erie County, New York. He won the election by a 303 - vote margin and took office on January 1, 1871 at age 33. While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $40,000 (equivalent to $800,000 in 2017) over the two - year term.
Cleveland 's service as sheriff was unremarkable; biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically. Cleveland was aware of graft in the sheriff 's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it. A notable incident of his term took place on September 6, 1872, when Patrick Morrissey was executed, who had been convicted of murdering his mother. As sheriff, Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $10 to perform the task. In spite of reservations about the hanging, Cleveland executed Morrissey himself; he hanged another murderer, John Gaffney, on February 14, 1873.
After his term as sheriff ended, Cleveland returned to his law practice, opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell. Elected to Congress in 1872, Bass did not spend much time at the firm, but Cleveland and Bissell soon rose to the top of Buffalo 's legal community. Up to that point, Cleveland 's political career had been honorable and unexceptional. As biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "Probably no man in the country, on March 4, 1881, had less thought than this limited, simple, sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States. ''
It was during this period that Cleveland began a relationship with a widow, Maria Crofts Halpin. She accused him of raping her. He accused her of being an alcoholic and consorting with men. He had her institutionalized and her child taken away and raised by his friends. The illegitimate child became a campaign issue for the GOP in his first presidential campaign.
In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office. In 1881 the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians; the Democrats saw the opportunity to gain the votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate. The party leaders approached Cleveland, and he agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo, provided that the rest of the ticket was to his liking. When the more notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket, Cleveland accepted the nomination. Cleveland was elected mayor with 15,120 votes, as against 11,528 for Milton C. Beebe, his opponent. He took office January 2, 1882.
Cleveland 's term as mayor was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines. Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street - cleaning bill passed by the Common Council. The street - cleaning contract was open for bids, and the Council selected the highest bidder at $422,000, rather than the lowest of $100,000 less, because of the political connections of the bidder. While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo, Mayor Cleveland would have none of it. His veto message said, "I regard it as the culmination of a most bare - faced, impudent, and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people, and to worse than squander the public money. '' The Council reversed itself and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder. Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally; this plan was successfully adopted. For this, and other actions safeguarding public funds, Cleveland 's reputation as a leader willing to purge government corruption began to spread beyond Erie County.
New York Democratic party officials began to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor. Daniel Manning, a party insider who admired Cleveland 's record, was instrumental in his candidacy. With a split in the state Republican party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; there were several contenders for that party 's nomination. The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry W. Slocum. Their factions deadlocked, and the convention could not agree on a nominee. Cleveland, in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as the compromise choice. The Republican party remained divided against itself, and in the general election Cleveland emerged the victor, with 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger 's 342,464. Cleveland 's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election; the Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature.
Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to the governor 's office; he promptly sent the legislature eight vetos in his first two months in office. The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents. The bill had broad support because the trains ' owner, Jay Gould, was unpopular, and his fare increases were widely denounced. Cleveland, however, saw the bill as unjust -- Gould had taken over the railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again. Moreover, Cleveland believed that altering Gould 's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution. Despite the initial popularity of the fare - reduction bill, the newspapers praised Cleveland 's veto. Theodore Roosevelt, then a member of the Assembly, had reluctantly voted for the bill to which Cleveland objected, in a desire to punish the unscrupulous railroad barons. After the veto, Roosevelt reversed himself, as did many legislators, and the veto was sustained.
Cleveland 's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim, and the enmity of the influential Tammany Hall organization in New York City. Tammany, under its boss, John Kelly, had disapproved of Cleveland 's nomination as governor, and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented the re-election of their point man in the State Senate, Thomas F. Grady. Cleveland also steadfastly opposed nominees of the Tammanyites, as well as bills passed as a result of their deal making. The loss of Tammany 's support was offset by the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform - minded Republicans who helped Cleveland to pass several laws reforming municipal governments.
The Republicans convened in Chicago and nominated former Speaker of the House James G. Blaine of Maine for president on the fourth ballot. Blaine 's nomination alienated many Republicans who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral. The GOP standard bearer was weakened by alienating the Mugwumps, and the Conkling faction, recently disenfranchised by President Arthur. Democratic party leaders saw the Republicans ' choice as an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found.
Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front - runner, having been the party 's nominee in the contested election of 1876. After Tilden declined a nomination due to his poor health, his supporters shifted to several other contenders. Cleveland was among the leaders in early support, and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware, Allen G. Thurman of Ohio, Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa, and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings, along with various favorite sons. Each of the other candidates had hindrances to his nomination: Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861, making him unacceptable to Northerners; Butler, conversely, was reviled throughout the South for his actions during the Civil War; Thurman was generally well liked, but was growing old and infirm, and his views on the silver question were uncertain. Cleveland, too, had detractors -- Tammany remained opposed to him -- but the nature of his enemies made him still more friends. Cleveland led on the first ballot, with 392 votes out of 820. On the second ballot, Tammany threw its support behind Butler, but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland, who won. Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate.
Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; indeed, Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals. Cleveland 's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved the Democrats ' strongest asset. William C. Hudson created Cleveland 's contextual campaign slogan "A public office is a public trust. '' Reform - minded Republicans called "Mugwumps '' denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government. At the same time the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps, they lost some blue - collar workers to the Greenback - Labor party, led by ex-Democrat Benjamin Butler. In general, Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition.
The campaign focused on the candidates ' moral standards, as each side cast aspersions on their opponents. Cleveland 's supporters rehashed the old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and the Union Pacific Railway, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies. Although the stories of Blaine 's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier, this time Blaine 's correspondence was discovered, making his earlier denials less plausible. On some of the most damaging correspondence, Blaine had written "Burn this letter '', giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry: "Blaine, Blaine, James G. Blaine, the continental liar from the state of Maine, ' Burn this letter! ''
Regarding Cleveland, commentator Jeff Jacoby notes that, "Not since George Washington had a candidate for President been so renowned for his rectitude. '' But the Republicans found a refutation buried in Cleveland 's past. Aided by the sermons of Reverend George H. Ball, a minister from Buffalo, they made public the allegation that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer there, and their rallies soon included the chant "Ma, Ma, where 's my Pa? ''. When confronted with the scandal, Cleveland immediately instructed his supporters to "Above all, tell the truth. '' Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who asserted he had fathered her son Oscar Folsom Cleveland and he assumed responsibility. Shortly before the 1884 election, the Republican media published an affidavit from Halpin in which she stated that until she met Cleveland, her "life was pure and spotless '', and "there is not, and never was, a doubt as to the paternity of our child, and the attempt of Grover Cleveland, or his friends, to couple the name of Oscar Folsom, or any one else, with that boy, for that purpose is simply infamous and false. ''
The electoral votes of closely contested New York, New Jersey, Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. In New York, the Tammany Democrats decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them. Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century, Blaine 's mother was Irish Catholic, and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State. The Irish, a significant group in three of the swing states, did appear inclined to support Blaine until a Republican, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats, denouncing them as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion. '' The Democrats spread the word of this implied Catholic insult on the eve of the election. They also blistered Blaine for attending a banquet with some of New York City 's wealthiest men.
After the votes were counted, Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states, including New York by 1200 votes. While the popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one - quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219 -- 182. Following the electoral victory, the "Ma, Ma... '' attack phrase gained a classic riposte: "Gone to the White House. Ha! Ha! Ha! ''
Soon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system, but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service. He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time - servers. Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats; this was especially the case with policy making positions. While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland 's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors ' administrations.
Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government. In 1887, he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission. He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize the navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships. Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by government grant. Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q.C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements. The lands were forfeited, resulting in the return of approximately 81,000,000 acres (330,000 km).
Cleveland was the first Democratic President subject to the Tenure of Office Act which originated in 1867; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent. Cleveland objected to the act in principle and his steadfast refusal to abide by it prompted its fall into disfavor and led to its ultimate repeal in 1887.
Cleveland faced a Republican Senate and often resorted to using his veto powers. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by the Pension Bureau, Congress should not attempt to override that decision. When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic, passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland also vetoed that. Cleveland used the veto far more often than any president up to that time. In 1887, Cleveland issued his most well - known veto, that of the Texas Seed Bill. After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties, Congress appropriated $10,000 to purchase seed grain for farmers there. Cleveland vetoed the expenditure. In his veto message, he espoused a theory of limited government:
I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution, and I do not believe that the power and duty of the general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit. A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the government, the government should not support the people. The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow - citizens in misfortune. This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character, while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the bonds of a common brotherhood.
One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver, or by gold alone. The issue cut across party lines, with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties ' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard. Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of the nation 's gold supply.
Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard, and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland - Allison Act of 1878. Cleveland unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he was inaugurated. Angered Westerners and Southerners advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents. In reply, one of the foremost silverites, Richard P. Bland, introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver, inflating the then - deflating currency. While Bland 's bill was defeated, so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement. The result was a retention of the status quo, and a postponement of the resolution of the Free Silver issue.
Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff. While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland 's opinion on the tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced. Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries. American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus.
In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House. The tariff issue was emphasized in the Congressional elections that year, and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress, but Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform. As the surplus grew, Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only. His message to Congress in 1887 (quoted at right) highlighted the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay its operating expenses. Republicans, as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall, believed that American industries would fail without high tariffs, and they continued to fight reform efforts. Roger Q. Mills, chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47 % to about 40 %. After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies, the bill passed the House. The Republican Senate failed to come to agreement with the Democratic House, and the bill died in the conference committee. Dispute over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election.
Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration 's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations. Cleveland 's Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada, and struck a conciliatory note, despite the opposition of New England 's Republican Senators. Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo.
Cleveland 's military policy emphasized self - defense and modernization. In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend a new coastal fortification system for the United States. No improvements to US coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s. The Board 's 1886 report recommended a massive $127 million construction program at 29 harbors and river estuaries, to include new breech - loading rifled guns, mortars, and naval minefields. The Board and the program are usually called the Endicott Board and the Endicott Program. Most of the Board 's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts. Many of the weapons remained in place until scrapped in World War II as they were replaced with new defenses. Endicott also proposed to Congress a system of examinations for Army officer promotions. For the Navy, the Cleveland administration spearheaded by Secretary of the Navy William Collins Whitney moved towards modernization, although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships. Although completion of the four steel - hulled warships begun under the previous administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard, these ships were completed in a timely manner in naval shipyards once the investigation was over. Sixteen additional steel - hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888; these ships later proved vital in the Spanish -- American War of 1898, and many served in World War I. These ships included the "second - class battleships '' Maine and Texas, designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe, such as the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo. Eleven protected cruisers (including the famous Olympia), one armored cruiser, and one monitor were also ordered, along with the experimental cruiser Vesuvius.
Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners (and nearly all white Southerners) saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans. Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C. and appointed another black man (James Campbell Matthews, a former New York judge) to replace Douglass upon his resignation. His decision to replace Douglass with a black man was met with outrage, but Cleveland claimed to have known Matthews personally.
Although Cleveland had condemned the "outrages '' against Chinese immigrants, he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society. Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act, written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott, which prevented the return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States. The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress, and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1, 1888.
Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state, saying in his first inaugural address that "(t) his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights. '' He encouraged the idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act, which provided for distribution of Indian lands to individual members of tribes, rather than having them continued to be held in trust for the tribes by the federal government. While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it. Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society. It ultimately weakened the tribal governments and allowed individual Indians to sell land and keep the money.
In the month before Cleveland 's 1885 inauguration, President Arthur opened four million acres of Winnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order. Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them. Cleveland believed Arthur 's order to be in violation of treaties with the tribes, and rescinded it on April 17 of that year, ordering the settlers out of the territory. Cleveland sent in eighteen companies of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan, at the time Commanding General of the U.S. Army, to investigate the matter.
Cleveland entered the White House as a bachelor, and his sister Rose Cleveland joined him, to act as hostess for the first two years of his administration. Unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan, Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for long. In 1885 the daughter of Cleveland 's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington. Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College. When she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother 's permission to correspond with her, and they were soon engaged to be married. On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the Blue Room at the White House. He was the second president to wed while in office, and has been the only president married in the White House. This marriage was unusual, since Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom 's estate and had supervised Frances 's upbringing after her father 's death; nevertheless, the public took no exception to the match. At 21 years, Frances Folsom Cleveland was the youngest First Lady in history, and the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality.
The Clevelands had five children: Ruth (1891 -- 1904), Esther (1893 -- 1980), Marion (1895 -- 1977), Richard (1897 -- 1974), and Francis Grover (1903 -- 1995). British philosopher Philippa Foot was their granddaughter.
During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first, Lucius Q.C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi Senator who served in Cleveland 's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. While Lamar had been well liked as a Senator, his service under the Confederacy two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him. Lamar 's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28.
Chief Justice Morrison Waite died a few months later, and Cleveland nominated Melville Fuller to fill his seat on April 30, 1888. Fuller accepted. He had previously declined Cleveland 's nomination to the Civil Service Commission, preferring his Chicago law practice. The Senate Judiciary Committee spent several months examining the little - known nominee, before the Senate confirmed the nomination 41 to 20.
Cleveland nominated 41 lower federal court judges in addition to his four Supreme Court justices. These included two judges to the United States circuit courts, nine judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 30 judges to the United States district courts. Because Cleveland served terms both before and after Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the Courts of Appeals, he is one of only two presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies. The other, Benjamin Harrison, was in office at the time that the change was made. Thus, all of Cleveland 's appointments to the circuit courts were made in his first term, and all of his appointments to the Courts of Appeals were made in his second.
The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana for president and Levi P. Morton of New York for vice president. Cleveland was easily renominated at the Democratic convention in St. Louis.
Following Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks death in 1885, the Democrats chose Allen G. Thurman of Ohio to be Cleveland 's new running mate.
The Republicans gained the upper hand in the campaign, as Cleveland 's campaign was poorly managed by Calvin S. Brice and William H. Barnum, whereas Harrison had engaged more aggressive fundraisers and tacticians in Matt Quay and John Wanamaker.
The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North. Further, the Democrats in New York were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of David B. Hill, weakening Cleveland 's support in that swing state. A letter from the British ambassador supporting Cleveland caused a scandal which cost Cleveland votes in New York.
As in 1884, the election focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Indiana. But unlike that year, when Cleveland had triumphed in all four, in 1888 he won only two, losing his home state of New York by 14,373 votes. The Republicans won Indiana, largely as the result of a fraudulent voting practice known as Blocks of Five. Cleveland continued his duties diligently until the end of the term and began to look forward to return to private life.
As Frances Cleveland left the White House, she told a staff member, "Now, Jerry, I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now, when we come back again. '' When asked when she would return, she responded, "We are coming back four years from today. '' In the meantime, the Clevelands moved to New York City, where Cleveland took a position with the law firm of Bangs, Stetson, Tracy, and MacVeigh. This affiliation was more of an office - sharing arrangement, though quite compatible. Cleveland 's law practice brought only a moderate income, perhaps because Cleveland spent considerable time at the couple 's vacation home Gray Gables at Buzzard Bay, where fishing became his obsession. While they lived in New York, the Clevelands ' first child, Ruth, was born in 1891.
The Harrison administration worked with Congress to pass the McKinley Tariff, an aggressively protectionist measure and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which increased money backed by silver; these were among policies Cleveland deplored as dangerous to the nation 's financial health. At first he refrained from criticizing his successor, but by 1891 Cleveland felt compelled to speak out, addressing his concerns in an open letter to a meeting of reformers in New York. The "silver letter '' thrust Cleveland 's name back into the spotlight just as the 1892 election was approaching.
Cleveland 's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination. His leading opponent was David B. Hill, a Senator for New York. Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party -- silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall -- but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination. Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill, Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the convention in Chicago. For vice president, the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois, a silverite. Although the Cleveland forces preferred Isaac P. Gray of Indiana for vice president, they accepted the convention favorite. As a supporter of greenbacks and Free Silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in the rural districts, Stevenson balanced the otherwise hard - money, gold - standard ticket headed by Cleveland.
The Republicans re-nominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876, 1884, and 1888, the 1892 election was, according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins, "the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation, '' in part because Harrison 's wife, Caroline, was dying of tuberculosis. Harrison did not personally campaign at all. Following Caroline Harrison 's death on October 25, two weeks before the national election, Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning, thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates.
The issue of the tariff worked to the Republicans ' advantage in 1888. The legislative revisions of the past four years also made imported goods so expensive that now many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business. Many Westerners, traditionally Republican voters, defected to James Weaver, the candidate of the new Populist Party. Weaver promised Free Silver, generous veterans ' pensions, and an eight - hour work day. The Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket, allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York. At the campaign 's end, many Populists and labor supporters endorsed Cleveland after an attempt by the Carnegie Corporation to break the union during the Homestead strike in Pittsburgh and after a similar conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co. The final result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes, and it was Cleveland 's third consecutive popular vote plurality.
Shortly after Cleveland 's second term began, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute economic depression. The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver, and Cleveland called Congress into special session to deal with the problem. The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever, and the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the coinage provisions of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Even so, the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago, and the House of Representatives debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin. In the Senate, the repeal of silver coinage was equally contentious. Cleveland, forced against his better judgment to lobby the Congress for repeal, convinced enough Democrats -- and along with eastern Republicans, they formed a 48 -- 37 majority for repeal. Depletion of the Treasury 's gold reserves continued, at a lesser rate, and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold. At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites, but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency.
Having succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration 's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley tariff. The Wilson - Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893. After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin. The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials. The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an income tax of two percent on income above $4,000 (US $109,000 today).
The bill was next considered in the Senate, where it faced stronger opposition from key Democrats led by Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, who insisted on more protection for their states ' industries than the Wilson bill allowed. The bill passed the Senate with more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms. The Sugar Trust in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer. Cleveland was outraged with the final bill, and denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests. Even so, he believed it was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature.
In 1892, Cleveland had campaigned against the Lodge Bill, which would have strengthened voting rights protections through the appointing of federal supervisors of congressional elections upon a petition from the citizens of any district. The Enforcement Act of 1871 had provided for a detailed federal overseeing of the electoral process, from registration to the certification of returns. Cleveland succeeded in ushering in the 1894 repeal of this law (ch. 25, 28 Stat. 36). The pendulum thus swung from stronger attempts to protect voting rights to the repealing of voting rights protections; this in turn led to unsuccessful attempts to have the federal courts protect voting rights in Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 475 (1903), and Giles v. Teasley, 193 U.S. 146 (1904).
The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers. A group of workingmen led by Jacob S. Coxey began to march east toward Washington, D.C. to protest Cleveland 's policies. This group, known as Coxey 's Army, agitated in favor of a national roads program to give jobs to workingmen, and a weakened currency to help farmers pay their debts. By the time they reached Washington, only a few hundred remained, and when they were arrested the next day for walking on the lawn of the United States Capitol, the group scattered. Even though Coxey 's Army may not have been a threat to the government, it signaled a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies.
The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey 's Army. A strike began against the Pullman Company over low wages and twelve - hour workdays, and sympathy strikes, led by American Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs, soon followed. By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation 's commerce. Because the railroads carried the mail, and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate. Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers. "If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago '', he proclaimed, "that card will be delivered. '' Most governors supported Cleveland except Democrat John P. Altgeld of Illinois, who became his bitter foe in 1896. Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland 's actions, but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration.
Just before the 1894 election, Cleveland was warned by Francis Lynde Stetson, an advisor:
The warning was appropriate, for in the Congressional elections, Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades, taking full control of the House, while the Populists lost most of their support. Cleveland 's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state, including full control in Illinois and Michigan, and made major gains in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and other states. Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland 's allies. The Democratic opposition were close to controlling two - thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention, which they needed to nominate their own candidate. They failed for lack of unity and a national leader, as Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld had been born in Germany and was ineligible to be nominated for president.
When Cleveland took office he faced the question of Hawaiian annexation. In his first term, he had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor. In the intervening four years, Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government. In early 1893 they overthrew her, set up a republican government under Sanford B. Dole, and sought to join the United States. The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval. Five days after taking office on March 9, 1893, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there.
Cleveland agreed with Blount 's report, which found the populace to be opposed to annexation. Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu, but Dole 's government refused to yield their position. By December 1893, the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress. In his message to Congress, Cleveland rejected the idea of annexation and encouraged the Congress to continue the American tradition of non-intervention (see excerpt at right). The Senate, under Democratic control but opposed to Cleveland, commissioned and produced the Morgan Report, which contradicted Blount 's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair. Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating the Queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new Republic of Hawaii.
Closer to home, Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that not only prohibited new European colonies, but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere. When Britain and Venezuela disagreed over the boundary between Venezuela and the colony of British Guiana, Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney protested. British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury and the British ambassador to Washington, Julian Pauncefote, misjudged how important successful resolution of the dispute was to the American government, having prolonged the crisis before ultimately accepting the American demand for arbitration. A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana. But by standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power, Cleveland improved relations with the United States ' southern neighbors, and at the same time, the cordial manner in which the negotiations were conducted also made for good relations with Britain.
The second Cleveland administration was as committed to military modernization as the first, and ordered the first ships of a navy capable of offensive action. Construction continued on the Endicott program of coastal fortifications begun under Cleveland 's first administration. The adoption of the Krag -- Jørgensen rifle, the US Army 's first bolt - action repeating rifle, was finalized. In 1895 -- 96 Secretary of the Navy Hilary A. Herbert, having recently adopted the aggressive naval strategy advocated by Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, successfully proposed ordering five battleships (the Kearsarge and Illinois classes) and sixteen torpedo boats. Completion of these ships nearly doubled the Navy 's battleships and created a new torpedo boat force, which previously had only two boats. The battleships and seven of the torpedo boats were not completed until 1899 -- 1901, after the Spanish -- American War.
In the midst of the fight for repeal of Free Silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor, Dr. O'Reilly, about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater - like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland 's hard palate. Samples of the tumor were sent anonymously to the Army Medical Museum. The diagnosis was not a malignant cancer, but instead an epithelioma.
Cleveland decided to have surgery secretly, to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression. The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session. Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland and his surgeon, Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. The surgeons operated aboard the Oneida, a yacht owned by Cleveland 's friend E.C. Benedict, as it sailed off Long Island. The surgery was conducted through the President 's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery. The team, sedating Cleveland with nitrous oxide and ether, successfully removed parts of his upper left jaw and hard palate. The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland 's mouth disfigured. During another surgery, Cleveland was fitted with a hard rubber dental prosthesis that corrected his speech and restored his appearance. A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press placated. Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland 's vacation. In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the Oneida, Dr. William W. Keen, wrote an article detailing the operation.
Cleveland enjoyed many years of life after the tumor was removed, and there was some debate as to whether it was actually malignant. Several doctors, including Dr. Keen, stated after Cleveland 's death that the tumor was a carcinoma. Other suggestions included ameloblastoma or a benign salivary mixed tumor (also known as a pleomorphic adenoma). In the 1980s, analysis of the specimen finally confirmed the tumor to be verrucous carcinoma, a low - grade epithelial cancer with a low potential for metastasis.
Cleveland 's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term. In 1893, after the death of Samuel Blatchford, Cleveland nominated William B. Hornblower to the Court. Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy. Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved. The Senate rejected Hornblower 's nomination on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 30 to 24.
Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next appointing Wheeler Hazard Peckham another New York attorney who had opposed Hill 's machine in that state. Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham 's confirmation, and on February 16, 1894, the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41. Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate Frederic R. Coudert, but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice, that of Senator Edward Douglass White of Louisiana, whose nomination was accepted unanimously. Later, in 1896, another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again, but he declined to be nominated. Instead, Cleveland nominated Rufus Wheeler Peckham, the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham, and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily.
No new states were admitted to the Union during Cleveland 's first term. On February 22, 1889, 10 days before leaving office, the 50th Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1889, authorizing North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington to form state governments and to gain admission to the Union. All four officially became states in November 1889, during the first year of Benjamin Harrison 's administration. During his second term, the 53rd United States Congress passed an Enabling Act that permitted Utah to apply for statehood. Cleveland signed it on July 16, 1894. Utah joined the Union as the 45th state on January 4, 1896.
Cleveland 's agrarian and silverite enemies gained control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration and the gold standard, and nominated William Jennings Bryan on a Silver Platform. Cleveland silently supported the Gold Democrats ' third - party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard, limit government and oppose high tariffs, but he declined their nomination for a third term. The party won only 100,000 votes in the general election, and William McKinley, the Republican nominee, triumphed easily over Bryan. Agrarians nominated Bryan again in 1900. In 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland 's support, regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker.
After leaving the White House on March 4, 1897, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, in Princeton, New Jersey. For a time he was a trustee of Princeton University, and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred Dean West 's plans for the Graduate School and undergraduate living over those of Woodrow Wilson, then president of the university. Cleveland consulted occasionally with President Theodore Roosevelt (1901 -- 1909), but was financially unable to accept the chairmanship of the commission handling the Coal Strike of 1902. Cleveland still made his views known in political matters. In a 1905 article in The Ladies Home Journal, Cleveland weighed in on the women 's suffrage movement, writing that "sensible and responsible women do not want to vote. The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence. ''
In 1906, a group of New Jersey Democrats promoted Cleveland as a possible candidate for the United States Senate. The incumbent, John F. Dryden, was not seeking re-election, and some Democrats felt that the former president could attract the votes of some disaffected Republican legislators who might be drawn to Cleveland 's statesmanship and conservatism.
Cleveland 's health had been declining for several years, and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill. In 1908, he suffered a heart attack and died on June 24 at age 71. His last words were, "I have tried so hard to do right. '' He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church.
In his first term in office, Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington, D.C., near enough the capital. He secretly bought a farmhouse, Oak View (or Oak Hill), in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia, in 1886, and remodeled it into a Queen Anne style summer estate. He sold Oak View upon losing his bid for re-election in 1888. Not long thereafter, suburban residential development reached the area, which came to be known as Oak View, and then Cleveland Heights, and eventually Cleveland Park. The Clevelands are depicted in local murals.
Grover Cleveland Hall at Buffalo State College in Buffalo, New York. Cleveland Hall houses the offices of the college president, vice presidents, and other administrative functions and student services. Cleveland was a member of the first board of directors of the then Buffalo Normal School. Grover Cleveland Middle School in his birthplace, Caldwell, New Jersey, was named for him, as is Grover Cleveland High School in Buffalo, New York, and the town of Cleveland, Mississippi. Mount Cleveland, a volcano in Alaska, is also named after him. In 1895 he became the first U.S. President who was filmed.
The first U.S. postage stamp to honor Cleveland appeared in 1923. This twelve - cent issue accompanied a thirteen - cent stamp in the same definitive series that depicted his old rival Benjamin Harrison. Cleveland 's only two subsequent stamp appearances have been in issues devoted to the full roster of U.S. Presidents, released, respectively, in 1938 and 1986.
Cleveland 's portrait was on the U.S. $1000 bill of series 1928 and series 1934. He also appeared on the first few issues of the $20 Federal Reserve Notes from 1914. Since he was both the 22nd and 24th president, he was featured on two separate dollar coins released in 2012 as part of the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005.
In 2013, Cleveland was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame.
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when was the first ice cream parlor opened | Ice cream parlor - wikipedia
Ice cream parlors (or parlours) are restaurants that sell ice cream, gelato, sorbet, and frozen yogurt to consumers. Ice cream is typically sold as regular ice cream (also called hard - packed ice cream), gelato, and soft serve, which is usually dispensed by a machine with a limited number of flavors (e.g., chocolate, vanilla, and "twist '', a mix of the two). It is customary for ice cream parlors to offer a number of flavors and items. Parlors often serve ice cream and other frozen desserts in cones or in dishes, to be eaten with a spoon. Some ice cream parlours prepare ice cream desserts such as sundaes (ice cream topped with syrup, whipped cream and other toppings) or milkshakes.
While the origins of ice cream are often debated, most scholars trace the first ice cream parlor back to France in the 17th century. In 1686, Francesco Procopio del Coltelli opened Paris ' first café. The Café Procope, named by its Sicilian founder, introduced gelato to the French public. The dessert was served to its elite guests in small porcelain bowls.
Until 1800, ice cream remained a rare and exotic dessert enjoyed mostly by the elite. The introduction of insulated ice houses in 1800, the first ice cream factory in Pennsylvania in 1851, and industrial refrigeration in the 1870s made manufacturing and storing ice cream much simpler. The first ice cream factory was built by Jacob Fussell, a milk dealer who bought dairy products from Philadelphia farmers and sold them in Baltimore. The mass production of ice cream cut the product 's cost significantly, making it more popular and more affordable for people of lower classes.
In the early 1800s, an early form of an ice cream parlor was existent in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States that sold "all kinds of refreshments, as Ice Cream, Syrups, French Cordials, Cakes, Clarets of the best kind, Jellies, etc. '' According to one source, the first ice cream parlor opened in New York City, United States in 1790.
Gelato is Italian ice cream that contains more milk and less cream compared to ice cream, is denser in consistency, and has a smoother texture. Milk fat in gelato varies from 1 - 2 percent up to 15 %, the latter of which is similar to standard ice cream. Gelato parlors often produce their own product and are less likely to serve American - style ice cream or soft serve. Sorbet is a frozen treat made from fruit, syrup and ice. No milk or cream is used. Frozen yogurt is a common low - fat ice cream alternative with a smooth texture that is similar to soft serve ice cream. All of these frozen products may be sold in ice cream cones, cups, sundaes, and milkshakes. Some parlors may also sell ice cream cakes, ice cream bars and other pre-packaged frozen sweets. In addition to frozen dessert products, some modern ice cream parlors also sell a variety of hot fast foods.
An Italian ice cream parlour with varieties of gelato (ice cream)
An English ice cream parlour with varieties of traditional ice cream
Parlors vary in terms of environment; some only have an order window and outside seating, while others have complete indoor facilities. Additionally, some parlors have drive - through windows. Some parlors remain open all year round (typically in warmer weather locations) and others in colder climates stay open only during warmer months, particularly from March to November. For example, some ice cream parlors in Vienna, Austria close in the winter months. Parlors in major metro areas, including those in colder climates, often remain throughout the year to satisfy high consumer demand for frozen ice creams, yogurts, and sorbets.
Some ice cream parlors in Moscow, Russia, offer alcoholic beverages along with ice cream.
Because ice cream parlors are located throughout the world, there are both small, local franchises as well as large, global enterprises. Some of the most notable large, global ice cream parlors include Baskin - Robbins, Ben & Jerry 's, Bruster 's Ice Cream, Carvel, Cold Stone Creamery, Dairy Queen, Dippin ' Dots, Friendly 's, Häagen - Dazs, and MaggieMoo 's Ice Cream and Treatery. Yogurtland, Yogen Früz, and sweetFrog are notable frozen yogurt parlors.
Just as the size, style, and selection within each ice cream parlor may differ, so may its notoriety. Each July in the United States, in honor of National Ice Cream Month, several prominent publications rank the popularity of ice cream parlors throughout the United States. In 2014, Travel + Leisure, National Geographic, Business Insider, Food & Wine, and TripAdvisor published their top ranked ice cream parlors.
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beauty and the beast 2017 where was it filmed | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is based on Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's eighteenth - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the titular characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. Beauty and the Beast premiered on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, and was released in the United States on March 17, 2017, in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens ' performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway musical, visual style, production design, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the highest - grossing film of 2017 and the 10th - highest - grossing film of all time.
In Rococo - era France, an enchantress disguised as a beggar arrives at a ball and offers the host, a coldhearted prince, a rose for shelter. When he refuses, she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, and erases the castle from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will never lift unless he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Years later, in the village of Villeneuve, Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. Lost in the forest, Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a birthday gift to Belle. Belle ventures out in search for him and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who treat her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast, enraged, scares her into the woods. She is cornered by wolves, but the Beast rescues her and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses it to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realises that she and her father were forced to leave her mother 's deathbed when her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the herb - wife Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime, but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his will upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls and the servants become inanimate. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. Watson was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 Beauty and the Beast duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song Beauty and the Beast recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the Beauty and the Beast title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of "Beauty and the Beast '', which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film release.
Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song "Beauty and the Beast '' on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since attained over 100 million video views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place on February 23, 2017, at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
Disney spent around $140 million for marketing the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which topped the number of views seen in that amount of time in history, including for the teasers for other films distributed by Disney such as Avengers: Age of Ultron, Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Captain America: Civil War. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok and It. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine for the week along with nine new photos as well. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster for the film. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released again on Good Morning America. The trailer reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record as the trailer with the most views in one day, beating out Fifty Shades Darker. This record has since been broken again by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.4 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion. With a production budget of $160 million, it is the second-most expensive musical ever made; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast is the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty - ninth day of release. It is currently the highest - grossing film of 2017, the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all - time, and the fifth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 p.m. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 %, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (- 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first (and currently only) film of 2017, the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017.
Internationally, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 1.5 crore (US $230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 9.26 crore (US $1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for the faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, cast performances, visuals, Jacqueline Durran 's costume designs, production design, Alan Menken 's musical score and songs, though the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 294 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. '' Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action). '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance. Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', he sensed that the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element '' was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
There were also a number of boycotts against the film. A call to boycott on LifePetitions received over 129,000 signatures, while the American Family Association featured a petition to boycott with the film, asking the public to help crowdfund a CGI version of Pilgrim 's Progress instead.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible to fall in love with someone who is holding you prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
http://cinemacommander.us/m-movies-online/321612/beauty-and-the-beast.html
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how much horsepower does a ford 6.8l v10 have | Ford Modular engine - wikipedia
The Ford Modular engine is Ford Motor Company 's overhead camshaft (OHC) V8 and V10 gasoline - powered small block engine family. The Modular engine got its name from its design and sharing of certain parts among the engine family, starting with the 4.6 L in 1990 for the 1991 model year. The name was also derived from a manufacturing plant protocol, "Modular '', where the plant and its tooling could be changed in a few hours to manufacture different versions of the engine family. The Modular engines are used in various Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury vehicles. Modular engines used in Ford trucks were marketed under the Triton name from 1997 -- 2010 while the InTech name was used for a time at Lincoln for vehicles equipped with DOHC versions of the engines. The engines were first produced in Romeo, Michigan then additional capacity was added in Windsor, Ontario.
In the early 1980s, then - Ford Motor Company chief operating officer Donald Petersen challenged Ford 's vice-president of design, Jack Telnack, and his staff to come up with new vehicle designs that they could take pride in. The result was an abandonment of the boxy styling that had dominated Ford products for years and the adoption of sleeker, more aerodynamic designs like that used for the highly successful Ford Taurus. In the second half of the 1980s, Petersen, now chief executive officer, sought to update Ford 's decades - old V8 architectures, challenging Ford senior engineer Jim Clarke to do for Ford 's V8s what Jack Telnack did for Ford 's vehicle design. The objective was to develop a new V8 engine that would surpass Ford 's earlier V8s in every meaningful way, from power and efficiency to emissions performance and smoothness of operation.
Clarke and his engineers studied engine designs from major European and Japanese automakers and sought to develop a V8 that was technologically advanced and power - dense, yet also dependable with no major service required before 100,000 miles of use. The initial engine design would implement a 90 ° vee - angle with a bore of 90.2 mm (3.552 in) and a stroke of 90 mm (3.543 in), resulting in a 4.6 - liter (4601 cc, 281 CID) displacement and creating a nearly 1: 1 bore - to - stroke ratio. This square configuration was chosen primarily for its positive noise, vibration and harshness characteristics. The engine would utilize features such as a chain - driven, single - overhead camshaft valvetrain with roller finger followers, a deep - skirt cast - iron block construction and cross-bolted main bearings, all benefitting long - term durability. In the interest of reducing overall engine weight, aluminum - alloy heads and pistons would be standard and all major engine accessories would be mounted directly to the block, resulting in a more complex block casting but eliminating the need for heavy mounting brackets. Tight construction tolerances were used in shaping the engine 's cylinder bores with narrow piston rings fitted to the engine 's pistons. This would serve to improve engine efficiency through reduced friction and reduce the engine 's oil consumption, while also promoting cleaner emissions.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the new engine 's design was the number of variations of the engine that could be made to suit different needs. This resulted in the creation of an entire family of engines consisting not only of designs utilizing single - or dual - overhead camshaft configurations, different displacements and different block materials, but also different cylinder counts. In addition to the various eight - cylinder engines produced, ten - cylinder engines eventually entered production. Six - cylinder derivatives were also explored, though never built. With the wide array of engine configurations possible within this architecture, Ford developed a new, modular tooling system for producing different engines quickly and efficiently in the same factory. Referring to this method of production, the name Modular was given to the new engine family. Despite all the different engines that would be built over the years, one of the major unifying aspects present in all engines based on the Modular architecture, and required by the engine 's tooling for production purposes, was a common bore spacing of 100 mm (3.937 in).
By 1987 Ford was fully committed to producing the new Modular V8, having invested $4 billion in the engine 's design in addition to retooling the company 's Romeo, Michigan tractor plant to build the engines. Three years later, in the third quarter of 1990, the first Modular engine, a 4.6 L SOHC V8, would be used in the 1991 model year Lincoln Town Car. To the credit of Jim Clarke 's engineering team, the new V8 engine in the Town Car compared favorably to its pushrod - based predecessor. In spite having a smaller displacement, the 4.6 L Modular V8 could generate more power than the Town Car 's previous 5.0 L V8 and could launch the car to 60 MPH from a stop 1.5 seconds quicker, all while delivering better fuel efficiency. Accompanying these performance advantages, the engine was also 20 lbs lighter than the older 5.0 L V8.
Following the Modular V8 's debut in the Town Car, engines using the Modular architecture would go on to replace older V8 designs in Ford products, eventually becoming Ford 's chief gasoline V8 (and V10) architecture.
The 4.6 L (4601 cc, 281 CID) 90 - degree V8 has been offered in 2 - valve SOHC, 3 - valve SOHC, and 4 - valve DOHC versions. The engines were also offered with both aluminum and cast iron blocks, depending on application. The 4.6 L 's bore and stroke are nearly square at 90.2 mm (3.552 in) and 90 mm (3.543 in), respectively. Deck height for the 4.6 block is 227 mm (8.937 in) and connecting rod length is 150.7 mm (5.933 in) center to center, giving the 4.6 L a 1.67: 1 rod to stroke ratio. Cylinder bore spacing measures 100 mm (3.937 in), which is common to all members of the Modular engine family. All Modular V8s, except for the new 5.0 L Coyote, utilize the same firing order as the Ford 5.0 L HO and 351 CID V8s (1 - 3 - 7 - 2 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 8). The 4.6 L engines have been assembled at Romeo Engine Plant, located in Romeo, MI, and at Windsor Engine Plant and Essex Engine Plant, both located in Windsor, Ontario.
The final 4.6 L engine was produced in May 2014. The engine was a 2 - valve version and installed in a 2014 model year Ford E-Series van.
The first production Modular engine was the 4.6 L 2 - valve SOHC V8 introduced in the 1991 Lincoln Town Car.
The 4.6 L 2V has been built at both Romeo Engine Plant and Windsor Engine Plant, and the plants have different designs for main bearings, heads (cam caps: interconnected cam "cages '' vs individual caps per cam journal), camshaft gears (bolt - on vs. press - on), valve covers (11 bolts vs. 13 bolts), crankshaft (6 bolts vs. 8 bolts), and cross bolt fasteners for main bearing caps.
Vehicles equipped with the 16 - valve SOHC 4.6 L include the following:
The 3 - valve SOHC 4.6 L with variable camshaft timing (VCT) first appeared in the redesigned 2005 Ford Mustang.
The engines are equipped with an electronic Charge Motion Control Valve (CMCV) system that provides increased air velocity at low engine speeds for improved emissions and low - rpm torque. Cylinder block material varies between aluminum used in the 2005 + Mustang GT and cast iron used in the 2005 + Ford Explorer and the 2006 + Ford Explorer Sport Trac (see below), though the same aluminum heads are used in all applications.
The 3 - valve SOHC 4.6 L engine was on the Ward 's 10 Best Engines list for 2005 -- 2008.
Vehicles equipped with the 24 - valve SOHC VCT 4.6 L include the following:
The 4 - valve DOHC version of the Modular engine was introduced in the 1993 Lincoln Mark VIII as the 4.6 L Four - Cam V8. Lincoln marketed the engine under the name InTech after 1995.
The 1993 -- 1998 4 - valve engines featured cylinder heads with two intake ports per cylinder (split - port) and variable runner length intake manifolds with either vacuum or electrically activated intake manifold runner controls (IMRC) depending on application. The engine was revised for 1999 with new cylinder heads featuring tumble - style intake ports (one intake port feeding two intake valves), new camshaft profiles, and fixed runner - length intake manifolds. These changes resulted in more power, torque and a broader power - band when compared to the earlier 4 - valve engines.
All 4.6 L 4 - valve engines featured aluminum engine blocks with 6 - bolt main bearing caps, the only exception being the 2003 -- 2004 SVT Cobra which had a 4 - bolt main cast iron block. The 1999 and earlier engines featured an aluminum block cast in Italy by Fiat subsidiary Teksid S.p.A. Since 1996, all of the 4.6 L 4 - valve engines manufactured for use in the SVT Cobra have been hand - built by SVT technicians at Ford 's Romeo, Michigan plant.
The 4 - valve DOHC 4.6 L engine was on the Ward 's 10 Best Engines list for 1996 and 1997.
Vehicles equipped with the 32 - valve DOHC 4.6 L include the following:
The 5.0 L (4951 cc, 302 cid) "Coyote '' V8 is the latest evolution of the Modular engine. Ford engineers needed to design a V8, specifically for the Mustang GT, that would compete with the GM 6.2 L LS3 used in the new Chevrolet Camaro, and the new Chrysler 6.4 L Hemi ESF in the Charger, Challenger, and Grand Cherokee. This engine had to remain close to the same physical size of the outgoing 4.6, and share other specifications with it such as bore spacing, deck height, bell housing bolt pattern, etc. in order for the engine to utilize existing Modular production line tooling (the source of the ' Modular ' designation for the engine family). The result was the 5.0 Coyote, which produced roughly the same amount of power as its competitors, but with a much smaller displacement. To strengthen the block enough to handle increased output, webbing was extensively used as reinforcement in the casting, rather than increasing the thickness of the walls. The intake plenum was also situated low between the two cylinder banks to meet the height constraint, thus the alternator traditionally placed low and center was moved to the side of the engine. It shares the 4.6 L 's 100 mm (3.937 in) bore spacing and 227 mm (8.937 in) deck height, while bore diameter and stroke have increased to 92.2 mm (3.629 in) and 92.7 mm (3.649 in), respectively. The engine also retains the 4.6 L 's 150.7 mm (5.933 in) connecting rod length, which produces a 1.62: 1 rod to stroke ratio. The firing order has been changed from that shared by all previous Modular V8s (1 - 3 - 7 - 2 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 8) to that of the Ford Flathead V8 (1 - 5 - 4 - 8 - 6 - 3 - 7 - 2). Compression ratio is 11.0: 1, and despite having port fuel injection (as opposed to direct injection) the engine can still be run on 87 octane gasoline.
The Coyote features all new 4V DOHC cylinder heads that have shifted the camshafts outboard, which allowed for a compact roller finger follower setup with remote hydraulic valve lash adjusters and improved (raised) intake port geometry. The result is an intake port that outflows the Ford GT intake port by 4 percent and the Yates D3 (NASCAR) intake port up to 0.472 '' (12 mm) lift, which is the maximum lift of the Coyote 's intake cams. Engine redline is 7000 rpm.
The Coyote is Ford 's first implementation of its cam - torque - actuated (CTA) Twin Independent Variable Cam Timing (Ti - VCT) in a V8 engine, which allows the power - train control module (PCM) to advance and retard intake and exhaust cam timing independently of each other, providing improved power, fuel economy and reduced emissions. The engine is assembled in Ford 's Essex Engine Plant in Windsor, Ontario, using existing Modular tooling.
For 2018, Ford made revisions to the Coyote equipped in the Mustang GT - most notably the addition of high - pressure direct injection (in addition to the existing port injection system), and an increase of the piston bore diameter from 92.2 mm to 93mm. This increase in the bore size, resulting from the adoption of Plasma Wire Arc Transfer cylinder liner technology in place of the more traditional sleeve in the block, brings total displacement up from 4,951 to 5,035 cc (302 to 307 cu in). Other changes include Gen. 3 specific camshafts, enlarged intake and exhaust valves, an increased compression ratio of 12.0: 1, a revised intake manifold, and 7500 RPM redline. With these changes the updated 5.0 L Coyote is rated by Ford at 460 hp (343 kW) and 420 lb ⋅ ft (569 N ⋅ m).
A higher performance variant of the Coyote, dubbed Road Runner internally by Ford, is produced under the Boss 302 moniker used for the resurrected Boss 302 Mustang for the 2012 model year. The Boss 302 receives CNC ported heads cast in 356 aluminum providing additional airflow and strength, and a higher lift exhaust camshaft profile is used. Valvetrain components were lightened as much as possible, including the use of sodium filled exhaust valves, while strengthened powdered metal rods and forged aluminum pistons were added. Piston - cooling jets were also deleted, which are standard in the 5.0 model. Exterior changes include a high - mount intake plenum (as opposed to the standard engine 's low - mounted one) with shorter runners to improve high - rpm power. Power is increased from 412 hp (307 kW) to 444 hp (331 kW), and torque drops from 390 lb ⋅ ft (530 N ⋅ m) to 380 lb ⋅ ft (520 N ⋅ m) due to the upgrades. The Boss 's redline is increased to 7500 rpm, but has been verified stable up to 8400.
A torque - biased variant of the Coyote is produced as an alternative to the EcoBoost V6 in the new F - 150 pickup truck. The F150 5.0 L receives a lower compression ratio (10.5: 1), intake camshafts with less duration, cast iron exhaust manifolds, and revised cylinder heads. The intake manifold changed only in color, with no change in size or shape. These changes promote low - end and mid-range power and torque. The engine retains the Coyote 's forged steel crank and piston - cooling jets but benefits from the addition of an external engine oil cooler similar to the Boss 302 's. The changes result in the engine 's peak horsepower dropping to 385 hp (287 kW; 390 PS) at 5750 rpm, while torque is rated at 387 lb ⋅ ft (525 N ⋅ m) at 3850 rpm.
For 2018, numerous reversions were made to the 5.0, most notably the adoption of a port and direct fuel injection system, as well as spray - on bore liner, eliminating the need for conventional cylinder liners (changes shared with the 2018 Mustang). Power and torque increased to 395 hp (295 kW; 400 PS) at 5750 rpm, while torque is rated at 400 lb ⋅ ft (540 N ⋅ m) at 3850 rpm.
For the Australian Ford Falcon - based FPV GT range and the FGX XR8, the engine had upgraded internals and was equipped with a Harrop / Eaton supercharger, resulting in power outputs up to 351 kW (471 hp / 477ps) with a + 15 % "overboost '' facility called the Miami V8.
The Coyote made Ward 's 10 Best Engines list for 2011.
The Coyote is available as a crate motor from Ford Racing Performance Parts (FRPP) complete with alternator, manifold, and wiring harness in standard 412 bhp (307 kW; 418 PS) configuration. The Boss 302 is also available from FRPP for a premium over the standard 5.0 L.
The engine is gradually replacing the 4.6 L and 5.4 L Modular V8 units in all Ford vehicles. This is the first time that Ford has used the "5.0 '' designation since the Windsor 5.0 was discontinued and replaced by the 4.6 L Modular unit in 1996 (Mustang).
Vehicles equipped with the 32 - valve DOHC Ti - VCT 5.0 L include the following:
The 5.2 L (5163 cc, 315 cid) "Voodoo '' is a development of the Coyote engine. Unlike the Coyote, as well as previous Modular V8s, the Voodoo features a flat plane crankshaft. The engine was developed specifically for the Shelby GT350 version of the sixth generation Mustang. Bore and stroke are both up from the 5.0 L Coyote at 94 mm and 93 mm, as is the compression ratio at 12.0: 1. The Voodoo makes 526 hp (392 kW) at 7500 RPM and 429 lb ⋅ ft (582 N ⋅ m) of torque at 4750 RPM and with a redline of 8250 rpm.
Vehicles equipped with the 32 - valve DOHC 5.2 L include the following:
The 5.4 L (5408 cc, 330 CID) V8 is a member of the Modular engine family first introduced in the 1997 F - series pick - ups, in place of the 5.8 L 351W. Bore diameter is 90.2 mm (3.552 in) and stroke is 105.8 mm (4.165 in), the increased stroke necessitated a taller 256 mm (10.079 in) engine block deck height. A 169.1 mm (6.658 in) connecting rod length is used to achieve a 1.60: 1 rod to stroke ratio. The 5.4 L 2V was built at the Windsor Engine Plant, while the 5.4 L 3V moved production to the Essex Engine Plant beginning in 2003, then back to Windsor Engine Plant in 2009. The SVT 5.4 L 4 - valve engines are built at Romeo Engine Plant, hand assembled on the niche line.
Introduced in 1997, the SOHC 2 - valve 5.4 L has a cast iron engine block and aluminum cylinder heads. The 5.4 L features multi-port fuel injection, roller finger followers, fracture - split powder metal connecting rods, and in some applications a forged steel crankshaft.
The 2 - valve SOHC 5.4 L engine was on the Ward 's 10 Best Engines list for 1997 -- 1998 and 2000 -- 2002.
Vehicles equipped with the 16 - valve SOHC 5.4 L include the following:
In 2002, Ford introduced a new 3 - valve SOHC cylinder head with variable camshaft timing (VCT), improving power and torque over the previous 2 - valve SOHC version. The 3 - valve cylinder head was first used on the 2002 Ford Fairmont 5.4 L Barra 220 engine in Australia. The 3 - valve 5.4 L was introduced to the North American market in the redesigned 2004 Ford F - 150. Originally specs for oil were 10W - 30 in Australian models and then switched to 5W - 20 for North American models.
Vehicles equipped with the 24 - valve SOHC VCT 5.4 L include the following:
In 1999, Ford introduced the DOHC 4 - valve 5.4 L in the Lincoln Navigator under the InTech moniker, making it the second engine to use this name. Ford later used versions of the DOHC 4 - valve 5.4 L in the 2000 Ford Mustang SVT Cobra R, the Ford GT supercar, and the Ford Shelby GT500. The DOHC 4 - valve 5.4 L was also used in the Ford Falcon line in Australia under the Boss moniker until 2010, when it was replaced by a locally developed, supercharged version of the 5.0 litre Modular V8.
The SVT Cobra R version of the 5.4 L 4 - valve V8 had several key differences from its Lincoln counterpart. While the iron block and forged steel crankshaft were sourced directly from the InTech 5.4 L, the Cobra R powerplant benefited from new, high - flow cylinder heads that were designed with features developed for Ford 's "Rough Rider '' off - road racing program, application specific camshafts with higher lift and more duration than other 4 - valve Modular cams, forged I - beam connecting rods sourced from Carillo, forged pistons that provided a 9.6: 1 compression ratio in conjunction with the 52 cc combustion chambers, and a unique high - flow "cross-ram '' style aluminum intake manifold. The Cobra R was rated at 385 hp (287 kW) and 385 lb ⋅ ft (522 N ⋅ m) though chassis dynamometer results have shown these ratings to be conservative with unmodified Cobra Rs often producing nearly 380 hp (280 kW) at the rear wheels.
The Ford GT version of the 5.4 L is a highly specialized version of the Modular engine. It is an all - aluminum, dry - sump 5.4 L 4 - valve DOHC with a Lysholm screw - type supercharger and showcases numerous technological features, such as dual fuel injectors per cylinder and oil squirters for the piston skirts, not found in other Ford Modular engines of the time. The GT 5.4 L benefits from an improved version of the high - flow 2000 Cobra R cylinder head and unique high - lift camshafts. The GT is rated at 550 hp (410 kW) and 500 lb ft (678 N m).
The Shelby GT500 uses a 4 - valve DOHC 5.4 L with an Eaton M122H Roots type supercharger and air - to - liquid intercooler. The GT500 5.4 L shares its high - flow cylinder head castings with the Ford GT, with only minor machining differences, and shares camshafts with the 2003 -- 2004 Ford Mustang SVT Cobra; which have less lift and duration than the Ford GT camshafts. The 2007 -- 2010 GT500 engine used an iron engine block, while the 2011 GT500 5.4 L receives a new aluminum engine block, with Ford 's first production application of their patented Plasma Transferred Wire Arc (PTWA) cylinder coating, eliminating the need for pressed in cylinder liners. The PTWA spray apparatus was co-developed by Ford and Flame - Spray Industries of Long Island, New York, for which they received the 2009 IPO National Inventors of the Year Award. The 2011 GT500 engine weighs 102 lb (46 kg). less than the previous iron - block version, thanks in part to the lack of cast iron cylinder liners. All of the 5.4 L 4 - valve engines destined for use in SVT vehicles, such as the Ford GT and Shelby GT500, have been hand - built by technicians at Ford 's Romeo, Michigan plant.
Vehicles equipped with the 32 - valve DOHC 5.4 L include the following:
510 lb ⋅ ft (691 N ⋅ m) Supercharged
The 5.8 engine is formally known as the Trinity Engine or 5.8 - liter V8. The 5.8 L benefits from cylinder heads with improved coolant flow, Ford GT camshafts, piston - cooling oil jets similar to those found on the 5.0 Coyote, new 5 - layer MLS head gaskets, an over-rev function that increases the red line to 7000 rpm for up to 8 seconds (from 6250 rpm), and a compression ratio increased to 9.0: 1 (from 8.5: 1). Displacement is 355 cu. in. (5,812 cc) with a bore diameter of 93.5 mm (3.681 in) and stroke of 105.8 mm (4.165 in). Boost is supplied by a 2.3 L TVS supercharger with maximum boost of 14 psi. Trinity has 37.0 mm intake valves and 32.0 mm exhaust valves.
The 6.8 L (6760 cc, 413 CID) SOHC V10 is another variation of the Modular family created for use in large trucks. Bore size is 90.2 mm (3.552 in) and stroke is 105.8 mm (4.165 in), identical to the 5.4 L V8. Both 2 - valve and 3 - valve versions have been produced. The 6.8 L uses a split - pin crank with 72 ° firing intervals and a balance shaft to quell vibrations inherent to a 90 ° bank angle V10 engine. The engine 's firing order is 1 - 6 - 5 - 10 - 2 - 7 - 3 - 8 - 4 - 9. The 2 - valve version was first introduced in 1997, with a 3 - valve non-VCT version to follow in 2005. The 3 - valve engines were built alongside the 2 - valve engines at Ford 's Windsor, Ontario LVL (low volume line) engine line, but moved production to the larger Windsor Engine Plant in 2009.
Vehicles equipped with the 6.8 L V10 Modular engine include the following:
Ford Australia used 5.4 L Modular V8s in the Ford Falcon and previously on the Ford Fairlane sedan model ranges, as well as in its high performance Ford Performance Vehicles (FPV) division models, until mid-2010, when they were replaced by the 5.0 L. The DOHC 5.4 L V8s are named Boss by Ford Australia.
Ford of Australia 5.4 L engines include:
In 2005, Ford Racing Performance Parts introduced a 5.0 L (4992 cc, 305 CID) V8 crate engine for use in motor racing and home - made performance cars, officially called M - 6007 - T50EA, but more widely known as "Cammer ''. Since then, other higher performance variations of the Cammer have been introduced for KONI Sports Car Challenge and GT4 European Cup. All versions of the Cammer are DOHC 4 - valve per cylinder designs with a 94 mm (3.700 in) bore and a 90 mm (3.543 in) stroke. The Cammer achieves its larger 94 mm (3.7 in) bore by resleeving the 4.6 L aluminum block.
The T50 Cammer crate engine, the least expensive and most street oriented version, uses derivatives of the cylinder heads, variable runner - length magnesium intake manifold, and camshafts first used in the 2000 FR500 Mustang concept car. These parts are unique to the T50 Cammer crate engine and are not found in any other production Modular applications. The T50 has an 11.0: 1 compression ratio and exceeds 420 horsepower (310 kW) with the proper exhaust manifolds.
The Cammer that has seen success in Grand Am Cup powering the Mustang FR500C is officially called M - 6007 - R50 and features a unique dual plenum, fixed runner - length magnesium intake manifold, Ford GT aluminum cylinder heads, unique camshafts of undisclosed specifications, and an 11.0: 1 compression ratio. The R50 Cammer produces over 450 hp (336 kW) without restrictor plates. Upon introduction the R50 Cammer - powered Mustang FR500C proved to be dominant in Grand - Am Cup, having achieved five victories and podium appearances in nearly every race in the GS class during the 2005 season, giving David Empringham the championship title with the Multimatic Motorsports team, and Ford the manufacturer 's title.
Robert Yates publicly expressed interest in using a similar 5.0 L 4 - valve DOHC Modular V8 to compete in the NASCAR Winston Cup Series (now Sprint Cup Series). Roush - Yates supplies a naturally aspirated 550 hp (410 kW) 5.0 L Cammer for use in the Mustang FR500GT3 and Matech - Ford GT3 which participate in the FIA GT3 European Championship, and a naturally aspirated 665 hp (496 kW) 5.3 L Cammer for use in the 2010 Matech - Ford GT1 that competes in FIA GT1 World Championship. The 5.3 L Cammer 's extra displacement is achieved via a 95.3 mm (3.750 in) stroke.
On February 28, 2005, the Koenigsegg CCR used a modified, Rotrex supercharged Ford Modular 4 - valve DOHC 4.6 L V8, which produced 806 hp (601 kW), to achieve a top speed of 241 mph (388 km / h). This engine used a bore of 94.6 mm (3.725 ") and a stroke of 94mm (3.700). The bore was achieved using Darton M.I.D. Sleeves. This certified top speed was recorded on February 28, 2005, in Nardo, Italy and broke the McLaren F1 's world record for fastest production car. The accomplishment was recognized by Guinness World Records in 2005, who gave the Koenigsegg CCR the official title of World 's Fastest Production Car. The Koenigsegg record was broken several months later by the Bugatti Veyron. This engine is the basis for Koenigsegg 's twin - supercharged flexible fuel V8 seen in the CCX.
1 / 8 Mile
On March 10, 2017, MMR (Modular Motorsports Racing) using a modified Coyote engine which produced over 3,000 hp (2,200 kW) set the world record for the fastest Modular & Coyote engine ever in the ⁄ mile (201 metres) with 3.87 seconds at 199 mph (320 km / h) beating the previous ⁄ mile record and also making it the first in the 3.8 second zone. Making this feat more impressive was its lack of Turbo intercooler and use of an Automatic transmission. The elapsed time and mph record was recorded at Bradenton Motorsports Park, Bradenton FL during an NMCA Sanctioned Event. The accomplishment was recognized by sanctioning bodies such as the NMCA (National Muscle car Association) and NMRA (National Mustang Racers Association) giving it the official title of the Fastest ⁄ Mile Modular / Coyote Powered vehicle in the World.
1 / 4 Mile
On November 18, 2017, MMR (Modular Motorsports Racing) set the world record for the fastest 1 / 4 mile Modular & Coyote engine ever with a 5.80 second pass at 256 mph (412 km / h) using its Coyote based engine which featured Factory cylinder head castings, valves, lifters and Followers sitting atop a Billet reproduction of the factory architecture Coyote cylinder block. Making this feat more impressive was its lack of Turbo intercooler and use of an Automatic transmission. The elapsed time and mph record was recorded and backed up at Las Vegas Motorsports Speedway Dragstrip during qualifying at a PSCA Sanctioned event giving it the official title of Fastest ⁄ mile Ford "Door Slammer '' in the world.
On November 22, 2015, John Mihovetz and Accufab Racing set the ⁄ mile record for a 4.6 L Engine with a 5.88 second pass at 254 mph (409 km / h) (3.91 seconds at 197 mph (317 km / h) ⁄ mile). This elapsed time and speed record was recorded during qualifying at Las Vegas Motorsports Speedway Dragstrip. The accomplishment was recognized by sanctioning body PSCA (Pacific Street Car Association) and backed up on its previous attempt as outlined by NHRA (National Hot Rod Association) guidelines giving it the official title of Fastest ⁄ mile 4.6 modular in the world.
On November 22, 2015, MMR (Modular Motorsports Racing) set the World record for a 5.8 L Modular Engine with a time of 5.95 seconds at 242 mph (389 km / h) making this the first and only 5 second pass for a Ford 5.4 / 5.8 Ford Modular Engine. This elapsed time and speed record was recorded during competition at Las Vegas Motorsports Speedway Dragstrip. The accomplishment was recognized by sanctioning bodies such as the PSCA (Pacific Street car Association) and SCSN (Street Car Super Nationals) beating its previous best of 6.02 ET giving it the official title of the fastest 5.4 / 5.8 L Ford modular Engine in the world.
Starting in 1996, Ford began installing a DuPont Zytel nylon - composite intake manifold onto the 2 - valve SOHC engines. Plaintiffs in class action lawsuits alleged that the coolant crossover passage of these intake manifolds may crack, resulting in coolant leakage. A US class - action suit was filed on behalf of owners, resulting in a settlement announced on December 17, 2005.
Starting with the 2002 model year, and implemented halfway through the 2001 lineup, Ford began using a revised DuPont Zytel nylon - composite intake manifold with an aluminum front coolant crossover that corrected the issue. Replacement intakes were also made available for 1996 -- 2001 engines. To be eligible for reimbursement, owners needed to contact a Ford, Lincoln or Mercury dealer within 90 days of December 16, 2005. Further, Ford offered an extended warranty for this part, for seven years from the start date (which means the initial vehicle sale date) without a mileage limitation.
The following vehicles were included in this class - action suit settlement:
2 - valve 4.6 L, 5.4 L, and 6.8 L engines found in many 1997 - 2008 Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury vehicles may have aluminum cylinder heads with threads for spark plugs that are stripped, missing, or otherwise insufficiently bored out. Ford acknowledges this issue in TSB 07 - 21 - 2 as well as earlier TSBs. Ford 's TSB does not state that this issue is caused by owner neglect. Ford 's only authorized repair procedure for out - of - warranty vehicles is to use the LOCK - N - STITCH aluminum insert and tool kit. For vehicles under the New Vehicle Limited Warranty, Ford will only cover the replacement of the entire cylinder head; however, the Ford recommended spark plug service interval extends beyond the duration of the New Vehicle Limited Warranty.
3 - valve 5.4 L and 6.8 L engines built before 10 / 9 / 07 and 3 - valve 4.6 Ls built before 11 / 30 / 07 found in many 2004 -- 2008 Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury vehicles have an issue with difficult - to - remove spark plugs, which can cause part of the spark plug to become seized in the cylinder head. The source of the problem is a unique plug design that uses a 2 - piece shell, which often separates, leaving the lower portion of the spark plug stuck deep in the engine 's cylinder head. The 2 - piece OE spark plug design is intrinsically flawed, thus making it susceptible to this problem. Ford acknowledges this issue in TSB 08 - 7 - 6 as well as earlier TSBs. Ford 's TSB does not state that this issue is caused by owner neglect. The TSB provides a special procedure for spark plug removal on these engines. For situations in which the spark plug has partially broken off in the cylinder head, Ford distributes multiple special tools for removing the seized portion of the plug. Their TSB explains the multiple procedures required for handling the different cases / situations that occur when parts of plugs are seized in these engines. This repair is covered for vehicles under warranty; however, the Ford recommended spark plug service interval extends beyond the duration of the New Vehicle Limited Warranty.
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how old is the eiffel tower in paris | Eiffel tower - wikipedia
The Eiffel Tower (/ ˈaɪfəl / EYE - fəl; French: Tour Eiffel (tuʁ ‿ ɛfɛl) (listen)) is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower.
Constructed from 1887 -- 1889 as the entrance to the 1889 World 's Fair, it was initially criticized by some of France 's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, but it has become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. The Eiffel Tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world; 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015.
The tower is 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81 - storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest man - made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free - standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level 's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground -- the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift.
The design of the Eiffel Tower is attributed to Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel. It was envisioned after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world 's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals ''. Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company 's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.
The new version gained Eiffel 's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise,
Not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France 's gratitude.
Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel 's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four - sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars. (A 300 - meter tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort). On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel 's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel 's were either impractical or lacking in details.
After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.
The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. These objections were an expression of a long - standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred '' (one member for each metre of the tower 's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower '' was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Charles Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:
We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection... of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower... To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint - Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal.
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris? '' These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, ironically saying, "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time '', and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.
Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel was similarly unworried, pointing out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony? ''
Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower 's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.
By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed - air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.
Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on - site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse - drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined together using 2.5 million rivets.
At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level, construction was paused in order to create a substantial timber scaffold. This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide! '' and "Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum '' appeared in the tabloid press. At this stage, a small "creeper '' crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on - site employees, only one person died, due to Eiffel 's safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens.
The start of the erection of the metalwork.
7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding.
20 March 1888: Completion of the first level.
15 May 1888: Start of construction on the second stage.
21 August 1888: Completion of the second level.
26 December 1888: Construction of the upper stage.
15 March 1889: Construction of the cupola.
Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts clearly had to be the main means of ascent.
Constructing lifts to reach the first level was relatively straightforward: the legs were wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs. Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car 's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.
Installing lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible. No French company wanted to undertake the work. The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fair 's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower. The deadline for bids was extended but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887. Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.
The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in) long and 96.5 cm (38.0 in) in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of 10.83 m (35 ft 6 in): this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.
The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of 81 m (266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car only travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10 - ton cars each held 65 passengers.
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré, completed the ascent. At 2: 35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25 - gun salute fired at the first level.
There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710 - step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half - price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.
After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.
On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made. There was also a pâtisserie.
At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described some of the responses as vraiment curieuse ("truly curious '').
Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill '' Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison. Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition. Edison signed the guestbook with this message:
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit.
Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.
For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives - Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism to the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism. At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.
On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos - Dumont, flying his No. 6 airship, won a 100,000 - franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.
Many innovations took place at the Eiffel Tower in the early 20th century. In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays. Just two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 metres) to demonstrate his parachute design. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower 's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low - resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180 - line transmitter was installed.
On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold '' the tower for scrap metal. A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world 's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika - centered Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. On 25 June, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.
A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top. In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.
According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.
In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. The Fives - Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil - filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. In 1987, A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.
For its "Countdown to the Year 2000 '' celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high - powered searchlights were installed on the tower. Fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris 's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.
The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium On 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.
The tower received its 200,000,000 th guest on 28 November 2002. The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors since 2003. In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.
The puddled iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tons, and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tons. As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tons of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, 125 metres (410 ft) on each side, to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.46 in) assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tons per cubic metre. Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 mx 125 mx 125 m) would contain 6,200 tons of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.
When it was built, many were shocked by the tower 's daring form. Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team -- experienced bridge builders -- understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:
Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony?... Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument 's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be... will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.
He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. All parts of the tower were over-designed to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. In the years since it was completed, engineers have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. The most recent, devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.
The Eiffel Tower sways by up to 9 centimetres (3.5 in) in the wind.
When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants -- one French, one Russian and one Flemish -- and an "Anglo - American Bar ''. After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250 - seat theatre. A promenade 2.6 - metre (8 ft 6 in) wide ran around the outside of the first level. At the top, there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.
In May 2016, an apartment was created on the first level to accommodate four competition winners during the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament in Paris in June. The apartment has a kitchen, two bedrooms, a lounge, and views of Paris landmarks including the Seine, the Sacre Coeur, and the Arc de Triomphe.
The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower 's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science '' because of his concern over the artists ' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986 -- 87 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company operating the tower.
The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky. It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as "Eiffel Tower Brown ''.
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill - work arches, added in Sauvestre 's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.
A pop - culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every seven years to prevent it from rusting. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment.
The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir - Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars - Tour Eiffel. The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.
More than 250 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889. In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors. The tower is the most - visited paid monument in the world. An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day which can result in long queues.
The tower has two restaurants: Le 58 Tour Eiffel on the first level, and Le Jules Verne, a gourmet restaurant with its own lift on the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It was run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse from 2007 to 2017. Starting May 2019, it will be managed by three star chef Frédéric Anton. It owes its name to the famous science - fiction writer Jules Verne. Additionally, there is a champagne bar at the top of the Eiffel Tower.
As one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is 158.1 metres (518 ft) tall. Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower.
There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half - scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1: 3 scale models at Kings Island, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1: 3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.
In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full - size replica of the tower would cost approximately US $480 million to build. Ironically, if accurate, that means that the replica would cost more than ten times that of the original (with the original costing nearly 8 million in 1890 Francs; ~ US $40 million in 2018 dollars).
The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C. Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.
A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by 18.7 m (61.4 ft). Work carried out in 2000 added a further 5.3 m (17.4 ft), giving the current height of 324 m (1,063 ft). Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011.
The tower and its image have long been in the public domain. In June 1990 a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower 's 100th anniversary was an "original visual creation '' protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France 's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992. The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright. As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use.
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it is n't used in ways (of which) we do n't approve ''. SNTE made over € 1 million from copyright fees in 2002. However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.
French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower.
The Eiffel Tower was the world 's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. The tower has lost its standing both as the world 's tallest structure and the world 's tallest lattice tower but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.
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which is the longest national road in india | National highway 44 (India) - Wikipedia
National Highway 44 (NH 44) is the longest - running major north -- south National Highway in India. It starts from Srinagar and terminates in Kanyakumari; the highway passes through the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. NH - 44 was laid and is maintained by Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
It has come into being by merging seven previously differently numbered national highways in full or part starting from former NH 1A from Srinagar in Jammu & Kashmir, former NH 1 in Punjab and Haryana ending at Delhi, part of former NH 2 starting from Delhi and ending at Agra, former NH 3 (popularly known as Agra - Bombay highway) from Agra to Gwalior, former NH 75 and former NH 26 to Jhansi, and finally former NH 7 via Lakhnadon, Seoni, Nagpur, and Adilabad, Nirmal, Kamareddy, Hyderabad, Kurnool and Mahbubnagar, Anantapur, and Bangalore, Dharmapuri, Salem, Karur, Madurai, Kovilpatti and Tirunelveli terminating at Kanyakumari.
This highway starts from Srinagar. The highway connects several cities and town such as, Srinagar, Anantnag, Domel, Jammu, Pathankot, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Ambala, Karnal, Panipat, Sonipat, Delhi, Mathura, Agra, Gwalior, Jhansi, Sagar, Lakhnadon, Seoni, Nagpur, Adilabad, Hyderabad, Kurnool, Anantapur, Bengaluru, Salem, Karur, Madurai and Kanyakumari. NH 44 covers the North - South Corridor of NHDP and it is officially listed as running over 3,745 km (2,327 mi) from Srinagar to Kanyakumari. It is the longest national highway in India.
Bengaluru -- Hosur Road of this highway which connects the city of Bangalore capital of Karnataka, and the Tamil Nadu border town of Hosur in Krisnagiri district. It is a four - to six - lane highway which also has service lanes on either sides at the busier parts. Apart from being a part of the National Highway, the road is also significant because it consist of many industrial and IT business houses. The IT industrial park Electronics City is also located alongside Hosur Road.
The National Highways Authority of India has constructed a 10 - kilometre - long (6.2 mi) elevated highway between Bommanahalli and Electronics City. This toll road has made travel to Electronics City a lot faster. The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike and Bengaluru Development Authority have planned a series of flyovers and underpasses to make this arterial road signal - free.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Srinagar_-_Kanyakumari_Highway.jpg
Route map
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how long is us navy master at arms training | Master - at - arms (United States Navy) - wikipedia
The master - at - arms (MA) rating is responsible for law enforcement and force protection in the United States Navy -- equivalent to the United States Army Military Police, the United States Marine Corps Military Police, the United States Air Force Security Forces, and the United States Coast Guard 's Maritime Law Enforcement Specialist. It is one of the oldest ratings in the United States Navy, having been recognized since the inception of the U.S. Navy. It has had two rating badges during its history. Its original MAA rating mark was an inverted star until disestablished (1797 -- 1921). On 20 May 1958 the inverted star reemerged as a nod to the Historical MAA Rating whose duty was to provide good order and discipline aboard ships over the enlisted crews. Public Law 85 - 422, the Military Pay Act of 1958, established two new enlisted pay grades of E-8 and E-9 in all five branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. In the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard, the new E-8 pay grade was titled Senior Chief Petty Officer and the new E-9 pay grade as Master Chief Petty Officer; as a result it was designated a single (E-8) or double (E-9) inverted star above the anchor for all collar devices and rating badges this point forward. The MCPON Rating (1971) specialty mark was established using the former MAA inverted star and later expanded to the Command Rates of Fleet / Command Master Chief (1995) or Senior Chief (2015) Ratings. The current MAA rating mark following its reestablishment has been a police badge with internal star (1973 -- present), emblematic of its police or sheriff duties as a modern law enforcement specialist.
The master - at - arms rating is not a modern innovation. Naval records show that these "sheriffs of the sea '' were keeping order as early as the reign of Charles I of England. At that time they were charged with keeping the swords, pistols, carbines and muskets in good working order as well as ensuring that the bandoliers were filled with fresh powder before combat. Besides being chiefs of police at sea, the sea corporals, as they were called in the British Navy, they had to be qualified in close order fighting under arms and able to train seamen in hand - to - hand combat. In the days of sail, the master - at - arms were truly "masters at arms. ''
The navy of the united colonies of the 1775 era offered only a few different jobs above the ordinary seaman level. These included boatswain 's mate, quartermaster, gunner 's mate, master - at - arms, cook, armorer, sailmaker 's mate, cooper, coxswain, carpenter 's yeoman, and yeoman of the gun room. These were titles of the jobs that individuals were actually performing and thus became the basis for petty officers and ratings. Also, there were ordinary seaman, loblolly boy, and boy, but these are more related to our apprentices of today.
The master - at - arms rating officially started after the American Revolutionary War on board the ships of the United States ' early navy. Taking on many customs and traditions of the Royal Navy, the existence of the rating did not take effect until the Naval Act of July 1, 1797, was enacted, which called for every ship to have, among other job positions a master - at - arms. Because of this Congressional act, the master - at - arms rating is recognized as one of the "oldest '' ratings still existing in today 's modern U.S. Navy, which includes boatswain 's mate, gunner 's mate, quartermaster, and yeoman.
From 1885 to 1893, a master - at - arms was a petty officer 1st class, who wore a rating badge consisting of three stripes forming an arc over the three chevrons, and a star specialty mark with an eagle perched on the arc. A ship 's corporal wore a standard rating badge for a petty officer 2nd class with the star as the specialty mark. The master - at - arms rating is formally disestablished in accordance with BNCL 9 - 21 of March 24, 1921, and made effective July 1, 1921.
Established in 1942, the specialists (s) shore patrol and security, worked shore patrol teams and ensured basic ship and shore station security. Its name was changed in 1948 to shore patrolman, and it took on some of the official functions of the current master - at - arms rating, only to be disestablished on January 23, 1953 by the Secretary of the Navy as a result of the RSRB recommendations of June 1952. This was officially implemented by BUPERS Notice 1200 of March 5, 1953. Master - at - arms circa 1970s
According to the Naval History and Heritage Command, the Master - at - arms rating was officially established in 1797, disestablished in 1921, only to be re-established by the Chief of Naval Personnel on August 1, 1973 in BUPERSNOTE 1440 Change 1, thereby making that date "August 1st '' as the official birthday of the modern U.S. Navy Master - at - Arms. This formal creation of the master - at - arms rating was unfortunately the result of a recommendation made by the Special Subcommittee of Congress on Disciplinary Problems in the US Navy, because of riots that occurred on the USS Kitty Hawk and the USS Constellation in 1972 because of racial tensions. According to the archived reports, the findings of the committee concluded that there was no formal training for the master - at - arms force on the ships, the U.S. Marine Detachment was not effectively utilized by the chief master - at - arms of the ships, and that a separate rating be established to perform law enforcement duties similar to the other military services.
After being re-established on August 1, 1973, the rating would only receive sailors who wanted to "cross-rate '' (a rating conversion in the U.S. Navy) and submitted a conversion package to BUPERS after concurrence from NCIS. This conversion package was unique in that it required a letter of endorsement from rated master - at - arms in the community who observed the sailor first - hand in the performance of their assigned NSF duties. Along with the pre-requisites required at the time, these sailors must have been frocked as a second class petty officer or above. The conversion process used the procedures and requirements listed in Military Personnel Manual (MILPERSMAN) 1440 - 010. In 1982, the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, then known as the Naval Investigative Service (NIS), assumed responsibility for managing the Navy 's Law Enforcement and Physical Security Program and the Navy 's Information and Personnel Security Program. This effectively made NCIS the program manager for the master - at - arms community, responsible for program management, manning, training, and equipping.
The period between the 1980s and the 2000s saw very few changes in the rating after its formation, in terms of tactics, techniques and procedures. Masters - at - arms were performing law enforcement and ATFP duties. Concurrently, for those naval shore installation with a nuclear weapons mission and a collocated nuclear weapons storage areas (primarily naval submarine bases and select naval air stations, the Marine Corps Security Force assigned to that installation 's Marine Barracks, held responsibility for access gates / gate guards, perimeter security, and security of stored nuclear weapons. A similar function was held by the Marine Detachment, essentially a reinforced infantry company, aboard major warships that had both nuclear weapons storage facilities and functioned as flagships (e.g., aircraft carriers and battleships). But the majority of Navy MAAs, especially those assigned to ships, still performed archaic duties such as berthing inspections, restricted barracks supervision, linen issue, and seabag locker management. However, the increased terrorist threat changed the way the Navy thought and operated.
In the mid and late 1980s, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, in agreement with the Chief of Naval Operations, began removing Marine Corps enlisted personnel from gate guard duties at the naval installations they were assigned to in order to place greater emphasis on the nuclear weapons security role, with Navy enlisted personnel assuming gate guard and perimeter security duties. However, most of the junior enlisted personnel assigned to these functions were not part of the MAA rating and had little formal training in security duties. With the end of the Cold War, Marine Detachments were also removed from aircraft carriers in the early 1990s, the four Iowa - class battleships having been concurrently decommissioned at the same time.
However, with the USS Cole bombing in 2000, followed by the events of 9 / 11, the U.S. Navy began to realize its personnel, equipment and infrastructure were grossly under protected because of a lack of specially - trained personnel, especially the master - at - arms. As terrorism became a real threat, the Navy 's leadership was forced to change how the master - at - arms was viewed, used, and task organized, leading to serious changes in force protection tactics, techniques and procedures. This led to the establishment of the Antiterrorism / Force Protection Warfare Development Center (ATFPWDC), the precursor to the current Center for Security Forces and an increase in Master - at - arms manning, which in the year 2000 was barely 1,800 to over 11,000 by the year 2007. In addition, in 2003 the Navy Recruiting Command increased recruiting efforts tremendously help fill the billet requirements being demanded by the various type commanders (TYCOM) to combat the terrorist threats within their area of responsibility. This demand increased sharply when the CNO authorized the formation of the Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC), which serves as the single functional command for the Navy 's expeditionary forces and as central management for the readiness, resources, manning, training and equipping of those forces.
The biggest change to the rating came after 9 / 11 in the form of master - at - arms sailors being assigned to other military units as an Individual Augmentee in support of combat support and non-combat support roles in the various area of operations of the "Global War on Terrorism ''. Aside from the authorized billets in unconventional operational units, master - at - arms saw Individual Augmentee duties as early 2003 such as in the Iraq AOR with Combined Joint Task Force 7 (the precursor unit of Multi-National Force -- Iraq), headquartered at Camp Victory.
In 2006, NECC acquired the program management role from NCIS. The increased need for specialized units such as Maritime Expeditionary Security Force (MESF) and United States Navy Riverine Squadron (RIVRON) units and the manning of several forward deployed locations such as Bahrain saw the need to increase the number of masters - at - arms. It was also during this period, for the first and only time, that master - at - arms were considered a source rating for U.S. Navy SEAL and were allowed to attend Basic Underwater Demolition / SEAL (BUD / S) training.
Then again in 2011, this changed with U.S. Fleet Forces Command assuming responsibility as the master - at - arms community sponsor. This shift is indicative of the "drawdown '' the entire U.S. military was seeing from its departure from combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. This move marks the change from combat and combat support roles that masters - at - arms participated in the various expeditionary and SOF units, and back to more traditional law enforcement roles with U.S. Fleet Forces Command as the community 's functional commander. This move still exasperates the existing issue that has plagued the community from its beginning. The issue of the Naval Security Force not having a single chain of command, or type commander, similar to how the U.S. Army, and U.S. Marine Corps Military Police Corps, or U.S. Air Force Security Forces are task organized. In each of the other services, the entire Military Police Corps are under the direction and control of their respective Military Police Provost Marshal General.
A proposal from within the community has been recommended, suggesting changes to how the master - at - arms rating and Naval Security Force personnel are organized, trained and utilized. Additionally, with the decline in the requirements placed on the rating since the start of the Global War on Terrorism in support of the various operations, this has freed up many personnel and units for a Navy - wide restructuring of the master - at - arms rating. In a 2014 article in Navy Times, the then - Commander of Naval Air Forces, Vice Admiral Dave Buss, stated that all aircraft carriers ' Security Force Departments would be manned by rated master - at - arms. This is a tremendous shift in current manning directives since the departure of the U.S. Marine Detachments in the 1990s. Currently, the Security Departments of these ships rely on other departments to fill almost 75 percent of the required security force billets. These sailors, who receive minimal training in force - protection tactics, techniques and procedures, temporarily fill these billets for a duration of six months to a year.
The authority of a master - at - arms is derived from many sources. Under Title 10 U.S.C., they enforce the provision of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) (10 U.S.C. § 47). Under the Assimilative Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. § 13) it provides that local and state criminal codes may be assimilated for enforcement and criminal investigation purposes on military installations. Other sources of authority for Master - at - Arms include the Manual for Courts - Martial, United States Navy Regulations, internal directives from the Office of the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF), Office of the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV), the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), and local directives issued by the commanding officer.
I am a Master - at - Arms. I hold allegiance to my country, devotion to duty, and personal integrity above all. I wear my shield of authority with dignity and restraint, and promote by example high standards of conduct, appearance, courtesy and performance. I seek no favor because of my position. I perform my duties in a firm, courteous, and impartial manner. I strive to merit the respect of my shipmates and all with whom I come in contact.
According to the United States Navy Enlisted Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068F, it states that Master - at - Arms provide waterborne and land security, aircraft and flight line security, strategic weapons and cargo security, maritime security and platform protection; conduct customs operations, corrections operations, detainee operations, and protective service operations; perform force protection, physical security and law enforcement; organize and train personnel in force protection, physical security, law enforcement, and weapons proficiency; develop plans for physical security and force protection enhancement of Navy bases, installations, property, and personnel; and assist commands in conducting terrorist threat analysis and implementing defensive measures.
Master - at - arms perform criminal investigations, with some exceptions. In the Department of the Navy, felony criminal investigations for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps are conducted by federal civilian law enforcement agents of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, which also performs investigations in national security, counter-intelligence, and counter-terrorism. During drug interdiction operations on naval vessels, U.S. Navy personnel are augmented by the U.S. Coast Guard 's Law Enforcement Detachment under Title 10, United States Code (U.S.C.) § 379 to perform those law enforcement duties, because of the Posse Comitatus Act which prevents military personnel from being used to enforce state laws. This also limits the ability of enlisted MA personnel from assisting civilian police.
The duties of a master - at - arms vary from command to command. Most will primarily perform law enforcement and force protection duties, however, other types of duties are open to the rating depending on the command that they are assigned to. This can be in areas such as expeditionary warfare, special operations support, independent duty, GWOT individual augmentee, protective service detail assigned to a high - ranking official, or corrections. Master - at - arms may also serve outside of the rating, when approved by the community manager, such as in recruiting, recruit training, U.S. Embassy duty, assignment to NCIS or Afloat Training Group (ATG) as a trainer and evaluator, or to a flag or general officer 's Staff.
As the primary law enforcement organization on a naval installation, master - at - arms may perform their duties operating a patrol vehicle or RHIB; standing watch (or post) at a gate, pier or flight line as a fixed or roving sentry; conducting traffic enforcement; conducting interviews or interrogations; collecting evidence or securing a crime scene. Like any other law enforcement agency, there are also administrative duties performed by master - at - arms such as personnel management, training, inspections, records keeping, etc.
Personnel in the master - at - arms rating can also expect to see duties on board a variety of naval warships such as an aircraft carriers ' security force department; on a cruiser, destroyer, or aviation squadron as an independent duty master - at - arms; on board a naval shore or aviation installation in the United States or in overseas locations such as Bahrain and Diego Garcia, assigned to the security force or police departments; forward deployed to Iraq, Afghanistan or Africa on a GWOT IA assignment; or assigned to an expeditionary or naval special warfare unit. When assigned to these different types of units, master - at - arms are expected to achieve the same qualifications and watch stations, as the rest of the sailors assigned to that unit. This may include damage control, maintenance and material management, officer of the deck or petty officer of the watch or small boat coxswain. Overall, these specific qualifications are required of all sailors to complete their unit specific warfare qualifications, for example, enlisted surface warfare specialist or enlisted expeditionary warfare specialist.
According to early records, the U.S. Navy took its time about identifying ratings by the symbols so familiar on today 's naval uniforms. The master - at - arms, or police officer of the ship, wore the white five - pointed star of authority.
Prior to the 1980s, they were only distinguished from other sailors wearing the dungaree uniform, by wearing a brassard on their arm with the letters "MAA ''. Eventually, commands locally purchased and issued metal badges to masters - at - arms, similar to civilian law enforcement agencies. This, however, caused for badge inconsistencies throughout the Navy in terms of the size, color and description, when compared to the uniformity of the other services ' military police force. The period between the 1980s and 2010 saw the use of the woodland and desert camouflage utility uniform by master - at - arms throughout the Navy, with metal or cloth badges worn on the left breast pocket of the uniform, centered in the middle of the left pocket for men and 1 / 4 inch above the U.S. Navy tape (or warfare device) for women. The camouflage utility uniform for the Navy was exactly the same uniform worn by the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Army known as the battle dress uniform.
Today master - at - arms wear the same uniform worn throughout the fleet, the navy working uniform type I, with a "universal '' metal or cloth badge affixed to right side of the uniform, 1 / 4 inch above the name tape of the sailor, with no difference in position for gender. Masters - at - arms serving in a specific operational units may also be authorized to wear the navy working uniform type II (digital desert pattern) or the navy working uniform type III (digital woodland pattern). In these situations, the TYCOM, combatant commander, or unit commander for those units may issue specific orders to deviate from U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations.
Between 1885 and 1893, the master - at - arms was established as a first - class petty officer and wore a distinctive badge consisting of three stripes forming an arc over the three chevrons and specialty mark with an eagle perched on the arc. This would subsequently be used for the newly created rank of chief petty officer. The ship 's corporal was then authorized to wear a standard rating badge for petty officer 2nd class with the star as the specialty mark. The current rating badge, as authorized by BuPers Notice 1440 (May 4, 1973, effective August 1, 1973) and approved by the Secretary of the Navy on March 8, 1974 has been the current rating badge for the master - at - arms.
In October 2001, the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) designated the commander in chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANTFLT) as concurrent commander, U.S. Fleet Forces Command. This action was prompted by the recent terrorists ' attacks against the U.S. and the increased awareness among military official that the Navy 's force protection posture was in need of revision. Known today as U.S. Fleet Forces Command, its mission is to serve as the executive agent regarding all aspects of force protection for the fleet.
In November 2001, U.S. Fleet Forces Command established the Antiterrorism / Force Protection Warfare Development Center (ATFPWDC) in response to the rapid increase of fleet training needs in the realm of force protection. Known today as Center for Security Forces, its mission is to serve as the training authority for all aspects of force protection for the Navy.
Today, the Center for Security Forces provides specific training, sustainment and serves as the Subject Matter Expert (SME) in the area of Navy law enforcement, force protection, physical security, small arms weapons training, expeditionary warfare, code of conduct, and the Tactics, Techniques and Procedures (TTP) in those respective areas. Its mission is to develop and deliver force protection and NSF training to achieve war fighting superiority.
Below are the minimum requirements or standards, that an individual must be able to possess at application or conversion, and be able to maintain throughout their career as an MA. There would be no moral turpitude waivers granted for alcohol, drugs, indebtedness, or other circumstances, that would result in non-screening for the Personal Reliability Program (PRP), Security Clearance granting or overseas assignment.
Master - at - Arms "A '' school is located at Lackland AFB, San Antonio, Texas. MAs receive formal and specialized training managed by the staff and personnel assigned to the Center for Security Forces (CENSECFOR). Sailors graduating from "A '' School will have the basic knowledge in performing law enforcement duties and will be qualified to operate the M9 pistol, M4 / M16 rifle, M500 shotgun, expandable baton, Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) pepper spray, various restraining devices, and operating a patrol vehicle. MAs graduating from "A '' School will also possess basic knowledge in interview and interrogation techniques, report writing, use of force and rules of engagement doctrine, and military law.
Master - at - Arms perform a variety of duties that require specialize training, or "C '' Schools, that are completed immediately after "A '' School and throughout their career. Upon completion of the applicable "C '' School (s), a Master - at - Arms receives a Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) Code which is entered into their Electronic Training Jacket (ETJ). NECs are sometimes used in the detailing process for an enlisted Sailor when selecting orders to a new command.
Because of the multi-faceted duties of a master - at - arms, it is not uncommon for a master - at - arms to qualify in various small - arms and large caliber weapons throughout their career. Additionally, master - at - arms may be required to train and qualify in various non-lethal weapons. Typically, a rated master - at - arms will at a minimum maintain qualifications in the following weapons to perform their basic law enforcement duties:
In a naval unit task organized with a naval security force (NSF) department or detachment, masters - at - arms report to the commanding officer of the command, and are led by a security officer, in maintaining good order and discipline, enforcing rules and regulations, and protecting life and property. Security officers are commissioned naval officers in the limited duty officer or chief warrant officer community with the security occupational designators 649X and 749X. They may also be led by a Department of Defense (DoD) civilian employee who possess the necessary skills, training and / or experience to perform those duties.
Security Force enablers may also include personnel in the Emergency Management and Antiterrorism offices who support NSF functions, but report through a different chain of command.
Collectively, all personnel responsible for law enforcement and force protection for the U.S. Navy are designated as naval security force. This includes sailors in the master - at - arms rating, commissioned officers in the LDO and CWO field, DoD police officers, contracted guards, and sailors who have completed the required security force training. These "non-rated '' sailors are trained by masters - at - arms with the antiterrorism training supervisor skill set (NEC 9501) or by sailors assigned as instructors to the center for security forces learning sites. Some of the course curriculums required to be completed in order to perform NSF duties include Security Reaction Force -- Basic (SRF - B) and Security Reaction Force -- Advance (SRF - A). Non-rated sailors assigned to perform these duties will be designated as auxiliary security force (ASF) for shore installations, or in - port security force (ISF) for naval vessels.
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how are nations classified in terms of development | Developing country - wikipedia
A developing country (or a low and middle income country (LMIC), less developed country, less economically developed country (LEDC), or underdeveloped country) is a country with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category. A nation 's GDP per capita compared with other nations can also be a reference point.
The term "developing '' describes a currently observed situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of progress. Since the late 1990s, developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than developed countries. Developing countries include, in decreasing order of economic growth or size of the capital market: newly industrialized countries, emerging markets, frontier markets, least developed countries. Therefore, the least developed countries are the poorest of the developing countries.
Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common. For example, with regards to health risks, they commonly have: low levels of access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene; energy poverty; high levels of pollution (e.g. air pollution, indoor air pollution, water pollution); high proportion of people with tropical and infectious diseases (neglected tropical diseases); high number of road traffic accidents. Often, there is also widespread poverty, low education levels, inadequate access to family planning services, corruption at all government levels and a lack of so - called good governance. Effects of global warming (climate change) are expected to impact developing countries more than wealthier countries, as most of them have a high "climate vulnerability ''.
The Sustainable Development Goals, by the United Nations, were set up to help overcome many of these problems. Development aid or development cooperation is financial aid given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social and political development of developing countries.
The UN acknowledges that it has "no established convention for the designation of "developed '' and "developing '' countries or areas ". According to its so - called M49 standards, published in 1999:
The designations "developed '' and "developing '' are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process.
The UN implies that developing countries are those not on a tightly defined list of developed countries:
There is no established convention for the designation of "developed '' and "developing '' countries or areas in the United Nations system. In common practice, Japan in Asia, Canada and the United States in northern America, Australia and New Zealand in Oceania, and Europe are considered "developed '' regions or areas. In international trade statistics, the Southern African Customs Union is also treated as a developed region and Israel as a developed country; countries emerging from the former Yugoslavia are treated as developing countries; and countries of eastern Europe and of the Commonwealth of Independent States (the former Soviet Union) in Europe are not included under either developed or developing regions.
However, under other criteria, some countries are at an intermediate stage of development, or, as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) put it, following the fall of the Soviet Union, "countries in transition '': all those of Central and Eastern Europe (including Central European countries that still belonged to the "Eastern Europe Group '' in the UN institutions); the former Soviet Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan); and Mongolia. By 2009, the IMF 's World Economic Outlook classified countries as advanced, emerging, or developing, depending on "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification -- so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70 % of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system ''
Along with the current level of development, countries can also be classified by how much their level of development has changed over a specific period of time.
In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between "developed '' and "developing '' countries in the presentation of its data, considering the two - category distinction outdated. Instead, the World Bank classifies countries into four groups, based on Gross National Income per capita, re-set each year on July 1. In 2016, the four categories in US dollars were:
Kofi Annan, former Secretary General of the United Nations, defined a developed country as "one that allows all its citizens to enjoy a free and healthy life in a safe environment ''.
Development can be measured by economic or human factors. Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low standard of living. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The development of a country is measured with statistical indexes such as income per capita (per person), gross domestic product per capita, life expectancy, the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the Human Development Index (HDI), a compound indicator of some of the above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the world 's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth. These goals ended in 2015, to be superseded by the Sustainable Development Goals.
The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations -- for example, theories of decolonization, liberation theology, Marxism, anti-imperialism, modernization, social change and political economy.
Another important indicator is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50 % contribution from the secondary sector (manufacturing) have grown substantially. Similarly countries with a tertiary sector stronghold also see a greater rate of economic development.
There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging. Use of the term "market '' instead of "country '' usually indicates specific focus on the characteristics of the countries ' capital markets as opposed to the overall economy.
Developing countries can also be categorized by geography:
Other classifications include:
There is criticism for using the term "developing country ''. The term could imply inferiority of this kind of country compared with a developed country. It could assume a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan, choose not to follow. Alternative measurements such as gross national happiness have been suggested as important indicators.
The classification of countries as "developing '' implies that other countries are developed. This bipartite division is contentious.
To moderate the euphemistic aspect of the word "developing '', international organizations have started to use the term less economically developed country for the poorest nations -- which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. This highlights that the standard of living across the entire developing world varies greatly. Other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, underdeveloped nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, industrialized nations are the opposite end of the spectrum.
Over the past few decades since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the term Third World has been used interchangeably with developing countries, but the concept has become outdated in recent years as it no longer represents the current political or economic state of the world. The three - world model arose during the Cold War to define countries aligned with NATO (the First World), the Communist Bloc (the Second World, although this term was less used), or neither (the Third World). Strictly speaking, "Third World '' was a political, rather than an economic, grouping.
The term "Global South '' began to be used more widely since about 2004. It can also include poorer "southern '' regions of wealthy "northern '' countries. The Global South refers to these countries ' "interconnected histories of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained ''.
Most developing countries have these criteria in common:
According to UN-Habitat, around 33 % of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in slums. In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62 %), followed by South Asia (35 %), Southeast Asia (31 %) and East Asia (28 %).
The UN-Habitat reports that 43 % of urban population in developing countries and 78 % of those in the least developed countries are slum dwellers.
Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Causes include rapid rural - to - urban migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated ghettoization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts. For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people are moving to cities in an extensive urban migration that is resulting in the creation of slums.
In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and sub-Saharan, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities ''.
Several forms of violence against women are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.
Female genital mutilation is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98 per cent of women affected), Guinea (96 per cent), Djibouti (93 per cent), Egypt (91 per cent), Eritrea (89 per cent), Mali (89 per cent), Sierra Leone (88 per cent), Sudan (88 per cent), Gambia (76 per cent), Burkina Faso (76 per cent), and Ethiopia (74 per cent). Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa and Middle East, to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.
The Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38). As of 2016, FGM has been legally banned in many African countries.
People in developing countries usually have a lower life expectancy than people in developed countries.
Undernutrition is more common in developing countries. Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women -- in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding -- children under five years of age, and the elderly. Malnutrition in children and stunted growth of children is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential. About 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013. In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition.
The following list shows the further significant environmentally - related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component:
Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities '' while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. The majority of these people live in developing countries.
About 892 million people, or 12 per cent of the global population, practiced open defecation instead of using toilets in 2016. Seventy - six per cent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries. India is the country with the highest number of people practicing open defecation. Further countries with a high number of people openly defecating are Nigeria (47 million), followed by Indonesia (31 million), Ethiopia (27 million), Pakistan (23 million), Niger (14 million) and Sudan (11 million).
Sustainable Development Goal 6 is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries.
In 2009, about 1.4 billion of people in the world lived without electricity, and 2.7 billion relied on wood, charcoal, and dung (dry animal dung fuel) for home energy requirements. This lack of access to modern energy technology limits income generation, blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people 's health, and contributes to global deforestation and climate change. Small - scale renewable energy technologies and distributed energy options, such as onsite solar power and improved cookstoves, offer rural households modern energy services.
Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.
Renewable energy can directly contribute to poverty alleviation by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting.
Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita.
Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard. A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass. Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass in the form of wood, charcoal, dung, and crop residue, as their domestic cooking fuel. Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks.
Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa. An earlier estimate from 2000 but the death toll between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths.
Finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of indoor air pollution is complex. Strategies include improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability.
Water pollution is a major problem in many developing countries. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily.
India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness (including waterborne diseases) every day. About 90 per cent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.
Further details of water pollution in several countries, including many developing countries:
The effects of global warming such as extreme weather events, droughts, floods, biodiversity loss, disease and sea level rise are dangerous for humans and the environment. Developing countries are the least able to adapt to climate change (and are therefore called "highly climate vulnerable '') due to their relatively low levels of wealth, technology, education, infrastructure and access to resources. This applies to many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa or Small Island Developing States. Some of those island states are likely to face total inundation. Fragile states or failed states like Afghanistan, Haiti, Myanmar, Sierra Leone, and Somalia are among the worst affected.
Climate vulnerability has been quantified in the Climate Vulnerability Monitor reports of 2010 and 2012. Climate vulnerability in developing countries occurs in four impact areas: health, extreme weather, habitat loss, and economic stress. A report by the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2012 estimated that climate change causes 400,000 deaths on average each year, mainly due to hunger and communicable diseases in developing countries. These effects are most severe for the world 's poorest countries.
A changing climate also results in economic burdens. The economies in Least Developed Countries have lost an average of 7 % of their gross domestic product for the year 2010, mainly due to reduced labor productivity. Rising sea levels cost 1 % of GDP to the least developed countries in 2010 -- 4 % in the Pacific -- with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the world economy. Another example is the impact on fisheries: approximately 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the impact of greenhouse gas emissions on fisheries. Developing countries with large fisheries sectors are particularly affected.
In many cases, developing countries produce only small quantities of greenhouse gas emissions per capita but are very vulnerable to the negative effects of global warming. Such countries include Comoros, The Gambia, Guinea - Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu - they have been called "forced riders '' as opposed to the "free riders ''. Internationally there is recognition of this issue, which is known under the term "climate justice ''. It has been a key topic at the United Nations Climate Change Conferences (COP).
During the Cancún COP16 in 2010, donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming. Emmanuel Macron (President of France) said at the 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bonn (COP 23): "Climate change adds further injustice to an already unfair world ''.
Climate stress is likely to add to existing migration patterns in developing countries and beyond but is not expected to generate entirely new flows of people. A report by World Bank in 2018 estimated that around 143 million people in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America) could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow - onset impacts of climate change. They will migrate from less viable areas with lower water availability and crop productivity and from areas affected by rising sea level and storm surges.
Economic development and climate are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, gender equality, and energy. Tackling climate change will only be possible if the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are met (goal number 13 is on climate action).
Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been driven by developing countries, which often have higher birth rates (higher fertility rate) than developed countries. According to the United Nations, family planning can help to slow population growth and decrease poverty in these countries.
The following are considered developing economies according to the International Monetary Fund 's World Economic Outlook Database, April 2018.
Countries not listed by IMF
The following, including the Four Asian Tigers and new Eurozone European countries, were considered developing countries and regions until the ' 90s, and are now listed as advanced economies (developed countries and regions) by the IMF. Time in brackets is the time to be listed as advanced economies.
Three economies lack data before being listed as advanced economies. Because of the lack of data, it is difficult to judge whether they were advanced economies or developing economies before being listed as advanced economies.
Five countries belong to the "emerging markets '' groups and are together called the BRICS countries:
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what programming language is used in microsoft access | Microsoft Access - wikipedia
Microsoft Access is a database management system (DBMS) from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software - development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications, included in the Professional and higher editions or sold separately.
Microsoft Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.
Software developers, data architects and power users can use Microsoft Access to develop application software. Like other Microsoft Office applications, Access is supported by Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), an object - based programming language that can reference a variety of objects including DAO (Data Access Objects), ActiveX Data Objects, and many other ActiveX components. Visual objects used in forms and reports expose their methods and properties in the VBA programming environment, and VBA code modules may declare and call Windows operating system operations.
Microsoft 's first attempt to sell a relational database product was during the mid 1980s, when Microsoft obtained the license to sell R: Base. In the late 1980s Microsoft developed its own solution codenamed Omega. It was confirmed in 1988 that a database product for Windows and OS / 2 was in development. It was going to include the "EB '' Embedded Basic language, which was going to be the language for writing macros in all Microsoft applications, but the unification of macro languages did not happen until the introduction of Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). Omega was also expected to provide a front end to the Microsoft SQL Server. The application was very resource - hungry, and there were reports that it was working slowly on the 386 processors that were available at the time. It was scheduled to be released in the 1st quarter of 1990, but in 1989 the development of the product was reset and it was rescheduled to be delivered no sooner than in January 1991. Parts of the project were later used for other Microsoft projects: Cirrus (codename for Access) and Thunder (codename for Visual Basic, where the Embedded Basic engine was used). After Access 's premiere, the Omega project was demonstrated in 1992 to several journalists and included features that were not available in Access.
After the Omega project was scrapped, some of its developers were assigned to the Cirrus project (most were assigned to the team which created Visual Basic). Its goal was to create a competitor for applications like Paradox or dBase that would work on Windows. After Microsoft acquired FoxPro, there were rumors that the Microsoft project might get replaced with it, but the company decided to develop them in parallel. It was assumed that the project would make use of Extensible Storage Engine (Jet Blue) but, in the end, only support for Microsoft Jet Database Engine (Jet Red) was provided. The project used some of the code from both the Omega project and a pre-release version of Visual Basic. In July 1992, betas of Cirrus shipped to developers and the name Access became the official name of the product.
1992: Microsoft released Access version 1.0 on November 13, 1992, and an Access 1.1 release in May 1993 to improve compatibility with other Microsoft products and to include the Access Basic programming language.
1994: Microsoft specified the minimum hardware requirements for Access v2. 0 as: Microsoft Windows v3. 1 with 4 MB of RAM required, 6 MB RAM recommended; 8 MB of available hard disk space required, 14 MB hard disk space recommended. The product shipped on seven 1.44 MB diskettes. The manual shows a 1994 copyright date.
With Office 95, Microsoft Access 7.0 (a.k.a. "Access 95 '') became part of the Microsoft Office Professional Suite, joining Microsoft Excel, Word, and PowerPoint and transitioning from Access Basic to VBA. Since then, Microsoft has released new versions of Microsoft Access with each release of Microsoft Office. This includes Access 97 (version 8.0), Access 2000 (version 9.0), Access 2002 (version 10.0), Access 2003 (version 11.5), Access 2007 (version 12.0), Access 2010 (version 14.0), and Access 2013 (version 15.0).
Versions 3.0 and 3.5 of Microsoft Jet database engine (used by Access 7.0 and the later - released Access 97 respectively) had a critical issue which made these versions of Access unusable on a computer with more than 1 GB of memory. While Microsoft fixed this problem for Jet 3.5 / Access 97 post-release, it never fixed the issue with Jet 3.0 / Access 95.
The native Access database format (the Jet MDB Database) has also evolved over the years. Formats include Access 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 7.0, 97, 2000, 2002, and 2007. The most significant transition was from the Access 97 to the Access 2000 format; which is not backward compatible with earlier versions of Access. As of 2011 all newer versions of Access support the Access 2000 format. New features were added to the Access 2002 format which can be used by Access 2002, 2003, 2007, and 2010.
Microsoft Access 2000 increased the maximum database size to 2GB from 1GB in Access 97.
Microsoft Access 2007 introduced a new database format: ACCDB. It supports links to SharePoint lists and complex data types such as multivalue and attachment fields. These new field types are essentially recordsets in fields and allow the storage of multiple values or files in one field. Microsoft Access 2007 also introduced File Attachment field, which stored data more efficiently than the OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) field.
Microsoft Access 2010 introduced a new version of the ACCDB format supported hosting Access Web solutions on a SharePoint 2010 server. For the first time, this allowed Access solutions to be run without having to install Access on their PC and was the first support of Mac users. Any user on the SharePoint site with sufficient rights could use the Access Web solution. A copy of Access was still required for the developer to create the Access Web solution, and the desktop version of Access remained part of Access 2010. The Access Web solutions were not the same as the desktop solutions. Automation was only through the macro language (not VBA) which Access automatically converted to JavaScript. The data was no longer in an Access database but SharePoint lists. An Access desktop database could link to the SharePoint data, so hybrid applications were possible so that SharePoint users needing basic views and edits could be supported while the more sophisticated, traditional solutions could remain in the desktop Access database.
Microsoft Access 2013 offers traditional Access desktop solutions plus a significantly updated SharePoint 2013 web solution. The Access Web model in Access 2010 was replaced by a new architecture that stores its data in actual SQL Server databases. Unlike SharePoint lists, this offers true relational database design with referential integrity, scalability, extensibility and performance one would expect from SQL Server. The database solutions that can be created on SharePoint 2013 offer a modern user interface designed to display multiple levels of relationships that can be viewed and edited, along with resizing for different devices and support for touch. The Access 2013 desktop is similar to Access 2010 but several features were discontinued including support for Access Data Projects (ADPs), pivot tables, pivot charts, Access data collections, source code control, replication, and other legacy features. Access desktop database maximum size remained 2GB (as it has been since the 2000 version).
Prior to the introduction of Access, Borland (with Paradox and dBase) and Fox (with FoxPro) dominated the desktop database market. Microsoft Access was the first mass - market database program for Windows. With Microsoft 's purchase of FoxPro in 1992 and the incorporation of Fox 's Rushmore query optimization routines into Access, Microsoft Access quickly became the dominant database for Windows - effectively eliminating the competition which failed to transition from the MS - DOS world.
Access 's initial codename was Cirrus; the forms engine was called Ruby. This was before Visual Basic. Bill Gates saw the prototypes and decided that the BASIC language component should be co-developed as a separate expandable application, a project called Thunder. The two projects were developed separately.
Access was also the name of a communications program from Microsoft, meant to compete with ProComm and other programs. This proved a failure and was dropped. Years later, Microsoft reused the name for its database software.
In addition to using its own database storage file, Microsoft Access also may be used as the ' front - end ' of a program while other products act as the ' back - end ' tables, such as Microsoft SQL Server and non-Microsoft products such as Oracle and Sybase. Multiple backend sources can be used by a Microsoft Access Jet Database (ACCDB and MDB formats). Similarly, some applications such as Visual Basic, ASP.NET, or Visual Studio. NET will use the Microsoft Access database format for its tables and queries. Microsoft Access may also be part of a more complex solution, where it may be integrated with other technologies such as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Outlook, Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint and ActiveX controls.
Access tables support a variety of standard field types, indices, and referential integrity including cascading updates and deletes. Access also includes a query interface, forms to display and enter data, and reports for printing. The underlying Jet database, which contains these objects, is multi-user and handles record - locking.
Repetitive tasks can be automated through macros with point - and - click options. It is also easy to place a database on a network and have multiple users share and update data without overwriting each other 's work. Data is locked at the record level which is significantly different from Excel which locks the entire spreadsheet.
There are template databases within the program and for download from Microsoft 's website. These options are available upon starting Access and allow users to enhance a database with predefined tables, queries, forms, reports, and macros. Database templates support VBA code but Microsoft 's templates do not include VBA code.
Programmers can create solutions using VBA, which is similar to Visual Basic 6.0 (VB6) and used throughout the Microsoft Office programs such as Excel, Word, Outlook and PowerPoint. Most VB6 code, including the use of Windows API calls, can be used in VBA. Power users and developers can extend basic end - user solutions to a professional solution with advanced automation, data validation, error trapping, and multi-user support.
The number of simultaneous users that can be supported depends on the amount of data, the tasks being performed, level of use, and application design. Generally accepted limits are solutions with 1 GB or less of data (Access supports up to 2 GB) and it performs quite well with 100 or fewer simultaneous connections (255 concurrent users are supported). This capability is often a good fit for department solutions. If using an Access database solution in a multi-user scenario, the application should be "split ''. This means that the tables are in one file called the back end (typically stored on a shared network folder) and the application components (forms, reports, queries, code, macros, linked tables) are in another file called the front end. The linked tables in the front end point to the back end file. Each user of the Access application would then receive his or her own copy of the front end file.
Applications that run complex queries or analysis across large datasets would naturally require greater bandwidth and memory. Microsoft Access is designed to scale to support more data and users by linking to multiple Access databases or using a back - end database like Microsoft SQL Server. With the latter design, the amount of data and users can scale to enterprise - level solutions.
Microsoft Access 's role in web development prior to version 2010 is limited. User interface features of Access, such as forms and reports, only work in Windows. In versions 2000 through 2003 an Access object type called Data Access Pages created publishable web pages. Data Access Pages are no longer supported. The Microsoft Jet Database Engine, core to Access, can be accessed through technologies such as ODBC or OLE DB. The data (i.e., tables and queries) can be accessed by web - based applications developed in ASP.NET, PHP, or Java. With the use of Microsoft 's Terminal Services and Remote Desktop Application in Windows Server 2008 R2, organizations can host Access applications so they can be run over the web. This technique does not scale the way a web application would but is appropriate for a limited number of users depending on the configuration of the host.
Access 2010 allows databases to be published to SharePoint 2010 web sites running Access Services. These web - based forms and reports run in any modern web browser. The resulting web forms and reports, when accessed via a web browser, do n't require any add - ins or extensions (e.g. ActiveX, Silverlight).
Access 2013 can create web applications directly in SharePoint 2013 sites running Access Services. Access 2013 web solutions store its data in an underlying SQL Server database which is much more scalable and robust than the Access 2010 version which used SharePoint lists to store its data.
A compiled version of an Access database (File extensions:. MDE / ACCDE or. ADE; ACCDE only works with Access 2007 or later) can be created to prevent user from accessing the design surfaces to modify module code, forms, and reports. An MDE or ADE file is a Microsoft Access database file with all modules compiled and all editable source code removed. Both the. MDE and. ADE versions of an Access database are used when end - user modifications are not allowed or when the application 's source code should be kept confidential.
Microsoft also offers developer extensions for download to help distribute Access 2007 applications, create database templates, and integrate source code control with Microsoft Visual SourceSafe.
Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports, and connect them together with macros. Advanced users can use VBA to write rich solutions with advanced data manipulation and user control. Access also has report creation features that can work with any data source that Access can access.
The original concept of Access was for end users to be able to access data from any source. Other features include: the import and export of data to many formats including Excel, Outlook, ASCII, dBase, Paradox, FoxPro, SQL Server and Oracle. It also has the ability to link to data in its existing location and use it for viewing, querying, editing, and reporting. This allows the existing data to change while ensuring that Access uses the latest data. It can perform heterogeneous joins between data sets stored across different platforms. Access is often used by people downloading data from enterprise level databases for manipulation, analysis, and reporting locally.
There is also the Jet Database format (MDB or ACCDB in Access 2007) which can contain the application and data in one file. This makes it very convenient to distribute the entire application to another user, who can run it in disconnected environments.
One of the benefits of Access from a programmer 's perspective is its relative compatibility with SQL (structured query language) -- queries can be viewed graphically or edited as SQL statements, and SQL statements can be used directly in Macros and VBA Modules to manipulate Access tables. Users can mix and use both VBA and "Macros '' for programming forms and logic and offers object - oriented possibilities. VBA can also be included in queries.
Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and. NET through DAO or ADO. From Microsoft Access, VBA can reference parameterized stored procedures via ADO.
The desktop editions of Microsoft SQL Server can be used with Access as an alternative to the Jet Database Engine. This support started with MSDE (Microsoft SQL Server Desktop Engine), a scaled down version of Microsoft SQL Server 2000, and continues with the SQL Server Express versions of SQL Server 2005 and 2008.
Microsoft Access is a file server - based database. Unlike client -- server relational database management systems (RDBMS), Microsoft Access does not implement database triggers, stored procedures, or transaction logging. Access 2010 includes table - level triggers and stored procedures built into the ACE data engine. Thus a Client - server database system is not a requirement for using stored procedures or table triggers with Access 2010. Tables, queries, forms, reports and macros can now be developed specifically for web base application in Access 2010. Integration with Microsoft SharePoint 2010 is also highly improved.
The 2013 edition of Microsoft Access introduced a mostly flat design and the ability to install apps from the Office Store, but it did not introduce new features. The theme was partially updated again for 2016, but no dark theme was created for Access.
ASP.NET web forms can query a Microsoft Access database, retrieve records and display them on the browser.
SharePoint Server 2010 via Access Services allows for Access 2010 databases to be published to SharePoint, thus enabling multiple users to interact with the database application from any standards - compliant Web browser. Access Web databases published to SharePoint Server can use standard objects such as tables, queries, forms, macros, and reports. Access Services stores those objects in SharePoint.
Access 2013 offers the ability to publish Access web solutions on SharePoint 2013. Rather than using SharePoint lists as its data source, Access 2013 uses an actual SQL Server database hosted by SharePoint or SQL Azure. This offers a true relational database with referential integrity, scalability, maintainability, and extensibility compared to the SharePoint views Access 2010 used. The macro language is enhanced to support more sophisticated programming logic and database level automation.
Microsoft Access can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases. Microsoft Office Access 2007 and newer can import from or link to:
Microsoft offers free runtime versions of Microsoft Access which allow users to run an Access desktop application without needing to purchase or install a retail version of Microsoft Access. This allows Access developers to create databases that can be freely distributed to an unlimited number of end - users. These runtime versions of Access 2007 and later can be downloaded for free from Microsoft. The runtime versions for Access 2003 and earlier were part of the Office Developer Extensions / Toolkit and required a separate purchase.
The runtime version allows users to view, edit and delete data, along with running queries, forms, reports, macros and VBA module code. The runtime version does not allow users to change the design of Microsoft Access tables, queries, forms, reports, macros or module code. The runtime versions are similar to their corresponding full version of Access and usually compatible with earlier versions; for example Access Runtime 2010 allows a user to run an Access application made with the 2010 version as well as 2007 through 2000. Due to deprecated features in Access 2013, its runtime version is also unable to support those older features. During development one can simulate the runtime environment from the fully functional version by using the / runtime command line option.
Access stores all database tables, queries, forms, reports, macros, and modules in the Access Jet database as a single file.
For query development, Access offers a "Query Designer '', a graphical user interface that allows users to build queries without knowledge of structured query language. In the Query Designer, users can "show '' the datasources of the query (which can be tables or queries) and select the fields they want returned by clicking and dragging them into the grid. One can set up joins by clicking and dragging fields in tables to fields in other tables. Access allows users to view and manipulate the SQL code if desired. Any Access table, including linked tables from different data sources, can be used in a query.
Access also supports the creation of "pass - through queries ''. These snippets of SQL code can address external data sources through the use of ODBC connections on the local machine. This enables users to interact with data stored outside the Access program without using linked tables or Jet. Users construct the pass - through queries using the SQL syntax supported by the external data source.
When developing reports (in "Design View '') additions or changes to controls cause any linked queries to execute in the background and the designer is forced to wait for records to be returned before being able to make another change. This feature can not be turned off.
Non-programmers can use the macro feature to automate simple tasks through a series of drop - down selections. Macros allow users to easily chain commands together such as running queries, importing or exporting data, opening and closing forms, previewing and printing reports, etc. Macros support basic logic (IF - conditions) and the ability to call other macros. Macros can also contain sub-macros which are similar to subroutines. In Access 2007, enhanced macros included error - handling and support for temporary variables. Access 2007 also introduced embedded macros that are essentially properties of an object 's event. This eliminated the need to store macros as individual objects. However, macros were limited in their functionality by a lack of programming loops and advanced coding logic until Access 2013. With significant further enhancements introduced in Access 2013, the capabilities of macros became fully comparable to VBA. They made feature rich web - based application deployments practical, via a greatly enhanced Microsoft SharePoint interface and tools, as well as on traditional Windows desktops.
In common with other products in the Microsoft Office suite, the other programming language used in Access is Microsoft VBA. It is similar to Visual Basic 6.0 (VB6) and code can be stored in modules, classes, and code behind forms and reports. To create a richer, more efficient and maintainable finished product with good error handling, most professional Access applications are developed using the VBA programming language rather than macros, except where web deployment is a business requirement.
To manipulate data in tables and queries in VBA or macros, Microsoft provides two database access libraries of COM components:
As well as DAO and ADO, developers can also use OLE DB and ODBC for developing native C / C++ programs for Access. For ADPs and the direct manipulation of SQL Server data, ADO is required. DAO is most appropriate for managing data in Access / Jet databases, and the only way to manipulate the complex field types in ACCDB tables.
In the database container or navigation pane in Access 2007 and later versions, the system automatically categorizes each object by type (e.g., table, query, macro). Many Access developers use the Leszynski naming convention, though this is not universal; it is a programming convention, not a DBMS - enforced rule. It is particularly helpful in VBA where references to object names may not indicate its data type (e.g. tbl for tables, qry for queries).
Developers deploy Microsoft Access most often for individual and workgroup projects (the Access 97 speed characterization was done for 32 users). Since Access 97, and with Access 2003 and 2007, Microsoft Access and hardware have evolved significantly. Databases under 1 GB in size (which can now fit entirely in RAM) and 200 simultaneous users are well within the capabilities of Microsoft Access. Of course, performance depends on the database design and tasks. Disk - intensive work such as complex searching and querying take the most time.
As data from a Microsoft Access database can be cached in RAM, processing speed may substantially improve when there is only a single user or if the data is not changing. In the past, the effect of packet latency on the record - locking system caused Access databases to run slowly on a virtual private network (VPN) or a wide area network (WAN) against a Jet database. As of 2010 broadband connections have mitigated this issue. Performance can also be enhanced if a continuous connection is maintained to the back - end database throughout the session rather than opening and closing it for each table access. If Access database performance over VPN or WAN suffers, then a client using Remote Desktop Protocol (such as Microsoft Terminal Services) can provide an effective solution. Access databases linked to SQL Server or to Access Data Projects work well over VPNs and WANs.
In July 2011, Microsoft acknowledged an intermittent query performance problem with all versions of Access and Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 due to the nature of resource management being vastly different in newer operating systems. This issue severely affects query performance on both Access 2003 and earlier with the Jet Database Engine code, as well as Access 2007 and later with the Access Database Engine (ACE). Microsoft has issued hotfixes KB2553029 for Access 2007 and KB2553116 for Access 2010, but will not fix the issue with Jet 4.0 as it is out of mainstream support.
In earlier versions of Microsoft Access, the ability to distribute applications required the purchase of the Developer Toolkit; in Access 2007, 2010 and Access 2013 the "Runtime Only '' version is offered as a free download, making the distribution of royalty - free applications possible on Windows XP, Vista, 7 and Windows 8. x.
Microsoft Access applications can adopt a split - database architecture. The single database can be divided into a separate "back - end '' file that contains the data tables (shared on a file server) and a "front - end '' (containing the application 's objects such as queries, forms, reports, macros, and modules). The "front - end '' Access application is distributed to each user 's desktop and linked to the shared database. Using this approach, each user has a copy of Microsoft Access (or the runtime version) installed on their machine along with their application database. This reduces network traffic since the application is not retrieved for each use. The "front - end '' database can still contain local tables for storing a user 's settings or temporary data. This split - database design also allows development of the application independent of the data. One disadvantage is that users may make various changes to their own local copy of the application and this makes it hard to manage version control. When a new version is ready, the front - end database is replaced without impacting the data database. Microsoft Access has two built - in utilities, Database Splitter and Linked Table Manager, to facilitate this architecture.
Linked tables in Access use absolute paths rather than relative paths, so the development environment either has to have the same path as the production environment or a "dynamic - linker '' routine can be written in VBA.
For very large Access databases, this may have performance issues and a SQL backend should be considered in these circumstances. This is less of an issue if the entire database can fit in the PC 's RAM since Access caches data and indexes.
To scale Access applications to enterprise or web solutions, one possible technique involves migrating to Microsoft SQL Server or equivalent server database. A client -- server design significantly reduces maintenance and increases security, availability, stability, and transaction logging.
Access 2010 included a feature called the Upsizing Wizard that allowed users to upgrade their databases to Microsoft SQL Server, an ODBC client -- server database. This feature was removed from Access 2013. An additional solution, the SQL Server Migration Assistant for Access (SSMA), continues to be available for free download from Microsoft.
A variety of upgrading options are available. After migrating the data and queries to SQL Server, the Access database can be linked to the SQL database. However, certain data types are problematic, most notably "Yes / No ''. In Microsoft Access there are three states for the Yes / No (True / False) data type: empty, no / false (zero) and yes / true (- 1). The corresponding SQL Server data type is binary, with only two states, permissible values, zero and 1. Regardless, SQL Server is still the easiest migration, and most appropriate especially if the user does not have rights to create objects such as stored procedures on SQL Server. Retrieving data from linked tables is optimized to just the records needed, but this scenario may operate less efficiently than what would otherwise be optimal for SQL Server. For example, in instances where multi-table joins still require copying the whole table across the network.
In previous versions of Access, including Access 2010, databases can also be converted to Access Data Projects (ADP) which are tied directly to one SQL Server database. This feature was removed from Access 2013. ADP 's support the ability to directly create and modify SQL Server objects such as tables, views, stored procedures, and SQL Server constraints. The views and stored procedures can significantly reduce the network traffic for multi-table joins. Fortunately, SQL Server supports temporary tables and links to other data sources beyond the single SQL Server database.
Finally, some Access databases are completely replaced by another technology such as ASP.NET or Java once the data is converted. However any migration may dictate major effort since the Access SQL language is a more powerful superset of standard SQL. Further, Access application procedures, whether VBA and macros, are written at a relatively higher level versus the currently available alternatives that are both robust and comprehensive. Note that the Access macro language, allowing an even higher level of abstraction than VBA, was significantly enhanced in Access 2010 and again in Access 2013.
In many cases, developers build direct web - to - data interfaces using ASP.NET, while keeping major business automation processes, administrative and reporting functions that do n't need to be distributed to everyone in Access for information workers to maintain.
While all Access data can migrate to SQL Server directly, some queries can not migrate successfully. In some situations, you may need to translate VBA functions and user defined functions into T -- SQL or. NET functions / procedures. Crosstab queries can be migrated to SQL Server using the PIVOT command.
Microsoft Access applications can be made secure by various methods, the most basic being password access control; this is a relatively weak form of protection.
A higher level of protection is the use of workgroup security requiring a user name and password. Users and groups can be specified along with their rights at the object type or individual object level. This can be used to specify people with read - only or data entry rights but may be challenging to specify. A separate workgroup security file contains the settings which can be used to manage multiple databases. Workgroup security is not supported in the Access 2007 and Access 2010 ACCDB database format, although Access 2007 and Access 2010 still support it for MDB databases.
Databases can also be encrypted. The ACCDB format offers significantly advanced encryption from previous versions.
Additionally, if the database design needs to be secured to prevent changes, Access databases can be locked / protected (and the source code compiled) by converting the database to a. MDE file. All changes to the VBA project (modules, forms, or reports) need to be made to the original MDB and then reconverted to MDE. In Access 2007 and Access 2010, the ACCDB database is converted to an ACCDE file. Some tools are available for unlocking and "decompiling '', although certain elements including original VBA comments and formatting are normally irretrievable.
Microsoft Access saves information under the following file formats:
There are no Access versions between 2.0 and 7.0 because the Office 95 version was launched with Word 7. All of the Office 95 products have OLE 2 capabilities, and Access 7 shows that it was compatible with Word 7.
Version number 13 was skipped.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On - line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing '' terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
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why do they call maryland the free state | Maryland - Wikipedia
Motto (s): Fatti maschii, parole femine (English: Strong Deeds, Gentle Words)
Maryland (/ ˈmɛrɪlənd / (listen)) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia, and Washington, D.C. to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware to its east. The state 's largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, and the Chesapeake Bay State. The state is named after the English queen Henrietta Maria of France.
One of the original Thirteen Colonies, Maryland is considered to be the birthplace of religious freedom in America, when it was formed by George Calvert in the early 17th century as an intended refuge for persecuted Catholics from England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the then - Maryland colonial grant. Maryland was the seventh state to ratify the United States Constitution, and played a pivotal role in the founding of Washington, D.C., which was established on land donated by the state.
Maryland is one of the smallest U.S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, with around six million residents. As of 2009, Maryland had the highest median household income of any state, owing in large part to its close proximity to the nation 's capital and a highly diversified economy spanning manufacturing, services, and biotechnology.
Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles (32,133.2 km) and is comparable in overall area with Belgium (11,787 square miles (30,530 km)). It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii (10,930.98 square miles (28,311.1 km)), the next smallest state. The next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland (24,229.76 square miles (62,754.8 km)).
Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. It ranges from sandy dunes dotted with seagrass in the east, to low marshlands teeming with wildlife and large bald cypress near the Chesapeake Bay, to gently rolling hills of oak forests in the Piedmont Region, and pine groves in the Maryland mountains to the west.
Maryland is bounded on its north by Pennsylvania, on its west by West Virginia, on its east by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean, and on its south, across the Potomac River, by West Virginia and Virginia. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D.C., which sits on land that was originally part of Montgomery and Prince George 's counties and including the town of Georgetown, Maryland. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia. (The Commonwealth of Virginia gave land south of the Potomac, including the town of Alexandria, Virginia, however Virginia retroceded its portion in 1846). The Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore.
Most of the state 's waterways are part of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, with the exceptions of a tiny portion of extreme western Garrett County (drained by the Youghiogheny River as part of the watershed of the Mississippi River), the eastern half of Worcester County (which drains into Maryland 's Atlantic coastal bays), and a small portion of the state 's northeast corner (which drains into the Delaware River watershed). So prominent is the Chesapeake in Maryland 's geography and economic life that there has been periodic agitation to change the state 's official nickname to the "Bay State '', a nickname that has been used by Massachusetts for decades.
The highest point in Maryland, with an elevation of 3,360 feet (1,020 m), is Hoye Crest on Backbone Mountain, in the southwest corner of Garrett County, near the border with West Virginia, and near the headwaters of the North Branch of the Potomac River. Close to the small town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two - thirds of the way across the state, there are 1.83 miles (2.95 km) between its borders. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason -- Dixon line to the north, and the northwards - arching Potomac River to the south.
Portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. For example, the Delmarva Peninsula is composed of the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, the entire state of Delaware, and the two counties that make up the Eastern Shore of Virginia, whereas the westernmost counties of Maryland are considered part of Appalachia. Much of the Baltimore -- Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, though it straddles the border between the two regions.
Earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the state 's distance from seismic / earthquake zones. The M 5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland. Buildings in the state are not well - designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily.
The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Maryland 's natural lakes, yet the oft - repeated claim that Maryland is the only state without natural lakes is not true. Laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one - hundred - year - old 55 - acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. "Chews Lake '' is a seven - acre natural lake two miles south - southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous man - made lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake, a reservoir in Garrett County in westernmost Maryland.
Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible.
As is typical of states on the East Coast, Maryland 's plant life is abundant and healthy. A good dose of annual precipitation helps to support many types of plants, including seagrass and various reeds at the smaller end of the spectrum to the gigantic Wye Oak, a huge example of white oak, the state tree, which can grow in excess of 70 feet (21 m) tall.
Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay and on the Delmarva Peninsula. Moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state. The Appalachian Mountains of western Maryland are home to Appalachian - Blue Ridge forests. These give way to Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests near the West Virginia border.
Many foreign species are cultivated in the state, some as ornamentals, others as novelty species. Included among these are the crape myrtle, Italian cypress, southern magnolia, live oak in the warmer parts of the state, and even hardy palm trees in the warmer central and eastern parts of the state. USDA plant hardiness zones in the state range from Zones 5 and 6 in the extreme western part of the state to Zone 7 in the central part, and Zone 8 around the southern part of the coast, the bay area, and parts of metropolitan Baltimore. Invasive plant species, such as kudzu, tree of heaven, multiflora rose, and Japanese stiltgrass, stifle growth of endemic plant life. Maryland 's state flower, the black - eyed susan, grows in abundance in wild flower groups throughout the state. The state insect, the Baltimore checkerspot butterfly, is not common as it is near the southern edge of its range. 435 species of birds have been reported from Maryland.
The state harbors a great number of white tailed deer, especially in the woody and mountainous west of the state, and overpopulation can become a problem from year to year. Mammals can be found ranging from the mountains in the west to the central areas and include black bears, bobcats, foxes, coyotes, raccoons, and otters.
There is a population of rare wild (feral) horses found on Assateague Island. They are believed to be descended from horses who escaped from shipwrecks. Every year during the last week of July, they are captured and waded across a shallow bay for sale at Chincoteague, Virginia, a conservation technique which ensures the tiny island is not overrun by the horses. The ponies and their sale were popularized by the children 's book, Misty of Chincoteague.
The purebred Chesapeake Bay Retriever dog was bred specifically for water sports, hunting and search and rescue in the Chesapeake area. In 1878 the Chesapeake Bay Retriever was the first individual retriever breed recognized by the American Kennel Club. and was later adopted by the University of Maryland, Baltimore County as their mascot.
Maryland 's reptile and amphibian population includes the diamondback terrapin turtle, which was adopted as the mascot of University of Maryland, College Park. The state is part of the territory of the Baltimore oriole, which is the official state bird and mascot of the MLB team the Baltimore Orioles.
Maryland joined with neighboring states during the end of the 20th century to improve the health of the Chesapeake Bay. The bay 's aquatic life and seafood industry have been threatened by development and by fertilizer and livestock waste entering the bay.
In 2007, Forbes.com rated Maryland as the fifth "Greenest '' state in the country behind three of the Pacific States and Vermont. Maryland ranks 40th in total energy consumption nationwide, and it managed less toxic waste per capita than all but six states in 2005. In April 2007 Maryland joined the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) -- a regional initiative formed by all of the Northeastern states, Washington D.C., and three Canadian provinces to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In March 2017, Maryland became the first state with proven gas reserves to ban fracking by passing a law against it. Vermont has such a law, but no shale gas, and New York has such a ban, though it was made by executive order.
Maryland has a wide array of climates, due to local variances in elevation, proximity to water, and protection from colder weather due to downslope winds.
The eastern half of Maryland -- which includes the cities of Ocean City, Salisbury, Annapolis, and the southern and eastern suburbs of Washington, D.C. and Baltimore -- lies on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, with flat topography and sandy or muddy soil. This region has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with hot, humid summers and a short, mild to cool winter; it falls under USDA Hardiness zone 8a.
The Piedmont region -- which includes northern and western greater Baltimore, Westminster, Gaithersburg, Frederick, and Hagerstown -- has average seasonal snowfall totals generally exceeding 20 inches (51 cm) and, as part of USDA Hardiness zones 7b and 7a, temperatures below 10 ° F (− 12 ° C) are less rare. From the Cumberland Valley on westward, the climate begins to transition to a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa).
In western Maryland, the higher elevations of Allegany and Garrett counties -- including the cities of Cumberland, Frostburg, and Oakland -- display more characteristics of the humid continental zone, due in part to elevation. They fall under USDA Hardiness zones 6b and below.
Precipitation in the state is characteristic of the East Coast. Annual rainfall ranges from 35 to 45 inches (890 to 1,140 mm) with more in higher elevations. Nearly every part of Maryland receives 3.5 -- 4.5 inches (89 -- 114 mm) per month of rain. Average annual snowfall varies from 9 inches (23 cm) in the coastal areas to over 100 inches (250 cm) in the western mountains of the state.
Because of its location near the Atlantic Coast, Maryland is somewhat vulnerable to tropical cyclones, although the Delmarva Peninsula and the outer banks of North Carolina provide a large buffer, such that strikes from major hurricanes (category 3 or above) occur infrequently. More often, Maryland gets the remnants of a tropical system which has already come ashore and released most of its energy. Maryland averages around 30 -- 40 days of thunderstorms a year, and averages around six tornado strikes annually.
The Catholic George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore (1579 -- 1632), sought a charter from King Charles I for the territory between Massachusetts to the north and Virginia to the immediate south. After the first Lord Baltimore died in April 1632, the charter was granted to his son, Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore (1605 -- 1675), on June 20, 1632. Officially, the new "Maryland Colony '' was named in honor of Henrietta Maria of France, wife of Charles I of England, known in English as "Queen Mary '', by agreement between Lord Baltimore and the king. Some Roman Catholic scholars and historians believe Baltimore may have wanted the name of Maryland in honour of Mary, the mother of Jesus, but his original intent may never fully be known. The specific name given in the charter was "Terra Mariae, anglice, Maryland ''. The English name was preferred due to undesired associations of Mariae with the Spanish Jesuit Juan de Mariana, linked to the Inquisition. Henrietta Maria was never referred to by both her names together, and by a decree of her husband she was known in England as Mary, although she did not like the name and signed her letters "Henriette R ''.
The original capital of Maryland was St. Mary 's City, on the north shore of the Potomac River, and the county surrounding it, the first erected / created in the province, was named St. Mary 's County, supporting the contention that the choice of the name Maryland honored Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ. The great seal of Maryland is neutral on the point, reading TERRÆ MARIÆ, which translates in Latin as "Land of Mary ''.
Lord Baltimore 's first settlers arrived in the new colony in March 1634, with his younger brother Leonard Calvert (1606 -- 1647), as first provincial Governor of Maryland. They made their first permanent settlement at St. Mary 's City in what is now St. Mary 's County. They purchased the site from the paramount chief of the region, who was eager to establish trade. St. Mary 's became the first capital of Maryland, and remained so for 60 years until 1695. More settlers soon followed. Their tobacco crops were successful and quickly made the new colony profitable. However, given the incidence of malaria, yellow fever and typhoid, life expectancy in Maryland was about 10 years less than in New England.
Maryland was founded for the purpose of providing religious toleration of England 's Roman Catholic minority. Although Maryland was the most heavily Catholic of the England mainland colonies, this religious group was still in the minority, consisting of less than 10 % of the total population.
In 1642 a number of Puritans left Virginia for Maryland and founded Providence (now called Annapolis) on the western shore of the upper Chesapeake Bay. A dispute with traders from Virginia over Kent Island in the Chesapeake led to armed conflict. In 1644 William Claiborne, a Puritan, seized Kent Island while his associate, the pro-Parliament Puritan Richard Ingle, took over St. Mary 's. Both used religion as a tool to gain popular support. The two years from 1644 -- 1646 that Claiborne and his Puritan associates held sway were known as "The Plundering Time ''. They captured Jesuit priests, imprisoned them, then sent them back to England.
In 1646 Leonard Calvert returned with troops, recaptured St. Mary 's City, and restored order. The House of Delegates passed the "Act concerning Religion '' in 1649 granting religious liberty to all Trinitarian Christians.
In 1650 the Puritans revolted against the proprietary government. "Protestants swept the Catholics out of the legislature... and religious strife returned ''. The Puritans set up a new government prohibiting both Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism. The Puritan revolutionary government persecuted Maryland Catholics during its reign, known as the "plundering time ''. Mobs burned down all the original Catholic churches of southern Maryland. The Puritan rule lasted until 1658 when the Calvert family and Lord Baltimore regained proprietary control and re-enacted the Toleration Act.
After England 's "Glorious Revolution '' of 1688, Maryland outlawed Catholicism. In 1704, the Maryland General Assembly prohibited Catholics from operating schools, limited the corporate ownership of property to hamper religious orders from expanding or supporting themselves, and encouraged the conversion of Catholic children. The celebration of the Catholic sacraments was also officially restricted. This state of affairs lasted until after the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783). Wealthy Catholic planters built chapels on their land to practice their religion in relative secrecy.
Into the 18th century, individual priests and lay leaders claimed Maryland farms belonging to the Jesuits as personal property and bequeathed these and other properties to other religious or lay people in order to evade the legal restrictions on religious organizations -- such as the Society of Jesus -- owning property.
The royal charter granted Maryland the land north of the Potomac River up to the 40th parallel. A problem arose when Charles II granted a charter for Pennsylvania. The grant defined Pennsylvania 's southern border as identical to Maryland 's northern border, the 40th parallel. But the grant indicated that Charles II and William Penn assumed the 40th parallel would pass close to New Castle, Delaware when it falls north of Philadelphia, the site of which Penn had already selected for his colony 's capital city. Negotiations ensued after the problem was discovered in 1681.
A compromise proposed by Charles II in 1682 was undermined by Penn 's receiving the additional grant of what is now Delaware. Penn successfully argued that the Maryland charter entitled Lord Baltimore only to unsettled lands, and Dutch settlement in Delaware predated his charter. The dispute remained unresolved for nearly a century, carried on by the descendants of William Penn and Lord Baltimore -- the Calvert family, which controlled Maryland, and the Penn family, which controlled Pennsylvania.
The border dispute with Pennsylvania led to Cresap 's War in the 1730s. Hostilities erupted in 1730 and escalated through the first half of the decade, culminating in the deployment of military forces by Maryland in 1736 and by Pennsylvania in 1737. The armed phase of the conflict ended in May 1738 with the intervention of King George II, who compelled the negotiation of a cease - fire. A provisional agreement had been established in 1732.
Negotiations continued until a final agreement was signed in 1760. The agreement defined the border between Maryland and Pennsylvania as the line of latitude now known as the Mason -- Dixon line. Maryland 's border with Delaware was based on a Transpeninsular Line and the Twelve - Mile Circle around New Castle.
Most of the English colonists arrived in Maryland as indentured servants, and had to serve a several years ' term as laborers to pay for their passage. In the early years, the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid, and white and black laborers commonly lived and worked together, and formed unions. Mixed - race children born to white mothers were considered free by the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, by which children took the social status of their mothers, a principle of slave law that was adopted throughout the colonies, following Virginia in 1662. During the colonial era, families of free people of color were formed most often by unions of white women and African men.
Many of the free black families migrated to Delaware, where land was cheaper. As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, planters in Maryland imported thousands more slaves and racial caste lines hardened. The economy 's growth and prosperity was based on slave labor, devoted first to the production of tobacco as the commodity crop.
Maryland was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. Near the end of the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), on February 2, 1781, Maryland became the last and 13th state to approve the ratification of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, first proposed in 1776 and adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1778, which brought into being the United States as a united, sovereign and national state. It also became the seventh state admitted to the Union after ratifying the new federal Constitution in 1788. In December 1790, Maryland donated land selected by first President George Washington to the federal government for the creation of the new national capital of Washington, D.C. The land was provided along the north shore of the Potomac River from Montgomery and Prince George 's counties, as well as from Fairfax County and Alexandria on the south shore of the Potomac in Virginia; however, the land donated by the Commonwealth of Virginia was later returned to that state by the District of Columbia retrocession in 1846.
Influenced by a changing economy, revolutionary ideals, and preaching by ministers, numerous planters in Maryland freed their slaves in the 20 years after the Revolutionary War. Across the Upper South the free black population increased from less than 1 % before the war to 14 % by 1810.
During the War of 1812, the British military attempted to capture Baltimore, which was protected by Fort McHenry. During this bombardment the song "Star Spangled Banner '' was written by Francis Scott Key; it was later adopted as the national anthem.
The National Road (U.S. Hwy 40 today) was authorized in 1817 and ran from Baltimore to St. Louis -- the first federal highway. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) was the first chartered railroad in the United States. It opened its first section of track for regular operation in 1830 between Baltimore and Ellicott City, and in 1852 it became the first rail line to reach the Ohio River from the eastern seaboard.
The state remained with the Union during the Civil War, due in significant part to demographics and Federal intervention. By 1860, 49 % of Maryland 's African Americans were free blacks.
Governor Thomas Holliday Hicks suspended the state legislature, and to help ensure the election of a new pro-union governor and legislature, President Abraham Lincoln had a number of its pro-slavery politicians arrested, including the Mayor of Baltimore, George William Brown; suspended several civil liberties, including habeas corpus; and ordered artillery placed on Federal Hill overlooking Baltimore. Historians debate the constitutionality of these wartime actions, and the suspension of civil liberties was later deemed illegal by the U.S. Supreme Court.
In April 1861 Federal units and state regiments were attacked as they marched through Baltimore, sparking the Baltimore riot of 1861, the first bloodshed in the Civil War. Of the 115,000 men from Maryland who joined the military during the Civil War, 85,000, or 77 %, joined the Union army, while the remainder joined the Confederate Army. The largest and most significant battle in the state was the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862, near Sharpsburg. Although a tactical draw, the battle was considered a strategic Union victory and a turning point of the war.
A new state constitution in 1864 abolished slavery and Maryland was first recognized as a "Free State '' in that context. Following passage of constitutional amendments that granted voting rights to freedmen, in 1867 the state extended suffrage to non-white males.
The Democratic Party rapidly regained power in the state from Republicans. Democrats replaced the Constitution of 1864 with the Constitution of 1867. Following the end of Reconstruction in 1877, Democrats devised means of disfranchising blacks, initially by physical intimidation and voter fraud, later by constitutional amendments and laws. Blacks and immigrants, however, resisted Democratic Party disfranchisement efforts in the state. Maryland blacks were part of a biracial Republican coalition elected to state government in 1896 -- 1904 and comprised 20 % of the electorate.
Compared to some other states, blacks were better established both before and after the civil war. Nearly half the population was free before the war, and some had accumulated property. Half the population lived in cities. Literacy was high among blacks and, as Democrats crafted means to exclude them, suffrage campaigns helped reach blacks and teach them how to resist. Whites did impose racial segregation in public facilities and Jim Crow laws, which effectively lasted until passage of federal civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.
Baltimore grew significantly during the Industrial Revolution, due in large part to its seaport and good railroad connections, attracting European immigrant labor. Many manufacturing businesses were established in the Baltimore area after the Civil War. Baltimore businessmen, including Johns Hopkins, Enoch Pratt, George Peabody, and Henry Walters, founded notable city institutions that bear their names, including a university, library, music school and art museum.
Cumberland was Maryland 's second - largest city in the 19th century. Nearby supplies of natural resources along with railroads fostered its growth into a major manufacturing center.
The Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought political reforms. In a series of laws passed between 1892 and 1908, reformers worked for standard state - issued ballots (rather than those distributed and marked by the parties); obtained closed voting booths to prevent party workers from "assisting '' voters; initiated primary elections to keep party bosses from selecting candidates; and had candidates listed without party symbols, which discouraged the illiterate from participating. These measures worked against ill - educated whites and blacks. Blacks resisted such efforts, with suffrage groups conducting voter education. Blacks defeated three efforts to disfranchise them, making alliances with immigrants to resist various Democratic campaigns. Disfranchising bills in 1905, 1907, and 1911 were rebuffed, in large part because of black opposition. Blacks comprised 20 % of the electorate and immigrants comprised 15 %, and the legislature had difficulty devising requirements against blacks that did not also disadvantage immigrants.
The Progressive Era also brought reforms in working conditions for Maryland 's labor force. In 1902 the state regulated conditions in mines; outlawed child laborers under the age of 12; mandated compulsory school attendance; and enacted the nation 's first workers ' compensation law. The workers ' compensation law was overturned in the courts, but was redrafted and finally enacted in 1910.
The Great Baltimore Fire of 1904 burned over 30 hours, destroying 1,526 buildings and spanning 70 city blocks. More than 1,231 firefighters worked to bring the blaze under control. With the nation 's entry into World War I in 1917, new military bases such as Camp Meade, the Aberdeen Proving Ground, and the Edgewood Arsenal were established. Existing facilities, including Fort McHenry, were greatly expanded.
After Georgia congressman William D. Upshaw criticized Maryland openly in 1923 for not passing Prohibition laws, Baltimore Sun editor Hamilton Owens coined the "Free State '' nickname for Maryland in that context, which was popularized by H.L. Mencken in a series of newspaper editorials.
Maryland 's urban and rural communities had different experiences during the Great Depression. The "Bonus Army '' marched through the state in 1932 on its way to Washington, D.C. Maryland instituted its first ever income tax in 1937 to generate revenue for schools and welfare. Baltimore was a major war production center during World War II. The biggest operations were Bethlehem Steel 's Fairfield Yard, which built Liberty ships; and Glenn Martin, an aircraft manufacturer.
Maryland experienced population growth following World War II, particularly in the Baltimore and Washington, D.C. suburbs. Agricultural tracts gave way to residential communities such as Columbia and Montgomery Village. Concurrently the Interstate Highway System was built throughout the state, most notably I - 95 and the Capital Beltway, altering travel patterns. In 1952 the eastern and western halves of Maryland were linked for the first time by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge, which replaced a nearby ferry service.
Maryland 's regions experienced economic changes following WWII. Heavy manufacturing declined in Baltimore. In Maryland 's four westernmost counties, industrial, railroad, and coal mining jobs declined. On the lower Eastern Shore, family farms were bought up by major concerns and large - scale poultry farms and vegetable farming became prevalent. In Southern Maryland, tobacco farming nearly vanished due to suburban development and a state tobacco buy - out program.
In an effort to reverse depopulation due to the loss of working - class industries, Baltimore initiated urban renewal projects in the 1960s with Charles Center and the Baltimore World Trade Center. Some resulted in the break - up of intact residential neighborhoods, producing social volatility, and some older residential areas around the harbor have had units renovated and have become popular with new populations.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Maryland was 6,006,401 on July 1, 2015, a 4.03 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
In 2015 Maryland had an estimated population of 6,006,401, which is an increase of 29,994, from the prior year and an increase of 232,849, or 4.03 % percent, since 2010. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 189,158 people (that is 464,251 births minus 275,093 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 116,713 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 129,730 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,017 people.
The center of population of Maryland is located on the county line between Anne Arundel County and Howard County, in the unincorporated community of Jessup.
Maryland 's history as a border state has led it to exhibit characteristics of both the Northern and Southern regions of the United States. Generally, rural Western Maryland between the West Virginian Panhandle and Pennsylvania has an Appalachian culture; the Southern and Eastern Shore regions of Maryland embody a Southern culture, while densely populated Central Maryland -- radiating outward from Baltimore and Washington, D.C. -- has more in common with that of the Northeast. The U.S. Census Bureau designates Maryland as one of the South Atlantic States, but it is commonly associated with the Mid-Atlantic States and / or Northeastern United States by other federal agencies, the media, and some residents.
As of 2011, 58.0 percent of Maryland 's population younger than age 1 were non-white.
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
Spanish (including Spanish Creole) is the second-most - spoken language in Maryland, after English. The third - and fourth-most - spoken languages are French (including Patois and Cajun) and Chinese. Other commonly spoken languages include various African languages, Korean, German, Tagalog, Russian, Vietnamese, Italian, various Asian languages, Persian, Hindi and other Indic languages, Greek and Arabic.
Most of the population of Maryland lives in the central region of the state, in the Baltimore Metropolitan Area and Washington Metropolitan Area, both of which are part of the Baltimore - Washington Metropolitan Area. The majority of Maryland 's population is concentrated in the cities and suburbs surrounding Washington, D.C., as well as in and around Maryland 's most populous city, Baltimore. Historically, these and many other Maryland cities developed along the Fall Line, the line along which rivers, brooks, and streams are interrupted by rapids and / or waterfalls. Maryland 's capital city, Annapolis, is one exception to this pattern, since it lies along the banks of the Severn River, close to where it empties into the Chesapeake Bay.
The Eastern Shore is less populous and more rural, as are the counties of western Maryland. The two westernmost counties of Maryland, Allegany and Garrett, are mountainous and sparsely populated, resembling West Virginia and Appalachia more than they do the rest of Maryland. Both eastern and western Maryland are, however, dotted with cities of regional importance, such as Ocean City, Princess Anne, and Salisbury on the Eastern Shore and Cumberland, Frostburg, and Hancock in Western Maryland. Southern Maryland is still somewhat rural, but suburbanization from Washington, D.C. has encroached significantly since the 1960s; important local population centers include Lexington Park, Prince Frederick, and Waldorf.
In 1970 the Census Bureau reported Maryland 's population as 17.8 percent African - American and 80.4 percent non-Hispanic White.
African Americans form a sizable portion of the state 's population -- nearly 30 percent in 2010. Most are descendants of people transported to the area as slaves from West Africa, and many are of mixed race, including European and Native American ancestry. New residents of African descent include 20th - century and later immigrants from Nigeria, particularly of the Igbo and Yoruba tribes. Concentrations of African Americans live in Baltimore City, Prince George 's County, a suburb of Washington, D.C., where many work; Charles County, western parts of Baltimore County, and the southern Eastern Shore.
The top reported ancestries by Maryland residents are: German (15 %), Irish (11 %), English (8 %), American (7 %), Italian (6 %), and Polish (3 %).
Irish American populations can be found throughout the Baltimore area, and the Northern and Eastern suburbs of Washington D.C. in Maryland (descendents of those who moved out to the suburbs of Washington 's once predominantly Irish neighborhoods), as well as Western Maryland, where Irish immigrant laborers helped to build the B & O Railroad. Smaller but much older Irish populations can be found in Southern Maryland, with some roots dating as far back as the early Maryland colony. This population, however, still remains culturally very active and yearly festivals are held.
A large percentage of the population of the Eastern Shore and Southern Maryland are descendants of British American ancestry. The Eastern Shore was settled by Protestants, chiefly Methodist and the southern counties were initially settled by English Catholics. Western and northern Maryland have large German - American populations. More recent European immigrants of the late 19th and early 20th century settled first in Baltimore, attracted to its industrial jobs. Many of their ethnic Italian, Polish, Czech, Lithuanian, and Greek descendants still live in the area.
Large ethnic minorities include Eastern Europeans such as Croatians, Belarusians, Russians and Ukrainians. The shares of European immigrants born in Eastern Europe increased significantly between 1990 and 2010. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia, many immigrants from Eastern Europe came to the United States - 12 percent of which currently reside in Maryland.
Hispanic immigrants of the later 20th century have settled in Aspen Hill, Hyattsville / Langley Park, Glenmont / Wheaton, Bladensburg, Riverdale Park, Gaithersburg, as well as Highlandtown and Greektown in East Baltimore. Salvadorans are the largest Hispanic group in Maryland. Other Hispanic groups with significant populations in the state include Mexicans and Puerto Ricans and Hondurans. Though the Salvadoran population is more concentrated in the area around Washington, D.C., and the Puerto Rican population is more concentrated in the Baltimore area, all other major Hispanic groups in the state are evenly dispersed between these two areas. Maryland has one of the most diverse Hispanic populations in the country, with significant populations from various Caribbean and Central American nations.
Jews are numerous throughout Montgomery County and in Pikesville and Owings Mills northwest of Baltimore. Asian Americans are concentrated in the suburban counties surrounding Washington, D.C. and in Howard County, with Korean American and Taiwanese American communities in Rockville, Gaithersburg, and Germantown and a Filipino American community in Fort Washington. Numerous Indian Americans live across the state, especially in central Maryland. Amish / Mennonite communities are found in St. Mary 's, Garrett, and Cecil counties.
Attracting educated Asians and Africans to the professional jobs in the region, Maryland has the fifth - largest proportions of racial minorities in the country.
In 2006 645,744 were counted as foreign born, which represents mainly people from Latin America and Asia. About 4.0 percent are undocumented immigrants. Maryland also has a large Korean American population. In fact, 1.7 percent are Korean, while as a whole, almost 6.0 percent are Asian.
According to The Williams Institute 's analysis of the 2010 U.S. Census, 12,538 same - sex couples are living in Maryland, representing 5.8 same - sex couples per 1,000 households.
As of 2016, non-Hispanic white Americans were 51.5 % of Maryland 's population, making Maryland on the verge of becoming a majority minority state. 48.5 % of Maryland 's population is non-white and / or Hispanic / Latino, the highest percentage of any state on the East Coast and the highest percentage after the majority minority states of Hawaii, New Mexico, Texas, California and Nevada. Non-Hispanic White Americans in Maryland, the majority as of 2016, are expected to become the plurality ethnic group within 5 years of 2015. After Nevada in 2016, Maryland is projected to be the next state to become majority minority due to growing African - American, Asian and Latino populations. By 2031, minorities are projected to become the majority of voting eligible residents of Maryland.
According to Pew research 69 percent of Maryland 's population identifies as Christian. The largest religious groups in Maryland as of 2010 were: the Catholic Church with 837,338 adherents in Maryland, followed by non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 298,921 members, and the United Methodist Church with 238,774. The Southern Baptist Convention has 150,345 members. Judaism is the largest non-Christian religion in Maryland with 241,000 adherents, or 4 percent of the total population. The Seventh - day Adventist Church 's World Headquarters and Ahmadiyya Muslims national Headquarters is located in Silver Spring, just outside the District of Columbia.
Maryland has been prominent in U.S. Catholic tradition, partially because it was intended by George Calvert as a haven for English Catholics. Baltimore was the seat of the first Catholic bishop in the U.S. (1789), and Emmitsburg was the home and burial place of the first American - born citizen to be canonized, St. Elizabeth Ann Seton. Georgetown University, the first Catholic University, was founded in 1789 in what was then part of Maryland. The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Baltimore was the first Roman Catholic cathedral built in the United States, and the Archbishop of Baltimore is, albeit without formal primacy, the United States ' quasi-primate, and often a cardinal. Among the immigrants of the 19th and 20th century from eastern and southern Europe were many Catholics.
The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Maryland 's gross state product in 2016 was $382.4 billion. However, Maryland has been using Genuine Progress Indicator, an indicator of well - being, to guide the state 's development, rather than relying only on growth indicators like GDP. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Maryland households are currently the wealthiest in the country, with a 2013 median household income of $72,483 which puts it ahead of New Jersey and Connecticut, which are second and third respectively. Two of Maryland 's counties, Howard and Montgomery, are the second and eleventh wealthiest counties in the nation respectively. Maryland ranked No. 1 with the most millionaires per capita in 2013, with a ratio of 7.7 percent. Also, the state 's poverty rate of 7.8 percent is the lowest in the country. per capita personal income in 2006 was $43,500, fifth in the nation. As of May 2014, the state 's unemployment rate was 5.5 percent.
Maryland 's economy benefits from the state 's close proximity to the federal government in Washington, D.C. with an emphasis on technical and administrative tasks for the defense / aerospace industry and bio-research laboratories, as well as staffing of satellite government headquarters in the suburban or exurban Baltimore / Washington area. Ft. Meade serves as the headquarters of the Defense Information Systems Agency, United States Cyber Command, and the National Security Agency / Central Security Service. In addition, a number of educational and medical research institutions are located in the state. In fact, the various components of The Johns Hopkins University and its medical research facilities are now the largest single employer in the Baltimore area. Altogether, white collar technical and administrative workers comprise 25 percent of Maryland 's labor force, attributable in part to nearby Maryland being a part of the Washington Metro Area where the federal government office employment is relatively high.
Manufacturing, while large in dollar value, is highly diversified with no sub-sector contributing over 20 percent of the total. Typical forms of manufacturing include electronics, computer equipment, and chemicals. The once mighty primary metals sub-sector, which at one time included what was then the largest steel factory in the world at Sparrows Point, still exists, but is pressed with foreign competition, bankruptcies, and mergers. During World War II the Glenn Martin Company (now part of Lockheed Martin) airplane factory employed some 40,000 people.
Mining other than construction materials is virtually limited to coal, which is located in the mountainous western part of the state. The brownstone quarries in the east, which gave Baltimore and Washington much of their characteristic architecture in the mid-19th century, were once a predominant natural resource. Historically, there used to be small gold - mining operations in Maryland, some near Washington, but these no longer exist.
One major service activity is transportation, centered on the Port of Baltimore and its related rail and trucking access. The port ranked 17th in the U.S. by tonnage in 2008. Although the port handles a wide variety of products, the most typical imports are raw materials and bulk commodities, such as iron ore, petroleum, sugar, and fertilizers, often distributed to the relatively close manufacturing centers of the inland Midwest via good overland transportation. The port also receives several different brands of imported motor vehicles and is the number one auto port in the U.S.
Baltimore City is the eighth largest port in the nation, and was at the center of the February 2006 controversy over the Dubai Ports World deal because it was considered to be of such strategic importance. The state as a whole is heavily industrialized, with a booming economy and influential technology centers. Its computer industries are some of the most sophisticated in the United States, and the federal government has invested heavily in the area. Maryland is home to several large military bases and scores of high level government jobs.
The Chesapeake and Delaware Canal is a 14 miles (23 km) canal on the Eastern Shore that connects the waters of the Delaware River with those of the Chesapeake Bay, and in particular with the Port of Baltimore, carrying 40 percent of the port 's ship traffic.
Maryland has a large food - production sector. A large component of this is commercial fishing, centered in the Chesapeake Bay, but also including activity off the short Atlantic seacoast. The largest catches by species are the blue crab, oysters, striped bass, and menhaden. The Bay also has overwintering waterfowl in its wildlife refuges. The waterfowl support a tourism sector of sportsmen.
Maryland has large areas of fertile agricultural land in its coastal and Piedmont zones, though this land use is being encroached upon by urbanization. Agriculture is oriented to dairy farming (especially in foothill and piedmont areas) for nearby large city milksheads plus specialty perishable horticulture crops, such as cucumbers, watermelons, sweet corn, tomatoes, muskmelons, squash, and peas (Source: USDA Crop Profiles). In addition, the southern counties of the western shoreline of Chesapeake Bay are warm enough to support a tobacco cash crop zone, which has existed since early Colonial times but declined greatly after a state government buyout in the 1990s. There is also a large automated chicken - farming sector in the state 's southeastern part; Salisbury is home to Perdue Farms. Maryland 's food - processing plants are the most significant type of manufacturing by value in the state.
Maryland is a major center for life sciences research and development. With more than 400 biotechnology companies located there, Maryland is the fourth - largest nexus in this field in the United States.
Institutions and government agencies with an interest in research and development located in Maryland include the Johns Hopkins University, the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, more than one campus of the University System of Maryland, Goddard Space Flight Center, the United States Census Bureau, the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, the federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Celera Genomics company, the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), and MedImmune -- recently purchased by AstraZeneca.
Maryland is home to defense contractor Emergent BioSolutions, which manufactures and provides an anthrax vaccine to U.S. government military personnel.
Tourism is popular in Maryland, with tourists visiting the city of Baltimore, the beaches of the Eastern Shore, and the nature of western Maryland, as well as many passing through en route to Washington, D.C. Baltimore attractions include the Harborplace, the Baltimore Aquarium, Fort McHenry, as well as the Camden Yards baseball stadium. Ocean City on the Atlantic Coast has been a popular beach destination in summer, particularly since the Chesapeake Bay Bridge was built in 1952 connecting the Eastern Shore to the more populated Maryland cities. The state capital of Annapolis offers sites such as the state capitol building, the historic district, and the waterfront. Maryland also has several sites of interest to military history, given Maryland 's role in the American Civil War and in the War of 1812. Other attractions include the historic and picturesque towns along the Chesapeake Bay, such as Saint Mary 's, Maryland 's first colonial settlement and original capital.
The Maryland Department of Transportation oversees most transportation in the state through its various administration - level agencies. The independent Maryland Transportation Authority maintains and operates the state 's eight toll facilities.
Maryland 's Interstate highways include 110 miles (180 km) of Interstate 95 (I - 95), which enters the northeast portion of the state, travels through Baltimore, and becomes part of the eastern section of the Capital Beltway to the Woodrow Wilson Bridge. I - 68 travels 81 miles (130 km), connecting the western portions of the state to I - 70 at the small town of Hancock. I - 70 enters from Pennsylvania north of Hancock and continues east for 93 miles (150 km) to Baltimore, connecting Hagerstown and Frederick along the way.
I - 83 has 34 miles (55 km) in Maryland and connects Baltimore to southern central Pennsylvania (Harrisburg and York, Pennsylvania). Maryland also has an 11 - mile (18 km) portion of I - 81 that travels through the state near Hagerstown. I - 97, fully contained within Anne Arundel County and the second shortest (17.6 miles (28.3 km)) one - or two - digit Interstate highway which connects the Baltimore area to the Annapolis area. Hawaii has one that is shorter.
There are also several auxiliary Interstate highways in Maryland. Among them are two beltways encircling the major cities of the region: I - 695, the McKeldin (Baltimore) Beltway, which encircles Baltimore; and a portion of I - 495, the Capital Beltway, which encircles Washington, D.C. I - 270, which connects the Frederick area with Northern Virginia and the District of Columbia through major suburbs to the northwest of Washington, is a major commuter route and is as wide as fourteen lanes at points.
Both I - 270 and the Capital Beltway were extremely congested; however, the Intercounty Connector (ICC; MD 200) alleviated some of the congestion over time. Construction of the ICC was a major part of the campaign platform of former Governor Robert Ehrlich, who was in office from 2003 until 2007, and of Governor Martin O'Malley, who succeeded him. I - 595, which is an unsigned highway concurrent with US 50 / US 301, is the longest unsigned interstate in the country and connects Prince George 's County and Washington D.C. with Annapolis and the Eastern Shore via the Chesapeake Bay Bridge.
Maryland also has a state highway system that contains routes numbered from 2 through 999, however most of the higher - numbered routes are either unsigned or are relatively short. Major state highways include Routes 2 (Governor Ritchie Highway / Solomons Island Road / Southern Maryland Blvd.), 4 (Pennsylvania Avenue / Southern Maryland Blvd. / Patuxent Beach Road / St. Andrew 's Church Road), 5 (Branch Avenue / Leonardtown Road / Point Lookout Road), 32, 45 (York Road), 97 (Georgia Avenue), 100 (Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway), 210 (Indian Head Highway), 235 (Three Notch Road), 295 (Baltimore - Washington Parkway), 355 (Wisconsin Avenue / Rockville Pike / Frederick Road), 404 (Queen Anne Highway / Shore Highway), and 650 (New Hampshire Avenue).
Maryland 's largest airport is Baltimore - Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport, more commonly referred to as BWI. The airport is named for the Baltimore - born Thurgood Marshall, the first African - American Supreme Court justice. The only other airports with commercial service are at Hagerstown and Salisbury.
The Maryland suburbs of Washington, D.C. are also served by the other two airports in the region, Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport and Dulles International Airport, both in Northern Virginia. The College Park Airport is the nation 's oldest, founded in 1909, and is still used. Wilbur Wright trained military aviators at this location.
Amtrak trains, including the high speed Acela Express serve Baltimore 's Penn Station, BWI Airport, New Carrollton, and Aberdeen along the Washington D.C. to Boston Northeast Corridor. In addition, train service is provided to Rockville and Cumberland by Amtrak 's Washington, D.C., to Chicago Capitol Limited.
The WMATA 's Metrorail rapid transit and Metrobus local bus systems (the 2nd and 6th busiest in the nation of their respective modes) provide service in Montgomery and Prince George 's counties and connect them to Washington D.C., with the express Metrobus Route B30 serving BWI Airport. The Maryland Transit Administration (often abbreviated as "MTA Maryland ''), a state agency part of the Maryland Department of Transportation also provides transit services within the state. Headquartered in Baltimore, MTA 's transit services are largely focused on central Maryland, as well as some portions of the Eastern Shore and Southern MD. Baltimore 's Light Rail and Metro Subway systems serve its densely populated inner - city and the surrounding suburbs. The MTA also serves the city and its suburbs with its local bus service (the 9th largest system in the nation). The MTA 's Commuter Bus system provides express coach service on longer routes connecting Washington D.C. and Baltimore to parts of Central and Southern MD as well as the Eastern Shore. The commuter rail service, known as MARC, operates three lines which all terminate at Washington Union Station and provide service to Baltimore 's Penn and Camden stations, Perryville, Frederick, and Martinsburg, WV. In addition, many suburban counties operate their own local bus systems which connect to and complement the larger MTA and WMATA / Metro services.
Freight rail transport is handled principally by two Class I railroads, as well as several smaller regional and local carriers. CSX Transportation has more extensive trackage throughout the state, with 560 miles (900 km), followed by Norfolk Southern Railway. Major rail yards are located in Baltimore and Cumberland, with an intermodal terminal (rail, truck and marine) in Baltimore.
The government of Maryland is conducted according to the state constitution. The government of Maryland, like the other 49 state governments, has exclusive authority over matters that lie entirely within the state 's borders, except as limited by the Constitution of the United States.
Power in Maryland is divided among three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The Maryland General Assembly is composed of the Maryland House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate. Maryland 's governor is unique in the United States as the office is vested with significant authority in budgeting. The legislature may not increase the governor 's proposed budget expenditures. Unlike many other states, significant autonomy is granted to many of Maryland 's counties.
Most of the business of government is conducted in Annapolis, the state capital. Elections for governor and most statewide offices, as well as most county elections, are held in midterm - election years (even - numbered years not divisible by four).
The judicial branch of state government consists of one united District Court of Maryland that sits in every county and Baltimore City, as well as 24 Circuit Courts sitting in each County and Baltimore City, the latter being courts of general jurisdiction for all civil disputes over $30,000.00, all equitable jurisdiction and major criminal proceedings. The intermediate appellate court is known as the Court of Special Appeals and the state supreme court is the Court of Appeals. The appearance of the judges of the Maryland Court of Appeals is unique; Maryland is the only state whose judges wear red robes.
Maryland imposes five income tax brackets, ranging from 2 to 6.25 percent of personal income. The city of Baltimore and Maryland 's 23 counties levy local "piggyback '' income taxes at rates between 1.25 and 3.2 percent of Maryland taxable income. Local officials set the rates and the revenue is returned to the local governments quarterly. The top income tax bracket of 9.45 percent is the fifth highest combined state and local income tax rates in the country, behind New York City 's 11.35 percent, California 's 10.3 percent, Rhode Island 's 9.9 percent, and Vermont 's 9.5 percent.
Maryland 's state sales tax is 6 percent. All real property in Maryland is subject to the property tax. Generally, properties that are owned and used by religious, charitable, or educational organizations or property owned by the federal, state or local governments are exempt. Property tax rates vary widely. No restrictions or limitations on property taxes are imposed by the state, meaning cities and counties can set tax rates at the level they deem necessary to fund governmental services.
Since before the Civil War, Maryland 's elections have been largely controlled by the Democrats
State elections are dominated by Baltimore and the populous suburban counties bordering Washington, D.C.: Montgomery and Prince George 's. Forty - three percent of the state 's population resides in these three jurisdictions, each of which contain large, traditionally Democratic voting bloc (s): African Americans in Baltimore and Prince George 's, federal employees in Prince George 's and Montgomery, and postgraduates in Montgomery. The remainder of the state, particularly Western Maryland and the Eastern Shore, is more supportive of Republicans. One of Maryland 's best known political figures is a Republican -- former Governor Spiro Agnew, who served as United States Vice President under Richard Nixon as Vice President from 1969 to 1973, when he resigned in the aftermath of revelations that he had taken bribes while he was Governor of Maryland. In late 1973 a court found Agnew guilty of violating tax laws.
In 1980, Maryland was one of six states to vote for Jimmy Carter. In 1992, Bill Clinton fared better in Maryland than any other state except his home state of Arkansas. In 1996, Maryland was Clinton 's sixth best, in 2000 Maryland ranked fourth for Gore and in 2004 John Kerry showed his fifth - best performance in Maryland. In 2008 Barack Obama won the state 's 10 electoral votes with 61.9 percent of the vote to John McCain 's 36.5 percent.
In 2002, former Governor Robert Ehrlich was the first Republican to be elected to that office in four decades, and after one term lost his seat to Baltimore Mayor and Democrat Martin O'Malley. Ehrlich ran again for governor in 2010, losing again to O'Malley.
The 2006 election brought no change in the pattern of Democratic dominance. After Democratic Senator Paul Sarbanes announced that he was retiring, Democratic Congressman Benjamin Cardin defeated Republican Lieutenant Governor Michael S. Steele, with 55 percent of the vote, against Steele 's 44 percent.
While Republicans usually win more counties, by piling up large margins in the west and east, they are also usually swamped by the more densely populated and heavily Democratic Baltimore - Washington axis. In 2008, for instance, McCain won 17 counties to Obama 's six; Obama also carried Baltimore City. While McCain won most of the western and eastern counties by margins of 2 - to - 1 or more, he was almost completely shut out in the larger counties surrounding Baltimore and Washington; every large county except Anne Arundel went for Obama.
From 2007 to 2011 U.S. Congressman Steny Hoyer (MD - 5), a Democrat, was elected as Majority Leader for the 110th Congress of the House of Representatives, and 111th Congress, serving in that post. His district covers parts of Anne Arundel and Prince George 's counties, in addition to all of Charles, Calvert and St. Mary 's counties in southern Maryland.
In 2010 Republicans won control of most counties. The Democratic Party remained in control of eight county governments including Baltimore City.
In 2014 Larry Hogan, a Republican, was elected Governor of Maryland. Hogan is the second Republican to become the Governor of Maryland since Spiro Agnew 's resigned in 1969 to become Vice President.
Maryland has many popular sources of media. A well known newspaper is The Baltimore Sun.
Education Week ranked Maryland # 1 in its nationwide 2009 -- 2013 Quality Counts reports. The College Board 's 9th Annual AP Report to the Nation also ranked Maryland first. Primary and secondary education in Maryland is overseen by the Maryland State Department of Education, which is headquartered in Baltimore. The highest educational official in the state is the State Superintendent of Schools, who is appointed by the State Board of Education to a four - year term of office. The Maryland General Assembly has given the Superintendent and State Board autonomy to make educationally related decisions, limiting its own influence on the day - to - day functions of public education. Each county and county - equivalent in Maryland has a local Board of Education charged with running the public schools in that particular jurisdiction.
The budget for education was $5.5 billion in 2009, representing about 40 percent of the state 's general fund.
Maryland has a broad range of private primary and secondary schools. Many of these are affiliated with various religious sects, including parochial schools of the Catholic Church, Quaker schools, Seventh - day Adventist schools, and Jewish schools. In 2003, Maryland law was changed to allow for the creation of publicly funded charter schools, although the charter schools must be approved by their local Board of Education and are not exempt from state laws on education, including collective bargaining laws.
In 2008 the state led the entire country in the percentage of students passing Advanced Placement examinations. 23.4 percent of students earned passing grades on the AP tests given in May 2008. This marks the first year that Maryland earned this honor. Three Maryland high schools (in Montgomery County) were ranked among the top 100 in the country by US News in 2009, based in large part on AP test scores.
Maryland has several historic and renowned private colleges and universities, the most prominent of which is Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876 with a grant from Baltimore entrepreneur Johns Hopkins.
The first public university in the state is the University of Maryland, Baltimore, which was founded in 1807 and contains the University of Maryland 's only public academic health, human services, and one of two law centers (the other being the University of Baltimore School of Law). Seven professional and graduate schools train the majority of the state 's physicians, nurses, dentists, lawyers, social workers, and pharmacists. The flagship university and largest undergraduate institution in Maryland is the University of Maryland, College Park which was founded as the Maryland Agricultural College in 1856 and became a public land grant college in 1864. Towson University, founded in 1866, is the state 's second largest university. Baltimore is home to the University of Maryland, Baltimore County and the Maryland Institute College of Art. The majority of public universities in the state are affiliated with the University System of Maryland. Two state - funded institutions, Morgan State University and St. Mary 's College of Maryland, as well as two federally funded institutions, the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences and the United States Naval Academy, are not affiliated with the University System of Maryland.
St. John 's College in Annapolis, Maryland and Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland, both private institutions, are the two oldest colleges in the state, and are among the oldest in the country. Other private institutions include Mount St. Mary 's University, McDaniel College (formerly known as Western Maryland College), Hood College, Stevenson University (formerly known as Villa Julie College), Loyola University Maryland, and Goucher College, among others.
Maryland 's 24 public library systems deliver public education for everyone in the state of Maryland through a curriculum that comprises three pillars: Self - Directed Education (books and materials in all formats, e-resources), Research Assistance & Instruction (individualized research assistance, classes for students of all ages), and Instructive & Enlightening Experiences (e.g., Summer Reading Clubs, author events).
Maryland 's library systems include, in part:
Many of the library systems have established formalized partnerships with other educational institutions in their counties and regions.
With two major metropolitan areas, Maryland has a number of major and minor professional sports franchises. Two National Football League teams play in Maryland, the Baltimore Ravens in Baltimore and the Washington Redskins in Landover. The Baltimore Colts represented the NFL in Baltimore from 1953 to 1983 before moving to Indianapolis.
The Baltimore Orioles are the state 's Major League Baseball franchise. The National Hockey League 's Washington Capitals and the National Basketball Association 's Washington Wizards formerly played in Maryland, until the construction of an arena in Downtown D.C. in 1997 (now known as Capital One Arena).
Maryland enjoys considerable historical repute for the talented sports players of its past, including Cal Ripken Jr. and Babe Ruth. In 2012, The Baltimore Sun published a list of Maryland 's top ten athletes in the state 's history. The list includes Babe Ruth, Cal Ripken Jr, Johnny Unitas, Brooks Robinson, Frank Robinson, Ray Lewis, Michael Phelps, Jimmie Foxx, Jim Parker, and Wes Unseld.
Other professional sports franchises in the state include five affiliated minor league baseball teams, one independent league baseball team, the Baltimore Blast indoor soccer team, two indoor football teams, three low - level outdoor soccer teams, and the Chesapeake Bayhawks of Major League Lacrosse. Maryland is also home to one of the three races in horse racing 's annual Triple Crown, the Preakness Stakes, which is run every spring at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore.
The Congressional Country Club has hosted three golf tournaments for the U.S. Open and a PGA Championship.
The official state sport of Maryland, since 1962, is jousting; the official team sport since 2004 is lacrosse. The National Lacrosse Hall of Fame is located on the Johns Hopkins University campus in Baltimore. In 2008, intending to promote physical fitness for all ages, walking became the official state exercise. Maryland is the first state with an official state exercise.
Coordinates: 39 ° 00 ′ N 76 ° 42 ′ W / 39 ° N 76.7 ° W / 39; - 76.7
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factors that led to the decline of the great zimbabwe state | Great Zimbabwe - wikipedia
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south - eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country 's Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The most widely - accepted modern archaeological theory is that the edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona. The stone city spans an area of 7.22 square kilometres (1,780 acres) which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people. It is recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power. Among the edifice 's most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high. They were constructed without mortar (dry stone). Eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.
The earliest known written mention of the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as Symbaoe. The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871. Later, studies of the monument were controversial in the archaeological world, with political pressure being put upon archaeologists by the government of Rhodesia to deny its construction by native African people. Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as a national monument by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named for it. The word great distinguishes the site from the many hundreds of small ruins, now known as "zimbabwes '', spread across the Zimbabwe Highveld. There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique, with monumental, mortarless walls; Great Zimbabwe is the largest of these.
Zimbabwe is the Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that "The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, which according to their language signifies ' court ' ''.
The name contains dzimba, the Shona term for "houses ''. There are two theories for the etymology of the name. The first proposes that the word is derived from Dzimba - dza - mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "large houses of stone '' (dzimba = plural of imba, "house ''; mabwe = plural of bwe, "stone ''). A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a contracted form of dzimba - hwe, which means "venerated houses '' in the Zezuru dialect of Shona, as usually applied to the houses or graves of chiefs.
The majority of scholars believe that it was built by members of the Gokomere culture, who were ancestors of modern Shona in Zimbabwe. A few believe that the ancestors of the Lemba or Venda were responsible, or cooperated with the Gokomere in the construction.
The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the fourth century AD. Between the fourth and the seventh centuries, communities of the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron, but built no stone structures. These are the earliest Iron Age settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings.
Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 11 m (36 ft) extending approximately 250 m (820 ft), making it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone; they span 730 ha (1,800 acres).
In 1531, Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala, described Zimbabwe thus:
The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the ninth to thirteenth centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, and the Valley Complex from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. Notable features of the Hill Complex include the Eastern Enclosure, in which it is thought the Zimbabwe Birds stood, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and a huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower, 5.5 m (18 ft) in diameter and 9 m (30 ft) high, was constructed between the two walls. The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.
There are different archaeological interpretations of these groupings. It has been suggested that the complexes represent the work of successive kings: some of the new rulers founded a new residence. The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the twelfth century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early sixteenth century. The alternative "structuralist '' interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions: the Hill Complex as a temple, the Valley complex was for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. Structures that were more elaborate were probably built for the kings, although it has been argued that the dating of finds in the complexes does not support this interpretation.
The most important artefacts recovered from the Monument are the eight Zimbabwe Birds. These were carved from a micaceous schist (soapstone) on the tops of monoliths the height of a person. Slots in a platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but as they were not found in situ it can not be determined which monolith and bird were where. Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, with artefacts suggesting that the city formed part of a trade network linked to Kilwa and extending as far as China. Copper coins found at Kilwa Kisiwani appear to be of the same pure ore found on the Swahili coast. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory; some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads and other non-local items have been excavated at Zimbabwe. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and centres such as Kilwa.
Causes for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the site around 1450 have been suggested as due to a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change. The Mutapa state arose in the fifteenth century from the northward expansion of the Great Zimbabwe tradition, having been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe after he was sent to find new sources of salt in the north; (this supports the belief that Great Zimbabwe 's decline was due to a shortage of resources). Great Zimbabwe also predates the Khami and Nyanga cultures.
The first European visit may have been made by the Portuguese traveler António Fernandes in 1513 - 1515, who crossed twice and reported in detail the region of present - day Zimbabwe (including the Shona kingdoms) and also fortified centers in stone without mortar. However, passing en route a few kilometres north and about 56 km (35 mi) south of the site, he did not make a reference to Great Zimbabwe. Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the ancient city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long - distance trade. Two of those accounts mention an inscription above the entrance to Great Zimbabwe, written in characters not known to the Arab merchants who had seen it.
In 1506, the explorer Diogo de Alcáçova described the edifices in a letter to the then King of Portugal, writing that they were part of the larger kingdom of Ucalanga (presumably Karanga, a dialect of the Shona people spoken mainly in Masvingo and Midlands provinces of Zimbabwe). João de Barros left another such description of Great Zimbabwe in 1538, as recounted to him by Moorish traders who had visited the area and possessed knowledge of the hinterland. He indicates that the edifices were locally known as Symbaoe, which meant "royal court '' in the vernacular. As to the actual identity of the builders of Great Zimbabwe, de Barros writes:
Additionally, with regard to the purpose of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, de Barros asserted that: "in the opinion of the Moors who saw it (Great Zimbabwe) it is very ancient and was built to keep possessions of the mines, which are very old, and no gold has been extracted from them for years, because of the wars... it would seem that some prince who has possession of these mines ordered it to be built as a sign thereof, which he afterwards lost in the course of time and through their being so remote from his kingdom... ''.
De Barros further remarked that Symbaoe "is guarded by a nobleman, who has charge of it, after the manner of a chief alcaide, and they call this officer Symbacayo... and there are always some of Benomotapa 's wives therein of whom Symbacayo takes care. '' Thus, Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 16th century.
The ruins were rediscovered during a hunting trip in 1867 by Adam Render, a German - American hunter, prospector and trader in southern Africa, who in 1871 showed the ruins to Karl Mauch, a German explorer and geographer of Africa. Karl Mauch recorded the ruins 3 September 1871, and immediately speculated about a possible Biblical association with King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, an explanation which had been suggested by earlier writers such as the Portuguese João dos Santos. Mauch went so far as to favour a legend that the structures were built to replicate the palace of the Queen of Sheba in Jerusalem, and claimed a wooden lintel at the site must be Lebanese cedar, brought by Phoenicians. The Sheba legend, as promoted by Mauch, became so pervasive in the white settler community as to cause the later scholar J. Theodore Bent to say
The names of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba were on everybody 's lips, and have become so distasteful to us that we never expect to hear them again without an involuntary shudder
Carl Peters collected a ceramic ushabti in 1903. Flinders Petrie examined it and identified a cartouche on its chest as belonging to the 18th Dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and suggested that it was a statuette of the king and cited it as proof of commercial ties between rulers in the area and the ancient Egyptians during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BC -- 1077 BC), if not a relic of an old Egyptian station near the local gold mines. Johann Heinrich Schäfer later appraised the statuette, and argued that it belonged to a well - known group of forgeries. After having received the ushabti, Felix von Luschan suggested that it was of more recent origin than the New Kingdom. He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323 BC -- 30 BC), when Alexandria - based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.
J. Theodore Bent undertook a season at Zimbabwe with Cecil Rhodes 's patronage and funding from the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This, and other excavations undertaken for Rhodes, resulted in a book publication that introduced the ruins to English readers. Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor. He was aided by the expert cartographer and surveyor E.W.M. Swan, who also visited and surveyed a host of related stone ruins nearby. Bent stated in the first edition of his book The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) that the ruins revealed either the Phoenicians or the Arabs as builders, and he favoured the possibility of great antiquity for the fortress. By the third edition of his book (1902) he was more specific, with his primary theory being "a Semitic race and of Arabian origin '' of "strongly commercial '' traders living within a client African city.
Other theories on the origin of the ruins, among both white settlers and academics, took a common view that the original buildings were probably not made by local Bantu peoples. Bent indulged these theories alongside his Arab theory, to the point where his more tenuous theories had become somewhat discredited by the 1910s.
The construction of Great Zimbabwe is also claimed by the Lemba. This ethnic group of Zimbabwe and South Africa has a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line, which is supported by recent DNA studies, and female ancestry derived from the Karanga subgroup of the Shona.
The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century). Both explorers were told that the stone edifices and the gold mines were constructed by a people known as the BaLemba. Robert Gayre strongly supported the Lemba claim to Great Zimbabwe, proposing that the Shona artefacts found in the ruins were placed there only after the Bantu conquered the area and drove out or absorbed the previous inhabitants. However, Gayre 's thesis is not supported by more recent scholars such as Garlake or Pikirayi.
Tudor Parfitt described Gayre 's work as intended to "show that black people had never been capable of building in stone or of governing themselves '', although he adds: "The fact that Gayre... got most of his facts wrong, does not in itself vitiate the claims of the Lemba to have been involved in the Great Zimbabwe civilisation. ''
The first scientific archaeological excavations at the site were undertaken by David Randall - MacIver for the British Association in 1905 -- 1906. In Medieval Rhodesia, he wrote of the existence in the site of objects that were of Bantu origin. More importantly he suggested a wholly medieval date for the walled fortifications and temple. This claim was not immediately accepted, partly due to the relatively short and undermanned period of excavation he was able to undertake.
In mid 1929 Gertrude Caton - Thompson concluded, after a twelve - day visit of a three - person team and the digging of several trenches, that the site was indeed created by Bantu. She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork. She then moved to the Conical Tower, and tried to dig under the tower, arguing that the ground there would be undisturbed, but nothing was revealed. Some further test trenches were then put down outside the lower Great Enclosure and in the Valley Ruins, which unearthed domestic ironwork, glass beads, and a gold bracelet. Caton - Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.
Examination of all the existing evidence, gathered from every quarter, still can produce not one single item that is not in accordance with the claim of Bantu origin and medieval date
Caton - Thompson 's claim was not immediately favoured, although it had strong support among some scientific archaeologists due to her modern methods. Her most important contribution was in helping to confirm the theory of a medieval origin for the masonry work of circa the 14th - 15th century. By 1931, she had modified her Bantu theory somewhat, allowing for a possible Arabian influence for the towers through the imitation of buildings or art seen at the coastal Arabian trading cities.
Since the 1950s, there has been consensus among archaeologists as to the African origins of Great Zimbabwe. Artefacts and radiocarbon dating indicate settlement in at least the fifth century, with continuous settlement of Great Zimbabwe between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries and the bulk of the finds from the fifteenth century. The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the twelfth to fifteenth centuries chronology. In the 1970s, a beam that produced some of the anomalous dates in 1952 was reanalysed and gave a fourteenth - century date. Dated finds such as Chinese, Persian and Syrian artefacts also support the twelfth and fifteenth century dates.
Archaeologists generally agree that the builders probably spoke one of the Shona languages, based upon evidence of pottery, oral traditions and anthropology and were probably descended from the Gokomere culture. The Gokomere culture, an eastern Bantu subgroup, existed in the area from around 500 AD and flourished from 200 AD to about 800 AD. Archaeological evidence indicates that it constitutes an early phase of the Great Zimbabwe culture. The Gokomere culture likely gave rise to both the modern Mashona people, an ethnic cluster comprising distinct sub-ethnic groups such as the local Karanga clan and the Rozwi culture, which originated as several Shona states. Gokomere - descended groups such as the Shona probably contributed the African component of the ancestry of the Lemba. Gokomere peoples were probably also related to certain nearby early Bantu groups like the Mapungubwe civilisation of neighbouring North eastern South Africa, which is believed to have been an early Venda - speaking culture, and to the nearby Sotho.
More recent archaeological work has been carried out by Peter Garlake, who has produced the comprehensive descriptions of the site, David Beach and Thomas Huffman, who have worked on the chronology and development of Great Zimbabwe and Gilbert Pwiti, who has published extensively on trade links. Today, the most recent consensus appears to attribute the construction of Great Zimbabwe to the Shona people. Some evidence also suggests an early influence from the probably Venda speaking peoples of Mapungubwe.
Damage to the ruins has taken place throughout the last century. The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall. More extensive damage was caused by the mining of some of the ruins for gold. Reconstruction attempts since 1980 caused further damage, leading to alienation of the local communities from the site.
Martin Hall writes that the history of Iron Age research south of the Zambezi shows the prevalent influence of colonial ideologies, both in the earliest speculations about the nature of the African past and in the adaptations that have been made to contemporary archaeological methodologies. Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe 's past to support their vision of the country 's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction. Examples of such popular history include Alexander Wilmot 's Monomotapa (Rhodesia) and Ken Mufuka 's Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age; examples from fiction include Wilbur Smith 's The Sunbird and Stanlake Samkange 's Year of the Uprising.
When white colonialists like Cecil Rhodes first saw the ruins, they saw them as a sign of the great riches that the area would yield to its new masters. Gertrude Caton - Thompson recognised that the builders were indigenous Africans, but she characterised the site as the "product of an infantile mind '' built by a subjugated society. Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area. The official line in Rhodesia during the 1960s and 1970s was that the structures were built by non-blacks. Archaeologists who disputed the official statement were censored by the government. According to Paul Sinclair, interviewed for None But Ourselves:
I was the archaeologist stationed at Great Zimbabwe. I was told by the then - director of the Museums and Monuments organisation to be extremely careful about talking to the press about the origins of the (Great) Zimbabwe state. I was told that the museum service was in a difficult situation, that the government was pressurising them to withhold the correct information. Censorship of guidebooks, museum displays, school textbooks, radio programmes, newspapers and films was a daily occurrence. Once a member of the Museum Board of Trustees threatened me with losing my job if I said publicly that blacks had built Zimbabwe. He said it was okay to say the yellow people had built it, but I was n't allowed to mention radio carbon dates... It was the first time since Germany in the thirties that archaeology has been so directly censored.
This suppression of archaeology culminated in the departure from the country of prominent archaeologists of Great Zimbabwe, including Peter Garlake, Senior Inspector of Monuments for Rhodesia, and Roger Summers of the National Museum.
To black nationalist groups, Great Zimbabwe became an important symbol of achievement by Africans: reclaiming its history was a major aim for those seeking majority rule. In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag. After the creation of the modern state of Zimbabwe in 1980, Great Zimbabwe has been employed to mirror and legitimise shifting policies of the ruling regime. At first it was argued that it represented a form of pre-colonial "African socialism '' and later the focus shifted to stressing the natural evolution of an accumulation of wealth and power within a ruling elite. An example of the former is Ken Mufuka 's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.
Some of the carvings had been taken from Great Zimbabwe around 1890 and sold to Cecil Rhodes, who was intrigued and had copies made which he gave to friends. Most of the carvings have now been returned to Zimbabwe, but one remains at Rhodes ' old home, Groote Schuur, in Cape Town.
In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe endorsed the creation of a university in the vicinity of the ruins. This university is an arts and culture based university which draws from the rich history of the monuments. It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation. The university main site is near the monuments with other campuses in the City centre and Mashava. The campuses include Herbet Chitepo Law School, Robert Mugabe School of Education, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Science, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, and Munhumutapa School of Commerce.
The Hill Complex
The Conical Tower
The Great Enclosure
The Great Enclosure (close)
The Great Enclosure (far)
The Hill Complex from the Valley
Wooden lintel in doorway
Passageway in the Great Enclosure
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when was the original star is born movie released | A Star is Born (1937 film) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 1937 American Technicolor romantic drama film produced by David O. Selznick, directed by William A. Wellman from a script by Wellman, Robert Carson, Dorothy Parker, and Alan Campbell, and starring Janet Gaynor (in her only Technicolor film) as an aspiring Hollywood actress, and Fredric March (in his Technicolor debut) as a fading movie star who helps launch her career. The supporting cast features Adolphe Menjou, May Robson, Andy Devine, Lionel Stander, and Owen Moore.
The film was remade three times: in 1954 (directed by George Cukor and starring Judy Garland and James Mason), in 1976 (directed by Frank Pierson and starring Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson), and in 2018 (starring Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper, who also directed).
North Dakota farm girl Esther Victoria Blodgett yearns to become a Hollywood actress. Although her aunt and father discourage such thoughts, Esther 's grandmother gives Esther her savings to follow her dream.
Esther goes to Hollywood and tries to land a job as an extra, but so many others have had the same idea that the casting agency has stopped accepting applications. Esther is told that her chances of becoming a star are one in 100,000. She befriends a new resident at her boarding house, assistant director Danny McGuire, himself out of work. When Danny and Esther go to a concert to celebrate Danny 's employment, Esther has her first encounter with Norman Maine, an actor she admires greatly. Norman has been a major star for years, but his alcoholism has sent his career into a downward spiral.
Danny gets Esther a one - time waitressing job at a fancy Hollywood party. While serving hors d'œuvre, she catches Norman 's eye. He gets his longtime producer and good friend, Oliver Niles, to give her a screen test. Impressed, Oliver gives her a new name ("Vicki Lester '') and a contract. She practices her few lines for her first tiny role.
When the studio has trouble finding a female lead for Norman 's current film, entitled The Enchanted Hour, Norman persuades Oliver to cast Esther. The film makes her an overnight success, even as viewers continue to lose interest in Norman.
Norman proposes to Esther; she accepts when he promises to give up drinking. They elope without publicity, much to press agent Matt Libby 's disgust, and enjoy a trailer - camping honeymoon in the mountains. When they return, Esther 's popularity continues to skyrocket, while Norman realizes his own career is over, despite Oliver 's attempts to help him. Norman stays sober for a while, but his frustration over his situation finally pushes him over the edge. He starts drinking again. When Esther wins the industry 's top award (the Academy Award for Best Actress), he interrupts her acceptance speech by drunkenly demanding three awards for the worst acting of the year.
A stay at a sanatorium seems to cure Norman 's increasingly disruptive alcoholism, but a chance encounter with Libby gives the press agent an opportunity to vent his long - concealed contempt and dislike for Norman. Norman goes on a four - day drinking binge and winds up arrested for drunk driving. In court, the judge sentences him to 90 days of incarceration, but Esther pleads with the judge to put Norman under her care. The judge, who is impressed with Esther 's acting success, suspends Norman 's sentence and puts Norman 's custody into Esther 's hands. Esther decides to give up her career in order to devote herself to his rehabilitation. After Norman overhears her discussing her plan with Oliver, he drowns himself in the Pacific Ocean.
Shattered, Esther decides to quit and go home. Soon afterward, her grandmother shows up once she hears Esther is quitting. Her grandmother tells her of a letter Norman sent her when they got married. The letter stated how proud he was of Esther, and how much he loved her. Because of her grandmother 's words, and the reminder of Norman 's deep love, Esther is convinced to stay in show business. At the premiere of her next film at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre, when Esther is asked to say a few words into the microphone to her many fans listening across the world, she announces, "Hello, everybody. This is Mrs. Norman Maine. ''
A Star Is Born was filmed from October to December 1936 with an estimated budget of $1,173,639, and premiered in Los Angeles, California, on April 20, 1937, at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre. The film 's New York premiere took place two days later at Radio City Music Hall.
It is not known how much Dorothy Parker contributed to the finished script. When she first saw the film, Parker was proud of her contribution and boasted about both the script and the film, but in later life she believed that she had contributed nothing of significance.
Early in their careers, Budd Schulberg (then a script reader for David O. Selznick) and Ring Lardner, Jr. (who was working in Selznick 's publicity department) were assigned to write some additional dialogue for the film, a collaboration which produced Janet Gaynor 's (and the film 's) final words: "This is Mrs. Norman Maine. '' The line was used again in the 1954 Warner Bros. musical remake starring Judy Garland and James Mason. George Cukor, who directed the remake, suggested adding the scene in the 1937 film where Menjou offers the fading star a supporting role.
Some film historians believe that the marriage of Barbara Stanwyck and Frank Fay was the film 's real - life inspiration. John Bowers has also been identified as inspiration for the Norman Maine character and the dramatic suicide - by - drowning scene near the end of the film (Bowers drowned in November 1936). The film contains several inside jokes, including Gaynor 's brief imitations of Greta Garbo, Katharine Hepburn, and Mae West; the "Crawford Smear '', referring to Joan Crawford 's lipstick; and the revelation that the glamorous Norman Maine 's real last name is Hinkle. (Hinkle was the real last name of silent film star Agnes Ayres, and not far removed from Fredric March 's real last name, Bickel.)
This film also has many similarities to the earlier film What Price Hollywood? (1932), released by RKO Radio Pictures. The 1932 film 's original title was The Truth About Hollywood based on a story by Adela Rogers St. Johns. St. Johns loosely based her plot on the experiences of actress Colleen Moore and her husband, alcoholic producer John McCormick (1893 -- 1961), and the life and death of director Tom Forman, who committed suicide following a nervous breakdown.
Four years after What Price Hollywood? was released, Selznick approached George Cukor and asked him to direct A Star Is Born. Cukor felt the plot was too similar to What Price Hollywood? so he declined. RKO executives considered filing a plagiarism suit against Selznick International Pictures because of the similarities in the story, but eventually chose not to take legal action. Cukor later directed the 1954 musical remake starring Judy Garland.
A common Hollywood myth about the film is that Lana Turner appeared as an extra in one of the scenes in the film. Turner often denied the myth over the years, mentioning that she was discovered several months after the picture had finished production.
"A Star is Born '', sung by Buddy Clark with the orchestra of Eddy Duchin. The lyrics were written by Dorothy Dick to the music of Max Steiner.
Contemporary reviews were very positive. Frank S. Nugent of The New York Times called the film "one of the year 's best shows '' as well as "good entertainment by any standards, including the artistic, and convincing proof that Hollywood need not travel to Ruritania for its plots; there is drama aplenty in its own backyard. '' Variety raved: "A smash which unquestionably will rate among the half dozen best of the season... While the story is somewhat reminiscent of other behind - the - scene yarns, the manner of its telling makes it convincing and distinguished. '' Harrison 's Reports called it "a powerful human interest drama '' and "great entertainment. '' Film Daily said it was "superbly done in all departments, '' and John Mosher of The New Yorker called it "a pleasant movie '' with "many nice touches. ''
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 100 % based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10.
By the end of 1939 the film had earned a profit of $181,000.
At the 10th Academy Awards, A Star is Born was nominated in seven categories, winning in one. Wellman won the award for original story, the only Oscar he was to win during his career. W. Howard Greene received an honorary Academy Award for the film 's color photography; this award was recommended by a committee of leading cinematographers after viewing all the color pictures made during the year.
At the time of the release of the film, a 15 - minute transcription -- a pre-recorded radio show issued on 16 - inch disc -- promoting the film 's release was made. The narrated promotional radio show included sound clips from the film. The show was recorded and released through the World Broadcasting System, with disc matrix number H - 1636 - 2.
The film was adapted as a radio play on the September 13, 1937, episode of Lux Radio Theater with Robert Montgomery and Janet Gaynor, the November 17, 1940, episode of The Screen Guild Theater starring Loretta Young and Burgess Meredith, the December 28, 1942, episode of Lux Radio Theater with Judy Garland and Walter Pidgeon, the June 29, 1946, episode of Academy Award Theater, starring Fredric March, the May 23, 1948, episode of the Ford Theatre and the June 16, 1950, episode of Screen Director 's Playhouse starring Fredric March.
A Star Is Born has been remade three times, in 1954 with Judy Garland and James Mason, in 1976 with Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson, and in 2018 with Lady Gaga and Bradley Cooper. Production on the 2018 version began in 2017, with the film released on October 5, 2018.
Selznick International Pictures dissolved leaving the film 's rights to financier John Hay Whitney. Whitney then sold the film to Film Classics, Inc. in 1943. With declining rerun revenue, Film Classics place the film up for sale with producer Edward L. Alperson with the intent to remake the film. Instead Alperson sold the film 's copyright including film, story, screenplay, and score to Warner Bros. in 1953. Warner in 1954 issued the first remake. In 1965, the film entered the public domain in the United States because Warner did not renew its copyright registration in the 28th year after publication. The original 35mm master elements remain with Warner Bros. The rights to the film 's story, screenplay, and score also remain with Warner Bros.; thus it still has exclusive rights to all three remakes as well as any future remakes.
The film was released on Blu - ray in the US by Kino Lorber Inc. on February 2012, featuring an edition authorized by the estate of David O. Selznick from the collection of George Eastman House.
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is the a roof on louis armstrong stadium | Louis Armstrong stadium - wikipedia
Louis Armstrong Stadium is a 14,000 - seat tennis stadium at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, one of the venues of the US Open. It opened for the 2018 US Open as a replacement for the 1978 stadium of the same name.
The stadium has a retractable roof, the largest of its kind among the No. 2 stadiums at Grand Slam venues. At the time of its opening it was the 13th largest tennis venue in the world (based on capacity). On each side of the stadium, there are façades covered with terra cotta louvers, optimally positioned to keep rain out and, at the same time, allow for natural ventilation. Designers say the terra cotta material contextually relates to the traditional brick buildings on the site while using the material in a new way.
The first official match was played on August 27th, 2018 between Simona Halep and Kaia Kanepi. Kanepi won in two sets, which was the first time a WTA No. 1 had ever lost in the first round of the US Open.
For the 2017 tournament, while construction was still ongoing on the new Louis Armstrong Stadium, a temporary 8,800 - seat stadium was built on the site of the demolished ticket office and East Gate entrance, on Parking Lot B, close to the boardwalk ramp to the subway and LIRR trains.
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where does air france fly to in the us | List of Air France destinations - wikipedia
This list of Air France destinations includes the city, country, the codes of the International Air Transport Association (IATA airport code) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO airport code), and the airport 's name, with the airline 's hubs marked. The list also contains the beginning and end year of services, with destinations marked if the services was not continual and if they are seasonal, and for dates which occur in the future.
Air France flies to 36 domestic destinations and 168 international destinations in 93 countries (as of June 2017) across Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania. This list includes Air France Cargo services and those destinations served for Air France by its subsidiaries and franchisees Air Corsica, Airlinair, CityJet, Chalair and HOP!.
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difference between planck constant and reduced planck constant | Planck constant - wikipedia
The Planck constant (denoted h, also called Planck 's constant) is a physical constant that is the quantum of action, central in quantum mechanics.
First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was conceived as the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905, the value E, the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator, was theoretically associated by Albert Einstein with a "quantum '' or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself. The light quantum behaved in some respects as an electrically neutral particle, as opposed to an electromagnetic wave. It was eventually called a photon.
The Planck -- Einstein relation connects the particular photon energy E with its associated wave frequency f:
This energy is extremely small in terms of ordinarily perceived everyday objects.
Since the frequency f, wavelength λ, and speed of light c are related by f = c λ (\ displaystyle f = (\ frac (c) (\ lambda))), the relation can also be expressed as
The de Broglie wavelength λ of the particle is given by
Where p denotes the linear momentum of a particle, such as a photon, or any other elementary particle.
In applications where it is natural to use the angular frequency (i.e. where the frequency is expressed in terms of radians per second instead of cycles per second or hertz) it is often useful to absorb a factor of 2π into the Planck constant. The resulting constant is called the reduced Planck constant. It is equal to the Planck constant divided by 2π, and is denoted ħ (pronounced "h - bar ''):
The energy of a photon with angular frequency ω = 2πf is given by
while its linear momentum relates to
where k is an angular wavenumber. In 1923, Louis de Broglie generalized the Planck -- Einstein relation by postulating that the Planck constant represents the proportionality between the momentum and the quantum wavelength of not just the photon, but the quantum wavelength of any particle. This was confirmed by experiments soon afterwards. This holds throughout quantum theory, including electrodynamics.
These two relations are the temporal and spatial component parts of the special relativistic expression using 4 - vectors.
Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck 's discovery, it was recognized that physical action can not take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action '', now called the Planck constant. This is the so - called "old quantum theory '' developed by Bohr and Sommerfeld, in which particle trajectories exist but are hidden, but quantum laws constrain them based on their action. This view has been largely replaced by fully modern quantum theory, in which definite trajectories of motion do not even exist, rather, the particle is represented by a wavefunction spread out in space and in time. Thus there is no value of the action as classically defined. Related to this is the concept of energy quantization which existed in old quantum theory and also exists in altered form in modern quantum physics. Classical physics can not explain either quantization of energy or the lack of a classical particle motion.
In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, quantization of energy also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.
The Planck constant has dimensions of physical action; i.e., energy multiplied by time, or momentum multiplied by distance, or angular momentum. In SI units, the Planck constant is expressed in joule - seconds (J ⋅ s or N ⋅ m ⋅ s or kg ⋅ m ⋅ s).
The value of the Planck constant is:
The value of the reduced Planck constant (or Dirac constant) is:
The two digits inside the parentheses denote the standard uncertainty in the last two digits of the value. The figures cited here are the 2014 CODATA recommended values for the constants and their uncertainties. The 2014 CODATA results were made available in June 2015 and represent the best - known, internationally accepted values for these constants, based on all data published as of 31 December 2014. New CODATA figures are normally produced every four years.
In July 2017, the NIST measured the Planck constant using its Kibble balance instrument to an accuracy with an uncertainty of only 13 parts per billion, obtaining a value of 6966662606993400000 ♠ 6.626 069 934 (89) × 10 J ⋅ s.
The Planck constant is related to the quantization of light and matter. It can be seen as a subatomic - scale constant. In a unit system adapted to subatomic scales, the electronvolt is the appropriate unit of energy and the petahertz the appropriate unit of frequency. Atomic unit systems are based (in part) on the Planck constant.
The numerical value of the Planck constant depends entirely on the system of units used to measure it. When it is expressed in SI units, it is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small.
Equivalently, the smallness of the Planck constant reflects the fact that everyday objects and systems are made of a large number of particles. For example, green light with a wavelength of 555 nanometres (a wavelength that can be perceived by the human eye to be green) has a frequency of 7014540000000000000 ♠ 540 THz (7014540000000000000 ♠ 540 × 10 Hz). Each photon has an energy E = hf = 6981358000000000000 ♠ 3.58 × 10 J. That is a very small amount of energy in terms of everyday experience, but everyday experience is not concerned with individual photons any more than with individual atoms or molecules. An amount of light compatible with everyday experience is the energy of one mole of photons; its energy can be computed by multiplying the photon energy by the Avogadro constant, N ≈ 7023602200000000000 ♠ 6.022 × 10 mol. The result is that green light of wavelength 555 nm has an energy of 7005216000000000000 ♠ 216 kJ / mol, a typical energy of everyday life.
In the last years of the nineteenth century, Planck was investigating the problem of black - body radiation first posed by Kirchhoff some forty years earlier. It is well known that hot objects glow, and that hotter objects glow brighter than cooler ones. The electromagnetic field obeys laws of motion similarly to a mass on a spring, and can come to thermal equilibrium with hot atoms. The hot object in equilibrium with light absorbs just as much light as it emits. If the object is black, meaning it absorbs all the light that hits it, then its thermal light emission is maximized.
The assumption that black - body radiation is thermal leads to an accurate prediction: the total amount of emitted energy goes up with the temperature according to a definite rule, the Stefan -- Boltzmann law (1879 -- 84). But it was also known that the colour of the light given off by a hot object changes with the temperature, so that "white hot '' is hotter than "red hot ''. Nevertheless, Wilhelm Wien discovered the mathematical relationship between the peaks of the curves at different temperatures, by using the principle of adiabatic invariance. At each different temperature, the curve is moved over by Wien 's displacement law (1893). Wien also proposed an approximation for the spectrum of the object, which was correct at high frequencies (short wavelength) but not at low frequencies (long wavelength). It still was not clear why the spectrum of a hot object had the form that it has (see diagram).
Planck hypothesized that the equations of motion for light describe a set of harmonic oscillators, one for each possible frequency. He examined how the entropy of the oscillators varied with the temperature of the body, trying to match Wien 's law, and was able to derive an approximate mathematical function for black - body spectrum.
However, Planck soon realized that his solution was not unique. There were several different solutions, each of which gave a different value for the entropy of the oscillators. To save his theory, Planck had to resort to using the then controversial theory of statistical mechanics, which he described as "an act of despair... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics. '' One of his new boundary conditions was
to interpret U (the vibrational energy of N oscillators) not as a continuous, infinitely divisible quantity, but as a discrete quantity composed of an integral number of finite equal parts. Let us call each such part the energy element ε;
With this new condition, Planck had imposed the quantization of the energy of the oscillators, "a purely formal assumption... actually I did not think much about it... '' in his own words, but one which would revolutionize physics. Applying this new approach to Wien 's displacement law showed that the "energy element '' must be proportional to the frequency of the oscillator, the first version of what is now sometimes termed the "Planck -- Einstein relation '':
Planck was able to calculate the value of h from experimental data on black - body radiation: his result, 6966655000000000000 ♠ 6.55 × 10 J ⋅ s, is within 1.2 % of the currently accepted value. He was also able to make the first determination of the Boltzmann constant k from the same data and theory.
Prior to Planck 's work, it had been assumed that the energy of a body could take on any value whatsoever -- that it was a continuous variable. The Rayleigh -- Jeans law makes close predictions for a narrow range of values at one limit of temperatures, but the results diverge more and more strongly as temperatures increase. To make Planck 's law, which correctly predicts blackbody emissions, it was necessary to multiply the classical expression by a complex factor that involves h in both the numerator and the denominator. The influence of h in this complex factor would not disappear if it were set to zero or to any other value. Making an equation out of Planck 's law that would reproduce the Rayleigh -- Jeans law could not be done by changing the values of h, of the Boltzmann constant, or of any other constant or variable in the equation. In this case the picture given by classical physics is not duplicated by a range of results in the quantum picture.
The black - body problem was revisited in 1905, when Rayleigh and Jeans (on the one hand) and Einstein (on the other hand) independently proved that classical electromagnetism could never account for the observed spectrum. These proofs are commonly known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe '', a name coined by Paul Ehrenfest in 1911. They contributed greatly (along with Einstein 's work on the photoelectric effect) in convincing physicists that Planck 's postulate of quantized energy levels was more than a mere mathematical formalism. The very first Solvay Conference in 1911 was devoted to "the theory of radiation and quanta ''. Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta ''.
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons (called "photoelectrons '') from a surface when light is shone on it. It was first observed by Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, although credit is usually reserved for Heinrich Hertz, who published the first thorough investigation in 1887. Another particularly thorough investigation was published by Philipp Lenard in 1902. Einstein 's 1905 paper discussing the effect in terms of light quanta would earn him the Nobel Prize in 1921, when his predictions had been confirmed by the experimental work of Robert Andrews Millikan. The Nobel committee awarded the prize for his work on the photo - electric effect, rather than relativity, both because of a bias against purely theoretical physics not grounded in discovery or experiment, and dissent amongst its members as to the actual proof that relativity was real.
Prior to Einstein 's paper, electromagnetic radiation such as visible light was considered to behave as a wave: hence the use of the terms "frequency '' and "wavelength '' to characterise different types of radiation. The energy transferred by a wave in a given time is called its intensity. The light from a theatre spotlight is more intense than the light from a domestic lightbulb; that is to say that the spotlight gives out more energy per unit time and per unit space (and hence consumes more electricity) than the ordinary bulb, even though the colour of the light might be very similar. Other waves, such as sound or the waves crashing against a seafront, also have their own intensity. However, the energy account of the photoelectric effect did n't seem to agree with the wave description of light.
The "photoelectrons '' emitted as a result of the photoelectric effect have a certain kinetic energy, which can be measured. This kinetic energy (for each photoelectron) is independent of the intensity of the light, but depends linearly on the frequency; and if the frequency is too low (corresponding to a photon energy that is less than the work function of the material), no photoelectrons are emitted at all, unless a plurality of photons, whose energetic sum is greater than the energy of the photoelectrons, acts virtually simultaneously (multiphoton effect). Assuming the frequency is high enough to cause the photoelectric effect, a rise in intensity of the light source causes more photoelectrons to be emitted with the same kinetic energy, rather than the same number of photoelectrons to be emitted with higher kinetic energy.
Einstein 's explanation for these observations was that light itself is quantized; that the energy of light is not transferred continuously as in a classical wave, but only in small "packets '' or quanta. The size of these "packets '' of energy, which would later be named photons, was to be the same as Planck 's "energy element '', giving the modern version of the Planck -- Einstein relation:
Einstein 's postulate was later proven experimentally: the constant of proportionality between the frequency of incident light (f) and the kinetic energy of photoelectrons (E) was shown to be equal to the Planck constant (h).
Niels Bohr introduced the first quantized model of the atom in 1913, in an attempt to overcome a major shortcoming of Rutherford 's classical model. In classical electrodynamics, a charge moving in a circle should radiate electromagnetic radiation. If that charge were to be an electron orbiting a nucleus, the radiation would cause it to lose energy and spiral down into the nucleus. Bohr solved this paradox with explicit reference to Planck 's work: an electron in a Bohr atom could only have certain defined energies E
where c is the speed of light in vacuum, R is an experimentally determined constant (the Rydberg constant) and n is any integer (n = 1, 2, 3,...). Once the electron reached the lowest energy level (n = 1), it could not get any closer to the nucleus (lower energy). This approach also allowed Bohr to account for the Rydberg formula, an empirical description of the atomic spectrum of hydrogen, and to account for the value of the Rydberg constant R in terms of other fundamental constants.
Bohr also introduced the quantity h 2 π (\ displaystyle (\ frac (h) (2 \ pi))), now known as the reduced Planck constant, as the quantum of angular momentum. At first, Bohr thought that this was the angular momentum of each electron in an atom: this proved incorrect and, despite developments by Sommerfeld and others, an accurate description of the electron angular momentum proved beyond the Bohr model. The correct quantization rules for electrons -- in which the energy reduces to the Bohr model equation in the case of the hydrogen atom -- were given by Heisenberg 's matrix mechanics in 1925 and the Schrödinger wave equation in 1926: the reduced Planck constant remains the fundamental quantum of angular momentum. In modern terms, if J is the total angular momentum of a system with rotational invariance, and J the angular momentum measured along any given direction, these quantities can only take on the values
The Planck constant also occurs in statements of Werner Heisenberg 's uncertainty principle. Given a large number of particles prepared in the same state, the uncertainty in their position, Δx, and the uncertainty in their momentum (in the same direction), Δp, obey
where the uncertainty is given as the standard deviation of the measured value from its expected value. There are a number of other such pairs of physically measurable values which obey a similar rule. One example is time vs. energy. The either - or nature of uncertainty forces measurement attempts to choose between trade offs, and given that they are quanta, the trade offs often take the form of either - or (as in Fourier analysis), rather than the compromises and gray areas of time series analysis.
In addition to some assumptions underlying the interpretation of certain values in the quantum mechanical formulation, one of the fundamental cornerstones to the entire theory lies in the commutator relationship between the position operator x ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (x))) and the momentum operator p ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (p))):
where δ is the Kronecker delta.
There are several related constants for which more than 99 % of the uncertainty in the 2014 CODATA values is due to the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant, as indicated by the square of the correlation coefficient (r > 0.99, r > 0.995). The Planck constant is (with one or two exceptions) the fundamental physical constant which is known to the lowest level of precision, with a 1σ relative uncertainty u of 6992120000000000000 ♠ 1.2 × 10.
The normal textbook derivation of the Rydberg constant R defines it in terms of the electron mass m and a variety of other physical constants.
However, the Rydberg constant can be determined very accurately (u = 6988590000000000000 ♠ 5.9 × 10) from the atomic spectrum of hydrogen, whereas there is no direct method to measure the mass of a stationary electron in SI units. Hence the equation for the computation of m becomes
where c is the speed of light and α is the fine - structure constant. The speed of light has an exactly defined value in SI units, and the fine - structure constant can be determined more accurately (u = 6990229999999999999 ♠ 2.3 × 10) than the Planck constant. Thus, the uncertainty in the value of the electron rest mass is due entirely to the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant (r > 0.999).
The Avogadro constant N is determined as the ratio of the mass of one mole of electrons to the mass of a single electron; the mass of one mole of electrons is the "relative atomic mass '' of an electron A (e), which can be measured in a Penning trap (u = 6989290000000000000 ♠ 2.9 × 10), multiplied by the molar mass constant M, which is defined as 6997100000000000000 ♠ 0.001 M.
The dependence of the Avogadro constant on the Planck constant (r > 0.999) also holds for the physical constants which are related to amount of substance, such as the atomic mass constant. The uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant limits the knowledge of the masses of atoms and subatomic particles when expressed in SI units. It is possible to measure the masses more precisely in atomic mass units, but not to convert them more precisely into kilograms.
Sommerfeld originally defined the fine - structure constant α as:
where e is the elementary charge, ε is the electric constant (also called the permittivity of free space), and μ is the magnetic constant (also called the permeability of free space). The latter two constants have fixed values in the International System of Units. However, α can also be determined experimentally, notably by measuring the electron spin g - factor g, then comparing the result with the value predicted by quantum electrodynamics.
At present, the most precise value for the elementary charge is obtained by rearranging the definition of α to obtain the following definition of e in terms of α and h:
The Bohr magneton and the nuclear magneton are units which are used to describe the magnetic properties of the electron and atomic nuclei respectively. The Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment which would be expected for an electron if it behaved as a spinning charge according to classical electrodynamics. It is defined in terms of the reduced Planck constant, the elementary charge and the electron mass, all of which depend on the Planck constant: the final dependence on h (r > 0.995) can be found by expanding the variables.
The nuclear magneton has a similar definition, but corrected for the fact that the proton is much more massive than the electron. The ratio of the electron relative atomic mass to the proton relative atomic mass can be determined experimentally to a high level of precision (u = 6989950000000000000 ♠ 9.5 × 10).
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In principle, the Planck constant could be determined by examining the spectrum of a black - body radiator or the kinetic energy of photoelectrons, and this is how its value was first calculated in the early twentieth century. In practice, these are no longer the most accurate methods. The CODATA value quoted here is based on three watt - balance measurements of K R and one inter-laboratory determination of the molar volume of silicon, but is mostly determined by a 2007 watt - balance measurement made at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Five other measurements by three different methods were initially considered, but not included in the final refinement as they were too imprecise to affect the result.
There are both practical and theoretical difficulties in determining h. The practical difficulties can be illustrated by the fact that the two most accurate methods, the watt balance and the X-ray crystal density method, do not appear to agree with one another. The most likely reason is that the measurement uncertainty for one (or both) of the methods has been estimated too low -- it is (or they are) not as precise as is currently believed -- but for the time being there is no indication which method is at fault.
The theoretical difficulties arise from the fact that all of the methods except the X-ray crystal density method rely on the theoretical basis of the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect. If these theories are slightly inaccurate -- though there is no evidence at present to suggest they are -- the methods would not give accurate values for the Planck constant. More importantly, the values of the Planck constant obtained in this way can not be used as tests of the theories without falling into a circular argument. Fortunately, there are other statistical ways of testing the theories, and the theories have yet to be refuted.
The Josephson constant K relates the potential difference U generated by the Josephson effect at a "Josephson junction '' with the frequency ν of the microwave radiation. The theoretical treatment of Josephson effect suggests very strongly that K = 2e / h.
The Josephson constant may be measured by comparing the potential difference generated by an array of Josephson junctions with a potential difference which is known in SI volts. The measurement of the potential difference in SI units is done by allowing an electrostatic force to cancel out a measurable gravitational force. Assuming the validity of the theoretical treatment of the Josephson effect, K is related to the Planck constant by
A watt balance is an instrument for comparing two powers, one of which is measured in SI watts and the other of which is measured in conventional electrical units. From the definition of the conventional watt W, this gives a measure of the product K R in SI units, where R is the von Klitzing constant which appears in the quantum Hall effect. If the theoretical treatments of the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect are valid, and in particular assuming that R = h / e, the measurement of K R is a direct determination of the Planck constant.
The gyromagnetic ratio γ is the constant of proportionality between the frequency ν of nuclear magnetic resonance (or electron paramagnetic resonance for electrons) and the applied magnetic field B: ν = γB. It is difficult to measure gyromagnetic ratios precisely because of the difficulties in precisely measuring B, but the value for protons in water at 7002298150000000000 ♠ 25 ° C is known to better than one part per million. The protons are said to be "shielded '' from the applied magnetic field by the electrons in the water molecule, the same effect that gives rise to chemical shift in NMR spectroscopy, and this is indicated by a prime on the symbol for the gyromagnetic ratio, γ ′. The gyromagnetic ratio is related to the shielded proton magnetic moment μ ′, the spin number I (I = ⁄ for protons) and the reduced Planck constant.
The ratio of the shielded proton magnetic moment μ ′ to the electron magnetic moment μ can be measured separately and to high precision, as the imprecisely known value of the applied magnetic field cancels itself out in taking the ratio. The value of μ in Bohr magnetons is also known: it is half the electron g - factor g. Hence
A further complication is that the measurement of γ ′ involves the measurement of an electric current: this is invariably measured in conventional amperes rather than in SI amperes, so a conversion factor is required. The symbol Γ ′ is used for the measured gyromagnetic ratio using conventional electrical units. In addition, there are two methods of measuring the value, a "low - field '' method and a "high - field '' method, and the conversion factors are different in the two cases. Only the high - field value Γ ′ (hi) is of interest in determining the Planck constant.
Substitution gives the expression for the Planck constant in terms of Γ ′ (hi):
The Faraday constant F is the charge of one mole of electrons, equal to the Avogadro constant N multiplied by the elementary charge e. It can be determined by careful electrolysis experiments, measuring the amount of silver dissolved from an electrode in a given time and for a given electric current. In practice, it is measured in conventional electrical units, and so given the symbol F. Substituting the definitions of N and e, and converting from conventional electrical units to SI units, gives the relation to the Planck constant.
The X-ray crystal density method is primarily a method for determining the Avogadro constant N but as the Avogadro constant is related to the Planck constant it also determines a value for h. The principle behind the method is to determine N as the ratio between the volume of the unit cell of a crystal, measured by X-ray crystallography, and the molar volume of the substance. Crystals of silicon are used, as they are available in high quality and purity by the technology developed for the semiconductor industry. The unit cell volume is calculated from the spacing between two crystal planes referred to as d. The molar volume V (Si) requires a knowledge of the density of the crystal and the atomic weight of the silicon used. The Planck constant is given by
The experimental measurement of the Planck constant in the Large Hadron Collider laboratory was carried out in 2011. The study called PCC using a giant particle accelerator helped to better understand the relationships between the Planck constant and measuring distances in space.
As mentioned above, the numerical value of the Planck constant depends on the system of units used to describe it. Its value in SI units is known to 12 parts per billion but its value in atomic units is known exactly, because of the way the scale of atomic units is defined. The same is true of conventional electrical units, where the Planck constant (denoted h to distinguish it from its value in SI units) is given by
with K and R being exactly defined constants. Atomic units and conventional electrical units are very useful in their respective fields, because the uncertainty in the final result does not depend on an uncertain conversion factor, only on the uncertainty of the measurement itself.
It is currently planned to redefine certain of the SI base units in terms of fundamental physical constants. This has already been done for the metre, which since 1983 has been defined in terms of a fixed value of the speed of light. The most urgent unit on the list for redefinition is the kilogram, whose value has been fixed for all science (since 1889) by the mass of a small cylinder of platinum -- iridium alloy kept in a vault just outside Paris. While nobody knows if the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram has changed since 1889 -- the value 1 kg of its mass expressed in kilograms is by definition unchanged and therein lies one of the problems -- it is known that over such a timescale the many similar Pt -- Ir alloy cylinders kept in national laboratories around the world have changed their relative masses by several tens of parts per million, however carefully they are stored. A change of several tens of micrograms in one kilogram is equivalent to the current uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant in SI units.
The legal process to change the definition of the kilogram to one based on a fixed value of the Planck constant is already underway. The 24th and 25th General Conferences on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 2011 and 2014 approved of the redefinition in principle, but were not satisfied with the measurement uncertainty of the Planck constant. The limits they specified were reached in 2016, and the redefinition is scheduled to occur on 16 November 2018, during the 26th CGPM.
Watt balances already measure mass in terms of the Planck constant: at present, standard kilogram prototypes are taken as fixed masses and the measurement is performed to determine the Planck constant but, once the Planck constant is fixed in SI units, the same experiment would be a measurement of the mass. The relative uncertainty in the measurement would remain the same.
Mass standards could also be constructed from silicon crystals or by other atom - counting methods. Such methods require a knowledge of the Avogadro constant, which fixes the proportionality between atomic mass and macroscopic mass but, with a defined value of the Planck constant, N would be known to the same level of uncertainty (if not better) than current methods of comparing macroscopic mass.
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who won worst cook in america season 11 | Worst Cooks in America - Wikipedia
Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January 3, 2010, on the Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits '') with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set. The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including: baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant quality three - course meal for three food critics.
The show premiered on January 3, 2010. The show was initially hosted by chef Anne Burrell and chef Beau MacMillan in Season 1. MacMillan was replaced by chef Robert Irvine on Season 2, followed by chef Bobby Flay for Seasons 3 -- 5. On November 20, 2014, a Food Network press release announced that chef Tyler Florence will be paired with chef Burrell to host Season 6, to debut on January 4, 2015. Burrell was the winning instructor in seasons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 with Flay winning in Seasons 4 -- 5. Rachael Ray and Burrell hosted the Season 7 special celebrity edition, which premiered September 23, 2015. During the finale of Season 7, a trailer previewing Season 8 was shown and was aired in January 2016 with the return of Tyler Florence.
Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three - course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs.
Twelve chefs competed in the first season of Worst Cooks in America. Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website. Chef Anne 's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau 's team was known as the Blue Team.
Casting for season 2 of Worst Cooks in America was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010. The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2. Food Network 's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011. In this season the chefs had eight recruits each.
In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode.
In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish.
After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season 's main dishes were an improved version of the recruits ' audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them.
Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant.
Anne Burrell and Bobby Flay hosted season 3 replacing Robert Irvine.
^ Note 1: In Episode 3, Team Bobby (blue team) won the first challenge, he therefore got to choose one person from Team Anne (red team) to go to his team, and then choose one person from his team to go to the other team. He chose David to go to Team Anne 's team and chose Melissa from Team Anne 's team to join his team.
^ Note 1: In Episode 3 Team Anne (red team) won the first challenge, she therefore got to choose one person from Team Bobby (blue team) to go to her team, and then chose one person from her team to go to the other team. She chose Stephanie to go to Team Bobby 's team and chose Carrie from Team Bobby 's team to join her team.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host seasons 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers. The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers, with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers. the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers.
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team 's worst recruit from that week 's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 8.
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers.
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 10. The season premiered on January 1, 2017.
In Episode 6, Both Chef Anne and Chef Rachael decided not to send anyone from their teams home.
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017
Note: Vivica was originally eliminated on September 20. In Episode 7, airing on October 4, both Vivica and Sean returned to the competition for a redemption skill drill. Vivica won the drill, re-entered the competition and was then eliminated following the main challenge.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 12.
In episode 5, contestants Lacey and Spencer switch teams instead of being eliminated, Lacey on Chef Anne 's Team and Spencer on Chef Tyler 's team.
Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host season 4 of the Celebrity Edition. This is the first Celebrity Edition to not feature Rachael Ray as a judge. The season premiered on April 15, 2018.
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what kind of weapon was used in the texas shooting | University of Texas tower shooting - wikipedia
On August 1, 1966, after stabbing his mother and his wife to death the night before, Charles Whitman, a former Marine, took rifles and other weapons to the observation deck atop the Main Building tower at the University of Texas at Austin, then opened fire on persons indiscriminately on the surrounding campus and streets. Over the next 90 minutes he shot and killed 16 people (including one unborn child) and injured 31 others; while a final victim died in 2001 from the lingering effects of his wounds. The incident ended when a policeman and a civilian reached Whitman and shot him dead. The attack is one of the deadliest mass shootings in U.S. history.
It has been suggested that his violent impulses, with which he had been struggling for several years, were caused due to a tumor found in his brain on autopsy.
Charles Whitman, 25, was studying architectural engineering. In 1961 Whitman was admitted to the University of Texas at Austin on a scholarship from the Naval Enlisted Science Education Program. While at UT, Whitman met and married his wife, Kathleen. Whitman struggled with gambling and bad grades, and he lost his scholarship in 1963. Before the attack, Whitman had sought professional help for "overwhelming violent impulses '', including fantasies about shooting people from the tower. An autopsy after his death revealed a brain tumor.
Whitman killed his mother, Margaret Whitman, and his wife, Kathleen Leissner Whitman, between midnight and 3: 00 a.m. on August 1. In a note he professed his love for both women, saying he had killed them to spare them future humiliation and -- in the case of his mother -- suffering.
Later that morning, Whitman rented a hand truck and cashed $250 (equivalent to $1,900 in 2017) worth of bad checks at a bank. He then drove to a hardware store, where he purchased a Universal M1 carbine, two additional ammunition magazines, and eight boxes of ammunition, telling the cashier he planned to hunt wild hogs. At a gun shop he purchased four more carbine magazines, six additional boxes of ammunition, and a can of gun cleaning solvent. At Sears he purchased a Sears Model 60 12 gauge semi-automatic shotgun before returning home.
Whitman sawed off the barrel and butt stock of the shotgun, then packed it into his footlocker, along with a Remington 700 6 - mm bolt - action hunting rifle, a. 35 - caliber pump rifle, a. 30 - caliber carbine (M1), a 9 - mm Luger pistol, a Galesi - Brescia. 25 - caliber pistol, a Smith & Wesson M19. 357 Magnum revolver, and more than 700 rounds of ammunition. He also packed food, coffee, vitamins, Dexedrine, Excedrin, earplugs, jugs of water, matches, lighter fluid, rope, binoculars, a machete, three knives, a transistor radio, toilet paper, a razor, and a bottle of deodorant. He put khaki coveralls on over his shirt and jeans.
At approximately 11: 25 a.m., Whitman reached the University of Texas at Austin, where he showed false research assistant identification to obtain a parking permit. Whitman wheeled his equipment toward the Main Building of the University. Entering the Main Building, Whitman found the elevator did not work. An employee named Vera Palmer activated it for him; Whitman thanked Palmer, stating, "Thank you ma'am '', before repeatedly saying: "You do n't know how happy that makes me. ''
Exiting the elevator on the 27th floor, he hauled the dolly and equipment up a flight of stairs to a hallway, from which another flight led to the rooms skirted by the observation deck. There he encountered receptionist Edna Townsley.
M.J. Gabour, his wife Mary Frances Gabour, and their sons Mike and Mark were in Austin visiting M.J. 's sister Marguerite Lamport and her husband William Lamport. Around 11: 45 am they were climbing the stairs from the 27th floor when they encountered the desk Whitman had placed in the entrance to the reception area. As Mike and Mark squeezed past, Whitman came forward and fired his shotgun, hitting Mike in the shoulder and Mark in the head, then fired down the stairs, striking Marguerite and Mary Frances. M.J. and William, farther down the stairs, were not hit and went for help at Mike 's urging. Whitman then shot Townsley in the head before exiting to the observation deck.
Mike Gabour 's injuries left him unable to complete his Air Force training, and Mary Frances was left paralyzed from the neck down and legally blind.
Wilson was the first person Whitman shot from the tower. She and Eckman were leaving the Student Union when Wilson, eight months pregnant, was shot in the abdomen at 11: 47 am; her baby was killed. As Eckman went to her aid he was shot in the chest and died instantly. Passerby Rita Star Pattern lay next to Wilson, and for an hour comforted her and kept her conscious. Eventually James Love, John "Artly '' Fox and others left their protected location (while Whitman was still shooting) and carried Wilson to safety and also retrieved Eckman 's body. Wilson would remain hospitalized for three months.
During surgery it was discovered that Gunby had only one functioning kidney to begin with, which had now been severely damaged; he was in great pain for the rest of his life. In 2001 he died one week after discontinuing dialysis. His death was officially ruled a homicide.
Some mistook the sound of shots for the noise from a nearby construction site, or thought that persons falling to the ground were part of a theater group or an anti-war protest. One victim recalled that as she lay bleeding a passerby reprimanded her and told her to "Get up. '' Among those who grasped the situation, many risked their lives to take the wounded to safety. An armored car and ambulances from local funeral homes were used to reach the wounded.
Four minutes after Whitman began shooting from the tower, a history professor was the first to telephone the Austin Police Department, at 11: 52 a.m. Patrolman Billy Speed, one of the first officers to arrive, took refuge with a colleague behind a columned stone wall. Whitman shot through the six - inch space between the columns of the wall and killed Speed.
Officer Houston McCoy, 26, heard of the shooting on his radio. As he looked for a way into the tower, a student offered to help, saying he had a rifle at home. McCoy drove the student to his home to retrieve the rifle.
Allen Crum, a 40 - year - old retired Air Force tail gunner, was a manager at the University Book Store Co-Op. Across the street he saw a 17 - year - old newspaper boy being dragged and went to break up what he thought was a fight. Learning the boy had been shot, and hearing more shots, Crum rerouted street traffic out of harm 's way. Unable to make his way back to the store safely, he then made his way to the tower, where he offered to help the police. Inside the tower, he accompanied Department of Public Safety Agent Dub Cowan and Austin Police Officer Jerry Day up the elevator; Cowan provided Crum with a rifle.
Around noon, Officer Ramiro "Ray '' Martinez was off duty at home when he heard about the attack on the news. Having called the police station, he was instructed to go to the campus and direct traffic. Once there he found other officers already doing that, so he went to the tower. He assumed he would find a team of officers there, but when he reached the 27th floor he found only Cowan, Crum, and Day.
Officers attempting to reach the tower were forced to move slowly and take cover often, but a small group of officers including Houston McCoy began making their way to the tower via underground maintenance tunnels. Officers and several civilians provided suppressive fire from the ground with small weapons and hunting rifles, forcing Whitman to stay low and fire through storm drains at the foot of the observation deck 's wall. A police sharpshooter in a small plane was driven back by Whitman 's return fire but continued to circle at a distance, seeking to distract Whitman and further limit his freedom to choose targets.
Martinez, Crum, and Day searched the 27th floor, where they found M.J. Gabour; Day removed him. Martinez started up the stairs to the observation deck, and Crum insisted on covering him, asking Martinez to deputize him first.
Beneath the stairwell leading to the reception area, Martinez found Marguerite Lamport, Mark Gabour, Mike Gabour, and Mary Gabour. Mike Gabour gestured to the observation deck, saying: "He 's out there. ''
Martinez reached the observation deck first. He told Crum to remain at the door. McCoy and Day reached the observation deck a few minutes later. Day, after helping M.J. Gabour, had returned to the 27th floor. He realized Martinez had gone up to the observation deck and told McCoy. At some point Crum accidentally fired his rifle.
Around 1: 24 p.m., while Whitman was looking south for the source of the rifle shot, Martinez and McCoy rounded the northeastern corner of the observation deck. Martinez fired on Whitman with his revolver, missing, and McCoy hit Whitman twice with his shotgun. Martinez then took McCoy 's shotgun from him, having emptied his own weapon, and fired a final shot into Whitman at point - blank range. In the immediate aftermath, Martinez was nearly shot himself by those on the ground, who did not yet realize that Whitman was dead.
Martinez and McCoy were awarded Medals of Valor by the city of Austin.
Following the shootings the tower observation deck was closed. The various bullet holes were repaired and the tower was reopened in 1968. It was closed again in 1975 following four suicides. After a stainless steel lattice and other security features were installed, it was again reopened in 1999, but only to by - appointment guided tours, and all visitors are screened by metal detectors.
In 2006 a Memorial Garden was dedicated to those who died or were otherwise affected. A monument listing the names of the victims was added in 2016 on the shootings ' fiftieth anniversary; the tower 's clock was stopped for 24 hours beginning at 11: 48 a.m. The day was declared by the City of Austin as "Ramiro Martinez Day ''.
In 2008 the following names of persons who helped stop Whitman were added to a plaque on an Austin police precinct building.
In 2014, Claire Wilson 's stillborn son received a tombstone in Austin Memorial Park Cemetery, after his grave was rediscovered by Gary Lavergne. Adorned with a single crucifix, it reads "Baby Boy Wilson / August 1, 1966 ''.
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total episode of the legend of blue sea | Legend of the Blue Sea - Wikipedia
Legend of the Blue Sea (Hangul: 푸른 바다 의 전설; RR: Pureun bada - ui jeonseol) is a 2016 - 2017 South Korean television series starring Jun Ji - hyun and Lee Min - ho. Inspired by a classic Joseon legend from Korea 's first collection of unofficial historical tales about a fisherman who captures and releases a mermaid, this drama tells the love story of a con - artist and a mermaid who travels across the ocean to find him. It aired on SBS every Wednesday and Thursday at 22: 00 (KST) started from 16 November 2016 until 25 January 2017.
The television series centers on the love story of Heo Joon - jae (Lee Min - ho), the son of a rich businessman who becomes a handsome and clever con - man after his parents ' divorce, and a mermaid named Shim Cheong (Jun Ji - hyun). Focusing on rebirth, fate, and unrequited love, their tale is juxtaposed with the parallel story of their Joseon era incarnations, town head Kim Dam - ryeong and the mermaid Se - hwa.
During the Joseon era, a mermaid saves Kim Dam - ryeong from drowning when they were still young. Following the incident, they became friends and Dam - ryeong named her Se - hwa, after his younger sister. They ended up falling in love, but one day Dam - ryeong was forced by his family to marry another girl. Devastated by the news, Se - hwa decides to leave Dam - ryeong forever. Nevertheless, Dam - ryeong 's love for Se - hwa forced him to leave his wife and to jump into the ocean to look for the mermaid. The distraught Se - hwa erases his memories of her and their love so that he may not look for her again.
After years of separation, the two grow as adults. Their paths cross again as Se - hwa was found by town folks trapped in a cave after a storm, and was brought to Dam - ryeong, now a town official. Their broken relationship starts back again. On the other hand, a nobleman named Yang made murderous attempts to steal Se - hwa for his own and to overthrow Dam - ryeong. Investigations on the covert killings of some individuals all indicate Yang as the instigator of the crimes. Dam - ryeong also saved a weak Se - hwa from Yang 's concubine who apparently has beaten her to cry since mermaid tears turn into pearls.
Meanwhile, Dam - ryeong keeps on experiencing dreams of himself, Se - hwa, and their foes in the future, and feared that the same ill - fate that afflicts himself and Se - hwa will replay itself. To warn his future self, he commissions a soon - to - be artifact -- a time capsule containing a portrait of himself with a message to his future self that "everything is repeating itself '' and he has to protect the mermaid from danger, particularly the reincarnations of Yang and anyone related to him. As Dam - ryeong was about to strike down Yang for his crimes, he is arrested for his relationship with Se - hwa and was sentenced to be exiled.
Whilst Dam - ryeong was escorted on boat for his exile, Yang and his associates search for Se - hwa. Urged by his suspicions, he requested the boat to turn around and fought with Yang and his gang. As men aim their harpoons, Dam - ryeong plunges into the water just as a harpoon, hurled by Yang 's son, hits him from behind, saving Se - hwa. To end both of their lives, Se - hwa thrusts the harpoon deeper and stabs herself. The boats sink, carrying Dam - ryeong 's belongings with them, and Dam - ryeong 's jadeite bracelet apparently slides off from the dying Se - hwa 's arm. Yang and his concubine were executed by sword and monkshood poison, respectively, for their crimes.
In the modern days, young Heo Joon - jae runs away from home after the divorce of his parents. His father Heo Il - joong (Choi Jung - woo) adopts stepson Chi - hyun (Lee Ji - hoon) and marries Kang Seo - hee (Hwang Shin - hye). Joon - jae 's mother Mo Yoo - ran (Na Young - hee) works as a housekeeper. In his search for his mother, Joon - jae becomes a con - artist, using his good looks, wits, and skills in hypnotism in conducting scams with his mentor Jo Nam - doo (Lee Hee - joon) and computer hacking genius Tae - oh (Shin Won - ho). His affections are chased after by his college classmate, Cha Shi - ah.
Using the money he earned from his scams, Joon - jae flies to Spain, where he meets a mysterious pretty woman who went inside his hotel room unseen. He calls the police and sends her to jail, but Joon - jae retrieves her after being curious about the jadeite bracelet he saw on the woman 's arm. Nam - doo receives from Joon - jae a photo of the woman with the jadeite and confirms over the phone that the jadeite is genuine and of high price. Meanwhile, Joon - jae is being chased by gunmen being hired by a rich businesswoman who has fallen for Joon - jae 's scams. He brings the mysterious woman with him throughout the pursuit, until they end up cornered on a cliff facing the sea. They jump into the water, and the woman, who was revealed to be a mermaid unbeknownst to Joon - jae, kisses him to erase his memories of her but promises to follow him to Seoul.
Joon - jae returns to Seoul and is tormented by the gaps in his memories and by Jo Nam - doo 's claims of him being with a girl with an expensive jadeite. After months of swimming and traveling, the mermaid also arrives in Seoul wandering around the city, until she runs into Joon - jae. He recognizes her to be the woman Nam - doo is referring to and interrogates her on her identity and why he can not remember her, although the mermaid hesitates to answer. He brings her to his home and names her Shim Cheong. They live together and steadily gets closer with each other.
Kang Seo - hee hires the fugitive Ma Dae - young (Sung Dong - il) to kill Joon - jae as part of her scheme to inherit Heo Il - joong 's fortune. She also has secretly introduced Heo Il - joong with small yet potent doses of anticholinergic and monkshood extract, contributing to his failing health, particularly his vision. Chi - hyun dutifully nurses him, completely unaware of his mother 's treachery. Ma Dae - young attempts several times to finish both Joon - jae and Shim Cheong but failed. Shim Cheong uses her power to erase Ma Dae - young 's memories and, in the process, learns the sad fate of their Joseon era incarnations Kim Dam - ryeong and Se - hwa.
Linked by dreams, mysterious artifacts, including the jadeite bracelet, a vase with an image of a mermaid kissing a man in modern - day clothes, and the portrait of Kim Dam - ryeong with the inscription "everything is repeating itself '', Joon - jae also learns of Dam - ryeong 's world and his own fate, concluding that he and Shim Cheong are reincarnations of Kim Dam - ryeong and Se - hwa. Through his consultations with Professor of Neuropsychiatry Jin Kyung - won (Lee Ho - jae), he is able to retrieve his lost memories and the full rendering of his dreams about Kim Dam - ryeong and Se - hwa. He can also hear Shim Cheong 's inner voice; he learns that she is indeed a mermaid and that, unless she returns to the sea, her heart will harden and stop beating if he will not love her.
Joon - jae and Shim - cheong lived comfortably with each other despite conflicts and the fear of the impending ill - fate. Joon - jae also finds his mother Mo Yoo - ran, who quit her job as housekeeper. On the other hand, Chi - hyun learns that his real father is Ma Dae - young and he is Kang Seo - hee 's lover. He also learns of Kang Seo - hee 's crimes and reluctantly consents to them. Kang Seo - hee finally kills Heo Il - joong, using a strong dose of monkshood. Joon - jae, with the help of Shim Cheong, Jo Nam - doo, Tae - oh, and police officer - detective Hong Dong - pyo (Park Hae - soo), busts Kang Seo - hee, revealing her real name to be "Kang Ji - hyun '' and her schemes finally revealed. A maddened Chi - hyun steals a gun and aims at Joon - jae but Shim Cheong takes the shot to save him. Kang Seo - hee is detained while Chi - hyun killed himself with monkshood poison.
As Shim Cheong, being a mermaid, survives the fatal injury, Joon - jae learns that Ma Dae - young is visiting Professor Jin Kyung - won. As Joon - jae, Jo Nam - doo, and Officer Hong Dong - pyo rush to get him, Ma Dae - young recovers his memories of his past life and learns the death of his incarnation, Mr. Yang, and Yang 's concubine, revealed to be by the hands of Park Moo, Jo Nam - doo 's incarnation. Just as Professor Jin Kyung - won was about to be murdered, Joon - jae arrives, and Ma Dae - young is seized by the police. Shim Cheong is discharged afterwards, but she still feels pain in her heart due to the gunshot. In order to fully recover, she has to go back into the water. Shim Cheong has to erase the memories of Joon - jae and of everyone who knew her. Before returning to the sea to recover, she was able to wipe out the memories of all the people she met in Seoul, except that of her child friend named Yoo - na (Shin Rin - ah), and returns to the ocean.
Three years passed since Shim Cheong left. Joon - jae becomes a prosecutor, Jo Nam - doo works as a lecturer, and Tae - oh is engaged to Cha Shi - ah (Shin Hye - sun). Shim Cheong fully recovers her health and returns to Seoul. Despite his lost memories, Joon - jae recognizes Shim Cheong and it is revealed that he has been recording his life with Shim Cheong in case his memories are lost again. With this, Joon - jae had ultimately accomplished Kim Dam - ryeong 's reminder to protect Shim Cheong from danger and they had evaded the bad fate that had been in store for them. The couple were finally married and lived happily in a home by the sea.
Filming began on August 19, 2016 in Goesan, North Chungcheong Province, South Korea. The production team then flew to Palau to film underwater scenes. The cast and crew flew to Spain on September 11 where they filmed in A Coruña, Ribadeo, Lugo, Tossa de Mar and Castell de Santa Florentina in Canet de Mar, as well as Begur (Es Cau Swimming Pool), Sitges (Town Hall and other backdrops) and Barcelona (exteriors of Palau de la Música Catalana, etc.), among other places in Catalonia and Galicia (Spain). The first script reading was held on October 8, 2016, two months after production began, due to the busy schedules of the actors. It lasted three hours and covered the first four episodes.
This drama served as a reunion for both Lee Ji - hoon and Shin Hye - sun who debuted together in the 2012 KBS2 hit school drama School 2013 as well as Jun Ji - hyun and Hong Jin - kyung who previously worked together in the 2013 SBS hit drama My Love from the Star.
Due to the star power of Jun and Lee, the series maintained the first place ranking for its timeslot and surpassed 20 % viewership ratings. The series also fared well overseas, having been exported to all major regions around the world, including Southeast Asia, the Americas and Europe. Despite the show 's success, it was criticized for lack of originality, as many viewers felt that the ' parallel timeline ' and ' romance between a human and supernatural being ' were recycled elements of writer Park 's previous series My Love From the Star (2013 - 2014). Additionally, it was slammed for bad editing, loose plot and lack of chemistry. However, Jun 's performance as a mermaid was met with overall high praise; with The Straits Times saying that she is "brilliant as the otherworldly goofball who is blissfully unaware of the mission to save her self - worth '' and Yonhap News Agency highlighting her "trademark lanky, slender yet at times powerful and dramatic performance ''.
In the table below, the blue numbers represent the lowest ratings and the red numbers represent the highest ratings.
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what kind of government did great zimbabwe have | Great Zimbabwe - wikipedia
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south - eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country 's Late Iron Age. Construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The edifices were erected by the ancestral Shona. The stone city spans an area of 7.22 square kilometres (1,780 acres) which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people. It is recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power. Among the edifice 's most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high. They were constructed without mortar (dry stone). Eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.
The earliest known written mention of the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as Symbaoe. The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871. Later, studies of the monument were controversial in the archaeological world, with political pressure being put upon archaeologists by the government of Rhodesia to deny its construction by native African people. Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as a national monument by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named for it. The word great distinguishes the site from the many hundreds of small ruins, now known as "zimbabwes '', spread across the Zimbabwe Highveld. There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique, with monumental, mortarless walls; Great Zimbabwe is the largest of these.
Zimbabwe is the Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that "The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, which according to their language signifies ' court ' ''.
The name contains dzimba, the Shona term for "houses ''. There are two theories for the etymology of the name. The first proposes that the word is derived from Dzimba - dza - mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "large houses of stone '' (dzimba = plural of imba, "house ''; mabwe = plural of bwe, "stone ''). A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a contracted form of dzimba - hwe, which means "venerated houses '' in the Zezuru dialect of Shona, as usually applied to the houses or graves of chiefs.
The majority of scholars believe that it was built by members of the Gokomere culture, who were ancestors of modern Shona in Zimbabwe.
The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the fourth century AD. Between the fourth and the seventh centuries, communities of the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron, but built no stone structures. These are the earliest Iron Age settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings.
Construction of the stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 11 m (36 ft) extending approximately 250 m (820 ft), making it the largest ancient structure south of the Sahara Desert. David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros. Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. At its peak, estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone; they span 730 ha (1,800 acres).
In 1531, Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala, described Zimbabwe thus:
The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the ninth to thirteenth centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, and the Valley Complex from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. Notable features of the Hill Complex include the Eastern Enclosure, in which it is thought the Zimbabwe Birds stood, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and a huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower, 5.5 m (18 ft) in diameter and 9 m (30 ft) high, was constructed between the two walls. The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.
There are different archaeological interpretations of these groupings. It has been suggested that the complexes represent the work of successive kings: some of the new rulers founded a new residence. The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the twelfth century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early sixteenth century. The alternative "structuralist '' interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions: the Hill Complex as a temple, the Valley complex was for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. Structures that were more elaborate were probably built for the kings, although it has been argued that the dating of finds in the complexes does not support this interpretation.
The most important artefacts recovered from the Monument are the eight Zimbabwe Birds. These were carved from a micaceous schist (soapstone) on the tops of monoliths the height of a person. Slots in a platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but as they were not found in situ it can not be determined which monolith and bird were where. Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.
Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, with artefacts suggesting that the city formed part of a trade network linked to Kilwa and extending as far as China. Copper coins found at Kilwa Kisiwani appear to be of the same pure ore found on the Swahili coast. This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory; some estimates indicate that more than 20 million ounces of gold were extracted from the ground. That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads and other non-local items have been excavated at Zimbabwe. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and centres such as Kilwa.
Causes for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the site around 1450 have been suggested as due to a decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change. The Mutapa state arose in the fifteenth century from the northward expansion of the Great Zimbabwe tradition, having been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe after he was sent to find new sources of salt in the north; (this supports the belief that Great Zimbabwe 's decline was due to a shortage of resources). Great Zimbabwe also predates the Khami and Nyanga cultures.
The first European visit may have been made by the Portuguese traveler António Fernandes in 1513 - 1515, who crossed twice and reported in detail the region of present - day Zimbabwe (including the Shona kingdoms) and also fortified centers in stone without mortar. However, passing en route a few kilometres north and about 56 km (35 mi) south of the site, he did not make a reference to Great Zimbabwe. Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the ancient city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long - distance trade. Two of those accounts mention an inscription above the entrance to Great Zimbabwe, written in characters not known to the Arab merchants who had seen it.
In 1506, the explorer Diogo de Alcáçova described the edifices in a letter to the then King of Portugal, writing that they were part of the larger kingdom of Ucalanga (presumably Karanga, a dialect of the Shona people spoken mainly in Masvingo and Midlands provinces of Zimbabwe). João de Barros left another such description of Great Zimbabwe in 1538, as recounted to him by Moorish traders who had visited the area and possessed knowledge of the hinterland. He indicates that the edifices were locally known as Symbaoe, which meant "royal court '' in the vernacular. As to the actual identity of the builders of Great Zimbabwe, de Barros writes:
Additionally, with regard to the purpose of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, de Barros asserted that: "in the opinion of the Moors who saw it (Great Zimbabwe) it is very ancient and was built to keep possessions of the mines, which are very old, and no gold has been extracted from them for years, because of the wars... it would seem that some prince who has possession of these mines ordered it to be built as a sign thereof, which he afterwards lost in the course of time and through their being so remote from his kingdom... ''.
De Barros further remarked that Symbaoe "is guarded by a nobleman, who has charge of it, after the manner of a chief alcaide, and they call this officer Symbacayo... and there are always some of Benomotapa 's wives therein of whom Symbacayo takes care. '' Thus, Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as the early 16th century.
The ruins were rediscovered during a hunting trip in 1867 by Adam Render, a German - American hunter, prospector and trader in southern Africa, who in 1871 showed the ruins to Karl Mauch, a German explorer and geographer of Africa. Karl Mauch recorded the ruins 3 September 1871, and immediately speculated about a possible Biblical association with King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, an explanation which had been suggested by earlier writers such as the Portuguese João dos Santos. Mauch went so far as to favour a legend that the structures were built to replicate the palace of the Queen of Sheba in Jerusalem, and claimed a wooden lintel at the site must be Lebanese cedar, brought by Phoenicians. The Sheba legend, as promoted by Mauch, became so pervasive in the white settler community as to cause the later scholar J. Theodore Bent to say
The names of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba were on everybody 's lips, and have become so distasteful to us that we never expect to hear them again without an involuntary shudder
Carl Peters collected a ceramic ushabti in 1903. Flinders Petrie examined it and identified a cartouche on its chest as belonging to the 18th Dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and suggested that it was a statuette of the king and cited it as proof of commercial ties between rulers in the area and the ancient Egyptians during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BC -- 1077 BC), if not a relic of an old Egyptian station near the local gold mines. Johann Heinrich Schäfer later appraised the statuette, and argued that it belonged to a well - known group of forgeries. After having received the ushabti, Felix von Luschan suggested that it was of more recent origin than the New Kingdom. He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323 BC -- 30 BC), when Alexandria - based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.
J. Theodore Bent undertook a season at Zimbabwe with Cecil Rhodes 's patronage and funding from the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This, and other excavations undertaken for Rhodes, resulted in a book publication that introduced the ruins to English readers. Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor. He was aided by the expert cartographer and surveyor E.W.M. Swan, who also visited and surveyed a host of related stone ruins nearby. Bent stated in the first edition of his book The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) that the ruins revealed either the Phoenicians or the Arabs as builders, and he favoured the possibility of great antiquity for the fortress. By the third edition of his book (1902) he was more specific, with his primary theory being "a Semitic race and of Arabian origin '' of "strongly commercial '' traders living within a client African city.
Other theories on the origin of the ruins, among both white settlers and academics, took a common view that the original buildings were probably not made by local Bantu peoples. Bent indulged these theories alongside his Arab theory, to the point where his more tenuous theories had become somewhat discredited by the 1910s.
The construction of Great Zimbabwe is also claimed by the Lemba. Members of this ethnic group speak the Bantu languages spoken by their geographic neighbours and resemble them physically, but they have some religious practices and beliefs similar to those in Judaism and Islam, which they claim were transmitted by oral tradition. They have a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line, which is supported by recent DNA studies, and female ancestry derived from the Karanga subgroup of the Shona.
The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century). Both explorers were told that the stone edifices and the gold mines were constructed by a people known as the BaLemba.
The first scientific archaeological excavations at the site were undertaken by David Randall - MacIver for the British Association in 1905 -- 1906. In Medieval Rhodesia, he wrote of the existence in the site of objects that were of Bantu origin. More importantly he suggested a wholly medieval date for the walled fortifications and temple. This claim was not immediately accepted, partly due to the relatively short and undermanned period of excavation he was able to undertake.
In mid 1929 Gertrude Caton - Thompson concluded, after a twelve - day visit of a three - person team and the digging of several trenches, that the site was indeed created by Bantu. She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork. She then moved to the Conical Tower, and tried to dig under the tower, arguing that the ground there would be undisturbed, but nothing was revealed. Some further test trenches were then put down outside the lower Great Enclosure and in the Valley Ruins, which unearthed domestic ironwork, glass beads, and a gold bracelet. Caton - Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.
Examination of all the existing evidence, gathered from every quarter, still can produce not one single item that is not in accordance with the claim of Bantu origin and medieval date
Caton - Thompson 's claim was not immediately favoured, although it had strong support among some scientific archaeologists due to her modern methods. Her most important contribution was in helping to confirm the theory of a medieval origin for the masonry work of circa the 14th - 15th century. By 1931, she had modified her Bantu theory somewhat, allowing for a possible Arabian influence for the towers through the imitation of buildings or art seen at the coastal Arabian trading cities.
Since the 1950s, there has been consensus among archaeologists as to the African origins of Great Zimbabwe. Artefacts and radiocarbon dating indicate settlement in at least the fifth century, with continuous settlement of Great Zimbabwe between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries and the bulk of the finds from the fifteenth century. The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the twelfth to fifteenth centuries chronology. In the 1970s, a beam that produced some of the anomalous dates in 1952 was reanalysed and gave a fourteenth - century date. Dated finds such as Chinese, Persian and Syrian artefacts also support the twelfth and fifteenth century dates.
Archaeologists generally agree that the builders probably spoke one of the Shona languages, based upon evidence of pottery, oral traditions and anthropology and were probably descended from the Gokomere culture. The Gokomere culture, an eastern Bantu subgroup, existed in the area from around 500 AD and flourished from 200 AD to about 800 AD. Archaeological evidence indicates that it constitutes an early phase of the Great Zimbabwe culture. The Gokomere culture likely gave rise to both the modern Mashona people, an ethnic cluster comprising distinct sub-ethnic groups such as the local Karanga clan and the Rozwi culture, which originated as several Shona states. Gokomere - descended groups such as the Shona probably contributed the African component of the ancestry of the Lemba. Gokomere peoples were probably also related to certain nearby early Bantu groups like the Mapungubwe civilisation of neighbouring North eastern South Africa, which is believed to have been an early Venda - speaking culture, and to the nearby Sotho.
More recent archaeological work has been carried out by Peter Garlake, who has produced the comprehensive descriptions of the site, David Beach and Thomas Huffman, who have worked on the chronology and development of Great Zimbabwe and Gilbert Pwiti, who has published extensively on trade links. Today, the most recent consensus appears to attribute the construction of Great Zimbabwe to the Shona people. Some evidence also suggests an early influence from the probably Venda speaking peoples of Mapungubwe.
Damage to the ruins has taken place throughout the last century. The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall. More extensive damage was caused by the mining of some of the ruins for gold. Reconstruction attempts since 1980 caused further damage, leading to alienation of the local communities from the site.
Martin Hall writes that the history of Iron Age research south of the Zambezi shows the prevalent influence of colonial ideologies, both in the earliest speculations about the nature of the African past and in the adaptations that have been made to contemporary archaeological methodologies. Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe 's past to support their vision of the country 's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction. Examples of such popular history include Alexander Wilmot 's Monomotapa (Rhodesia) and Ken Mufuka 's Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in the Golden Age; examples from fiction include Wilbur Smith 's The Sunbird and Stanlake Samkange 's Year of the Uprising.
When white colonialists like Cecil Rhodes first saw the ruins, they saw them as a sign of the great riches that the area would yield to its new masters. Gertrude Caton - Thompson recognised that the builders were indigenous Africans, but she characterised the site as the "product of an infantile mind '' built by a subjugated society. Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area. The official line in Rhodesia during the 1960s and 1970s was that the structures were built by non-blacks. Archaeologists who disputed the official statement were censored by the government. According to Paul Sinclair, interviewed for None But Ourselves:
I was the archaeologist stationed at Great Zimbabwe. I was told by the then - director of the Museums and Monuments organisation to be extremely careful about talking to the press about the origins of the (Great) Zimbabwe state. I was told that the museum service was in a difficult situation, that the government was pressurising them to withhold the correct information. Censorship of guidebooks, museum displays, school textbooks, radio programmes, newspapers and films was a daily occurrence. Once a member of the Museum Board of Trustees threatened me with losing my job if I said publicly that blacks had built Zimbabwe. He said it was okay to say the yellow people had built it, but I was n't allowed to mention radio carbon dates... It was the first time since Germany in the thirties that archaeology has been so directly censored.
This suppression of archaeology culminated in the departure from the country of prominent archaeologists of Great Zimbabwe, including Peter Garlake, Senior Inspector of Monuments for Rhodesia, and Roger Summers of the National Museum.
To black nationalist groups, Great Zimbabwe became an important symbol of achievement by Africans: reclaiming its history was a major aim for those seeking majority rule. In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag. After the creation of the modern state of Zimbabwe in 1980, Great Zimbabwe has been employed to mirror and legitimise shifting policies of the ruling regime. At first it was argued that it represented a form of pre-colonial "African socialism '' and later the focus shifted to stressing the natural evolution of an accumulation of wealth and power within a ruling elite. An example of the former is Ken Mufuka 's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.
Some of the carvings had been taken from Great Zimbabwe around 1890 and sold to Cecil Rhodes, who was intrigued and had copies made which he gave to friends. Most of the carvings have now been returned to Zimbabwe, but one remains at Rhodes ' old home, Groote Schuur, in Cape Town.
In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe endorsed the creation of a university in the vicinity of the ruins. This university is an arts and culture based university which draws from the rich history of the monuments. It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation. The university main site is near the monuments with other campuses in the City centre and Mashava. The campuses include Herbet Chitepo Law School, Robert Mugabe School of Education, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Science, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, and Munhumutapa School of Commerce.
The Hill Complex
The Conical Tower
The Great Enclosure
The Great Enclosure (close)
The Great Enclosure (far)
The Hill Complex from the Valley
Wooden lintel in doorway
Passageway in the Great Enclosure
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when does greys anatomy season 14 episode 23 come out | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season consists of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, was left blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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who approves amendments to the constitution article section | Article Five of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the Constitution, the nation 's frame of government, may be altered. Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments and subsequent ratification. Amendments may be proposed either by the Congress with a two - thirds vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a convention of states called for by two - thirds of the state legislatures. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either -- as determined by Congress -- the legislatures of three - quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three - quarters of the states. The vote of each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state 's population or length of time in the Union.
Additionally, Article V temporarily shielded certain clauses in Article I from being amended. The first clause in Section 9, which prevented Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves prior to 1808, and the fourth clause in that same section, a declaration that direct taxes must be apportioned according to state populations, were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. It also shields the first clause of Article I, Section 3, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate, from being amended, though not absolutely.
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
Thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution have been approved by the Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it. All totaled, approximately 11,539 measures to amend the Constitution have been proposed in Congress since 1789 (through December 16, 2014).
Article V provides two methods for amending the nation 's frame of government. The first method authorizes Congress, "whenever two - thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary '' (a two - thirds of those members present -- assuming that a quorum exists at the time that the vote is cast -- and not necessarily a two - thirds vote of the entire membership elected and serving in the two houses of Congress), to propose Constitutional amendments. The second method requires Congress, "on the application of the legislatures of two - thirds of the several states '' (presently 34), to "call a convention for proposing amendments ''.
When the 1st Congress considered a series of constitutional amendments, it was suggested that the two houses first adopt a resolution indicating that they deemed amendments necessary. This procedure was not used. Instead, both the House and the Senate proceeded directly to consideration of a joint resolution, thereby implying that both bodies deemed amendments to be necessary. Also, when initially proposed by James Madison, the amendments were designed to be interwoven into the relevant sections of the original document. Instead, they were approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification as supplemental additions (codicils) appended to it. Both these precedents have been followed ever since.
Regarding the amendment process crafted during the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison, in The Federalist No. 43, wrote:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.
Each time the amendment process has been initiated since 1789, the first method has been used. All 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification originated in the Congress. The second method, the convention option, which Alexander Hamilton (writing in The Federalist No. 85) believed would serve as a barrier "against the encroachments of the national authority '', has yet to be successfully invoked, although not for lack of activity in the states.
Three times in the 20th century, concerted efforts were undertaken by proponents of particular amendments to secure the number of applications necessary to summon an Article V Convention. These included conventions to consider amendments to (1) provide for popular election of U.S. Senators; (2) permit the states to include factors other than equality of population in drawing state legislative district boundaries; and (3) to propose an amendment requiring the U.S. budget to be balanced under most circumstances. The campaign for a popularly elected Senate is frequently credited with "prodding '' the Senate to join the House of Representatives in proposing what became the Seventeenth Amendment to the states in 1912, while the latter two campaigns came very close to meeting the two - thirds threshold in the 1960s and 1980s, respectively.
Once approved by Congress, the joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment does not require Presidential approval before it goes out to the states. While Article I Section 7 provides that all federal legislation must, before becoming Law, be presented to the President for his or her signature or veto, Article V provides no such requirement for constitutional amendments approved by Congress, or by a federal convention. Thus the president has no official function in the process. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798), the Supreme Court affirmed that it is not necessary to place constitutional amendments before the President for approval or veto.
After being officially proposed, either by Congress or a national convention of the states, a constitutional amendment must then be ratified by three - fourths of the states. Congress is authorized to choose whether a proposed amendment is sent to the state legislatures or to state ratifying conventions for ratification. Amendments ratified by the states under either procedure are indistinguishable and have equal force as part of the Constitution. Of the 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification, the state convention method has been used for only one, the Twenty - first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933. This was also one of only four times that Congress has placed the mode of ratification in the body of an amendment rather than in accompanying legislation; the others being the Eighteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty - second Amendments. In United States v. Sprague (1931), the Supreme Court affirmed the authority of Congress to decide how each individual constitutional amendment is ratified, in accordance with the options provided in Article V and the equal validity of amendments properly ratified in either fashion. The Court had earlier, in Hawke v. Smith (1920), ruled the ratification of the proposed Nineteenth Amendment (which Congress had sent to the state legislatures for ratification) by the Legislature of Ohio could not be referred to the electors (voters) of the state, and that the Ohio Constitution, in requiring such a referendum, was inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution.
An amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution when it is ratified by the necessary number of states, rather than on the later date when its ratification is certified. No further action by Congress or anyone is required. On three occasions, Congress has, after being informed that an amendment has reached the ratification threshold, adopted a resolution declaring the process successfully completed. Such actions, while perhaps important for political reasons, are, constitutionally speaking, unnecessary.
Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist officially notifies the states, by a registered letter to each state 's Governor, that an amendment has been proposed. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state 's legislature (or ratifying convention). When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state 's action. Upon receiving the necessary number of state ratifications, it is the duty of the Archivist to issue a certificate proclaiming a particular amendment duly ratified and part of the Constitution. The amendment and its certificate of ratification are then published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large. This serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.
The Constitution is silent on the issue of whether or not Congress may limit the length of time that the states have to ratify constitutional amendments sent for their consideration. It is also silent on the issue of whether or not Congress, once it has sent an amendment that includes a ratification deadline to the states for their consideration, can extend that deadline.
The practice of limiting the time available to the states to ratify proposed amendments began in 1917 with the Eighteenth Amendment. All amendments proposed since then, with the exception of the Nineteenth Amendment and the (still pending) Child Labor Amendment, have included a deadline, either in the body of the proposed amendment, or in the joint resolution transmitting it to the states. The ratification deadline "clock '' begins running on the day final action is completed in Congress. An amendment may be ratified at any time after final congressional action, even if the states have not yet been officially notified.
In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court upheld Congress 's power to prescribe time limitations for state ratifications and intimated that clearly out of date proposals were no longer open for ratification. Granting that it found nothing express in Article V relating to time constraints, the Court yet allowed that it found intimated in the amending process a "strongly suggest (ive) '' argument that proposed amendments are not open to ratification for all time or by States acting at widely separate times. The court subsequently, in Coleman v. Miller (1939), modified its opinion considerably. In that case, related to the proposed Child Labor Amendment, it held that the question of timeliness of ratification is a political and non-justiciable one, leaving the issue to Congress 's discretion. It would appear that the length of time elapsing between proposal and ratification is irrelevant to the validity of the amendment. Based upon this precedent, the Archivist of the United States proclaimed the Twenty - seventh Amendment as having been ratified when it surpassed the "three fourths of the several states '' plateau for becoming a part of the Constitution. Declared ratified on May 7, 1992, it had been submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, an unprecedented time period of 202 years, 7 months and 12 days.
Whether once it has prescribed a ratification period Congress may extend the period without necessitating action by already - ratified States embroiled Congress, the states, and the courts in argument with respect to the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (Sent to the states on March 22, 1972 with a seven - year ratification time limit attached). In 1978 Congress, by simple majority vote in both houses, extended the original deadline by 3 years, 3 months and 8 days (through June 30, 1982).
The amendment 's proponents argued that the fixing of a time limit and the extending of it were powers committed exclusively to Congress under the political question doctrine and that in any event Congress had power to extend. It was argued that inasmuch as the fixing of a reasonable time was within Congress ' power and that Congress could fix the time either in advance or at some later point, based upon its evaluation of the social and other bases of the necessities of the amendment, Congress did not do violence to the Constitution when, once having fixed the time, it subsequently extended the time. Proponents recognized that if the time limit was fixed in the text of the amendment Congress could not alter it because the time limit as well as the substantive provisions of the proposal had been subject to ratification by a number of States, making it unalterable by Congress except through the amending process again. Opponents argued that Congress, having by a two - thirds vote sent the amendment and its authorizing resolution to the states, had put the matter beyond changing by passage of a simple resolution, that states had either acted upon the entire package or at least that they had or could have acted affirmatively upon the promise of Congress that if the amendment had not been ratified within the prescribed period it would expire and their assent would not be compelled for longer than they had intended.
In 1981, the United States District Court for the District of Idaho, however, found that Congress did not have the authority to extend the deadline, even when only contained within the proposing joint resolution 's resolving clause. The Supreme Court had decided to take up the case, bypassing the Court of Appeals, but before they could hear the case, the extended period granted by Congress had been exhausted without the necessary number of states, thus rendering the case moot.
According to constitutional theorist and scholar Lawrence G. Sager, some commentators have seriously questioned whether Article V is the exclusive means of amending the Constitution, or whether there are routes to amendment, including some routes in which the Constitution could be unconsciously or unwittingly amended in a period of sustained political activity on the part of a mobilized national constituency. For example, Akhil Amar argues that the Constitution may be constitutionally amended outside of Article V. He rejects the notion that Article V excludes other modes of constitutional change, arguing instead that the procedure provided for in Article V is simply the exclusive method the government may use to amend the Constitution. He asserts that Article V nowhere prevents the People themselves, acting apart from ordinary Government, from exercising their legal right to alter or abolish Government via the proper legal procedures. Bruce Ackerman argues that the Constitution can be amended by something he calls a "structural amendment '' whereby the people alter their Constitutional order via succeeding elections. Similarly, Sanford Levinson believes that Constitutional amendments have been made outside of Article V and as such it is not exclusive.
Other scholars disagree with Amar, Ackerman, and Levinson. Some argue that the Constitution itself provides no mechanism for the American people to adopt constitutional amendments independently of Article V. Darren Patrick Guerra has argued that Article V is a vital part of the American Constitutional tradition and he defends Article V against modern critiques that Article V is either too difficult, too undemocratic, or too formal. Instead he argues that Article V provides a clear and stable way of amending the document that is explicit, authentic, and the exclusive means of amendment; it promotes wisdom and justice through enhancing deliberation and prudence; and its process complements federalism and separation of powers that are key features of the Constitution. He argues that Article V remains the most clear and powerful way to register the sovereign desires of the American public with regard to alterations of their fundamental law. In the end, Article V is an essential bulwark to maintaining a written Constitution that secures the rights of the people against both elites and themselves.
In his farewell address, President George Washington said:
If in the opinion of the People the distribution or modification of the Constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield.
This statement by Washington has become controversial, and scholars disagree about whether it still describes the proper constitutional order in the United States. Scholars who dismiss Washington 's position often argue that the Constitution itself was adopted without following the procedures in the Articles of Confederation, while Constitutional attorney Michael Farris disagrees, saying the Convention was a product of the States ' residual power, and the amendment in adoption process was legal, having received the unanimous assent of the States ' legislatures.
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major port in india which does not have a natural harbour | Ports in India - Wikipedia
India has a coastline spanning 7516.6 kilometres, forming one of the biggest peninsulas in the world. According to the Ministry of Shipping, around 95 per cent of India 's trading by volume and 70 per cent by value is done through maritime transport. It is serviced by 12 major ports, 200 notified minor and intermediate ports. The total 200 non-major ports are in the following States: - Maharashtra (48); Gujarat (42); Tamil Nadu (15); Karnataka (10); Kerala (17); Andhra Pradesh (12); Odisha (13); Goa (5); West Bengal (1); Daman and Diu (2); Lakshadweep (10); Pondicherry (2); and Andaman & Nicobar (23).
Government of India plans to modernise these ports and has approved a project called Sagarmala. The ports and shipping industry in India plays a vital role in sustaining growth in the country 's trade and commerce. The Indian Government has allowed Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) of up to 100 per cent under the automatic route for port and harbour construction and maintenance projects. The government has also initiated National Maritime Development Programme (NMDP), an initiative to develop the maritime sector with a planned outlay of US $ 11.8 billion.
Indian government has a federal structure, and according to its constitution, maritime transport is to be administered by both the Central and the State governments. While the central government 's shipping ministry administers the major ports, the minor and intermediate ports are administered by the relevant departments or ministries in the nine coastal states Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Several of these 187 minor and intermediate ports have been identified by the respective governments to be developed, in a phased manner, a good proportion of them involving public -- private partnership.
Major ports handled over 74 % of all cargo traffic in 2007. All major ports, except one Ennore Port are government administered, but private sector participation in ports has increased. There are also 7 shipyards under the control of the central government of India, 2 shipyards controlled by state governments, and 19 privately owned shipyards.
As of 2000, there were 102 shipping companies operating in India, of which five were privately owned and based in India and one was owned by Shipping Corporation of India. There were 639 government - owned ships, including 91 oil tankers, 79 dry cargo bulk carriers, and 10 cellular container vessels. Indian - flagged vessels carried about 15 percent of overseas cargo at Indian ports for financial year 2003.
The following table gives the detailed data about the major ports of India (Source: Indian Ports Association):
(corporate port renamed
to Kamarajar Port)
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how many cards do you get in skip bo with 4 players | SKIP - BO - wikipedia
SKIP - BO is a commercial version of the card game Spite and Malice. In 1967, Minnie Hazel "Skip '' Bowman of Brownfield, Texas, began producing a boxed edition of the game under the name SKIP - BO. In 1980 the game was purchased by International Games, which was subsequently bought by Mattel in 1992. A mobile version of the game for iOS was released by Magmic in September, 2013. There is a new version called "SKIP - BO Mod '' that comes in a blue and white case.
The deck consists of 162 cards, twelve each of the numbers 1 through 12 and eighteen "SKIP - BO '' wild cards which may be played as any number. Alternatively, the 162 cards could be three regular decks of playing cards, including the jokers, with ace to queen corresponding to 1 to 12 and the kings and jokers corresponding to the SKIP - BO cards. Before 1980, the commercial game consisted of four decks of regular playing cards with eight SKIP - BO cards replacing the standard two jokers in each deck. In addition, the aces, twos and threes in the fourth deck were marked SKIP - BO. The remainder of the fourth deck was discarded.
Two to four people can play at a time as individuals, or, six or more players in teams (no more than three partnerships). The object of the game is to be the first player or team to play out their entire stock pile (s). The player with the middle age goes first. Each player is dealt 30 cards for their pile with only the top card visible, and a hand of five cards, and the remaining cards are placed face down to create a common draw pile. The shared play area allows up to four build piles, which must be started using either a "1 '' card or a Skip - Bo, and each player also has up to four personal discard piles. Each turn the active player draws until they have five cards in hand, though there are cases of not drawing more cards to equal five cards, instead doing a draw of a certain number of cards. They must play either the next card in sequential order or a wild Skip - Bo card, using either cards in hand, the top card of their stock pile, or the top card of any of their four discard piles. If the player can play all five cards from their hand, they draw five more and continue playing. When no more plays are available, the player discards one card to either an empty discard pile or on top of an existing one and play passes to the next player. When a build pile reaches 12, it is removed from the board and that space becomes empty for another pile to be started; play continues until one player has played their final start card.
For single rounds, whoever goes out first is the winner.
If multiple games are going to be played, either track the number of wins for each player or a point system may be used.
For the points scoring, the winning player receives 25 points for winning plus 5 points for each card in his / her opponents ' stock piles. The first player to reach 500 points wins.
Another option for game play is to pair up players as partners. Game play remains the same except:
Skip - Bo was released in the iTunes App Store on September 7, 2013 and later released for Android. The game was developed by Magmic and licensed through Mattel. Various electronic handheld versions of Skip - Bo have been released over the years.
William Henry Storey designed a card game "Starturn '' which was published by Chad Valley in 1935. Two packs, 44 black and 52 red, are used in a game primarily for two players although there were versions for three or four players. Black cards are divided equally between the players, placed face down with only the top card visible, as the Stack. Five red cards are dealt to each player, made up to five on each pass, and the rest placed as the draw Pack. The aim is to make up to four Build piles starting at 1 through to 15, using cards from the player 's Stack where possible. Each player must discard one card at the end of each pass (except when all cards in the hand have been used on Build piles) on to one of four discard piles in front of each player, from which cards may be used (strictly, top card first) in forming Build piles. Completed Build piles are shuffled into the Pack as soon as completed. The first player to use up all his / her Stack cards is the winner. Although the cards are of different design, the rules of Skip - bo are almost exactly the same.
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where was the first cricket world cup played | Cricket World Cup - wikipedia
The ICC Cricket World Cup is the international championship of One Day International (ODI) cricket. The event is organised by the sport 's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), every four years, with preliminary qualification rounds leading up to a finals tournament. The tournament is one of the world 's most viewed sporting events and is considered the "flagship event of the international cricket calendar '' by the ICC.
The first World Cup was organised in England in June 1975, with the first ODI cricket match having been played only four years earlier. However, a separate Women 's Cricket World Cup had been held two years before the first men 's tournament, and a tournament involving multiple international teams had been held as early as 1912, when a triangular tournament of Test matches was played between Australia, England and South Africa. The first three World Cups were held in England. From the 1987 tournament onwards, hosting has been shared between countries under an unofficial rotation system, with fourteen ICC members having hosted at least one match in the tournament.
The finals of the World Cup are contested by the ten full members of the ICC (all of which are Test - playing teams) and a number of teams made up from associate and affiliate members of the ICC, selected via the World Cricket League and a later qualifying tournament. A total of twenty teams have competed in the eleven editions of the tournament, with fourteen competing in the latest edition in 2015. Australia has won the tournament five times, with the West Indies, India (twice each), Pakistan and Sri Lanka (once each) also having won the tournament. The best performance by a non-full - member team came when Kenya made the semi-finals of the 2003 tournament.
The first international cricket match was played between Canada and the United States, on 24 and 25 September 1844. However, the first credited Test match was played in 1877 between Australia and England, and the two teams competed regularly for The Ashes in subsequent years. South Africa was admitted to Test status in 1889. Representative cricket teams were selected to tour each other, resulting in bilateral competition. Cricket was also included as an Olympic sport at the 1900 Paris Games, where Great Britain defeated France to win the gold medal. This was the only appearance of cricket at the Summer Olympics.
The first multilateral competition at international level was the 1912 Triangular Tournament, a Test cricket tournament played in England between all three Test - playing nations at the time: England, Australia and South Africa. The event was not a success: the summer was exceptionally wet, making play difficult on damp uncovered pitches, and attendances were poor, attributed to a "surfeit of cricket ''. Since then, international Test cricket has generally been organised as bilateral series: a multilateral Test tournament was not organised again until the triangular Asian Test Championship in 1999.
The number of nations playing Test cricket increased gradually over time, with the addition of West Indies in 1928, New Zealand in 1930, India in 1932, and Pakistan in 1952. However, international cricket continued to be played as bilateral Test matches over three, four or five days.
In the early 1960s, English county cricket teams began playing a shortened version of cricket which only lasted for one day. Starting in 1962 with a four - team knockout competition known as the Midlands Knock - Out Cup, and continuing with the inaugural Gillette Cup in 1963, one - day cricket grew in popularity in England. A national Sunday League was formed in 1969. The first One - Day International match was played on the fifth day of a rain - aborted Test match between England and Australia at Melbourne in 1971, to fill the time available and as compensation for the frustrated crowd. It was a forty over game with eight balls per over.
In the late 1970s, Kerry Packer established the rival World Series Cricket (WSC) competition. It introduced many of the now commonplace features of One Day International cricket, including coloured uniforms, matches played at night under floodlights with a white ball and dark sight screens, and, for television broadcasts, multiple camera angles, effects microphones to capture sounds from the players on the pitch, and on - screen graphics. The first of the matches with coloured uniforms was the WSC Australians in wattle gold versus WSC West Indians in coral pink, played at VFL Park in Melbourne on 17 January 1979. The success and popularity of the domestic one - day competitions in England and other parts of the world, as well as the early One - Day Internationals, prompted the ICC to consider organising a Cricket World Cup.
The inaugural Cricket World Cup was hosted in 1975 by England, the only nation able to put forward the resources to stage an event of such magnitude at the time. The 1975 tournament started on 7 June. The first three events were held in England and officially known as the Prudential Cup after the sponsors Prudential plc. The matches consisted of 60 six - ball overs per team, played during the daytime in traditional form, with the players wearing cricket whites and using red cricket balls.
Eight teams participated in the first tournament: Australia, England, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, and the West Indies (the six Test nations at the time), together with Sri Lanka and a composite team from East Africa. One notable omission was South Africa, who were banned from international cricket due to apartheid. The tournament was won by the West Indies, who defeated Australia by 17 runs in the final at Lord 's.
The 1979 World Cup saw the introduction of the ICC Trophy competition to select non-Test playing teams for the World Cup, with Sri Lanka and Canada qualifying. The West Indies won a second consecutive World Cup tournament, defeating the hosts England by 92 runs in the final. At a meeting which followed the World Cup, the International Cricket Conference agreed to make the competition a quadrennial event.
The 1983 event was hosted by England for a third consecutive time. By this stage, Sri Lanka had become a Test - playing nation, and Zimbabwe qualified through the ICC Trophy. A fielding circle was introduced, 30 yards (27 m) away from the stumps. Four fieldsmen needed to be inside it at all times. The teams faced each other twice, before moving into the knock - outs. India, an outsider, quoted at 66 -- 1 to win by bookmakers before the competition began, were crowned champions after upsetting the West Indies by 43 runs in the final.
India and Pakistan jointly hosted the 1987 tournament, the first time that the competition was held outside England. The games were reduced from 60 to 50 overs per innings, the current standard, because of the shorter daylight hours in the Indian subcontinent compared with England 's summer. Australia won the championship by defeating England by 7 runs in the final, the closest margin in World Cup final history.
The 1992 World Cup, held in Australia and New Zealand, introduced many changes to the game, such as coloured clothing, white balls, day / night matches, and a change to the fielding restriction rules. The South African cricket team participated in the event for the first time, following the fall of the apartheid regime and the end of the international sports boycott. Pakistan overcame a dismal start in the tournament to eventually defeat England by 22 runs in the final and emerge as winners.
The 1996 championship was held in the Indian subcontinent for a second time, with the inclusion of Sri Lanka as host for some of its group stage matches. In the semi-final, Sri Lanka, heading towards a crushing victory over India at Eden Gardens after the hosts lost eight wickets while scoring 120 runs in pursuit of 252, were awarded victory by default after crowd unrest broke out in protest against the Indian performance. Sri Lanka went on to win their maiden championship by defeating Australia by seven wickets in the final at Lahore.
In 1999 the event was hosted by England, with some matches also being held in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the Netherlands. Twelve teams contested the World Cup. Australia qualified for the semi-finals after reaching their target in their Super 6 match against South Africa off the final over of the match. They then proceeded to the final with a tied match in the semi-final also against South Africa where a mix - up between South African batsmen Lance Klusener and Allan Donald saw Donald drop his bat and stranded mid-pitch to be run out. In the final, Australia dismissed Pakistan for 132 and then reached the target in less than 20 overs and with eight wickets in hand.
South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya hosted the 2003 World Cup. The number of teams participating in the event increased from twelve to fourteen. Kenya 's victories over Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, among others -- and a forfeit by the New Zealand team, which refused to play in Kenya because of security concerns -- enabled Kenya to reach the semi-finals, the best result by an associate. In the final, Australia made 359 runs for the loss of two wickets, the largest ever total in a final, defeating India by 125 runs.
In 2007 the tournament was hosted by the West Indies and expanded to sixteen teams. Following Pakistan 's upset loss to World Cup debutants Ireland in the group stage, Pakistani coach Bob Woolmer was found dead in his hotel room. Jamaican police had initially launched a murder investigation into Woolmer 's death but later confirmed that he died of heart failure. Australia defeated Sri Lanka in the final by 53 runs (D / L) in farcical light conditions, and extended their undefeated run in the World Cup to 29 matches and winning three straight championships.
India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh together hosted the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Pakistan were stripped of their hosting rights following the terrorist attack on the Sri Lankan cricket team in 2009, with the games originally scheduled for Pakistan redistributed to the other host countries. The number of teams participating in the World Cup dropped down to fourteen. Australia lost their final group stage match against Pakistan on 19 March 2011, ending an unbeaten streak of 35 World Cup matches, which had begun on 23 May 1999. India won their second World Cup title by beating Sri Lanka by 6 wickets in the final in Mumbai, and became the first country to win the final on home soil. MS Dhoni later became the first captain in history to win all the major ICC tournaments - World T20 in 2007, Champions Trophy in 2013 and this edition of the World Cup.
Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the 2015 Cricket World Cup. The number of participants remained at fourteen. Ireland was the most successful Associate nation with a total of three wins in the tournament. New Zealand beat South Africa in a thrilling first semi-final to qualify for their maiden World Cup final. Australia defeated New Zealand by seven wickets in the final at Melbourne to lift the World Cup for the fifth time.
The Test - playing nations qualify automatically for the World Cup main event while the other teams have to qualify through a series of preliminary qualifying tournaments. A new qualifying format was introduced for the 2015 Cricket World Cup. The top two teams of the 2011 -- 13 ICC World Cricket League Championship qualify directly. The remaining six teams join the third and fourth - placed teams of 2011 ICC World Cricket League Division Two and the top two teams of the 2013 ICC World Cricket League Division Three in the World Cup Qualifier to decide the remaining two places.
Qualifying tournaments were introduced for the second World Cup, where two of the eight places in the finals were awarded to the leading teams in the ICC Trophy. The number of teams selected through the ICC Trophy had varied throughout the years. The World Cricket League (administered by the International Cricket Council) is the qualification system provided to allow the Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC more opportunities to qualify. The name "ICC Trophy '' has been changed to "ICC World Cup Qualifier ''.
Under the current qualifying process, the World Cricket League, all Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC are able to qualify for the World Cup. Associate and Affiliate members must play between two and five stages in the ICC World Cricket League to qualify for the World Cup finals, depending on the Division in which they start the qualifying process.
Process summary in chronological order (2011 - 2014):
The format of the Cricket World Cup has changed greatly over the course of its history. Each of the first four tournaments was played by eight teams, divided into two groups of four. The competition consisted of two stages, a group stage and a knock - out stage. The four teams in each group played each other in the round - robin group stage, with the top two teams in each group progressing to the semi-finals. The winners of the semi-finals played against each other in the final. With South Africa returning in the fifth tournament in 1992 as a result of the end of the apartheid boycott, nine teams played each other once in the group phase, and the top four teams progressed to the semi-finals. The tournament was further expanded in 1996, with two groups of six teams. The top four teams from each group progressed to quarter - finals and semi-finals.
A distinct format was used for the 1999 and 2003 World Cups. The teams were split into two pools, with the top three teams in each pool advancing to the Super 6. The Super 6 teams played the three other teams that advanced from the other group. As they advanced, the teams carried their points forward from previous matches against other teams advancing alongside them, giving them an incentive to perform well in the group stages. The top four teams from the Super 6 stage progressed to the semi-finals, with the winners playing in the final.
The format used in the 2007 World Cup involved 16 teams allocated into four groups of four. Within each group, the teams played each other in a round - robin format. Teams earned points for wins and half - points for ties. The top two teams from each group moved forward to the Super 8 round. The Super 8 teams played the other six teams that progressed from the different groups. Teams earned points in the same way as the group stage, but carried their points forward from previous matches against the other teams who qualified from the same group to the Super 8 stage. The top four teams from the Super 8 round advanced to the semi-finals, and the winners of the semi-finals played in the final.
The format used in the 2011 and 2015 World Cups featured two groups of seven teams, each playing in a round - robin format. The top four teams from each group proceeded to the knock out stage consisting of quarter - finals, semi-finals and ultimately the final.
It is proposed that in 2019 World Cup, the number of teams participating will go down to 10 and all the teams will play against each other once in round robin format, before entering the semifinals. This would be similar to the one used in 1992 World Cup.
The ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy is presented to the winners of the World Cup. The current trophy was created for the 1999 championships, and was the first permanent prize in the tournament 's history. Prior to this, different trophies were made for each World Cup. The trophy was designed and produced in London by a team of craftsmen from Garrard & Co over a period of two months.
The current trophy is made from silver and gilt, and features a golden globe held up by three silver columns. The columns, shaped as stumps and bails, represent the three fundamental aspects of cricket: batting, bowling and fielding, while the globe characterises a cricket ball. The seam is tilted to symbolize the axial tilt of the Earth. It stands 60 centimetres high and weighs approximately 11 kilograms. The names of the previous winners are engraved on the base of the trophy, with space for a total of twenty inscriptions. The ICC keeps the original trophy. A replica differing only in the inscriptions is permanently awarded to the winning team.
The tournament is the world 's third largest with only the FIFA World Cup and the Summer Olympics exceeding it. The 2011 Cricket World Cup final was televised in over 200 countries to over 2.2 billion television viewers. Television rights, mainly for the 2011 and 2015 World Cup, were sold for over US $1.1 billion, and sponsorship rights were sold for a further US $500 million. The 2003 Cricket World Cup matches were attended by 626,845 people, while the 2007 Cricket World Cup sold more than 672,000 tickets.
Successive World Cup tournaments have generated increasing media attention as One - Day International cricket has become more established. The 2003 World Cup in South Africa was the first to sport a mascot, Dazzler the zebra. An orange mongoose known as Mello was the mascot for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Stumpy, a blue elephant was the mascot for the 2011 World Cup.
On 13 February, the opening of the 2015 tournament was celebrated with a Google Doodle.
The International Cricket Council 's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining the bids made by the nations keen to hold a Cricket World Cup.
England hosted the first three competitions. The ICC decided that England should host the first tournament because it was ready to devote the resources required to organising the inaugural event. India volunteered to host the third Cricket World Cup, but most ICC members preferred England as the longer period of daylight in England in June meant that a match could be completed in one day. The 1987 Cricket World Cup was held in India and Pakistan, the first hosted outside England.
Many of the tournaments have been jointly hosted by nations from the same geographical region, such as South Asia in 1987, 1996 and 2011, Australasia in 1992 and 2015, Southern Africa in 2003 and West Indies in 2007.
Twenty nations have qualified for the Cricket World Cup at least once (excluding qualification tournaments). Seven teams have competed in every finals tournament, five of which have won the title. The West Indies won the first two tournaments, Australia has won five, India has won two, while Pakistan and Sri Lanka have each won once. The West Indies (1975 and 1979) and Australia (1999, 2003 and 2007) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. Australia has played in seven of the eleven final matches (1975, 1987, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2015). England has yet to win the World Cup, but has been runners - up three times (1979, 1987, 1992). The best result by a non-Test playing nation is the semi-final appearance by Kenya in the 2003 tournament; while the best result by a non-Test playing team on their debut is the Super 8 (second round) by Ireland in 2007.
Sri Lanka as a co-host of the 1996 Cricket World Cup was the first host to win the tournament though the final was held in Pakistan. India won in 2011 as host and was the first team to win in a final played in their own country. Australia repeated the feat in 2015. England is the only other host to have made the final, in 1979. Other countries which have achieved or equalled their best World Cup results while co-hosting the tournament are New Zealand as finalists in 2015; Zimbabwe who reached the Super Six in 2003; and Kenya as semi-finalists in 2003. In 1987, co-hosts India and Pakistan both reached the semi-finals, but were eliminated by Australia and England respectively. Australia in 1992, England in 1999, South Africa in 2003, and Bangladesh in 2011 have been the host teams that were eliminated in the first round.
An overview of the teams ' performances in every World Cup:
† No longer exists.
Before the 1992 World Cup, South Africa was banned due to apartheid.
The number of wins followed by Run - rate is the criteria for determining the rankings till the 1987 World Cup.
The number of points followed by, head to head performance and then net run - rate is the criteria for determining the rankings for the World Cups from 1992 onwards.
Legend
† No longer exists.
The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past World Cups, as of the end of group stage of the 2015 tournament. Teams are sorted by best performance, then by appearances, total number of wins, total number of games, and alphabetical order respectively.
† No longer exists.
Since 1992, one player has been declared as "Man of the Tournament '' at the end of the World Cup finals:
There were no Man of the Tournament awards before 1992 but Man of the Match awards have always been given for individual matches. Winning the Man of the Match in the final is logically noteworthy, as this indicates the player deemed to have played the biggest part in the World Cup final. To date the award has always gone to a member of the winning side. The Man of the Match award in the final of the competition has been awarded to:
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what type of test is the first formula of the categorical imperative | Categorical imperative - wikipedia
The categorical imperative (German: kategorischer Imperativ) is the central philosophical concept in the deontological moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Introduced in Kant 's 1785 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, it may be defined as a way of evaluating motivations for action.
According to Kant, human beings occupy a special place in creation, and morality can be summed up in an imperative, or ultimate commandment of reason, from which all duties and obligations derive. He defined an imperative as any proposition declaring a certain action (or inaction) to be necessary.
Hypothetical imperatives apply to someone who wishes to attain certain ends. For example:
A categorical imperative, on the other hand, denotes an absolute, unconditional requirement that must be obeyed in all circumstances and is justified as an end in itself. It is best known in its first formulation:
Kant expressed extreme dissatisfaction with the popular moral philosophy of his day, believing that it could never surpass the level of hypothetical imperatives: a utilitarian says that murder is wrong because it does not maximize good for those involved, but this is irrelevant to people who are concerned only with maximizing the positive outcome for themselves. Consequently, Kant argued, hypothetical moral systems can not persuade moral action or be regarded as bases for moral judgments against others, because the imperatives on which they are based rely too heavily on subjective considerations. He presented a deontological moral system, based on the demands of the categorical imperative, as an alternative.
The capacity that underlies deciding what is moral is called pure practical reason, which is contrasted with pure reason (the capacity to know without having been shown) and mere practical reason (which allows us to interact with the world in experience). Hypothetical imperatives tell us which means best achieve our ends. They do not, however, tell us which ends we should choose. The typical dichotomy in choosing ends is between ends that are "right '' (e.g., helping someone) and those that are "good '' (e.g., enriching oneself). Kant considered the "right '' superior to the "good ''; to him, the "good '' was morally irrelevant. In Kant 's view, a person can not decide whether conduct is "right, '' or moral, through empirical means. Such judgments must be reached a priori, using pure practical reason.
Reason, separate from all empirical experience, can determine the principle according to which all ends can be determined as moral. It is this fundamental principle of moral reason that is known as the categorical imperative. Pure practical reason is the process of determining what ought to be done without reference to empirical contingent factors. Moral questions are determined independent of reference to the particular subject posing them. It is because morality is determined by pure practical reason, rather than particular empirical or sensuous factors, that morality is universally valid. This moral universalism has come to be seen as the distinctive aspect of Kant 's moral philosophy and has had wide social impact in the legal and political concepts of human rights and equality.
Kant viewed the human individual as a rationally self - conscious being with "impure '' freedom of choice:
The faculty of desire in accordance with concepts, in - so - far as the ground determining it to action lies within itself and not in its object, is called a faculty to "do or to refrain from doing as one pleases ''. Insofar as it is joined with one 's consciousness of the ability to bring about its object by one 's action it is called choice (Willkür); if it is not joined with this consciousness its act is called a wish. The faculty of desire whose inner determining ground, hence even what pleases it, lies within the subject 's reason is called the will (Wille). The will is therefore the faculty of desire considered not so much in relation to action (as choice is) but rather in relation to the ground determining choice in action. The will itself, strictly speaking, has no determining ground; insofar as it can determine choice, it is instead practical reason itself. Insofar as reason can determine the faculty of desire as such, not only choice but also mere wish can be included under the will. That choice which can be determined by pure reason is called free choice. That which can be determined only by inclination (sensible impulse, stimulus) would be animal choice (arbitrium brutum). Human choice, however, is a choice that can indeed be affected but not determined by impulses, and is therefore of itself (apart from an acquired proficiency of reason) not pure but can still be determined to actions by pure will.
For a will to be considered "free '', we must understand it as capable of affecting causal power without being caused to do so. But the idea of lawless free will, that is, a will acting without any causal structure, is incomprehensible. Therefore, a free will must be acting under laws that it gives to itself.
Although Kant conceded that there could be no conceivable example of free will, because any example would only show us a will as it appears to us -- as a subject of natural laws -- he nevertheless argued against determinism. He proposed that determinism is logically inconsistent: The determinist claims that because A caused B, and B caused C, that A is the true cause of C. Applied to a case of the human will, a determinist would argue that the will does not have causal power and that something outside the will causes the will to act as it does. But this argument merely assumes what it sets out to prove: viz. that the human will is part of the causal chain.
Secondly, Kant remarks that free will is inherently unknowable. Since even a free person could not possibly have knowledge of their own freedom, we can not use our failure to find a proof for freedom as evidence for a lack of it. The observable world could never contain an example of freedom because it would never show us a will as it appears to itself, but only a will that is subject to natural laws imposed on it. But we do appear to ourselves as free. Therefore, he argued for the idea of transcendental freedom -- that is, freedom as a presupposition of the question "what ought I to do? '' This is what gives us sufficient basis for ascribing moral responsibility: the rational and self - actualizing power of a person, which he calls moral autonomy: "the property the will has of being a law unto itself. ''
From this step, Kant concludes that a moral proposition that is true must be one that is not tied to any particular conditions, including the identity of the person making the moral deliberation. A moral maxim must imply absolute necessity, which is to say that it must be disconnected from the particular physical details surrounding the proposition, and could be applied to any rational being. This leads to the first formulation of the categorical imperative, sometimes called the "universalizability principle '':
Closely connected with this formulation is the law of nature formulation. Because laws of nature are by definition universal, Kant claims we may also express the categorical imperative as:
Kant divides the duties imposed by this formulation into two sets of two subsets. The first division is between duties we have to ourselves versus duties we have to others. For example, we have an obligation not to kill ourselves as well as an obligation not to kill others. Kant also, however, introduces a distinction between "perfect '' and "imperfect '' duties, which requires more explanation:
According to his reasoning, we first have a perfect duty not to act by maxims that result in logical contradictions when we attempt to universalize them. The moral proposition A: "It is permissible to steal '' would result in a contradiction upon universalisation. The notion of stealing presupposes the existence of private property, but were A universalized, then there could be no private property, and so the proposition has logically negated itself.
In general, perfect duties are those that are blameworthy if not met, as they are a basic required duty for a human being.
Second, we have imperfect duties, which are still based on pure reason, but which allow for desires in how they are carried out in practice. Because these depend somewhat on the subjective preferences of humankind, this duty is not as strong as a perfect duty, but it is still morally binding. As such, unlike perfect duties, you do not attract blame should you not complete an imperfect duty but you shall receive praise for it should you complete it, as you have gone beyond the basic duties and taken duty upon yourself. Imperfect duties are circumstantial, meaning simply that you could not reasonably exist in a constant state of performing that duty. This is what truly differentiates between perfect and imperfect duties, because imperfect duties are those duties that are never truly completed. A particular example provided by Kant is the imperfect duty to cultivate one 's own talents.
Every rational action must set before itself not only a principle, but also an end. Most ends are of a subjective kind, because they need only be pursued if they are in line with some particular hypothetical imperative that a person may choose to adopt. For an end to be objective, it would be necessary that we categorically pursue it.
The free will is the source of all rational action. But to treat it as a subjective end is to deny the possibility of freedom in general. Because the autonomous will is the one and only source of moral action, it would contradict the first formulation to claim that a person is merely a means to some other end, rather than always an end in themselves.
On this basis, Kant derives the second formulation of the categorical imperative from the first.
By combining this formulation with the first, we learn that a person has perfect duty not to use the humanity of themselves or others merely as a means to some other end. As a slave owner would be effectively asserting a moral right to own a person as a slave, they would be asserting a property right in another person. But this would violate the categorical imperative because it denies the basis for there to be free rational action at all; it denies the status of a person as an end in themselves. One can not, on Kant 's account, ever suppose a right to treat another person as a mere means to an end. In the case of a slave owner, the slaves are being used to cultivate the owner 's fields (the slaves acting as the means) to ensure a sufficient harvest (the end goal of the owner).
The second formulation also leads to the imperfect duty to further the ends of ourselves and others. If any person desires perfection in themselves or others, it would be their moral duty to seek that end for all people equally, so long as that end does not contradict perfect duty.
Kant claims that the first formulation lays out the objective conditions on the categorical imperative: that it be universal in form and thus capable of becoming a law of nature. Likewise, the second formulation lays out subjective conditions: that there be certain ends in themselves, namely rational beings as such. The result of these two considerations is that we must will maxims that can be at the same time universal, but which do not impinge on the freedom of ourselves nor of others. A universal maxim, however, could only have this form if it were a maxim that each subject by himself endorsed. Because it can not be something which externally constrains each subject 's activity, it must be a constraint that each subject has set for himself. This leads to the concept of self - legislation. Each subject must through his own use of reason will maxims which have the form of universality, but do not impinge on the freedom of others: thus each subject must will maxims that could be universally self - legislated.
The result, of course, is a formulation of the categorical imperative that contains much of the same as the first two. We must will something that we could at the same time freely will of ourselves. After introducing this third formulation, Kant introduces a distinction between autonomy (literally: self - law - giving) and heteronomy (literally: other - law - giving). This third formulation makes it clear that the categorical imperative requires autonomy. It is not enough that the right conduct be followed, but that one also demands that conduct of oneself.
In the Groundwork, Kant goes on to formulate the categorical imperative in a number of different ways following the first three; however, because Kant himself claims that there are only three principles, little attention has been given to these other formulations. Moreover, they are often easily assimilated to the first three formulations, as Kant takes himself to be explicitly summarizing these earlier principles.
There is, however, one additional formulation that has received a lot of additional attention because it appears to introduce a social dimension into Kant 's thought. This is the formulation of the "Kingdom of Ends '':
Because a truly autonomous will would not be subjugated to any interest, it would only be subject to those laws it makes for itself -- but it must also regard those laws as if they would be bound to others, or they would not be universalizable, and hence they would not be laws of conduct at all. Thus Kant presents the notion of the hypothetical Kingdom of Ends of which he suggests all people should consider themselves never solely as means but always as ends.
We ought to act only by maxims that would harmonize with a possible kingdom of ends. We have perfect duty not to act by maxims that create incoherent or impossible states of natural affairs when we attempt to universalize them, and we have imperfect duty not to act by maxims that lead to unstable or greatly undesirable states of affairs.
Although Kant was intensely critical of the use of examples as moral yardsticks, because they tend to rely on our moral intuitions (feelings) rather than our rational powers, this section will explore some applications of the categorical imperative for illustrative purposes.
Kant asserted that lying, or deception of any kind, would be forbidden under any interpretation and in any circumstance. In the Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty). With lying, it would logically contradict the reliability of language. If it were universally acceptable to lie, then no one would believe anyone and all truths would be assumed to be lies. The right to deceive could also not be claimed because it would deny the status of the person deceived as an end in itself. The theft would be incompatible with a possible kingdom of ends. Therefore, Kant denied the right to lie or deceive for any reason, regardless of context or anticipated consequences.
Kant argued that any action taken against another person to which he or she could not possibly consent is a violation of perfect duty interpreted through the second formulation. If a thief were to steal a book from an unknowing victim, it may have been that the victim would have agreed, had the thief simply asked. However, no person can consent to theft, because the presence of consent would mean that the transfer was not a theft. Because the victim could not have consented to the action, it could not be instituted as a universal law of nature, and theft contradicts perfect duty.
Kant applied his categorical imperative to the issue of suicide in The Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, writing that:
A man reduced to despair by a series of misfortunes feels sick of life, but is still so far in possession of his reason that he can ask himself whether taking his own life would not be contrary to his duty to himself. Now he asks whether the maxim of his action could become a universal law of nature. But his maxim is this: from self - love I make as my principle to shorten my life when its continued duration threatens more evil than it promises satisfaction. There only remains the question as to whether this principle of self - love can become a universal law of nature. One sees at once that a contradiction in a system of nature whose law would destroy life by means of the very same feeling that acts so as to stimulate the furtherance of life, and hence there could be no existence as a system of nature. Therefore, such a maxim can not possibly hold as a universal law of nature and is, consequently, wholly opposed to the supreme principle of all duty.
Kant also applies the categorical imperative in The Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals on the subject of "failing to cultivate one 's talents. '' He proposes a man who if he cultivated his talents could bring many goods, but he has everything he wants and would prefer to enjoy the pleasures of life instead. The man asks himself how the universality of such a thing works. While Kant agrees that a society could subsist if everyone did nothing, he notes that the man would have no pleasures to enjoy, for if everyone let their talents go to waste, there would be no one to create luxuries that created this theoretical situation in the first place. Not only that, but cultivating one 's talents is a duty to oneself. Thus, it is not willed to make laziness universal, and a rational being has imperfect duty to cultivate its talents. Kant concludes in The Groundwork:
... he can not possibly will that this should become a universal law of nature or be implanted in us as such a law by a natural instinct. For as a rational being he necessarily wills that all his faculties should be developed, inasmuch as they are given him for all sorts of possible purposes.
Kant 's last application of the categorical imperative in The Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals is of charity. He proposes a fourth man who finds his own life fine but sees other people struggling with life and who ponders the outcome of doing nothing to help those in need (while not envying them or accepting anything from them). While Kant admits that humanity could subsist (and admits it could possibly perform better) if this were universal, he states in Grounding:
But even though it is possible that a universal law of nature could subsist in accordance with that maxim, still it is impossible to will that such a principle should hold everywhere as a law of nature. For a will that resolved in this way would contradict itself, inasmuch as cases might often arise in which one would have need of the love and sympathy of others and in which he would deprive himself, by such a law of nature springing from his own will, of all hope of the aid he wants for himself.
Kant derived a prohibition against cruelty to animals as a violation of a duty in relation to oneself. According to Kant, man has the imperfect duty to strengthen the feeling of compassion, since this feeling promotes morality in relation to other human beings. But, cruelty to animals deadens the feeling of compassion in man. Therefore, man is obliged not to treat animals brutally (Kant, Metaphysics of Morals, § 17).
The first formulation of the Categorical Imperative appears similar to The Golden Rule.
The ' Golden Rule ' (in its negative form) says: "Do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself. ''
The ' Golden Rule ' (in its positive form) says: "Treat others how you wish to be treated ''.
Kant 's first formulation of his Categorical Imperative says: "Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law. ''
Due to this similarity, some have thought the two are identical.
Peter Corning suggests that, "Kant 's objection to the Golden Rule is especially suspect because the categorical imperative (CI) sounds a lot like a paraphrase, or perhaps a close cousin, of the same fundamental idea. In effect, it says that you should act toward others in ways that you would want everyone else to act toward others, yourself included (presumably). Calling it a universal law does not materially improve on the basic concept. '' Corning claims that Ken Binmore thought so as well.
Kant himself did not think so in Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals. Rather, the categorical imperative is an attempt to identify a purely formal and necessarily universally binding rule on all rational agents. The Golden Rule, on the other hand, is neither purely formal nor necessarily universally binding. It is "empirical '' in the sense that applying it depends on providing content, like "If you do n't want others to hit you, then do n't hit them. '' Also, it is a hypothetical imperative in the sense that it can be formulated, "If you want X done to you, then do X to others. '' Kant feared that the hypothetical clause, "if you want X done to you, '' remains open to dispute.
One of the first major challenges to Kant 's reasoning came from the French philosopher Benjamin Constant, who asserted that since truth telling must be universal, according to Kant 's theories, one must (if asked) tell a known murderer the location of his prey. This challenge occurred while Kant was still alive, and his response was the essay On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives (sometimes translated On a Supposed Right to Lie because of Philanthropic Concerns). In this reply, Kant agreed with Constant 's inference, that from Kant 's premises one must infer a moral duty not to lie to a murderer.
Kant denied that such an inference indicates any weakness in his premises: not lying to the murderer is required because moral actions do not derive their worth from the expected consequences. He claimed that because lying to the murderer would treat him as a mere means to another end, the lie denies the rationality of another person, and therefore denies the possibility of there being free rational action at all. This lie results in a contradiction in conception and therefore the lie is in conflict with duty.
Constant and Kant agree that refusing to answer the murderer 's question is consistent with the categorical imperative, but assume for the purposes of argument that refusing to answer would not be an option, perhaps because of duress such as kidnapping, torture, or extortion. Neither of them explain why such duress would cause a truthful answer to be more consistent with the categorical imperative than refusing to answer. Subsequent commentators on the challenge often point out that there is likely no such reason.
Schopenhauer 's criticism of the Kantian philosophy expresses doubt concerning the absence of egoism in the Categorical Imperative. Schopenhauer claimed that the Categorical Imperative is actually hypothetical and egotistical, not categorical. Kierkegaard believed Kantian autonomy was insufficient and that, if unchecked, people tend to be lenient in their own case, either by not exercising the full rigor of the moral law or by not properly disciplining themselves of moral transgressions:
Kant was of the opinion that man is his own law (autonomy) - that is, he binds himself under the law which he himself gives himself. Actually, in a profounder sense, this is how lawlessness or experimentation are established. This is not being rigorously earnest any more than Sancho Panza 's self - administered blows to his own bottom were vigorous... Now if a man is never even once willing in his lifetime to act so decisively that (a lawgiver) can get hold of him, well, then it happens, then the man is allowed to live on in self - complacent illusion and make - believe and experimentation, but this also means: utterly without grace.
In 1961, discussion of Kant 's categorical imperative included even the trial of the infamous SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem.
As Hannah Arendt wrote in her book on the trial, Eichmann declared "with great emphasis that he had lived his whole life... according to a Kantian definition of duty ''. Arendt considered this so "incomprehensible on the face of it '' that it confirmed her sense that he was n't really thinking at all, just mouthing accepted formulae, thereby establishing his banality. Judge Raveh indeed had asked Eichmann whether he thought he had really lived according to the categorical imperative during the war. Eichmann acknowledged he did not "live entirely according to it, although I would like to do so. ''
Deborah Lipstadt, in her book on the trial, takes this as evidence that evil is not banal, but is in fact self - aware.
Pope Francis, in his 2015 Encyclical, applies the first formulation of the universalizability principle to the issue of consumption:
One form of the categorical imperative is superrationality. The concept was elucidated by Douglas Hofstadter as a new approach to game theory. Unlike in conventional game theory, a superrational player will act as if all other players are superrational too and that a superrational agent will always come up with the same strategy as any other superrational agent when facing the same problem.
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who was the first african american coach to win a superbowl | Tony Dungy - wikipedia
Anthony Kevin Dungy (/ ˈdʌndʒi / DUN - jee; born October 6, 1955) is a former professional American football player and coach in the National Football League (NFL). Dungy was head coach of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers from 1996 to 2001, and head coach of the Indianapolis Colts from 2002 to 2008.
Dungy became the first black head coach to win the Super Bowl when his Colts defeated the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI. Dungy set a new NFL record for consecutive playoff appearances by a head coach in 2008 after securing his tenth straight playoff appearance with a win against the Jacksonville Jaguars.
Dungy announced his retirement as coach of the Indianapolis Colts on January 12, 2009 following the Colts ' loss in the playoffs. The Colts qualified for the playoffs in every season they were coached by Dungy. Since retirement, Dungy has served as an analyst on NBC 's Football Night in America. He is also the national spokesman for the fatherhood program All Pro Dad.
Dungy was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame on February 6, 2016.
After playing Quarterback in college for the University of Minnesota, Dungy went undrafted in 1977 and was signed as a free agent by the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League as a safety. He played as a defensive reserve and special teams player for the Steelers in 1977 and the Super Bowl champion 1978 season, leading the team in interceptions in the latter campaign. In 1979, Dungy was traded to the San Francisco 49ers, then finished his career a year later in the training camp of the New York Giants in 1980.
Dungy is the most recent NFL player to intercept a pass and throw an interception in the same game. Dungy was the emergency quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers in a 1977 game against the Houston Oilers when both Terry Bradshaw and Mike Kruczek went down with injuries on October 9, 1977. He played safety on defense.
Dungy has one Super Bowl title as a player, as he was a member of the Steelers when they won Super Bowl XIII.
Following his NFL experience as a player, Dungy was invited to become an assistant coach for his alma mater, the University of Minnesota in 1980. After one season in charge of defensive backs, he was asked to return to the NFL, this time as a coach. He was hired as an assistant by Steelers head coach Chuck Noll, his former head coach from his playing days with the team, in 1981. His work under Noll put Dungy in the Sid Gillman coaching cake.
In 1982, he was named defensive backfield coach, and was promoted in 1984 to defensive coordinator. He left the Steelers in 1989 to become the defensive backs coach for the Kansas City Chiefs, and took over the defensive coordinator position for the Minnesota Vikings under Dennis Green in 1992. While at Minnesota, Dungy 's defense was ranked first in the NFL.
Dungy became an NFL head coach when he was hired by Rich McKay to reform the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, a team then well known for its lack of success, on January 22, 1996. Dungy installed his version of the Cover 2 defense with defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin with a few new wrinkles. The result was the now - famous Tampa 2, though Dungy openly admitted it was based on concepts he had picked up from his days in Pittsburgh.
Despite finishing with a 6 - 10 record in 1996, the Buccaneers finished strong and showed signs of developing into a winning team. After a home win versus the Raiders, the Buccaneers fell to a quick 14 -- 0 hole to the Chargers in San Diego. Instead of folding, the team fought to a hard win, their first win on the West Coast in 15 years. Many Bucs fans believe that this was where the long - beleaguered franchise finally turned the corner. It turned out to be the only losing season Dungy would suffer as a head coach.
In 1997, the Buccaneers started 5 - 0, their best start since 1979. They ultimately finished second in the NFC Central division, Tampa Bay 's first winning season since 1982. In the last game played at Tampa Stadium, the Bucs defeated the Detroit Lions for only their second playoff win in franchise history. They lost the next game to the defending champion Green Bay Packers.
While the Bucs barely missed the playoffs in 1998, they rebounded strongly in 1999 to win their first division title since 1979, only to lose to the St. Louis Rams in the NFC Championship Game. They went on to reach the playoffs again in 2000 and 2001, only to be defeated in the wild card round each time by the Philadelphia Eagles. The Bucs were hobbled by constant changes to the offensive coordinator position; QB Shaun King had to work with three different coordinators in three years. Dungy was fired on January 14, 2002 due to the club 's repeated losses in the playoffs. Additionally, owner Malcolm Glazer felt Dungy 's offense was too conservative. Dungy thus became the first coach in Bucs history to leave the team with a winning record.
The following season, the Buccaneers won Super Bowl XXXVII, their first (and only through 2017) appearance in the championship game. Though Dungy was fired the prior season and replaced with Jon Gruden, Dungy has been credited for constructing the team.
On January 22, 2002, Dungy was hired as head coach of the Indianapolis Colts, a team that at the time was very potent offensively, but very weak defensively. He installed his "Tampa 2 '' defense immediately and continued to retool the Colts ' defense to his liking during his tenure. After joining the Colts, Dungy left the high - powered offense previously installed there by Jim Mora, in both playing style and in personnel, virtually unchanged. Dungy was reunited with Tom Moore, who was retained as offensive coordinator. Moore and Dungy had previously worked together at Minnesota and Pittsburgh.
During his early tenure in Indianapolis, Dungy struggled to fix the Colts ' defense and had mixed results in the postseason. In his first season at Indianapolis, the Colts were shut out 41 -- 0 by the New York Jets in a first - round playoff game, and the team lost postseason games to the New England Patriots in both 2003 (in the AFC championship game) and 2004 (in the second round of the playoffs). Dungy signed a three - year contract extension in October 2005 for US $5 million per year.
The Colts focused on defensive improvements during the 2005 offseason, signing five - year defensive tackle Corey Simon. Widely expected to be a Super Bowl contender, the Colts won their first 13 games, prompting much speculation about the possibility of the Colts becoming the NFL 's first team to finish the season undefeated since the 1972 Miami Dolphins.
Their thirteenth win guaranteed the Colts home field advantage throughout the playoffs. With nothing to play for except the chance to go unbeaten, the Colts lost their 14th game to the San Diego Chargers. The Colts played their starters sparingly in the last two games. The Colts lost in their first playoff game to the eventual Super Bowl winner Pittsburgh Steelers. This loss made the Colts the first team to ever start a season 13 -- 0 and not reach the Super Bowl.
The Colts ' 2006 playoff run was characterized by a marked improvement in defensive play, as the Colts defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, holding one of the NFL 's best running backs to less than 50 yards, and upset the favored Baltimore Ravens in the divisional round. On January 21, 2007, after trailing 21 -- 3, the Colts defeated the New England Patriots to become AFC Champions and advanced to Super Bowl XLI. This was the largest comeback in conference title game history. By a matter of only a few hours, Dungy became the second black coach to lead his team to the Super Bowl. His good friend, Chicago Bears head coach Lovie Smith, had clinched the NFC 's bid in the Super Bowl earlier in the day.
On February 4, 2007, Dungy and the Colts won Super Bowl XLI 29 -- 17 over the Bears at Dolphin Stadium in Miami.
On December 23, 2007, with a win over the Houston Texans, Dungy won his 72nd game as Colts head coach, passing Don Shula to become the coach with most wins in franchise history.
On January 21, 2008, Dungy announced that he would return at least for the 2008 season.
During the 2008 season, the Colts won 12 regular season games, including their last nine straight, clinching a wildcard berth, but were upset 23 -- 17 in overtime by the San Diego Chargers in the wildcard round of the 2008 -- 09 NFL playoffs.
On January 12, 2009, Jim Caldwell who 'd been a long time Colts assistant was chosen as the new head coach for the Indianapolis Colts after being named Dungy 's future successor a year earlier. On November 1, 2010, the Colts added Tony Dungy 's name to the Indianapolis Colts Ring of Honor located on the middle balcony on the east side of Lucas Oil Stadium. Then came out of retirement for 3 more years.
In June 2009, NBC Sports hired Dungy to serve as a studio color analyst on the network 's weekly Sunday Night Football pregame show, Football Night in America.
Dungy 's career has included several notable firsts. Among them, Dungy is the first NFL head coach to defeat all 32 NFL teams. He was also the youngest assistant coach at age 25 and the youngest coordinator at age 28 in NFL history.
Dungy was the first black head coach to win the Super Bowl (with the Colts ' victory over the Bears in 2007). He was the third black head coach to win a pro football championship in North America, behind Darren Arbet of the San Jose Sabercats (Arena Football League) who won ArenaBowl XVI in 2002 and Pinball Clemons of the Toronto Argonauts (Canadian Football League) who won the 92nd Grey Cup in 2004.
Dungy also became the sixth man to play in a Super Bowl and be the head coach of a Super Bowl team. He joins Dan Reeves, Sam Wyche, Mike Ditka, Forrest Gregg and Tom Flores. Ron Rivera also accomplished this feat with the Carolina Panthers in 2015. After the win in Super Bowl XLI, Dungy became the third man to win Super Bowls both as a player and a head coach, following Ditka and Flores.
On offense, Tony Dungy 's strategy involved a conservative, ball - control offense based primarily around running the ball and short, high - percentage passes when he was at Tampa Bay. At Indianapolis, he inherited and kept the offense designed by offensive coordinator Tom Moore because the offense was in the hands of someone he knew and trusted. In both cases, most of the offensive planning has been handled by his offensive coordinators.
On defense, Dungy used a stifling "Cover 2 '' style zone defense, which usually was based around a formation of 4 linemen, 3 linebackers, and 4 defensive backs. The "Cover 2 '' defense Dungy used involved his linemen rushing the passer, the cornerbacks covering the passing flat area, the linebackers covering the middle of the field, and the safeties providing deep coverage on each half of their respective zones. While the Cover 2 defense was not a new concept, Dungy contributed to its greater use by systemizing it into an every - down defense. The personnel and techniques that Dungy used in this defense were very specific, and as a result, his style of defense earned the moniker of the "Tampa 2 '' around the NFL.
Dungy is mentioned in the book Power of Habit, by Charles Duhigg, in chapter 3: "The Golden Rule of Habit Change. ''
Dungy is also credited with supporting and fostering the development of defensive - minded coaches, notably during his tenure with the Buccaneers. His contributions have had a great effect on the diversity of the league and helped lead to the institution of the Rooney Rule by Steelers owner Dan Rooney, requiring teams to interview minority coaches. Among those who have gone on to head coaching positions after working with Dungy include:
Moreover, Rod Marinelli, the defensive line coach under Dungy at Tampa Bay, was the head coach of the Detroit Lions from 2006 to 2008. Mike Shula, the offensive coordinator under Dungy at Tampa, was the head coach at the University of Alabama from 2003 to 2006. Herman Edwards, the former head coach for the New York Jets and Kansas City Chiefs was an assistant head coach under Dungy at Tampa Bay. Jim Caldwell, an assistant under Dungy in Indianapolis, was promoted to head coach in 2009, and coached the Colts for three seasons.
Joe Barry, a linebackers coach under Dungy at Tampa Bay, was the defensive coordinator for the Detroit Lions from 2006 to 2008.
Dungy is listed as not only a part of the Bill Walsh coaching tree, but also a part of the Marty Schottenheimer coaching tree. The Dungy tree grew from the roots of the Pittsburgh Steelers ' dynasty of the 1970s. He was influenced by the defensive schemes learned under Chuck Noll and Bud Carson. Dungy said that he inherited most of the coaching philosophies from Noll and he is proud to be a protégé of Noll.
Dungy stresses that coaches are essentially teachers who put faith and family ahead of football, do not belittle their players or scream at them, and remain calm when things go badly. They guide instead of goad, and Lovie Smith found that perhaps the most instructive thing of all.
Smith said, "We talked about how to do it, being a teacher instead of screaming and yelling, all that stuff. ''
Smith also said:
Dungy said:
Dungy also learned from Noll that it takes all 53 of the players on the team to win so that a coach should train the 53rd player on the roster as he would the third player, which has become the spine of Dungy 's own coaching philosophy, which is the Next Man Up theory of calm coaching. Dungy stressed that a team should have a thought process, a philosophy, and the conviction to stick with it, even if personnel changes during the games because of injuries. Dungy said:
Dungy put his coaching beliefs on his memoir, Quiet Strength: The Principles, Practices, and Priorities of a Winning Life (ISBN 1 - 414 - 31801 - 4). Cam Cameron, former head coach of the Miami Dolphins, highly recommended the book by buying 1,000 books to give away to football coaches at his preseason coaching clinic in July 2007 in South Florida, and said:
In August 2007, President George W. Bush appointed Dungy a member of the President 's Council on Service and Civic Participation. The 25 - member council represents leaders from government, business, entertainment, athletics and non-profit organizations committed to growing the spirit of service and civic participation. The two - year appointment requires attendance at two in - person meetings per year and quarterly phone conversations with assigned committees. After receiving the call from President Bush, Dungy remarked "It was something that was really hard to believe. Certainly, when you go into football coaching, you 're not expecting to get presidential appointments to anything. ''
In March 2009 President Barack Obama invited Dungy to join the Advisory Council on Faith - Based and Neighborhood Partnerships. He declined the invitation to join the council because of scheduling conflicts, as he could make only two of 2009 's four council meetings, but agreed to be an informal adviser on fatherhood issues.
He had also turned down offers from National Football League Players ' Association to become liaison to the NFL.
Dungy is an evangelical Christian and at one point in his coaching career considered leaving football for the prison ministry. Throughout his career, he has remained involved with community service organizations.
Dungy 's tenure in Tampa Bay as the head coach of the Buccaneers brought greater attention to his personal accomplishments outside of sports. He has been active in many community service organizations in the cities in which he has coached. While in Tampa Bay, Dungy worked as a public speaker for the Fellowship of Christian Athletes and Athletes in Action.
He began a mentoring program for young people called Mentors for Life, and provided Buccaneers ' tickets for the participants. He also supported other charitable programs in the area such as Big Brothers / Big Sisters, Boys and Girls Club, the Prison Crusade Ministry, foster parenting organizations, and Family First. He continues to assist Big Brothers / Big Sisters and the Boys and Girls Club in Indianapolis. He also supports the Black Coaches Association National Convention and Indiana Black Expo.
In Indianapolis, Dungy helped launch the Basket of Hope program at the Riley Hospital for Children. Basket of Hope is a national non-profit organization which began in 1995. Tony is the National Spokesperson for Basket of Hope and delivers the baskets filled with age and gender appropriate toys, games and craft items to Riley Hospital for Children. Along with the baskets, he delivers a Hope Tote, which includes Quiet Strength, a journal, Bible, Christian music, and other inspirational materials. Dungy worked with Basket of Hope and Riley Hospital for Children to implement the Super Baskets of Hope project where 7,000 baskets and totes were delivered to the 32 NFL cities and participating hospitals during the weeks surrounding Super Bowl XLVI.
After Michael Sam, an openly gay player, was drafted by the St. Louis Rams in the 2014 NFL Draft, Dungy said he would not have drafted Sam, saying "Not because I do n't believe Michael Sam should have a chance to play, but I would n't want to deal with all of it. '' Dungy 's viewpoint was shared by many others. The comment drew criticism from some who viewed it as homophobic. Following a backlash, Dungy clarified his remarks, saying that he gave an "honest answer '' to a question and that his concern would be with media coverage over Sam if had been the player 's coach. Dungy has also expressed opposition to same - sex marriage.
Dungy was born in Jackson, Michigan. His parents were Wilbur Dungy (1926 -- 2004), a science professor at Jackson College, and Cleomae Dungy (1920 -- 2002), who taught Shakespeare at Jackson High School in Michigan. Wilbur served as a pilot during World War II with the famed Tuskegee Airmen.
Dungy is married to Lauren Harris Dungy of Pittsburgh and has two daughters, Tiara and Jade, and five sons: James (died December 22, 2005), Eric, Jordan, Justin, and Jason. James died by suicide at age 18, outside of Tampa. The Dungys still keep their home in the Tampa Bay area. Dungy 's son Eric played football at the University of Oregon for three seasons before transferring to the University of South Florida for his final season in 2014.
On September 6, 2007, The Indianapolis Star reported that the Davie - Brown Index (DBI), an independent celebrity rating service for advertisers, places Dungy in the top 15 of the 900 actors, musicians, TV personalities, and sports celebrities it ranks for overall appeal, putting him on a level with actors such as Tom Hanks and Morgan Freeman. Among sports figures, he ranks second to Hank Aaron.
On February 27, 2008, Indiana Wesleyan University honored Dungy in a ceremony where he was inducted into IWU 's Society of World Changers. Dungy also received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from the university.
On August 5, 2009, Dungy spoke at the 53rd General Council of the Assemblies of God.
Since retirement, Dungy has become an informal mentor to the formerly suspended NFL player Michael Vick, counseling him during his incarceration and, with the help of Donovan McNabb, convincing Eagles owner Jeff Lurie and head coach Andy Reid to consider signing him to the team 's roster.
Dungy 's memoir, Quiet Strength: The Principles, Practices, and Priorities of a Winning Life, was released on July 10, 2007 and reached No. 1 on the hardcover nonfiction section of the New York Times Best Seller list on August 5, 2007 and again on September 9, 2007. Tyndale House Publishers said it was the first NFL - related book ever ranked No. 1. When asked why he wrote Quiet Strength, Dungy said,
Dungy said he 'd actually gotten "more satisfaction '' from the success of Quiet Strength than the Super Bowl win. That 's because, he said, "I 've gotten so many calls and letters from people saying they really got something out of it, something that helped them. '' On January 10, 2008, Quiet Strength reached 1,000,000 copies in print. Quiet Strength was on the New York Times Best Seller List for 32 weeks, including 27 in the top 10 for hardcover nonfiction.
Dungy also published a 96 - page paperback called Quiet Strength: Men 's Bible Study on July 18, 2007. Dungy challenged men to answer six questions: What 's my game plan? What 's my strength? What 's success? Where 's my security? What 's my significance? And, what 's my legacy? The book is aimed specifically at men, including those who may not otherwise be interested in spiritual matters.
When asked if Dungy would consider writing a follow - up to Quiet Strength, Dungy said,
Dungy published a 24 - page children 's picture book called You Can Do It with Little Simon Inspirations, a division of Simon & Schuster on July 8, 2008, reached No. 1 on the children 's picture books section of the New York Times Best Seller list on July 27, 2008 and stayed on the top 10 for 5 weeks. The book tells the story of Dungy 's younger brother Linden who struggles, then figures out his life dream and is encouraged by his family to follow that dream as a dentist. Dungy said that his other hopes for You Can Do It were that it would encourage parents to read to their kids and that kids would learn the lesson of pursuing whatever field they were talented in, even if it might be not the popular thing to do.
Dungy has also published Uncommon: Finding Your Path to Significance, a book revealing lessons on achieving significance that Dungy has learned. The book, released on February 17, 2009 with Tyndale House Publishers, particularly focuses on what it means to be a man of significance in a culture that is offering young men few positive role models. Dungy said,
Uncommon reached No. 2 on the hardcover advice section of the New York Times Best Seller list and stayed on the top 10 for 9 weeks.
On August 3, 2010 Dungy released a new book entitled The Mentor Leader, which debuted at No. 2 and stayed on the top 10 for 5 weeks on the hardcover advice section of the New York Times Best Seller list.
On January 11, 2011 Dungy and wife Lauren released a new book entitled You Can Be a Friend. Their story teaches children what it means to be a good friend. The book debuted at No. 7 and stayed on the top 10 for 1 week on the children 's picture books section of the New York Times Best Seller list.
Dungy was on the cover of NFL Head Coach 09 as its "cover coach ''. The previous head coach on the cover was Bill Cowher. Coincidentally, both coaches would retire the season after their cover issues were published.
Pound sign (#) denotes interim head coach.
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when does song for the saints come out | Auld lang Syne - wikipedia
"Auld Lang Syne '' (Scots pronunciation: (ˈɔːl (d) lɑŋˈsəin): note "s '' rather than "z '') is a Scots poem written by Robert Burns in 1788 and set to the tune of a traditional folk song (Roud # 6294). It is well known in many countries, especially in the English - speaking world, its traditional use being to bid farewell to the old year at the stroke of midnight on New Year 's Eve. By extension, it is also sung at funerals, graduations, and as a farewell or ending to other occasions. The international Scouting movement, in many countries, uses it to close jamborees and other functions.
The song 's Scots title may be translated into standard English as "old long since '', or more idiomatically, "long long ago '', "days gone by '' or "old times ''. Consequently, "For auld lang syne '', as it appears in the first line of the chorus, might be loosely translated as "for (the sake of) old times ''.
The phrase "Auld Lang Syne '' is also used in similar poems by Robert Ayton (1570 -- 1638), Allan Ramsay (1686 -- 1757), and James Watson (1711) as well as older folk songs predating Burns. Matthew Fitt uses the phrase "In the days of auld lang syne '' as the equivalent of "Once upon a time... '' in his retelling of fairy tales in the Scots language.
Robert Burns sent a copy of the original song to the Scots Musical Museum with the remark, "The following song, an old song, of the olden times, and which has never been in print, nor even in manuscript until I took it down from an old man. '' Some of the lyrics were indeed "collected '' rather than composed by the poet; the ballad "Old Long Syne '' printed in 1711 by James Watson shows considerable similarity in the first verse and the chorus to Burns ' later poem, and is almost certainly derived from the same "old song ''.
Should Old Acquaintance be forgot, and never thought upon; The flames of Love extinguished, and fully past and gone: Is thy sweet Heart now grown so cold, that loving Breast of thine; That thou canst never once reflect On old long syne.
It is a fair supposition to attribute the rest of the poem to Burns himself.
There is some doubt as to whether the melody used today is the same one Burns originally intended, but it is widely used in Scotland and in the rest of the world.
Singing the song on Hogmanay or New Year 's Eve very quickly became a Scots custom that soon spread to other parts of the British Isles. As Scots (not to mention English, Welsh and Irish people) emigrated around the world, they took the song with them.
The song begins by posing a rhetorical question: Is it right that old times be forgotten? The answer is generally interpreted as a call to remember long - standing friendships. Thomson 's Select Songs of Scotland was published in 1799 in which the second verse about greeting and toasting was moved to its present position at the end.
Most common use of the song involves only the first verse and the chorus. The last lines of both of these are often sung with the extra words "For the sake of '' or "And days of '', rather than Burns ' simpler lines. This allows one note for each word, rather than the slight melisma required to fit Burns ' original words to the melody.
Should auld acquaintance be forgot, and never brought to mind? Should auld acquaintance be forgot, and auld lang syne *?
And surely ye 'll be your pint - stoup! and surely I 'll be mine! And we 'll tak ' a cup o ' kindness yet, for auld lang syne.
We twa hae run about the braes, and pou 'd the gowans fine; But we 've wander 'd mony a weary fit, sin ' auld lang syne.
We twa hae paidl 'd in the burn, frae morning sun till dine; But seas between us braid hae roar 'd sin ' auld lang syne.
And there 's a hand, my trusty fiere! and gie 's a hand o ' thine! And we 'll tak ' a right gude - willie waught, for auld lang syne.
Should old acquaintance be forgot, and never brought to mind? Should old acquaintance be forgot, and old lang syne?
And surely you 'll buy your pint cup! and surely I 'll buy mine! And we 'll take a cup o ' kindness yet, for auld lang syne.
We two have run about the slopes, and picked the daisies fine; But we 've wandered many a weary foot, since auld lang syne.
We two have paddled in the stream, from morning sun till dine; But seas between us broad have roared since auld lang syne.
And there 's a hand my trusty friend! And give me a hand o ' thine! And we 'll take a right good - will draught, for auld lang syne.
Shid ald akwentans bee firgot, an nivir brocht ti mynd? Shid ald akwentans bee firgot, an ald lang syn *?
An sheerly yil bee yur pynt - staup! an sheerly al bee myn! An will tak a cup o kyndnes yet, fir ald lang syn.
We twa hay rin aboot the braes, an pood the gowans fyn; Bit weev wandert monae a weery fet, sin ald lang syn.
We twa hay pedilt in the burn, fray mornin sun til dyn; But seas between us bred hay roard sin ald lang syn.
An thers a han, my trustee feer! an gees a han o thyn! And we 'll tak a richt gude - willie - waucht, fir ald lang syn.
ʃɪd o̜ːld ə. kwɛn. təns bi fəɾ. ɡot, ən nɪ. vəɾ brɔxt tɪ məin? ʃɪd o̜ːld ə. kwɛn. təns bi fəɾ. ɡot, ən o̜ːl lɑŋ səin?
ən ʃeːr. li jiːl bi juːɾ pəin. stʌup! ən ʃeːr. li ɑːl bi məin! ən wiːl tɑk ə kʌp ə kəin. nəs jɛt, fəɾ o̜ːl lɑŋ səin.
wi two̜̜ː heː rɪn ə. but ðə breːz, ən puːd ðə ɡʌu. ənz fəin; bʌt wiːv wɑn. əɾt mʌ.ne ə wiːɾɪ fɪt, sɪn o̜ːl lɑŋ səin.
wi two̜̜ː heː pe. dlt ɪn ðə bʌɾn, freː moːɾ. nɪn sɪn tɪl dəin; bʌt siːz ə. twin ʌs bred heː roːrd sɪn o̜lː lɑŋ səin.
ən ðeːrz ə ho̜ːn, mɑ trʌs. tɪ fiːɾ! əŋ ɡiːz ə ho̜ːn ə ðəin! ən wiːl tɑk ə rɪxt ɡɪd wʌ. lɪ wo̜ːxt, fəɾ o̜lː lɑŋ səin.
dine = "dinner time '' ch = voiceless velar fricative, / x /, at the back of the mouth like / k / but with the mouth partly open like / f /. Similar to "Bach '' in German syne = "since '' or "then '' -- pronounced like "sign '' rather than "zine ''.
The tune to which "Auld Lang Syne '' is commonly sung is a pentatonic Scots folk melody, probably originally a sprightly dance in a much quicker tempo.
English composer William Shield seems to quote the "Auld Lang Syne '' melody briefly at the end of the overture to his opera Rosina, which may be its first recorded use. The contention that Burns borrowed the melody from Shield is for various reasons highly unlikely, although they may very well both have taken it from a common source, possibly a strathspey called The Miller 's Wedding or The Miller 's Daughter. The problem is that tunes based on the same set of dance steps necessarily have a similar rhythm, and even a superficial resemblance in melodic shape may cause a very strong apparent similarity in the tune as a whole. For instance, Burns ' poem Coming Through the Rye is sung to a tune that might also be based on the Miller 's Wedding. The origin of the tune of God Save the Queen presents a very similar problem and for just the same reason, as it is also based on a dance measure. (See the note in the William Shield article on this subject.)
In 1855, different words were written for the Auld Lang Syne tune by Albert Laighton and titled, "Song of the Old Folks. '' This song was included in the tunebook, Father Kemp 's Old Folks Concert Tunes published in Boston, Massachusetts in 1860. For many years it was the tradition of the Stoughton Musical Society to sing this version in memory of those who had died that year.
Songwriter George M. Cohan quotes the first line of the "Auld Lang Syne '' melody in the second to last line of the chorus of You 're a Grand Old Flag. It is plain from the lyrics that this is deliberate.
John Philip Sousa quotes the melody in the Trio section of his 1924 march "Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company ''
In the Sacred Harp choral tradition, an arrangement of it exists under the name "Plenary ''. The lyrics are a memento mori and begin with the words "Hark! from the tomb a doleful sound ''. Another Christian setting, using the name "Fair Haven '' for the same tune, uses the text "Hail! Sweetest, Dearest Tie That Binds '' by Amos Sutton.
The University of Virginia 's alma mater ("The Good Old Song '') is also sung to the tune of "Auld Lang Syne ''.
"Auld Lang Syne '' is traditionally sung at the conclusion of New Year gatherings in Scotland and around the world, especially in English - speaking countries.
At Hogmanay in Scotland, it is common practice that everyone joins hands with the person next to them to form a great circle around the dance floor. At the beginning of the last verse, everyone crosses their arms across their breast, so that the right hand reaches out to the neighbour on the left and vice versa. When the tune ends, everyone rushes to the middle, while still holding hands. When the circle is re-established, everyone turns under the arms to end up facing outwards with hands still joined.
In countries other than Scotland the hands are often crossed from the beginning of the song at variance with Scottish custom. The Scottish practice was demonstrated by the Queen at the Millennium Dome celebrations for the year 2000. The English press berated her for not "properly '' crossing her arms, unaware that she was correctly following the Scottish tradition.
As well as celebrating the New Year, "Auld Lang Syne '' is very widely used to symbolise other "endings / new beginnings '' -- including farewells, funerals (and other memorials of the dead), graduations, the end of a (non-New Year) party or a Scout gathering, the election of a new government, the last lowering of the Union Jack as a British colony achieves independence and even as a signal that a retail store is about to close for the day. The melody is also widely used for other words, especially hymns, the songs of sporting and other clubs, and even national anthems. In Scotland and other parts of Britain, in particular, it is associated with celebrations and memorials of Robert Burns. The following list of specific uses is far from comprehensive.
"Auld Lang Syne '' has been translated into many languages, and the song is widely sung all over the world. The song 's pentatonic scale matches scales used in Korea, Japan, India, China and other East Asian countries, which has facilitated its "nationalisation '' in the East. The following particular examples mostly detail things that are special or unusual about the use of the song in a particular country.
The strong and obvious associations of the song and its melody have made it a common staple for film soundtracks from the very early days of "talking '' pictures to the present -- a large number of films and television series ' episodes having used it for background, generally but by no means exclusively to evoke the New Year.
As a standard in music, Auld Lang Syne has been recorded many times, in every conceivable style, by many artists, both well - known and obscure.
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what was the name of the first solo album made by a beatle | The Beatles - wikipedia
The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they became widely regarded as the foremost and most influential music band in history. Rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock and roll, the Beatles later experimented with several musical styles, ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock, often incorporating classical elements and unconventional recording techniques in innovative ways. In 1963, their enormous popularity first emerged as "Beatlemania ''; as the group 's music grew in sophistication, led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the band were integral to pop music 's evolution into an art form and to the development of the counterculture of the 1960s.
The Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three - year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding the group 's popularity in the United Kingdom after their first hit, "Love Me Do '', in late 1962. They acquired the nickname "the Fab Four '' as Beatlemania grew in Britain over the next year, and by early 1964 became international stars, leading the "British Invasion '' of the United States pop market. From 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the albums Rubber Soul (1965), Revolver (1966), Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), The Beatles (also known as the "White Album '', 1968) and Abbey Road (1969). After their break - up in 1970, they each enjoyed success as solo artists. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in November 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active.
The Beatles are the best - selling band in history, with estimated sales of over 800 million physical and digital albums worldwide. They have had more number - one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act. They are also the best - selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazine 's list of the all - time most successful artists; as of 2017, they hold the record for most number - one hits on the Hot 100 chart with twenty. They have received seven Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, and all four main members were inducted individually from 1994 to 2015. They were also collectively included in Time magazine 's compilation of the twentieth century 's 100 most influential people.
In March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name. Fifteen - year - old Paul McCartney joined them as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July. In February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fifteen - year - old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young for the band. After a month of Harrison 's persistence, during a second meeting, arranged by McCartney, he performed the lead guitar part of the instrumental song "Raunchy '' on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus, and they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennon 's Quarry Bank friends had left the group, and he began studies at the Liverpool College of Art. The three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. Lennon 's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe, who had recently sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar, joined in January 1960, and it was he who suggested changing the band 's name to Beatals, as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle. By early July, they had refashioned themselves as the Silver Beatles, and by the middle of August shortened the name to The Beatles.
Allan Williams, the Beatles ' unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full - time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960. The band, now a five - piece, left four days later, contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a 31⁄2 - month residency. Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes: "They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August, the time when the red - light area comes to life... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer, while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities. ''
Koschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues, and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club. After closing the Indra due to noise complaints, he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October. When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract, he gave the band one month 's termination notice, and reported the underage Harrison, who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age. The authorities arranged for Harrison 's deportation in late November. One week later, Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor; the authorities deported them. Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December, while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg until late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr, who took the first semi-professional photos of the Beatles.
During the next two years, the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg, where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all - night performances. In 1961, during their second Hamburg engagement, Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe 's hair in the "exi '' (existentialist) style, later adopted by the other Beatles. When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany, McCartney took up the bass. Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four - piece group until June 1962, and he used them as Tony Sheridan 's backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records. As part of the sessions, the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year. Credited to "Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers '', the single "My Bonnie '', recorded in June 1961 and released four months later, reached number 32 on the Musikmarkt chart.
After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency, they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement. However, they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night. In November 1961, during one of the group 's frequent performances at The Cavern Club, they encountered Brian Epstein, a local record - store owner and music columnist. He later recalled: "I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence... (a) star quality. '' Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months, and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962. Throughout early and mid-1962, Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions. He eventually negotiated a one - month - early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg. Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April, when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe 's death the previous day from what would later be determined to have been a brain hemorrhage.
Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract. In order to secure a UK record contract, Epstein negotiated an early end to the band 's contract with Polydor, in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan. After a New Year 's Day audition, Decca Records rejected the band with the comment "Guitar groups are on the way out, Mr. Epstein. '' However, three months later, producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI 's Parlophone label.
Martin 's first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London on 6 June 1962. Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best 's poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place. Already contemplating Best 's dismissal, the Beatles replaced him in mid-August with Ringo Starr, who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them. A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of "Love Me Do '' featuring Starr on drums, but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band 's third session a week later, which produced recordings of "Love Me Do '', "Please Please Me '' and "P.S. I Love You ''. Martin initially selected the Starr version of "Love Me Do '' for the band 's first single, though subsequent re-pressings featured the White version, with Starr on tambourine. Released in early October, "Love Me Do '' peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart. Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places. After Martin suggested rerecording "Please Please Me '' at a faster tempo, a studio session in late November yielded that recording, of which Martin accurately predicted, "You 've just made your first No. 1. ''
In December 1962, the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency. By 1963, they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums -- including Starr, despite his restricted vocal range, to validate his standing in the group. Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership, and as the band 's success grew, their dominant collaboration limited Harrison 's opportunities as a lead vocalist. Epstein, in an effort to maximise the Beatles ' commercial potential, encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing. Lennon recalled him saying, "Look, if you really want to get in these bigger places, you 're going to have to change -- stop eating on stage, stop swearing, stop smoking... '' Lennon said: "We used to dress how we liked, on and off stage. He 'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers, but he did n't want us suddenly looking square. He 'd let us have our own sense of individuality. ''
On 11 February 1963, the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP, Please Please Me. The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles. Martin originally considered recording the Beatles ' debut LP live at The Cavern Club, but after deciding that the building 's acoustics were inadequate, he elected to simulate a "live '' album with minimal production in "a single marathon session at Abbey Road ''. After the moderate success of "Love Me Do '', the single "Please Please Me '' met with a more emphatic reception. Released in January 1963, two months ahead of the album of the same name, the song reached number one on every chart in London except Record Retailer, where it peaked at number two. Recalling how the Beatles "rushed to deliver a debut album, bashing out Please Please Me in a day '', AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments, "Decades after its release, the album still sounds fresh, precisely because of its intense origins. '' Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time; he and McCartney were "just writing songs à la Everly Brothers, à la Buddy Holly, pop songs with no more thought of them than that -- to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant. ''
Released in March 1963, the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through 1970 reached number one. The band 's third single, "From Me to You '', came out in April and was also a chart - topping hit, starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number - one singles for the Beatles, including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years. Issued in August, the band 's fourth single, "She Loves You '', achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time, selling three - quarters of a million copies in under four weeks. It became their first single to sell a million copies, and remained the biggest - selling record in the UK until 1978. Their commercial success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest. The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four - week tour that began in February, the Beatles ' first nationwide, preceded three - week tours in March and May -- June. As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans, the press dubbed the phenomenon "Beatlemania ''. Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing "by audience demand '', something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US. A similar situation arose during their May -- June tour with Roy Orbison.
In late October, the Beatles began a five - day tour of Sweden, their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962. On their return to the UK on 31 October several hundred screaming fans greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport. Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception, the first of more than 100 such events. The next day, the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months, this one scheduled for six weeks. In mid-November, as Beatlemania intensified, police resorted to using high - pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth.
Please Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for 30 weeks, only to be displaced by its follow - up, With the Beatles, which EMI released on 22 November to record advance orders of 270,000 copies. The LP topped a half - million albums sold in one week. Recorded between July and October, With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor. It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks. Erlewine described the LP as "a sequel of the highest order -- one that betters the original ''. In a reversal of then standard practice, EMI released the album ahead of the impending single "I Want to Hold Your Hand '', with the song excluded to maximise the single 's sales. The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times, who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were "the outstanding English composers of 1963 ''. The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music, lending it respectability. With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies, a figure previously reached only by the 1958 South Pacific soundtrack. When writing the sleeve notes for the album, the band 's press officer, Tony Barrow, used the superlative the "fabulous foursome '', which the media widely adopted as "the Fab Four ''.
EMI 's American subsidiary, Capitol Records, hindered the Beatles ' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music, including their first three singles. Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee - Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963, but not all. Vee - Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing... The Beatles, culled from most of the songs of Parlophone 's Please Please Me, but a management shake - up led to the album not being released. Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales, the licence Vee - Jay signed with EMI was voided. A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single "She Loves You ''. The record received some airplay in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH and was featured on the "Rate - a-Record '' segment of American Bandstand, but it failed to catch on nationally.
Epstein arranged for a $40,000 US marketing campaign. American chart success began after disc jockey Carroll James of AM radio station WWDC in Washington, DC first played "I Want to Hold Your Hand '' in mid-December 1963. It was not until the end of the first week of January 1964 that their records were played in New York City (also accompanied by a major marketing campaign and with similar play frequency), and then the rest of the country, initiating their music 's spread across US radio. This caused an increase in demand, leading Capitol to rush - release "I Want to Hold Your Hand '' later that month. Issued on 26 December 1963, with the band 's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away, "I Want to Hold Your Hand '' sold a million copies, becoming a number - one hit in the US by mid-January. In its wake, Vee - Jay released Introducing... The Beatles to go along with Capitol 's debut album, Meet the Beatles!, while Swan reactivated production of "She Loves You ''.
On 7 February 1964, the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated 4,000 fans gathered at Heathrow, waving and screaming as the aircraft took off. Upon landing at New York 's John F. Kennedy Airport, an uproarious crowd estimated at 3,000 greeted them. They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show, watched by approximately 73 million viewers in over 23 million households, or 34 per cent of the American population. Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that, according to the Nielsen rating service, it was "the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television program ''. The next morning, the Beatles awoke to a largely negative critical consensus in the US, but a day later at their first US concert, Beatlemania erupted at the Washington Coliseum. Back in New York the following day, the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall. The band flew to Florida, where they appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time, before another 70 million viewers, before returning to the UK on 22 February.
The Beatles ' first visit to the United States took place when the nation was still mourning the assassination of President John F. Kennedy the previous November. For many, particularly the young, their performances re-ignited the sense of excitement and possibility that momentarily faded in the wake of the assassination. Some commentators suggest that the Beatles helped make way for the revolutionary social changes to come in the decade. According to Mikal Gilmore:
Within days it was apparent that a genuine upheaval was underway, offering a frenetic distraction to the dread that had set into America after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, and a renewal of the brutally wounded ideal that youthfulness carried our national hope.
Their hairstyle, unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults, became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture. The Beatles ' popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion. The Beatles ' success in the US opened the door for a successive string of British beat groups and pop acts such as the Dave Clark Five, the Animals, Petula Clark, the Kinks, and the Rolling Stones to achieve success in America. During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, including the top five.
Capitol Records ' lack of interest throughout 1963 did not go unnoticed, and a competitor, United Artists Records, encouraged their film division to offer the Beatles a three - motion - picture deal, primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks in the US. Directed by Richard Lester, A Hard Day 's Night involved the band for six weeks in March -- April 1964 as they played themselves in a mock - documentary. The film premiered in London and New York in July and August, respectively, and was an international success, with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers. United Artists released a full soundtrack album for the North American market, combining Beatles songs and Martin 's orchestral score; elsewhere, the group 's third studio LP, A Hard Day 's Night, contained songs from the film on side one and other new recordings on side two. According to Erlewine, the album saw them "truly coming into their own as a band. All of the disparate influences on their first two albums coalesced into a bright, joyous, original sound, filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies. '' That "ringing guitar '' sound was primarily the product of Harrison 's 12 - string electric Rickenbacker, a prototype given to him by the manufacturer, which made its debut on the record.
Touring internationally in June and July, the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand. In August and September they returned to the US, with a 30 - concert tour of 23 cities. Generating intense interest once again, the month - long tour attracted between 10,000 and 20,000 fans to each 30 - minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York.
In August, journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan. Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite, Dylan introduced them to cannabis. Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting, before which the musicians ' respective fanbases were "perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds '': Dylan 's audience of "college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings, a dawning political and social idealism, and a mildly bohemian style '' contrasted with their fans, "veritable ' teenyboppers ' -- kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television, radio, pop records, fan magazines, and teen fashion. To many of Dylan 's followers in the folk music scene, the Beatles were seen as idolaters, not idealists. '' Within six months of the meeting, according to Gould, "Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan 's nasal drone, brittle strum, and introspective vocal persona ''; and six months after that, Dylan began performing with a backing band and electric instrumentation, and "dressed in the height of Mod fashion ''. As a result, Gould continues, the traditional division between folk and rock enthusiasts "nearly evaporated '', as the Beatles ' fans began to mature in their outlook and Dylan 's audience embraced the new, youth - driven pop culture.
During the 1964 US tour, the group were confronted with the reality of racial segregation in the country at the time, particularly in the South. When informed that the venue for their 11 September concert, the Gator Bowl in Jacksonville, Florida, was segregated, the Beatles said they would refuse to perform unless the audience was integrated. Lennon stated: "We never play to segregated audiences and we are n't going to start now... I 'd sooner lose our appearance money. '' City officials relented and agreed to allow an integrated show. The group also cancelled their reservations at the whites - only Hotel George Washington in Jacksonville. Documents reveal that for their subsequent US tours in 1965 and 1966, the Beatles included clauses in contracts stipulating that shows be integrated.
According to Gould, Beatles for Sale, the Beatles ' fourth studio LP, evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions. They had intended the album, recorded between August and October 1964, to continue the format established by A Hard Day 's Night which, unlike their first two LPs, contained only original songs. They had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album, however, and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts, Lennon admitted, "Material 's becoming a hell of a problem ''. As a result, six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album. Released in early December, its eight original compositions stood out, demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon -- McCartney songwriting partnership.
In early 1965, following a dinner with Lennon, Harrison and their wives, Harrison 's dentist John Riley secretly added LSD to their coffee. Lennon described the experience: "It was just terrifying, but it was fantastic. I was pretty stunned for a month or two. '' He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug, joined by Starr on at least one occasion. McCartney was initially reluctant to try it, but eventually did so in late 1966. He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly, declaring in a magazine interview that "it opened my eyes '' and "made me a better, more honest, more tolerant member of society ''.
Controversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award. In protest -- the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders -- some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia.
Released in July, the Beatles ' second film, Help!, was again directed by Lester. Described as "mainly a relentless spoof of Bond '', it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band. McCartney said: "Help! was great but it was n't our film -- we were sort of guest stars. It was fun, but basically, as an idea for a film, it was a bit wrong. '' The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon, who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs, including the two singles: "Help! '' and "Ticket to Ride ''. The accompanying Help! album, the group 's fifth studio LP, mirrored A Hard Day 's Night by featuring soundtrack songs on side one and additional songs from the same sessions on side two. The LP contained all original material save for two covers, "Act Naturally '' and "Dizzy Miss Lizzy ''; they were the last covers the band would include on an album, with the exception of Let It Be 's brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song "Maggie Mae ''. The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help! and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements, including a string quartet on the pop ballad "Yesterday ''. Composed by and sung by McCartney -- none of the other Beatles perform on the recording -- "Yesterday '' inspired the most cover versions of any song ever written.
The group 's third US tour opened with a performance before a world - record crowd of 55,600 at New York 's Shea Stadium on 15 August 1965 -- "perhaps the most famous of all Beatles ' concerts '', in Lewisohn 's description. A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities. At a show in Atlanta, the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on - stage monitor speakers. Towards the end of the tour, they met with Elvis Presley, a foundational musical influence on the band, who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills. September saw the launch of an American Saturday - morning cartoon series, The Beatles, that echoed A Hard Day 's Night 's slapstick antics over its two - year original run. The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real, living people.
In mid-October 1965, the Beatles entered the recording studio; for the first time when making an album, they had an extended period without other major commitments. Until this time, according to George Martin, "we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles. Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own. '' Released in December, Rubber Soul was hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band 's music. Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy. Biographers Peter Brown and Steven Gaines attribute the new musical direction to "the Beatles ' now habitual use of marijuana '', an assertion confirmed by the band -- Lennon referred to it as "the pot album '', and Starr said: "Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes, especially with the writers. And because they were writing different material, we were playing differently. '' After Help! 's foray into the world of classical music with flutes and strings, Harrison 's introduction of a sitar on "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown) '' marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music. As their lyrics grew more artful, fans began to study them for deeper meaning. Of "Norwegian Wood '' Lennon commented: "I was trying to be sophisticated in writing about an affair... but in such a smokescreen way that you could n't tell. ''
While many of Rubber Soul 's prominent songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney 's collaborative songwriting, it also featured distinct compositions from each, though they continued to share official credit. The song "In My Life '', of which each later claimed lead authorship, is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon -- McCartney catalogue. Harrison called Rubber Soul his "favourite album '' and Starr referred to it as "the departure record ''. McCartney has said, "We 'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand. '' However, recording engineer Norman Smith later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group -- "the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious '', he wrote, and "as far as Paul was concerned, George could do no right ''. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Rubber Soul fifth among "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time '', and AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger describes it as "one of the classic folk - rock records ''.
Capitol Records, from December 1963 when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market, exercised complete control over format, compiling distinct US albums from the band 's recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles. In June 1966, Yesterday and Today, one of Capitol 's compilation albums, caused an uproar with its cover, which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher 's overalls, accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls. It has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had "butchered '' the US versions of their albums. Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original; an unpeeled "first - state '' copy fetched $10,500 at a December 2005 auction. In England, meanwhile, Harrison met sitar maestro Ravi Shankar, who agreed to train him on the instrument.
During a tour of the Philippines the month after the Yesterday and Today furore, the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation 's first lady, Imelda Marcos, who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the Presidential Palace. When presented with the invitation, Epstein politely declined on the band members ' behalf, as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations. They soon found that the Marcos regime was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer. The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty. Immediately afterwards, the band members visited India for the first time.
-- John Lennon to journalist Maureen Cleave, 1966
Almost as soon as they returned home, the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives (as well as the Ku Klux Klan) over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter Maureen Cleave. "Christianity will go, '' Lennon had said. "It will vanish and shrink. I need n't argue about that; I 'm right and I will be proved right... Jesus was alright but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It 's them twisting it that ruins it for me. '' The comment went virtually unnoticed in England, but when US teenage fan magazine Datebook printed it five months later -- on the eve of the group 's August US tour -- it sparked a controversy with Christians in the American "Bible Belt ''. The Vatican issued a protest, and bans on Beatles ' records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa 's national broadcasting service. Epstein accused Datebook of having taken Lennon 's words out of context; at a press conference Lennon pointed out, "If I 'd said television was more popular than Jesus, I might have got away with it. '' Lennon claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success, but at the prompting of reporters, he concluded: "If you want me to apologise, if that will make you happy, then okay, I 'm sorry. ''
As preparations were made for the US tour, the Beatles knew that their music would hardly be heard. Having originally used Vox AC30 amplifiers, they later acquired more powerful 100 - watt amplifiers, specially designed by Vox for them as they moved into larger venues in 1964, but these were still inadequate. Struggling to compete with the volume of sound generated by screaming fans, the band had grown increasingly bored with the routine of performing live. Recognising that their shows were no longer about the music, they decided to make the August tour their last.
Rubber Soul had marked a major step forward; Revolver, released in August 1966 a week before the Beatles ' final tour, marked another. Pitchfork 's Scott Plagenhoef identifies it as "the sound of a band growing into supreme confidence '' and "redefining what was expected from popular music ''. Revolver featured sophisticated songwriting, studio experimentation, and a greatly expanded repertoire of musical styles, ranging from innovative classical string arrangements to psychedelic rock. Abandoning the customary group photograph, its cover -- designed by Klaus Voormann, a friend of the band since their Hamburg days -- "was a stark, arty, black - and - white collage that caricatured the Beatles in a pen - and - ink style beholden to Aubrey Beardsley '', in Gould 's description. The album was preceded by the single "Paperback Writer '', backed by "Rain ''. Short promotional films were made for both songs; described by cultural historian Saul Austerlitz as "among the first true music videos '', they aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966.
Among the experimental songs that Revolver featured was "Tomorrow Never Knows '', the lyrics for which Lennon drew from Timothy Leary 's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Its creation involved eight tape decks distributed about the EMI building, each staffed by an engineer or band member, who randomly varied the movement of a tape loop while Martin created a composite recording by sampling the incoming data. McCartney 's "Eleanor Rigby '' made prominent use of a string octet; Gould describes it as "a true hybrid, conforming to no recognisable style or genre of song ''. Harrison was developing as a songwriter, and three of his compositions earned a place on the record. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Revolver as the third greatest album of all time. During the US tour that followed its release, however, the band performed none of its songs. As Chris Ingham writes, they were very much "studio creations... and there was no way a four - piece rock ' n ' roll group could do them justice, particularly through the desensitising wall of the fans ' screams. ' Live Beatles ' and ' Studio Beatles ' had become entirely different beasts. '' The band 's final concert at San Francisco 's Candlestick Park on 29 August was their last commercial concert. It marked the end of a four - year period dominated by almost nonstop touring that included over 1,400 concert appearances internationally.
Freed from the burden of touring, the Beatles embraced an increasingly experimental approach as they recorded Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band, beginning in late November 1966. According to engineer Geoff Emerick, the album 's recording took over 700 hours. He recalled the band 's insistence "that everything on Sgt. Pepper had to be different. We had microphones right down in the bells of brass instruments and headphones turned into microphones attached to violins. We used giant primitive oscillators to vary the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong way around. '' Parts of "A Day in the Life '' featured a 40 - piece orchestra. The sessions initially yielded the non-album double A-side single "Strawberry Fields Forever '' / "Penny Lane '' in February 1967; the Sgt. Pepper LP followed in June. The musical complexity of the records, created using relatively primitive four - track recording technology, astounded contemporary artists. Among music critics, acclaim for the album was virtually universal. Gould writes:
The overwhelming consensus is that the Beatles had created a popular masterpiece: a rich, sustained, and overflowing work of collaborative genius whose bold ambition and startling originality dramatically enlarged the possibilities and raised the expectations of what the experience of listening to popular music on record could be. On the basis of this perception, Sgt. Pepper became the catalyst for an explosion of mass enthusiasm for album - formatted rock that would revolutionise both the aesthetics and the economics of the record business in ways that far outstripped the earlier pop explosions triggered by the Elvis phenomenon of 1956 and the Beatlemania phenomenon of 1963.
Sgt. Pepper was the first major pop / rock LP to include its complete lyrics, which appeared on the back cover. Those lyrics were the subject of critical analysis; for instance, in late 1967 the album was the subject of a scholarly inquiry by American literary critic and professor of English Richard Poirier, who observed that his students were "listening to the group 's music with a degree of engagement that he, as a teacher of literature, could only envy ''. Poirier identified what he termed its "mixed allusiveness '': "It 's unwise ever to assume that they 're doing only one thing or expressing themselves in only one style... one kind of feeling about a subject is n't enough... any single induced feeling must often exist within the context of seemingly contradictory alternatives. '' McCartney said at the time: "We write songs. We know what we mean by them. But in a week someone else says something about it, and you ca n't deny it... You put your own meaning at your own level to our songs. '' The album 's elaborate cover also attracted considerable interest and study. A collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth, it depicted the group as the fictional band referred to in the album 's title track standing in front of a crowd of famous people. The heavy moustaches worn by the group reflected the growing influence of hippie style, while cultural historian Jonathan Harris describes their "brightly coloured parodies of military uniforms '' as a knowingly "anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment '' display. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it number one on its list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''.
-- Pattie Boyd, wife of George Harrison
On 25 June 1967, the Beatles performed their forthcoming single, "All You Need Is Love '', to an estimated 350 million viewers on Our World, the first live global television link. Released a week later, during the Summer of Love, the song was adopted as a flower power anthem. Two months later, the group suffered a loss that threw their career into turmoil. Having been introduced to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi only the previous night in London, on 25 August they travelled to Bangor for his Transcendental Meditation retreat. Two days later, their manager 's assistant, Peter Brown, phoned to inform them that Epstein, only thirty - two years old, had died. The coroner ruled the death an accidental carbitol overdose, although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide. Epstein had been in a fragile emotional state, stressed by personal troubles. His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future. Lennon recalled: "We collapsed. I knew that we were in trouble then. I did n't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared. I thought, ' We 've had it now. ' ''
Magical Mystery Tour, the soundtrack to a forthcoming Beatles television film, was released in the UK as a six - track double extended play disc (EP) in early December 1967. In the United States, the six songs were issued on an identically titled LP that also included five tracks from the band 's recent singles. Unterberger says of the US Magical Mystery Tour, "the psychedelic sound is very much in the vein of Sgt. Pepper, and even spacier in parts (especially the sound collages of ' I Am the Walrus ') '' and he calls its five songs culled from the band 's 1967 singles "huge, glorious, and innovative ''. In its first three weeks, the album set a record for the highest initial sales of any Capitol LP, and it is the only Capitol compilation later to be adopted in the band 's official canon of studio albums. First aired on Boxing Day, the Magical Mystery Tour film, largely directed by McCartney, brought the group their first major negative UK press. It was dismissed as "blatant rubbish '' by the Daily Express; the Daily Mail called it "a colossal conceit ''; and The Guardian labelled the film "a kind of fantasy morality play about the grossness and warmth and stupidity of the audience ''. Gould describes it as "a great deal of raw footage showing a group of people getting on, getting off, and riding on a bus ''. Although the viewership figures were respectable, its slating in the press led US television networks to lose interest in broadcasting the film.
In January 1968, the Beatles filmed a cameo for the animated movie Yellow Submarine, which featured cartoon versions of the band members and a soundtrack with eleven of their songs, including four unreleased studio recordings that made their debut in the film. Released in June 1968, the film was praised by critics for its music, humour and innovative visual style. It would be seven months, however, before its soundtrack album appeared.
In the interim came The Beatles, a double LP commonly known as the White Album for its virtually featureless cover. Creative inspiration for the album came from a new direction: without Epstein 's guiding presence, the group had briefly turned to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as their guru. At his ashram in Rishikesh, India, a "Guide Course '' scheduled for three months marked one of their most prolific periods, yielding numerous songs including a majority of the 30 included on the album. However, Starr left after only ten days, likening it to Butlins, and McCartney eventually grew bored and departed a month later. For Lennon and Harrison, creativity turned to questioning when an electronics technician known as Magic Alex suggested that the Maharishi was attempting to manipulate them. When he alleged that the Maharishi had made sexual advances to women attendees, a persuaded Lennon left abruptly just two months into the course, bringing an unconvinced Harrison and the remainder of the group 's entourage with him. In anger, Lennon wrote a scathing song titled "Maharishi '', renamed "Sexy Sadie '' to avoid potential legal issues. McCartney said, "We made a mistake. We thought there was more to him than there was. ''
During recording sessions for the White Album, which stretched from late May to mid-October 1968, relations between the Beatles grew openly divisive. Starr quit for two weeks, and McCartney took over the drum kit for "Back in the U.S.S.R. '' (on which Harrison and Lennon drummed as well) and "Dear Prudence ''. Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney, whose contribution "Ob - La - Di, Ob - La - Da '' he scorned as "granny music shit ''. Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon 's romantic preoccupation with avant - garde artist Yoko Ono, whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group 's well - established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio. Describing the double album, Lennon later said: "Every track is an individual track; there is n't any Beatle music on it. (It 's) John and the band, Paul and the band, George and the band. '' McCartney has recalled that the album "was n't a pleasant one to make ''. Both he and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band 's break - up.
Issued in November, the White Album was the band 's first Apple Records album release, although EMI continued to own their recordings. The new label was a subsidiary of Apple Corps, which Epstein had formed as part of his plan to create a tax - effective business structure. The record attracted more than 2 million advance orders, selling nearly 4 million copies in the US in little over a month, and its tracks dominated the playlists of American radio stations. Despite its popularity, it did not receive flattering reviews at the time. According to Gould:
The critical response... ranged from mixed to flat. In marked contrast to Sgt. Pepper, which had helped to establish an entire genre of literate rock criticism, the White Album inspired no critical writing of any note. Even the most sympathetic reviewers... clearly did n't know what to make of this shapeless outpouring of songs. Newsweek 's Hubert Saal, citing the high proportion of parodies, accused the group of getting their tongues caught in their cheeks.
General critical opinion eventually turned in favour of the White Album, and in 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it as the tenth greatest album of all time. Pitchfork 's Mark Richardson describes it as "large and sprawling, overflowing with ideas but also with indulgences, and filled with a hugely variable array of material... its failings are as essential to its character as its triumphs. '' Erlewine comments: "The (band 's) two main songwriting forces were no longer on the same page, but neither were George and Ringo '', yet "Lennon turns in two of his best ballads '', McCartney 's songs are "stunning '', Harrison had become "a songwriter who deserved wider exposure '', and Starr 's composition was "a delight ''.
The Yellow Submarine LP, issued in January 1969, contained only the four previously unreleased songs that had debuted in the film, along with the title track (already issued on Revolver), "All You Need Is Love '' (already issued as a single and on the US Magical Mystery Tour LP) and seven instrumental pieces composed by Martin. Because of the paucity of new Beatles music, AllMusic 's Unterberger and Bruce Eder suggest the album might be "inessential '' but for Harrison 's "It 's All Too Much '': "the jewel of the new songs... resplendent in swirling Mellotron, larger - than - life percussion, and tidal waves of feedback guitar... a virtuoso excursion into otherwise hazy psychedelia ''.
Although Let It Be was the Beatles ' final album release, it was largely recorded before Abbey Road. The project 's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney, who suggested they "record an album of new material and rehearse it, then perform it before a live audience for the very first time -- on record and on film ''. Originally intended for a one - hour television programme to be called Beatles at Work, much of the album 's content came from extensive rehearsals filmed by director Michael Lindsay - Hogg at Twickenham Film Studios, beginning in January 1969. Martin has said that the project was "not at all a happy recording experience. It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb. '' Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as "hell... the most miserable... on Earth '', and Harrison, "the low of all - time ''. Irritated by both McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they "abandon (ed) all talk of live performance '' and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled Get Back, using songs recorded for the TV special. He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio. The other band members agreed, and the idea came about to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film.
In an effort to alleviate tensions within the band and improve the quality of their live sound, Harrison invited keyboardist Billy Preston to participate in the last nine days of sessions. Preston received label billing on the "Get Back '' single -- the only musician ever to receive that acknowledgment on an official Beatles release. At the conclusion of the rehearsals, the band could not agree on a location to film a concert, rejecting several ideas, including a boat at sea, a lunatic asylum, the Tunisian desert, and the Colosseum. Ultimately, what would be their final live performance was filmed on the rooftop of the Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row, London, on 30 January 1969. Five weeks later, engineer Glyn Johns, whom Lewisohn describes as Get Back 's "uncredited producer '', began work assembling an album, given "free rein '' as the band "all but washed their hands of the entire project ''.
New strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser, the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs. Lennon, Harrison and Starr favoured Allen Klein, who had managed the Rolling Stones and Sam Cooke; McCartney wanted Lee and John Eastman -- father and brother, respectively, of Linda Eastman, whom McCartney married on 12 March. Agreement could not be reached, so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed: Klein as the Beatles ' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers. Further conflict ensued, however, and financial opportunities were lost. On 8 May, Klein was named sole manager of the band, the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles ' attorneys. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out - voted by the other Beatles.
Martin stated that he was surprised when McCartney asked him to produce another album, as the Get Back sessions had been "a miserable experience '' and he had "thought it was the end of the road for all of us ''. The primary recording sessions for Abbey Road began on 2 July 1969. Lennon, who rejected Martin 's proposed format of a "continuously moving piece of music '', wanted his and McCartney 's songs to occupy separate sides of the album. The eventual format, with individually composed songs on the first side and the second consisting largely of a medley, was McCartney 's suggested compromise. On 4 July, the first solo single by a Beatle was released: Lennon 's "Give Peace a Chance '', credited to the Plastic Ono Band. The completion and mixing of "I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '' on 20 August 1969 was the last occasion on which all four Beatles were together in the same studio. Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group on 20 September, but agreed to withhold a public announcement to avoid undermining sales of the forthcoming album.
Released six days after Lennon 's declaration, Abbey Road sold 4 million copies within three months and topped the UK charts for a total of seventeen weeks. Its second track, the ballad "Something '', was issued as a single -- the only Harrison composition ever to appear as a Beatles A-side. Abbey Road received mixed reviews, although the medley met with general acclaim. Unterberger considers it "a fitting swan song for the group '', containing "some of the greatest harmonies to be heard on any rock record ''. Musicologist and author Ian MacDonald calls the album "erratic and often hollow '', despite the "semblance of unity and coherence '' offered by the medley. Martin has singled it out as his personal favourite of all the band 's albums; Lennon said it was "competent '' but had "no life in it ''. Recording engineer Emerick notes that the replacement of the studio 's valve mixing console with a transistorised one yielded a less punchy sound, leaving the group frustrated at the thinner tone and lack of impact and contributing to its "kinder, gentler '' feel relative to their previous albums.
For the still unfinished Get Back album, one last song, Harrison 's "I Me Mine '', was recorded on 3 January 1970. Lennon, in Denmark at the time, did not participate. In March, rejecting the work Johns had done on the project, now retitled Let It Be, Klein gave the session tapes to American producer Phil Spector, who had recently produced Lennon 's solo single "Instant Karma! '' In addition to remixing the material, Spector edited, spliced and overdubbed several of the recordings that had been intended as "live ''. McCartney was unhappy with the producer 's approach and particularly dissatisfied with the lavish orchestration on "The Long and Winding Road '', which involved a fourteen - voice choir and 36 - piece instrumental ensemble. McCartney 's demands that the alterations to the song be reverted were ignored, and he publicly announced his departure from the band on 10 April 1970, a week before the release of his first, self - titled solo album.
On 8 May, the Spector - produced Let It Be was released. Its accompanying single, "The Long and Winding Road '', was the Beatles ' last; it was released in the United States, but not in the UK. The Let It Be documentary film followed later that month, and would win the 1970 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. Sunday Telegraph critic Penelope Gilliatt called it "a very bad film and a touching one... about the breaking apart of this reassuring, geometrically perfect, once apparently ageless family of siblings ''. Several reviewers stated that some of the performances in the film sounded better than their analogous album tracks. Describing Let It Be as the "only Beatles album to occasion negative, even hostile reviews '', Unterberger calls it "on the whole underrated ''; he singles out "some good moments of straight hard rock in ' I 've Got a Feeling ' and ' Dig a Pony ' '', and praises "Let It Be '', "Get Back '', and "the folky ' Two of Us ', with John and Paul harmonising together ''. McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles ' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970. Legal disputes continued long after their break - up, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974, when John Lennon signed the paperwork terminating the partnership while on vacation with his family at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida.
Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr all released solo albums in 1970. Their solo records sometimes involved one or more of the others; Starr 's Ringo (1973) was the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles, albeit on separate songs. With Starr 's participation, Harrison staged the Concert for Bangladesh in New York City in August 1971. Other than an unreleased jam session in 1974, later bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore in ' 74, Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again.
Two double - LP sets of the Beatles ' greatest hits, compiled by Klein, 1962 -- 1966 and 1967 -- 1970, were released in 1973, at first under the Apple Records imprint. Commonly known as the "Red Album '' and "Blue Album '', respectively, each have earned a Multi-Platinum certification in the United States and a Platinum certification in the United Kingdom. Between 1976 and 1982, EMI / Capitol released a wave of compilation albums without input from the ex-Beatles, starting with the double - disc compilation Rock ' n ' Roll Music. The only one to feature previously unreleased material was The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl (1977); the first officially issued concert recordings by the group, it contained selections from two shows they played during their 1964 and 1965 US tours.
The music and enduring fame of the Beatles was commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical John, Paul, George, Ringo... and Bert, written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson, opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon - McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, "Here Comes the Sun ''. Displeased with the production 's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it. Later that year, the off - Broadway musical Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road opened. All This and World War II (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra. The Broadway musical Beatlemania, an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions. In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages. Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978), a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton, was a commercial failure and an "artistic fiasco '', according to Ingham.
A wave of Beatles nostalgia and persistent reunion rumours in the United States during the 1970s led several entrepreneurs to make public offers to the Beatles for a reunion concert. Promoter Bill Sargent first offered the Beatles $10 million for a reunion concert in 1974. He raised his offer to $30 million in January 1976 and then to $50 million the following month. On 24 April 1976, during a broadcast of Saturday Night Live, producer Lorne Michaels offered the Beatles $3,000 to reunite on the show. Lennon and McCartney were watching the live broadcast at Lennon 's apartment at the Dakota in New York, which was within walking distance of the NBC studio where the show was being broadcast. The former bandmates briefly entertained the idea of going to the studio and surprising Michaels by accepting his offer, but decided not to. Concert promoter Sid Bernstein ran full - page newspaper advertisements in September 1976, inviting the Beatles to reunite for a concert that would raise $230 million for charity. In June 1976, entrepreneur Alan Amron created the International Committee to Reunite the Beatles, asking Beatles fans worldwide to send in one dollar to then offer the money to the Beatles to reunite. In January 1977, Amron partnered with boxer Muhammad Ali for a proposal to the Beatles to reunite to help create a $200 million charity fund. In March 1978, an environmental group called Project Interspeak announced to the media that they were planning a concert to raise money for anti-whaling efforts and suggested the Beatles would participate. Bernstein again appealed to the Beatles with a full - page newspaper advertisement in September 1979, asking them to perform three concerts to benefit the Vietnamese boat people. At the same time another effort to reunite the Beatles for the same cause was sponsored by United Nations Secretary - General Kurt Waldheim. Those discussions led to the Concerts for the People of Kampuchea in December featuring Wings but not the rumoured Beatles reunion.
After the murder of Lennon in December 1980, Harrison rewrote the lyrics to his song "All Those Years Ago '' in Lennon 's honour. With Starr on drums and McCartney and his wife, Linda, contributing backing vocals, the song was released as a single in May 1981. McCartney 's own tribute, "Here Today '', appeared on his Tug of War album in April 1982. In 1987, Harrison 's Cloud Nine album included "When We Was Fab '', a song about the Beatlemania era.
When the Beatles ' studio albums were released on CD by EMI and Apple Corps in 1987, their catalogue was standardised throughout the world, establishing a canon of the twelve original studio LPs as issued in the UK plus the US LP version of Magical Mystery Tour (1967). All the remaining material from the singles and EPs which had not appeared on the original studio albums was gathered on the two - volume compilation Past Masters (1988). Except for the Red and Blue albums, EMI deleted all its other Beatles compilations -- including the Hollywood Bowl record -- from its catalogue.
In 1988, the Beatles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, their first year of eligibility. Harrison and Starr attended the ceremony with Lennon 's widow, Yoko Ono, and his two sons, Julian and Sean. McCartney declined to attend, citing unresolved "business differences '' that would make him "feel like a complete hypocrite waving and smiling with them at a fake reunion ''. The following year, EMI / Capitol settled a decade - long lawsuit filed by the band over royalties, clearing the way to commercially package previously unreleased material.
Live at the BBC, the first official release of unissued Beatles performances in seventeen years, appeared in 1994. That same year McCartney, Harrison and Starr collaborated on the Anthology project. Anthology was the culmination of work begun in 1970, when Apple Corps director Neil Aspinall, their former road manager and personal assistant, had started to gather material for a documentary with the working title The Long and Winding Road. Documenting their history in the band 's own words, the Anthology project included the release of several unissued Beatles recordings. McCartney, Harrison and Starr also added new instrumental and vocal parts to two songs recorded as demos by Lennon in the late 1970s.
During 1995 -- 96, the project yielded a television miniseries, an eight - volume video set, and three two - CD / three - LP box sets featuring artwork by Klaus Voormann. The two songs based on Lennon demos, "Free as a Bird '' and "Real Love '', were issued as new Beatles singles. The releases were commercially successful and the television series was viewed by an estimated 400 million people. In 1999, to coincide with the re-release of the 1968 film Yellow Submarine, a new soundtrack compilation CD / LP, Yellow Submarine Songtrack, was issued.
The Beatles ' 1, a compilation album of the band 's British and American number - one hits, was released on 13 November 2000. It became the fastest - selling album of all time, with 3.6 million sold in its first week and 13 million within a month. It topped albums charts in at least 28 countries, including the UK and US. As of April 2009, the compilation had sold 31 million copies globally, and is the best - selling album of that decade in the United States.
Harrison died from metastatic lung cancer in November 2001. McCartney and Starr were among the musicians who performed at the Concert for George, organised by Eric Clapton and Harrison 's widow, Olivia. The tribute event took place at the Royal Albert Hall on the first anniversary of Harrison 's death. In addition to songs he composed for the group and during his solo career, the concert included a celebration of Indian classical music, which had significantly influenced Harrison.
In 2003, Let It Be... Naked, a reconceived version of the Let It Be album, with McCartney supervising production, was released. One of the main differences from the Spector - produced version was the omission of the original string arrangements. It was a top ten hit in both Britain and America. The US album configurations from 1964 to 1965 were released as box sets in 2004 and 2006 -- The Capitol Albums, Volume 1 and Volume 2 included both stereo and mono versions based on the mixes that were prepared for vinyl at the time of the music 's original American release.
As a soundtrack for Cirque du Soleil 's Las Vegas Beatles stage revue, Love, George Martin and his son Giles remixed and blended 130 of the band 's recordings to create what Martin called "a way of re-living the whole Beatles musical lifespan in a very condensed period ''. The show premiered in June 2006, and the Love album was released that November when McCartney discussed his hope that "Carnival of Light '', a fourteen - minute experimental recording made at Abbey Road in 1967, would receive an official release. A rare live performance involving two ex-Beatles took place in April 2009 at a benefit concert organised by McCartney at New York 's Radio City Music Hall, where he was joined by Starr for three songs.
On 9 September 2009, the Beatles ' entire back catalogue was reissued following an extensive digital remastering process that lasted four years. Stereo editions of all twelve original UK studio albums, along with Magical Mystery Tour and the Past Masters compilation, were released on compact disc both individually and as a box set. Comparing the new releases with the 1987 CDs, which had been widely criticised for their lack of clarity and dynamism, Mojo 's Danny Eccleston wrote, "the remastered vocals are purer, more natural - sounding and give the illusion of sitting slightly higher in the mix. '' A second collection, The Beatles in Mono, included remastered versions of every Beatles album released in true mono along with the original 1965 stereo mixes of Help! and Rubber Soul (which Martin had remixed for the 1987 editions). The Beatles: Rock Band, a music video game in the Rock Band series, was issued on the same day. In December 2009, the band 's catalogue was officially released in FLAC and MP3 format in a limited edition of 30,000 USB flash drives.
Owing to a long - running royalty disagreement, the Beatles were among the last major artists to sign deals with online music services. Residual disagreement emanating from Apple Corps ' dispute with Apple, Inc., iTunes ' owners, over the use of the name "Apple '' was also partly responsible for the delay, although in 2008, McCartney stated that the main obstacle to making the Beatles ' catalogue available online was that EMI "want (s) something we 're not prepared to give them ''. In 2010, the official canon of thirteen Beatles studio albums, Past Masters, and the Red and Blue greatest - hits albums were made available on iTunes.
In 2012, EMI 's recorded music operations were sold to Universal Music Group. In order for Universal Music to acquire EMI, the European Union, for antitrust reasons, forced EMI to spin off assets including Parlophone. Universal was allowed to keep the Beatles ' recorded music catalogue, managed by Capitol Records under its Capitol Music Group division. Also in 2012, the entire original Beatles album catalogue was reissued on vinyl, available either individually or as a box set.
In 2013, a second volume of BBC recordings entitled On Air -- Live at the BBC Volume 2 was released. That December saw the release of another 59 Beatles recordings on iTunes. The set, titled The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963, had the opportunity to gain a 70 - year copyright extension conditional on the songs being published at least once before the end of 2013. Apple Records released the recordings on 17 December to prevent them from going into the public domain and had them taken down from iTunes later that same day. Fan reactions to the release were mixed, with one blogger saying "the hardcore Beatles collectors who are trying to obtain everything will already have these. ''
On 26 January 2014, Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr performed McCartney 's "Queenie Eye '' in Los Angeles at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. The following day, The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles television special was taped in the Los Angeles Convention Center 's West Hall. It aired on 9 February, the exact date of -- and at the same time, and on the same network as -- the original broadcast of the Beatles ' first US television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, 50 years earlier. The special included performances of Beatles songs by current artists as well as by McCartney and Starr, archival footage, and Paul and Ringo being interviewed by David Letterman at the Ed Sullivan Theater, site of The Ed Sullivan Show.
In December 2015, the Beatles released their catalogue for streaming on various streaming music services. On 18 May 2017, Sirius XM Radio launched a 24 / 7 radio channel, The Beatles Channel. A week later, Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band was reissued with new stereo mixes and unreleased material for the album 's 50th anniversary. In November 2018, a similar box set for The Beatles will be released.
In Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever, Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles ' musical evolution:
In their initial incarnation as cheerful, wisecracking moptops, the Fab Four revolutionised the sound, style, and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll 's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts. Their initial impact would have been enough to establish the Beatles as one of their era 's most influential cultural forces, but they did n't stop there. Although their initial style was a highly original, irresistibly catchy synthesis of early American rock and roll and R&B, the Beatles spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock 's stylistic frontiers, consistently staking out new musical territory on each release. The band 's increasingly sophisticated experimentation encompassed a variety of genres, including folk - rock, country, psychedelia, and baroque pop, without sacrificing the effortless mass appeal of their early work.
In The Beatles as Musicians, Walter Everett describes Lennon and McCartney 's contrasting motivations and approaches to composition: "McCartney may be said to have constantly developed -- as a means to entertain -- a focused musical talent with an ear for counterpoint and other aspects of craft in the demonstration of a universally agreed - upon common language that he did much to enrich. Conversely, Lennon 's mature music is best appreciated as the daring product of a largely unconscious, searching but undisciplined artistic sensibility. ''
Ian MacDonald describes McCartney as "a natural melodist -- a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony ''. His melody lines are characterised as primarily "vertical '', employing wide, consonant intervals which express his "extrovert energy and optimism ''. Conversely, Lennon 's "sedentary, ironic personality '' is reflected in a "horizontal '' approach featuring minimal, dissonant intervals and repetitive melodies which rely on their harmonic accompaniment for interest: "Basically a realist, he instinctively kept his melodies close to the rhythms and cadences of speech, colouring his lyrics with bluesy tone and harmony rather than creating tunes that made striking shapes of their own. '' MacDonald praises Harrison 's lead guitar work for the role his "characterful lines and textural colourings '' play in supporting Lennon and McCartney 's parts, and describes Starr as "the father of modern pop / rock drumming ''.
The band 's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. During the Beatles ' co-residency with Little Richard at the Star - Club in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs. Of Presley, Lennon said, "Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there had n't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles. ''
Other early influences include Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran, Roy Orbison and the Everly Brothers. The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin ' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney. Referring to the Beach Boys ' creative leader, Martin later stated: "No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian (Wilson). '' Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band 's later years.
Originating as a skiffle group, the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre, and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music. Reflecting the range of styles they explored, Lennon said of Beatles for Sale, "You could call our new one a Beatles country - and - western LP '', while Gould credits Rubber Soul as "the instrument by which legions of folk - music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop ''.
Although the 1965 song "Yesterday '' was not the first pop record to employ orchestral strings, it marked the group 's first recorded use of classical music elements. Gould observes: "The more traditional sound of strings allowed for a fresh appreciation of their talent as composers by listeners who were otherwise allergic to the din of drums and electric guitars. '' They continued to experiment with string arrangements to various effect; Sgt. Pepper 's "She 's Leaving Home '', for instance, is "cast in the mold of a sentimental Victorian ballad '', Gould writes, "its words and music filled with the clichés of musical melodrama ''.
The band 's stylistic range expanded in another direction with their 1966 B - side "Rain '', described by Martin Strong as "the first overtly psychedelic Beatles record ''. Other psychedelic numbers followed, such as "Tomorrow Never Knows '' (recorded before "Rain ''), "Strawberry Fields Forever '', "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' and "I Am the Walrus ''. The influence of Indian classical music was evident in Harrison 's "The Inner Light '', "Love You To '' and "Within You Without You '' -- Gould describes the latter two as attempts "to replicate the raga form in miniature ''.
Innovation was the most striking feature of their creative evolution, according to music historian and pianist Michael Campbell: "' A Day in the Life ' encapsulates the art and achievement of the Beatles as well as any single track can. It highlights key features of their music: the sound imagination, the persistence of tuneful melody, and the close coordination between words and music. It represents a new category of song -- more sophisticated than pop... and uniquely innovative. There literally had never before been a song -- classical or vernacular -- that had blended so many disparate elements so imaginatively. '' Philosophy professor Bruce Ellis Benson agrees: "the Beatles... give us a wonderful example of how such far - ranging influences as Celtic music, rhythm and blues, and country and western could be put together in a new way. ''
Author Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles: "Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another (as is sometimes conveniently suggested) the group maintained in parallel their mastery of the traditional, catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville. One of these threads was their take on folk music, which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy. '' As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained, their individual tastes became more apparent. The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music, which encompassed Lennon 's "Revolution 9 '' (whose musique concrète approach was influenced by Yoko Ono), Starr 's country song "Do n't Pass Me By '', Harrison 's rock ballad "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '', and the "proto - metal roar '' of McCartney 's "Helter Skelter ''.
George Martin 's close involvement in his role as producer made him one of the leading candidates for the informal title of the "fifth Beatle ''. He applied his classical musical training in various ways, and functioned as "an informal music teacher '' to the progressing songwriters, according to Gould. Martin suggested to a sceptical McCartney that the arrangement of "Yesterday '' should feature a string quartet accompaniment, thereby introducing the Beatles to a "hitherto unsuspected world of classical instrumental colour '', in MacDonald 's description. Their creative development was also facilitated by Martin 's willingness to experiment in response to their suggestions, such as adding "something baroque '' to a particular recording. In addition to scoring orchestral arrangements for recordings, Martin often performed on them, playing instruments including piano, organ and brass.
Collaborating with Lennon and McCartney required Martin to adapt to their different approaches to songwriting and recording. MacDonald comments, "while (he) worked more naturally with the conventionally articulate McCartney, the challenge of catering to Lennon 's intuitive approach generally spurred him to his more original arrangements, of which ' Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite! ' is an outstanding example. '' Martin said of the two composers ' distinct songwriting styles and his own stabilising influence:
Compared with Paul 's songs, all of which seemed to keep in some sort of touch with reality, John 's had a psychedelic, almost mystical quality... John 's imagery is one of the best things about his work -- ' tangerine trees ', ' marmalade skies ', ' cellophane flowers '... I always saw him as an aural Salvador Dalí, rather than some drug - ridden record artist. On the other hand, I would be stupid to pretend that drugs did n't figure quite heavily in the Beatles ' lives at that time... they knew that I, in my schoolmasterly role, did n't approve... Not only was I not into it myself, I could n't see the need for it; and there 's no doubt that, if I too had been on dope, Pepper would never have been the album it was. Perhaps it was the combination of dope and no dope that worked, who knows?
Harrison echoed Martin 's description of his stabilising role: "I think we just grew through those years together, him as the straight man and us as the loonies; but he was always there for us to interpret our madness -- we used to be slightly avant - garde on certain days of the week, and he would be there as the anchor person, to communicate that through the engineers and on to the tape. ''
Making innovative use of technology while expanding the possibilities of recorded music, the Beatles urged experimentation by Martin and his recording engineers. Seeking ways to put chance occurrences to creative use, accidental guitar feedback, a resonating glass bottle, a tape loaded the wrong way round so that it played backwards -- any of these might be incorporated into their music. Their desire to create new sounds on every new recording, combined with Martin 's arranging abilities and the studio expertise of EMI staff engineers Norman Smith, Ken Townsend and Geoff Emerick, all contributed significantly to their records from Rubber Soul and, especially, Revolver onwards. Along with innovative studio techniques such as sound effects, unconventional microphone placements, tape loops, double tracking and vari - speed recording, the Beatles augmented their songs with instruments that were unconventional in rock music at the time. These included string and brass ensembles as well as Indian instruments such as the sitar in "Norwegian Wood '' and the swarmandal in "Strawberry Fields Forever ''. They also used novel electronic instruments such as the Mellotron, with which McCartney supplied the flute voices on the "Strawberry Fields Forever '' intro, and the clavioline, an electronic keyboard that created the unusual oboe - like sound on "Baby, You 're a Rich Man ''.
Former Rolling Stone associate editor Robert Greenfield compared the Beatles to Picasso, as "artists who broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and original... (I) n the form of popular music, no one will ever be more revolutionary, more creative and more distinctive... '' The British poet Philip Larkin described their work as "an enchanting and intoxicating hybrid of Negro rock - and - roĺl with their own adolescent romanticism '', and "the first advance in popular music since the War ''. They not only sparked the British Invasion of the US, they became a globally influential phenomenon as well. From the 1920s, the United States had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood movies, jazz, the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley and, later, the rock and roll that first emerged in Memphis, Tennessee. The Beatles are regarded as British cultural icons, with young adults from abroad naming the band among a group of people that they most associated with UK culture.
Their musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide. Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles ' influence and enjoyed chart success with covers of their songs. On radio, their arrival marked the beginning of a new era; in 1968 the programme director of New York 's WABC radio station forbade his DJs from playing any "pre-Beatles '' music, marking the defining line of what would be considered oldies on American radio. They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with "filler '', and they were primary innovators of the modern music video. The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their 1965 North American tour attracted an estimated 55,600 people, then the largest audience in concert history; Spitz describes the event as a "major breakthrough... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business ''. Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles, which became a mark of rebellion, had a global impact on fashion.
According to Gould, the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group 's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the 1960s counterculture, Gould continues, they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women 's liberation, gay liberation and environmentalism. According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the "more popular than Jesus '' controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and "began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness ''.
Other commentators such as Mikal Gilmore and Todd Leopold have traced the inception of their socio - cultural impact earlier, interpreting even the Beatlemania period, particularly on their first visit to the United States, as a key moment in the development of generational awareness. Referring to their appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show Leopold states: "In many ways, the Sullivan appearance marked the beginning of a cultural revolution... The Beatles were like aliens dropped into the United States of 1964 ''. According to Gilmore:
Elvis Presley had shown us how rebellion could be fashioned into eye - opening style; the Beatles were showing us how style could have the impact of cultural revelation -- or at least how a pop vision might be forged into an unimpeachable consensus.
In 1965, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). The film Let It Be (1970) won the 1971 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. The recipients of seven Grammy Awards and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards, the Beatles have been awarded six Diamond albums, as well as 24 Multi-Platinum albums, 39 Platinum albums and 45 Gold albums in the United States. In the UK, the Beatles have four Multi-Platinum albums, four Platinum albums, eight Gold albums and one Silver album. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.
The best - selling band in history, the Beatles have sold more than 800 million physical and digital albums as of 2013. They have had more number - one albums on the UK charts, fifteen, and sold more singles in the UK, 21.9 million, than any other act. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Beatles as the best artist of all time. They ranked number one on Billboard magazine 's list of the all - time most successful Hot 100 artists, released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart 's 50th anniversary. As of 2017, they hold the record for most number - one hits on the Billboard Hot 100, with twenty. The Recording Industry Association of America certifies that the Beatles have sold 178 million units in the US, more than any other artist. They were collectively included in Time magazine 's compilation of the twentieth century 's 100 most influential people. In 2014, they received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
Principal members
Early members
Touring musician
Timeline
The above albums were reissued on CD in 1987, followed by the compilations Past Masters -- Volume One and Past Masters -- Volume Two in 1988. Together the full set contained every track commercially released up to that time.
See also
Through 1969, the Beatles ' catalogue was published almost exclusively by Northern Songs Ltd., a company formed in February 1963 by music publisher Dick James specifically for Lennon and McCartney, though it later acquired songs by other artists. The company was organised with James and his partner, Emmanuel Silver, owning a controlling interest, variously described as 51 % or 50 % plus one share. McCartney had 20 %. Reports again vary concerning Lennon 's portion -- 19 or 20 % -- and Brian Epstein 's -- 9 or 10 % -- which he received in lieu of a 25 % band management fee.
In 1965, the company went public. Five million shares were created, of which the original principals retained 3.75 million. James and Silver each received 937,500 shares (18.75 % of 5 million); Lennon and McCartney each received 750,000 shares (15 %); and Epstein 's management company, NEMS Enterprises, received 375,000 shares (7.5 %). Of the 1.25 million shares put up for sale, Harrison and Starr each acquired 40,000. At the time of the stock offering, Lennon and McCartney renewed their three - year publishing contracts, binding them to Northern Songs until 1973.
Harrison created Harrisongs to represent his Beatles compositions, but signed a three - year contract with Northern Songs that gave it the copyright to his work through March 1968, which included "Taxman '' and "Within You Without You ''. The songs on which Starr received co-writing credit before 1968, such as "What Goes On '' and "Flying '', were also Northern Songs copyrights. Harrison did not renew his contract with Northern Songs when it ended, signing instead with Apple Publishing while retaining the copyright to his work from that point on. Harrisongs thus owns the rights to his later Beatles songs such as "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' and "Something ''. That year, as well, Starr created Startling Music, which holds the rights to his Beatles compositions, "Do n't Pass Me By '' and "Octopus 's Garden ''.
In March 1969, James arranged to sell his and his partner 's shares of Northern Songs to the British broadcasting company Associated Television (ATV), founded by impresario Lew Grade, without first informing the Beatles. The band then made a bid to gain controlling interest by attempting to work out a deal with a consortium of London brokerage firms that had accumulated a 14 % holding. The deal collapsed over the objections of Lennon, who declared, "I 'm sick of being fucked about by men in suits sitting on their fat arses in the City. '' By the end of May, ATV had acquired a majority stake in Northern Songs, controlling nearly the entire Lennon -- McCartney catalogue, as well as any future material until 1973. In frustration, Lennon and McCartney sold their shares to ATV in late October 1969.
In 1981, financial losses by ATV 's parent company, ACC, led it to attempt to sell its music division. According to authors Brian Southall and Rupert Perry, Grade contacted McCartney, offering ATV Music and Northern Songs for $30 million. According to an account McCartney gave in 1995, he met with Grade and explained he was interested solely in the Northern Songs catalogue, if Grade were ever willing to "separate off '' that portion of ATV Music. Soon afterwards, Grade offered to sell him Northern Songs for £ 20 million, giving the ex-Beatle "a week or so '' to decide. By McCartney 's account, he and Ono countered with a £ 5 million bid that was rejected. According to reports at the time, Grade refused to separate Northern Songs, and turned down an offer of £ 21 -- 25 million from McCartney and Ono for ATV Music. In 1982, ACC as a whole was sold to Australian business magnate Robert Holmes à Court for £ 60 million.
Three years later, Michael Jackson purchased ATV for a reported $47.5 million. The acquisition gave him control over the publishing rights to more than 200 Beatles songs, as well as 40,000 other copyrights. In 1995, in a deal that earned him a reported $110 million, Jackson merged his music publishing business with Sony, creating a new company, Sony / ATV Music Publishing, in which he held a 50 % stake. The merger made the new company, then valued at over half a billion dollars, the third largest music publisher in the world. In 2016, Sony acquired Jackson 's share of Sony / ATV from the Jackson estate for $750 million.
Despite the lack of publishing rights to most of their songs, Lennon 's estate and McCartney continue to receive their respective shares of the writers ' royalties, which together are 331⁄3 % of total commercial proceeds in the US and which vary elsewhere around the world between 50 and 55 %. Two of Lennon and McCartney 's earliest songs -- "Love Me Do '' and "P.S. I Love You '' -- were published by an EMI subsidiary, Ardmore & Beechwood, before they signed with James. McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid-1980s, and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by McCartney 's company MPL Communications.
On 18 January 2017, McCartney filed a suit in the United States district court against Sony / ATV Music Publishing seeking to reclaim ownership of his share of the Lennon -- McCartney song catalogue beginning in 2018. Under US copyright law, for works published before 1978 the author can reclaim copyrights assigned to a publisher after 56 years. McCartney and Sony agreed to a confidential settlement in June 2017.
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who wrote the first version of the pledge | Pledge of Allegiance (United States) - wikipedia
The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the Flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. It was originally composed by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army Officer during the Civil War and later a teacher of patriotism in New York City schools. The form of the pledge used today was largely devised by Francis Bellamy in 1892, and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942. The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day in 1954, when the words "under God '' were added.
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly - scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students can not be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so. In a number of states, state flag pledges of allegiance are required to be recited after this.
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag -- "I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. '' -- should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855 -- 1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist, and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850 -- 1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch 's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school. Balch 's pledge, which predates Bellamy 's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance '' was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children 's magazine The Youth 's Companion as part of the National Public - School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools. According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham 's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: ' Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain. ' ''
Bellamy 's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth 's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World 's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World 's Fair), Illinois.
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge, Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools. '' James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse, '' so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892 - 93).
As the World 's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication 's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions. '' Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but (he) also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States. '' The publication 's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth 's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools. '' Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity. ''
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation. '' Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison. '' He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, '' seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word ' allegiance '... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that ' pledge ' was a better school word than ' vow ' or ' swear '; and that the first person singular should be used, and that ' my ' flag was preferable to ' the. ' '' Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic, '' choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands. '' Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible. ''
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity ''), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and... (that) equality was a dubious word. '' Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. they involved the spirit of equality and fraternity. ''
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth 's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words ' to my flag ' were changed to ' to the flag of the United States of America ' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools. '' Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition. ''
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution 's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance '' as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915 's "Proceedings of the Twenty - Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution '' and 1916 's annual "National Report, '' the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge '' with Bellamy 's version under the heading "New Pledge. '' However, the "Old Pledge '' continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag '' to be changed to "the Flag of the United States, '' so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America '' were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God '' to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea. He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948, he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God '' added. He said that the words came from Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God '', all the reporters ' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. '' Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God '' after the words "one nation. '' Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.
At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D - Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God '' to the Pledge in 1953.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln 's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln 's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln 's pew, the church 's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom. '' He argued that the nation 's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge 's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life. '' He cited Lincoln 's words "under God '' as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R - Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America 's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country 's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
The phrase "under God '' was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God '' into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin M. Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push - back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand - over-the - heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301 (b) (1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag '' was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God '' was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants ''. A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case -- Jehovah 's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry -- could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance. Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, can not really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making. Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting the phrase "under God '' violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God '' meant "God willing '', so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah 's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag. They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God '' an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow 's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school - sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God. ''
A 2005 Bill, H.R. 2389, to prohibit the Supreme Court 's and most federal courts from considering any legal challenges to the government 's requiring or promoting of the Pledge of Allegiance, died in the Senate after having passed in the House. This action is viewed in general as court stripping by Congress of the constitutional power of the judiciary. Even if a similar bill is enacted, its practical effect may not be clear: proponents of the bill have said that it is a valid exercise of Congress 's power to regulate the jurisdiction of the federal courts under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, but opponents say Congress does not have the authority to prevent the Supreme Court from hearing claims based on the Bill of Rights, since this can only be done through Constitutional Amendment. Judges and legal analysts have said that if Congress can remove from the judicial branch the ability to determine if legislation is constitutional, the US separation of powers would be disturbed, or rendered non-functional.
Mark J. Pelavin, former Associate Director of the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, said of court stripping in regard to the Pledge of Allegiance that:
Today 's House adoption of the so - called "Pledge Protection Act '' is a shameful effort to strip our federal courts of their ability to uphold the rights of all Americans. By removing the jurisdiction of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, from cases involving the Pledge, this legislation sets a dangerous precedent: threatening religious liberty, compromising the vital system of checks and balances upon which our government was founded, and granting Congress the authority to strip the courts ' jurisdiction on any issue it wishes. Today, the issue was the Pledge of Allegiance, but tomorrow it could be reproductive rights, civil rights, or any other fundamental concern.
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic '' by a teacher.
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13 - year - old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student 's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school 's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District. In a 2 -- 1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature '' and did not constitute an establishment of religion. Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state - directed, teacher - led daily recitation in public schools of the amended ' under God ' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution. ''
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge 's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students ' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary. A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts. In May 2014, Massachusetts ' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God '' represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "... the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who do n't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message. '' The case against the Matawan - Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God '' in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second - class citizens. '' In a twenty - one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under (the association members ') reasoning, the very constitution under which (the members) seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which (association members) do not and can not advance here. '' Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples '' that do not allow it. He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words ' under God ' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ' In God We Trust ' from every coin in the land, than the words ' so help me God ' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787. ''
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who played mackenzie browning on young and the restless | Mackenzie Browning - Wikipedia
Mackenzie Browning is a fictional character from the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. The role is presently portrayed by Kelly Kruger, who portrayed the role from February 19, 2002, to July 1, 2003; she returned to the role on March 28, 2018. Previously, the role was portrayed by Ashley Bashioum, Rachel Kimsey and Clementine Ford.
Mackenzie is the daughter of Brock Reynolds and granddaughter of Katherine Chancellor. Much of her history revolves around her role in the teen scene of the series, her romance with Billy Abbott, and marriage to J.T. Hellstrom.
The first actress to portray the character was Ashley Bashioum, who debuted on March 18, 1999. In 2001, while battling mononucleosis, the actress was temporarily replaced by Nicole Tarantini. The following year, it was announced that Bashioum would be leaving the role after she was unable to reach an agreement with the producers over the negotiation of her contract. The role was immediately recast with Kelly Kruger, who took over on February 19, 2002. In 2003, Kruger was one of three actors let go from the soap opera, with her last airdate on July 1, 2003.
In 2004, Bashioum was asked to reprise the role and returned on April 2. However, after an additional year as the character, Bashioum was let go and another immediate recast was named, Rachel Kimsey. Former co-executive producer John F. Smith issued a statement explaining Bashioum 's exit, saying they decided to "move the story in a different direction '' and "Ashley 's school schedule made it difficult ''. Her final airdate was March 10, 2005, with Kimsey taking over on March 28. Viewers were reportedly shocked at Bashioum 's exit and against another recast, also citing that Kimsey would have been a better recast for Victoria Newman. In March 2006, it was announced that Kimsey had been let go and there were no plans for another recast. She made her last appearance on April 7, 2006.
In March 2009, it was announced that former The L Word star Clementine Ford had been cast as the fourth actress to portray the character. She stated that she knew co-star Greg Rikaart, who portrays Kevin Fisher, and had a "sneaking suspicion '' that he had "something to do '' with her being cast in the role. She made her debut on April 1, 2009. In September 2010, it was announced that Ford, along with Thad Luckinbill, would be leaving The Young and the Restless. Their final airdate was November 5, 2010.
In February 2018, it was reported that Kruger would be returning to commemorate with the show 's 45th anniversary. Kruger returned on March 28, 2018.
Mackenzie, known as Mac runs away from home in St. Louis and finds herself in the local homeless shelter where she befriends Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper). Mac shows Katherine a letter from her mother, Amanda which reveals that Mac 's father is actually Katherine 's son, Brock Reynolds (Beau Kazer). Mac, Kay and their friend Birdie move into the Chancellor Estate together much to the dismay of co-owner, Jill Abbott (Jess Walton). Jill 's son, Billy (David Tom) returns and causes trouble when he throws a wild party to get back at Jill for grounding him. Mac ends up getting arrested when Jill accuses her of stealing; fortunately, Billy and attorney John Silva help get the charges dropped. Kay fails to find Brock in India and later receives a call that he is dead. A devastated Mac disappears forcing Billy and their friend Raul (David Lago) to search for her. Mac wanders into the local coffee house, Crimson Lights and is taken in by Nina McNeil (Tricia Cast). Mackenzie returns to the estate to pack her things when she is finally introduced to Brock, who is very much alive. Mac and Raul grow closer while Billy watches in jealousy. During J.T. Hellstrom (Thad Luckinbill) 's party, Billy collapses from alcohol poisoning and Raul saves his life. Though Billy and Mackenzie are at odds, she stays at his bedside and prays for his recovery. Billy and Mac are later voted prom king and queen when she beats out Brittany Hodges (Lauren Woodland) for the vote. The two finally admit how much they care for one another much to Jill 's dismay. As Jill threatens to find Amanda to send Mackenzie back home, the two start seeing each other in secret and Billy gives Mac an opal ring as a symbol of their love. When Billy, Brittany and Raul are chosen to represent Glo by Jabot Kids, Mac helps Phyllis Summers with running the website. Brittany finds out about Billy and Mac 's romance and arranges for Mac to walk in on her and Billy "making love '' when she drugs him and fakes it. Billy tries to explain himself to a heartbroken Mac and it is J.T. who reveals that Mac and Billy have been seeing one another and that Brittany set her up. Billy and Brittany reconciled while Raul broke up with Mac for Rianna Miner (Alexis Thorpe). Mac and Billy are drawn together, and with help from his older brother, Jack (Peter Bergman), they soon begin dating with Jill 's blessing when she learned of Brittany 's schemes.
Afraid that Mac 's mother, Amanda, would show up in Genoa City and take Mackenzie back, Katherine petitioned and was awarded legal custody of Mac. That eased Mac 's fears of discovery, and she agreed to join the on - screen Glo by Jabot Kids. When Amanda did show up, Mac rebuffed her and sent her away. But Amanda had divorced and run away from her husband, Ralph, too, and was living at the same homeless shelter where Mac and her father were volunteers. With Billy 's help, Mac and her mother accepted each other in their lives again.
Things went fine for Billy and Mackenzie for several months. He helped her admit that she ran away from St. Louis because her stepfather, Ralph, had molested her, and her mother would n't believe it. Senior year began, and a holiday series on the Glo by Jabot website added J.T. and Mac to the Glow Kids. The scene changed to Jabot where a boutique opened, which was run by the kids. Phyllis had taken a job with Brash & Sassy, so a new Webmaster, Sean Bridges, was hired. Mac was in her senior year of high school, and was sending out college applications.
After the holidays, Billy realized that he was ready for more from his relationship with Mackenzie. When he shared his feelings with her, he tried to avoid pressuring her, but could n't accept her insistence that she was not ready and should wait. As a result, the two of them broke up. They got over the trauma and became friends. Then Mac 's stepfather, Ralph, showed up in Genoa City and began stalking her. He coerced Mac 's mom, Amanda, into helping him steal from the Chancellor Estate. Amanda let him into the mansion while all were at the prom, but Mac returned home unexpectedly and, much to her horror, was met by Ralph.
Billy arrived on the scene as Ralph was about to molest Mac again, confronted him, and whacked Ralph over the head with a fireplace poker. Thinking he had killed Ralph, Billy took Mac to hide out in their special place, the old Abbott playhouse. Thinking they were doomed, Billy and Mac realized they still loved each other. Ralph kidnapped Kay after she returned from chaperoning at the prom, and tied her up in a motel room. Ralph, disguised as a cop, talked Raul into telling him places where he might find Mac and Billy.
Meanwhile, Larry Warton found and rescued Kay. Ralph showed up at the playhouse, too late, but found the kids at a campsite where Raul and Billy used to play as kids. Ralph knocked out Billy by whacking him over the head with a rock and grabbed Mac, but our hero, Larry, showed up in time to rescue her. Larry and Ralph fought, and just before the police arrived, both ended up going over a cliff to the lakeshore below.
The next morning Ralph came to and tried to kill an unconscious Larry with a rock. Scared away by the arrival of the police, Ralph disappeared into the bushes. Larry recovered with minor injuries and major thanks from Billy 's mother, Jill, for saving her son 's life. Because Jill had video evidence that Amanda had stolen her jewels, and after Amanda nearly got both her own daughter and Jill 's son killed, Amanda agreed to leave town if Jill would drop the charges.
After all he went through that summer, Billy decided he needed to do more with his life than go to college, so he left for Louisiana to help Mac 's father, Brock, build houses for the poor. He and his mother, Jill, shared a tearful parting, although Jill felt he was making a mistake. Mac and Billy parted tearfully, as well, declaring their love and promising each other that it was not the end of them.
Mac left Genoa City that fall to attend Northwestern University. Both Billy and Mac returned to Genoa City for Christmas, and decided to attend GCU where they share a loft apartment with Raul and Brittany. By spring, Billy had proposed and Mac and Billy were to be married, with Raul Gutierrez as best man and Colleen Carlton as maid of honor. But with the reveal that Billy 's mother, Jill 's, actual birth mother was Katherine Chancellor, their lives were shattered when they realized they were cousins. Mac and Billy both left town on their own, devastated by the news.
Mac returned to Genoa City after spending time in the Southwestern U.S. helping out teaching kindergarten and preschool children on an Indian reservation. Her grandmother, Katherine, who had fallen off the wagon, was thrilled to see her. Mac found it difficult to live in the same house as a drunken Katherine and Jill, who hated her, so she moved back into the loft apartment with J.T., Brittany, and Raul. Kay had since become sober again,
Victor Newman, as part of his community service sentence for commercial bribery, was restoring an old building into a recreation center in a seedy part of town. He hired Mac as his supervisor on the project. 20 - year - old Mac began to get close with Daniel Romalotti, who had a similar parentless background. But J.T. was only too glad to spill Daniel 's secret that he was only 16 to Mac, and Mac called it quits. Mac began dating J.T., and Raul moved out of the loft to attend Pemberton University in Boston.?
Mac convinced J.T. that he really loved Brittany, but he was n't able to tell her before Brittany married Bobby Marcino, so he reverted to his playboy past. Mac was able to get Kevin Fisher to open up to her, and convinced him to go to a psychiatrist. Kevin appeared to be learning how to deal with his past and handled it well when he realized that Mac was not interested in him as more than a friend.
J.T. had been assisting Paul Williams with his detective work on various cases while attending Genoa City University. Meanwhile, Mac and J.T. got closer, and she finally lost her virginity to him. But in an intricate plot to keep the mob away from Brittany and her unborn baby, they set it up to look like J.T. was the father, and Bobby and Brittany staged a split. For her safety, Mac was n't included in the plot, and this "revelation '' broke her heart.
Nikki started nosing around and uncovered the plot, and ended up getting kidnapped by Vinny 's goon, Luca. Paul, Victor, and Bobby rescued Nikki, while J.T. took a distraught Brittany to the Newman Ranch. Luckily, Mac showed up as Brittany went into labor, and Mac delivered the two - month premature baby, Joshua. Vinny, Angelo, and his goon ended up in jail, Brittany and the baby in the hospital, and Bobby turned over his evidence on the mob and went into the witness protection program, leaving Brittany and Joshua behind.
J.T. confessed to Mac it was all a hoax, that he really loved Mac, but she was reluctant to trust him again. Katherine Chancellor convinced J.T., Brittany, and her baby to come live at the Chancellor Estate with Mac, as it would be the most secure for all of them. Months went by, and finally Brittany shared a short visit with the heavily guarded Bobby. Not long afterward, she received word that a hit - and - run driver had killed Bobby.
Brittany was devastated, and she and Joshua ending up moving to New York City with her parents. Mac and J.T. moved into the loft apartment with roommates Kevin and Scott Grainger. Kevin became close friends with Mackenzie again, and they decided to go into business together. They convinced Nick and Sharon to sell Crimson Lights, and began running it together.
About the time Colleen returned to Genoa City intent on making Mac jealous, Mac discovered that she was pregnant with J.T. 's baby. She could n't bring herself to tell him, but she told her grandmother Kay and Kevin. It was n't until she miscarried that J.T. found out and was livid that she had n't told him, yet confided in Kevin instead, so J.T. had a one - night stand with Victoria Newman.
Mac and J.T. broke up, and Mac moved out of the loft and back into the Chancellor Estate. She was getting closer with Kevin, then suddenly returned to the Indian reservation. Mac later returned to tell Kevin she was going to go to New Orleans to work with her father, Brock, and signed a power of attorney turning the coffee house over to Kevin. When Mac did not show up for her grandmother Katherine 's funeral, Brock said she was ill and living in Darfur in the Sudan, Africa, following in his footsteps of helping out the needy.
In April 2009, after Brock let her know that Katherine was alive, Mac showed up at the Chancellor mansion just in time for Billy 's marriage to Chloe. Meanwhile, in the next room, the results of Brock 's blood test proved that he was Kay 's son, and that Jill was not Katherine 's daughter after all, which meant that Billy and Mac were not related either. Their reactions to the news made it quite obvious that both have never gotten over each other. After some persuasion by Murphy that Kay needed her, Mac decided to stay in Genoa City, which made Chloe concerned for her marriage.
Mac 's old friend Kevin was committed for his own good after his arrest for bank robbery. Kevin became near - catatonic and delusional in a padded cell, and was OK with Mackenzie and Michael 's visits.
Mac 's eighty - year - old grandmother, Katherine, married Patrick "Murph '' Murphy in the Chancellor garden in a service officiated by her son Brock. Nikki was matron of honor, Victor best man (because Kevin was still locked up), Amber and Mac were bridesmaids. Ana sang "Let Met Call you Sweetheart '', and the catering was by Joe 's Diner, complete with chicken nuggets. Amber designed Kay 's white lace suit dress, and Nikki caught the bouquet. Michael got Kevin out on bail just in time to attend. Billy and Mac danced and shared how this wedding reminded them of their own long ago. Mac resisted Billy 's advances, and when he grabbed and kissed her, she slapped him. Chloe saw it, kissed his smarting cheek, and took him home.
Billy was upset when Cane bought his favorite escape, Jimmy 's Bar, but was elated when he hired Mac as a waitress, and began spending even more time there, avoiding Chloe. Billy keeps lamenting about their missed opportunity for happiness, and Mac keeps reminding him they have both moved on.
On Memorial Day 2009, Kay and Murphy threw a bar - b-q around the Chancellor pool with Esther, Billy, Chloe & Delia, Mac, Amber, Nina, and Jack in attendance. Later Sharon, Neil & Tyra, Kevin & Jana arrived. Raul Guittierez surprised everyone when he walked in. After reuniting with Billy and being introduced to Kay 's new husband Murphy, Billy 's new wife Chloe and their baby, Mac walked in and they embraced and passionately kissed. Mac had earlier revealed that there was someone she worked with in Darfur, Africa, and their year - long relationship was "serious, but did n't work out '' - and it turned out to be Raul. After Billy reluctantly gave them his blessing, Raul asked Mac to marry him and return to Washington DC with him, and she said yes. But the more time Mac spent with Billy, the more she doubted her future with Raul. Chloe saw this coming and got Raul to return from DC, but it was only for Mac to tell him she was sorry, but the engagement was off. Billy and Mac were about to make love when Chloe interrupted with the news that the paternity test on Sharon 's baby was about to come back. Mac did not take the news well that Billy might be the father of his brother 's wife 's child, and left. But Mac realized this happened when they were not together, and after seeing Billy talking to God about saving Summer for him despite all his sins, she decided he was still the man she loved.
Sharon got the paternity test results back and was ecstatic that she and Nick are expecting the daughter Faith that Cassie predicted on her death bed and in Nick 's dream. But after seeing Nick so distraught over his daughter Summer being in a coma, she realized that he needed to be there for Summer and Phyllis, and not run off with her like he did over Cassie, so she told everyone her baby was Jack 's.
Billy and Mac faked being mad at each other at Kay 's 4th of July party, both made excuses and met at the Athletic Club to finally make love after all those years apart, but were interrupted by a phone call that Kay had another mini-stroke and was rushed to the hospital by ambulance.
Cane sold Jimmy 's Bar to Mackenzie when he decided to leave town. But when Mac heard that Lily was in the hospital with ovarian cancer, and about to undergo surgery, she tracked down Cane, persuaded him not to leave town, and stashed him in Murphy 's trailer home that Billy had just bought as a rendezvous for them. Every time Mac and Billy met there, they had some intimate moments and memories, but always seemed to get interrupted by something, but have finally make love after a six - year wait.
Victor called a press conference and named Mary Jane Benson as the person who hurt his grand daughter, so the entire city was looking for her. Mary Jane was discovered by Mac in an alley, and she befriended her thinking she was just a homeless person, giving her food, blankets and a place to stay in the back room at her bar. Meanwhile, Jack and Paul banded together to find her themselves. After Victor asked for JT 's resignation, Paul talked JT into joining him in a new detective partnership, and he became involved in the Mary Jane Benson investigation. JT discovered through Mac that she had been hiding out at her bar, stolen from her and disappeared, leaving a note that claimed Victor knew all about Mary Jane.
After Mac admitted to Chloe that she and Billy were now together, Chloe got a divorce started, and Chance felt free to date Chloe. But when they met to sign the divorce papers, Billy started remembering the good times in the past, and backed out making excuses. So Chloe decided to use Chance to make Billy jealous and stay with her and Delia. Billy went back and signed the next day, but Chloe never did and they remained legally married, though separated. But after Chance was stabbed trying to stop a robber, Chloe realized how much she really cared and signed the divorce papers.
Mac wanted to help Lily and Cane by being a surrogate mother for them, but Billy refused to let her do it. Billy was not happy when Mackenzie volunteered and began looking into the legal ramifications with Michael Baldwin. Mac got a physical, and told Cane she was ready no matter what Billy does not want her to do. Mac and Billy broke up, and Mac became pregnant with Cane and Lily 's child, which turned out to be twins. Billy 's life was spiraling downward again into drunkenness as he watched Chance take his place with Chloe and his daughter Delia, and after losing the love of his life, Mac. Then an end - of - 2009 visit from his dead father John, showing him what the future would be like with Billy dead if he kept this up, began to turn Billy around. He cleaned up the magazine 's reputation and mended fences with Jack and Mac, although Mac is still wary of him. But when it was time for Cane to be deported, she broke down and told Cane the truth, so of course he escaped. But just as he was apprehended, Michael saved the day with the news that he had arranged for Cane to stay legally because of Lily 's condition. A sonogram confirmed that the twins Mac was carrying were boy and girl. Olivia approached Lily with an experimental procedure using stem cells from the babies ' placentas that could save her life, but both Lily and Mac turned it down fearing it may harm the babies. Instead Lily left for Europe with Olivia to try an experimental procedure, without Cane who would not be allowed back in if he left the country. Cane then decided to sue Mac for the right to take the placenta fluid against their wishes.
More and more, JT was left alone at home caring for Reed while Mackenzie grew larger pregnant with Cane and Lily 's twins, and she would often come by to help and they grew close again. Meanwhile, Victoria was enjoying an affair with Billy Abbott. Victoria 's appeal for custody of Reed was lost because Tucker reported to the court that Victor kept J.T. from arriving in time. To top it off her divorce decree arrived later, so to get away and forget their problems, Victoria and Billy took the next plane to Kingston, Jamaica, with no luggage or plans. They joined a Jamaican wedding party on the beach where rum and Billy 's teasing and charm made him the life of the party. He made her laugh and smile again telling everyone about their love / hate relationship. Deliriously drunk, they got married too. Meanwhile, Mac, J.T., and Reed went for a drive in his GTO and ended up at a drive in movie watching The Three Stooges and eating nachos. They began to realize they had more in common now than ever, and the old spark was still there. As JT said, "The stuff you never see coming, is exactly what you want. ''
J.T. confessed to Mac that Tucker wanted a favor for helping him get custody of Reed. He needed information from Victoria 's files on a deal that Victor made years ago with Mitsukoshi department stores which caused his legal problems with them to go away. Tucker was hoping this information would seal the deal for him to get Beauty of Nature away from Newman to merge it with his company, Jabot. After Billy caught J.T. typing on Victoria 's laptop, and having secretive meetings with Tucker, he rehired Jill and assigned her to investigate what was going on between Tucker and the Newmans.
Rafe invited his friends to a party at Jimmie 's Bar to celebrate the opening of his private law practice. On his arm was his new boyfriend, Tyler. Billy and Victoria attended but kept their distance. Abby had been trying to coerce Billy into funding and publicizing her television reality show "The Naked Heiress '', but because he refused she congratulated them on their marriage and played their Jamaican wedding video on her phone when no one believed her. J.T. and Mac, who have since reunited as a couple, were appalled.
On September 8, 2010, the day Billy married Victoria, Mac made it clear to J.T. that she does n't approve nor like his constant bashing of Victoria in front of Reed.
In September, Mac and J.T. discover that she is pregnant with their second child, the first ending in a miscarriage.
In October, J.T. proposed to Mac, but she said no. That night a powerful storm / tornado hits the GC area. J.T. is found unconsciousness by Lily and Cane. However, after almost losing him due to this incident, and the realization of how her life would be without J.T. to love in it, she finally accepts his proposal.
On November 5, J.T and Mac got married with Katherine 's help. After Mackenzie receives a job offer, she and JT move to Washington, D.C., taking Victoria 's son Reed. Victoria is devastated. On June 21, 2011, Mackenzie gives birth to a son, Dylan.
JT returned to Genoa City and it is revealed that he and Mac are getting divorced and she is suing for full custody of their children
reference: http://theyoungandtherestless.wetpaint.com/page/Mackenzie+Browning
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where did the indian rebellion of 1857 occur | Indian rebellion of 1857 - Wikipedia
British victory
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India during 1857 -- 58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The event is known by many names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and India 's First War of Independence.
The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Company 's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles northeast of Delhi (now Old Delhi). It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions, chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels ' defeat in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859.
The Indian rebellion was fed by resentment that had emerged against elements of British rule, including invasive British - style social reforms, harsh land taxes, summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, and broader scepticism about the improvements brought about by British rule. Many Indians did rise against the British, but many others fought for the British, and the majority remained seemingly compliant to British rule. Violence, which sometimes betrayed exceptional cruelty, was inflicted on both sides; on British officers and civilians (including women and children) by the rebels, and on the rebels and their supporters (sometimes including entire villages) by British reprisals. The cities of Delhi and Lucknow were laid waste in the fighting and during the British retaliation.
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi and declared its 81 - year - old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, they also captured large tracts of the North - Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). The East India Company 's response came rapidly as well. With help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857 and Delhi by the end of September. Even so, it then took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow, and especially the Awadh countryside. Other regions of Company - controlled India -- the Bengal Presidency, the Bombay Presidency and the Madras Presidency -- remained largely calm. In the Punjab, the Sikhs crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states (Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir), as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion, serving the British, in the words of Governor - General Lord Canning, as "breakwaters in a storm. ''
In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence and power. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system. Even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian and British Empire history. It led to the dissolution of the East India Company, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India, through the passage of the Government of India Act 1858. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj. On 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, Indians were to pointedly refer to the Queen 's proclamation in growing avowals of a new nationalism.
Although the British East India Company had established a presence in India as far back as 1612, and earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in eastern India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the emperor granted the Company the right to the "collection of Revenue '' in the provinces of Bengal (modern day Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha), known as "Diwani '' to the Company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo - Mysore Wars (1766 -- 1799) and the Anglo - Maratha Wars (1772 -- 1818) led to control of even more of India.
In 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
After the turn of the 19th century, Governor - General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Punjab, North - West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo - Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo - Nepalese War of 1814 -- 16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For practical purposes, the Company was the government of much of India.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 occurred as the result of an accumulation of factors over time, rather than any single event.
The sepoys were Indian soldiers who were recruited into the Company 's army. Just before the rebellion, there were over 300,000 sepoys in the army, compared to about 50,000 British. The forces were divided into three presidency armies: Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. The Bengal Army recruited higher castes, such as Rajputs and Bhumihar, mostly from the Awadh and Bihar regions, and even restricted the enlistment of lower castes in 1855. In contrast, the Madras Army and Bombay Army were "more localized, caste - neutral armies '' that "did not prefer high - caste men. '' The domination of higher castes in the Bengal Army has been blamed in part for initial mutinies that led to the rebellion.
In 1772, when Warren Hastings was appointed India 's first Governor - General, one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Company 's army. Since the sepoys from Bengal -- many of whom had fought against the Company in the Battles of Plassey and Buxar -- were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the high - caste rural Rajputs and Bhumihar of Awadh and Bihar, a practice that continued for the next 75 years. However, in order to forestall any social friction, the Company also took action to adapt its military practices to the requirements of their religious rituals. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came officially to recognise Hindu festivals. "This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives. '' Stokes argues that "The British scrupulously avoided interference with the social structure of the village community which remained largely intact. ''
After the annexation of Oudh (Awadh) by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts, and from the anticipation of any increased land - revenue payments that the annexation might bring about. Other historians have stressed that by 1857, some Indian soldiers, interpreting the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent, were convinced that the Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims to Christianity. Although earlier in the 1830s, evangelicals such as William Carey and William Wilberforce had successfully clamoured for the passage of social reform, such as the abolition of sati and allowing the remarriage of Hindu widows, there is little evidence that the sepoys ' allegiance was affected by this.
However, changes in the terms of their professional service may have created resentment. As the extent of the East India Company 's jurisdiction expanded with victories in wars or annexation, the soldiers were now expected not only to serve in less familiar regions, such as in Burma, but also to make do without the "foreign service '' remuneration that had previously been their due.
A major cause of resentment that arose ten months prior to the outbreak of the rebellion was the General Service Enlistment Act of 25 July 1856. As noted above, men of the Bengal Army had been exempted from overseas service. Specifically, they were enlisted only for service in territories to which they could march. Governor - General Lord Dalhousie saw this as an anomaly, since all sepoys of the Madras and Bombay Armies and the six "General Service '' battalions of the Bengal Army had accepted an obligation to serve overseas if required. As a result, the burden of providing contingents for active service in Burma, readily accessible only by sea, and China had fallen disproportionately on the two smaller Presidency Armies. As signed into effect by Lord Canning, Dalhousie 's successor as Governor - General, the act required only new recruits to the Bengal Army to accept a commitment for general service. However, serving high - caste sepoys were fearful that it would be eventually extended to them, as well as preventing sons following fathers into an army with a strong tradition of family service.
There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority. This, as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions, made promotion slow, and many Indian officers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective.
The final spark was provided by the ammunition for the new Enfield P - 53 rifle. These rifles, which fired Minié balls, had a tighter fit than the earlier muskets, and used paper cartridges that came pre-greased. To load the rifle, sepoys had to bite the cartridge open to release the powder. The grease used on these cartridges was rumoured to include tallow derived from beef, which would be offensive to Hindus, and pork, which would be offensive to Muslims. At least one Company official pointed out the difficulties this may cause:
unless it be proven that the grease employed in these cartridges is not of a nature to offend or interfere with the prejudices of caste, it will be expedient not to issue them for test to Native corps.
However, in August 1856, greased cartridge production was initiated at Fort William, Calcutta, following a British design. The grease used included tallow supplied by the Indian firm of Gangadarh Banerji & Co. By January, rumours were abroad that the Enfield cartridges were greased with animal fat.
Company officers became aware of the rumours through reports of an altercation between a high - caste sepoy and a low - caste labourer at Dum Dum. The labourer had taunted the sepoy that by biting the cartridge, he had himself lost caste, although at this time such cartridges had been issued only at Meerut and not at Dum Dum. There had been rumours that the British sought to destroy the religions of the Indian people, and forcing the native soldiers to break their sacred code would have certainly added to this rumour, as it apparently did. The Company was quick to reverse the effects of this policy in hopes that the unrest would be quelled.
On 27 January, Colonel Richard Birch, the Military Secretary, ordered that all cartridges issued from depots were to be free from grease, and that sepoys could grease them themselves using whatever mixture "they may prefer ''. A modification was also made to the drill for loading so that the cartridge was torn with the hands and not bitten. This however, merely caused many sepoys to be convinced that the rumours were true and that their fears were justified. Additional rumours started that the paper in the new cartridges, which was glazed and stiffer than the previously used paper, was impregnated with grease. In February, a court of inquiry was held at Barrackpore to get to the bottom of these rumours. Native soldiers called as witnesses complained of the paper "being stiff and like cloth in the mode of tearing '', said that when the paper was burned it smelled of grease, and announced that the suspicion that the paper itself contained grease could not be removed from their minds.
The civilian rebellion was more multifarious. The rebels consisted of three groups: the feudal nobility, rural landlords called taluqdars, and the peasants. The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse, which refused to recognise the adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept East India Company supremacy if her adopted son was recognised as her late husband 's heir. In other areas of central India, such as Indore and Saugar, where such loss of privilege had not occurred, the princes remained loyal to the Company, even in areas where the sepoys had rebelled. The second group, the taluqdars, had lost half their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation of Oudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the taluqdars quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, and paradoxically, in part because of ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant opposition from the peasant farmers, many of whom joined the rebellion, to the great dismay of the British. It has also been suggested that heavy land - revenue assessment in some areas by the British resulted in many landowning families either losing their land or going into great debt to money lenders, and providing ultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the Company, were particular objects of the rebels ' animosity. The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even in areas of north - central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relatively prosperous Muzaffarnagar district, a beneficiary of a Company irrigation scheme, and next door to Meerut, where the upheaval began, stayed relatively calm throughout.
Charles Canning, the Governor - General of India during the rebellion.
Lord Dalhousie, the Governor - General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse.
Lakshmibai, the Rani of Maratha - ruled Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.
Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor, crowned Emperor of India, by the Indian troops, he was deposed by the British, and died in exile in Burma
"Utilitarian and evangelical - inspired social reform '', including the abolition of sati and the legalisation of widow remarriage were considered by many -- especially the British themselves -- to have caused suspicion that Indian religious traditions were being "interfered with '', with the ultimate aim of conversion. Recent historians, including Chris Bayly, have preferred to frame this as a "clash of knowledges '', with proclamations from religious authorities before the revolt and testimony after it including on such issues as the "insults to women '', the rise of "low persons under British tutelage '', the "pollution '' caused by Western medicine and the persecuting and ignoring of traditional astrological authorities. European - run schools were also a problem: according to recorded testimonies, anger had spread because of stories that mathematics was replacing religious instruction, stories were chosen that would "bring contempt '' upon Indian religions, and because girl children were exposed to "moral danger '' by education.
The justice system was considered to be inherently unfair to the Indians. The official Blue Books, East India (Torture) 1855 -- 1857, laid before the House of Commons during the sessions of 1856 and 1857, revealed that Company officers were allowed an extended series of appeals if convicted or accused of brutality or crimes against Indians.
The economic policies of the East India Company were also resented by many Indians.
Each of the three "Presidencies '' into which the East India Company divided India for administrative purposes maintained their own armies. Of these, the Army of the Bengal Presidency was the largest. Unlike the other two, it recruited heavily from among high - caste Hindus and comparatively wealthy Muslims. The Muslims formed a larger percentage of the 18 irregular cavalry units within the Bengal army, whilst Hindus were mainly to be found in the 84 regular infantry and cavalry regiments. The sepoys were therefore affected to a large degree by the concerns of the landholding and traditional members of Indian society. In the early years of Company rule, it tolerated and even encouraged the caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army, which recruited its regular soldiers almost exclusively amongst the landowning Brahmins and Rajputs of the Bihar and Awadh regions. These soldiers were known as Purbiyas. By the time these customs and privileges came to be threatened by modernising regimes in Calcutta from the 1840s onwards, the sepoys had become accustomed to very high ritual status and were extremely sensitive to suggestions that their caste might be polluted.
The sepoys also gradually became dissatisfied with various other aspects of army life. Their pay was relatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay (batta or bhatta) for service there, because they were no longer considered "foreign missions ''. The junior European officers became increasingly estranged from their soldiers, in many cases treating them as their racial inferiors. In 1856, a new Enlistment Act was introduced by the Company, which in theory made every unit in the Bengal Army liable to service overseas. Although it was intended to apply only to new recruits, the serving sepoys feared that the Act might be applied retroactively to them as well. A high - caste Hindu who travelled in the cramped conditions of a wooden troop ship could not cook his own food on his own fire, and accordingly risked losing caste through ritual pollution.
Several months of increasing tensions coupled with various incidents preceded the actual rebellion. On 26 February 1857 the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment became concerned that new cartridges they had been issued were wrapped in paper greased with cow and pig fat, which had to be opened by mouth thus affecting their religious sensibilities. Their Colonel confronted them supported by artillery and cavalry on the parade ground, but after some negotiation withdrew the artillery, and cancelled the next morning 's parade.
On 29 March 1857 at the Barrackpore parade ground, near Calcutta, 29 - year - old Mangal Pandey of the 34th BNI, angered by the recent actions of the East India Company, declared that he would rebel against his commanders. Informed about Pandey 's behaviour Sergeant - Major James Hewson went to investigate, only to have Pandey shoot at him. Hewson raised the alarm. When his adjutant Lt. Henry Baugh came out to investigate the unrest, Pandey opened fire but hit Baugh 's horse instead.
General John Hearsey came out to the parade ground to investigate, and claimed later that Mangal Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy ''. He ordered the Indian commander of the quarter guard Jemadar Ishwari Prasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the Jemadar refused. The quarter guard and other sepoys present, with the single exception of a soldier called Shaikh Paltu, drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pandey. Shaikh Paltu restrained Pandey from continuing his attack.
After failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion, Mangal Pandey tried to take his own life, by placing his musket to his chest and pulling the trigger with his toe. He managed only to wound himself. Court - martialled on 6 April, he was hanged two days later.
The Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was sentenced to death and hanged on 22 April. The regiment was disbanded and stripped of its uniforms because it was felt that it harboured ill - feelings towards its superiors, particularly after this incident. Shaikh Paltu was promoted to the rank of havildar in the Bengal Army, but was murdered shortly before the 34th BNI dispersed.
Sepoys in other regiments thought these punishments were harsh. The demonstration of disgrace during the formal disbanding helped foment the rebellion in view of some historians. Disgruntled ex-sepoys returned home to Awadh with a desire for revenge.
During April, there was unrest and fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. At Ambala in particular, which was a large military cantonment where several units had been collected for their annual musketry practice, it was clear to General Anson, Commander - in - Chief of the Bengal Army, that some sort of rebellion over the cartridges was imminent. Despite the objections of the civilian Governor - General 's staff, he agreed to postpone the musketry practice and allow a new drill by which the soldiers tore the cartridges with their fingers rather than their teeth. However, he issued no general orders making this standard practice throughout the Bengal Army and, rather than remain at Ambala to defuse or overawe potential trouble, he then proceeded to Simla, the cool "hill station '' where many high officials spent the summer.
Although there was no open revolt at Ambala, there was widespread arson during late April. Barrack buildings (especially those belonging to soldiers who had used the Enfield cartridges) and European officers ' bungalows were set on fire.
At Meerut, a large military cantonment, 2,357 Indian sepoys and 2,038 British soldiers were stationed along with 12 British - manned guns. The station held one of the largest concentrations of British troops in India and this was later to be cited as evidence that the original rising was a spontaneous outbreak rather than a pre-planned plot.
Although the state of unrest within the Bengal Army was well known, on 24 April Lieutenant Colonel George Carmichael - Smyth, the unsympathetic commanding officer of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry, ordered 90 of his men to parade and perform firing drills. All except five of the men on parade refused to accept their cartridges. On 9 May, the remaining 85 men were court martialled, and most were sentenced to 10 years ' imprisonment with hard labour. Eleven comparatively young soldiers were given five years ' imprisonment. The entire garrison was paraded and watched as the condemned men were stripped of their uniforms and placed in shackles. As they were marched off to jail, the condemned soldiers berated their comrades for failing to support them.
The next day was Sunday. Some Indian soldiers warned off - duty junior European officers that plans were afoot to release the imprisoned soldiers by force, but the senior officers to whom this was reported took no action. There was also unrest in the city of Meerut itself, with angry protests in the bazaar and some buildings being set on fire. In the evening, most European officers were preparing to attend church, while many of the European soldiers were off duty and had gone into canteens or into the bazaar in Meerut. The Indian troops, led by the 3rd Cavalry, broke into revolt. European junior officers who attempted to quell the first outbreaks were killed by the rebels. European officers ' and civilians ' quarters were attacked, and four civilian men, eight women and eight children were killed. Crowds in the bazaar attacked off - duty soldiers there. About 50 Indian civilians, some of them officers ' servants who tried to defend or conceal their employers, were killed by the sepoys. While the action of the sepoys in freeing their 85 imprisoned comrades appears to have been spontaneous, some civilian rioting in the city was reportedly encouraged by kotwal (local police commander) Dhan Singh Gurjar
Some sepoys (especially from the 11th Bengal Native Infantry) escorted trusted British officers and women and children to safety before joining the revolt. Some officers and their families escaped to Rampur, where they found refuge with the Nawab.
The British historian Philip Mason notes that it was inevitable that most of the sepoys and sowars from Meerut should have made for Delhi on the night of 10 May. It was a strong walled city located only forty miles away, it was the ancient capital and present seat of the nominal Mughal Emperor and finally there were no British troops in garrison there in contrast to Meerut. No effort was made to pursue them.
Early on 11 May, the first parties of the 3rd Cavalry reached Delhi. From beneath the windows of the King 's apartments in the palace, they called on him to acknowledge and lead them. Bahadur Shah did nothing at this point, apparently treating the sepoys as ordinary petitioners, but others in the palace were quick to join the revolt. During the day, the revolt spread. European officials and dependents, Indian Christians and shop keepers within the city were killed, some by sepoys and others by crowds of rioters.
There were three battalion - sized regiments of Bengal Native Infantry stationed in or near the city. Some detachments quickly joined the rebellion, while others held back but also refused to obey orders to take action against the rebels. In the afternoon, a violent explosion in the city was heard for several miles. Fearing that the arsenal, which contained large stocks of arms and ammunition, would fall intact into rebel hands, the nine British Ordnance officers there had opened fire on the sepoys, including the men of their own guard. When resistance appeared hopeless, they blew up the arsenal. Six of the nine officers survived, but the blast killed many in the streets and nearby houses and other buildings. The news of these events finally tipped the sepoys stationed around Delhi into open rebellion. The sepoys were later able to salvage at least some arms from the arsenal, and a magazine two miles (3 km) outside Delhi, containing up to 3,000 barrels of gunpowder, was captured without resistance.
Many fugitive European officers and civilians had congregated at the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge north of Delhi, where telegraph operators were sending news of the events to other British stations. When it became clear that the help expected from Meerut was not coming, they made their way in carriages to Karnal. Those who became separated from the main body or who could not reach the Flagstaff Tower also set out for Karnal on foot. Some were helped by villagers on the way; others were killed.
The next day, Bahadur Shah held his first formal court for many years. It was attended by many excited sepoys. The King was alarmed by the turn events had taken, but eventually accepted the sepoys ' allegiance and agreed to give his countenance to the rebellion. On 16 May, up to 50 Europeans who had been held prisoner in the palace or had been discovered hiding in the city were killed by some of the King 's servants under a peepul tree in a courtyard outside the palace.
The news of the events at Delhi spread rapidly, provoking uprisings among sepoys and disturbances in many districts. In many cases, it was the behaviour of British military and civilian authorities themselves which precipitated disorder. Learning of the fall of Delhi by telegraph, many Company administrators hastened to remove themselves, their families and servants to places of safety. At Agra, 160 miles (260 km) from Delhi, no less than 6,000 assorted non-combatants converged on the Fort.
The military authorities also reacted in disjointed manner. Some officers trusted their sepoys, but others tried to disarm them to forestall potential uprisings. At Benares and Allahabad, the disarmings were bungled, also leading to local revolts.
Most Muslims did not share the rebels ' dislike of the British administration and their ulema could not agree on whether to declare a jihad. There were Islamic scholars such as Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and Maulana Rashid Ahmad Gangohi who took up arms against the colonial rule. But a large number of Muslims, among them ulema from both the Sunni and Shia sects, sided with the British. Various Ahl - i - Hadith scholars and colleagues of Nanautavi rejected the jihad. The most influential member of Ahl - i - Hadith ulema in Delhi, Maulana Sayyid Nazir Husain Dehlvi, resisted pressure from the mutineers to call for a jihad and instead declared in favour of British rule, viewing the Muslim - British relationship as a legal contract which could not be broken unless their religious rights were breached.
Although most of the mutinous sepoys in Delhi were Hindus, a significant proportion of the insurgents were Muslims. The proportion of ghazis grew to be about a quarter of the local fighting force by the end of the siege and included a regiment of suicide ghazis from Gwalior who had vowed never to eat again and to fight until they met certain death at the hands of British troops.
The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North - West Frontier Province supported the British and helped in the recapture of Delhi. Historian John Harris has asserted that the Sikhs wanted to avenge the annexation of the Sikh Empire eight years earlier by the Company with the help of Purbiyas (' Easterners '), Biharis and those from the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh who had formed part of the East India Company 's armies in the First and Second Anglo - Sikh Wars. He has also suggested that Sikhs felt insulted by the attitude of sepoys who, in their view, had beaten the Khalsa only with British help; they resented and despised them far more than they did the British.
The Sikhs feared reinstatement of Mughal rule in northern India because they had been persecuted heavily in the past by the Mughal dynasty.
Sikh support for the British resulted from grievances surrounding sepoys ' perceived conduct during and after the Anglo - Sikh Wars. Firstly, many Sikhs resented that Hindustanis / Purbiyas in service of the Sikh state had been foremost in urging the wars, which lost them their independence. Sikh soldiers also recalled that the bloodiest battles of the war, Chillianwala and Ferozeshah, were won by British troops, and they believed that the Hindustani sepoys had refused to meet them in battle. These feelings were compounded when Hindustani sepoys were assigned a very visible role as garrison troops in Punjab and awarded profit - making civil posts in Punjab.
In 1857, the Bengal Army had 86,000 men, of which 12,000 were European, 16,000 Sikh and 1,500 Gurkha. There were 311,000 native soldiers in India altogether, 40,160 European soldiers and 5,362 officers. Fifty - four of the Bengal Army 's 74 regular Native Infantry Regiments mutinied, but some were immediately destroyed or broke up, with their sepoys drifting away to their homes. A number of the remaining 20 regiments were disarmed or disbanded to prevent or forestall mutiny. In total, only twelve of the original Bengal Native Infantry regiments survived to pass into the new Indian Army. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments mutinied.
The Bengal Army also contained 29 irregular cavalry and 42 irregular infantry regiments. Of these, a substantial contingent from the recently annexed state of Awadh mutinied en masse. Another large contingent from Gwalior also mutinied, even though that state 's ruler supported the British. The remainder of the irregular units were raised from a wide variety of sources and were less affected by the concerns of mainstream Indian society. Some irregular units actively supported the Company: three Gurkha and five of six Sikh infantry units, and the six infantry and six cavalry units of the recently raised Punjab Irregular Force.
On 1 April 1858, the number of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army loyal to the Company was 80,053. However large numbers were hastily raised in the Punjab and North - West Frontier after the outbreak of the Rebellion. The Bombay army had three mutinies in its 29 regiments, whilst the Madras army had none at all, although elements of one of its 52 regiments refused to volunteer for service in Bengal. Nonetheless, most of southern India remained passive, with only intermittent outbreaks of violence. Many parts of the region were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty, and were thus not directly under British rule.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the Emperor of the whole of India. Most contemporary and modern accounts suggest that he was coerced by the sepoys and his courtiers to sign the proclamation against his will. In spite of the significant loss of power that the Mughal dynasty had suffered in the preceding centuries, their name still carried great prestige across northern India. Civilians, nobility and other dignitaries took an oath of allegiance. The emperor issued coins in his name, one of the oldest ways of asserting imperial status. The adhesion of the Mughal emperor, however, turned the Sikhs of the Punjab away from the rebellion, as they did not want to return to Islamic rule, having fought many wars against the Mughal rulers. The province of Bengal was largely quiet throughout the entire period. The British, who had long ceased to take the authority of the Mughal Emperor seriously, were astonished at how the ordinary people responded to Zafar 's call for war.
Initially, the Indian rebels were able to push back Company forces, and captured several important towns in Haryana, Bihar, the Central Provinces and the United Provinces. When European troops were reinforced and began to counterattack, the mutineers were especially handicapped by their lack of centralized command and control. Although the rebels produced some natural leaders such as Bakht Khan, whom the Emperor later nominated as commander - in - chief after his son Mirza Mughal proved ineffectual, for the most part they were forced to look for leadership to rajahs and princes. Some of these were to prove dedicated leaders, but others were self - interested or inept.
In the countryside around Meerut, a general Gurjar uprising posed the largest threat to the British. In Parikshitgarh near Meerut, Gurjars declared Choudhari Kadam Singh (Kuddum Singh) their leader, and expelled Company police. Kadam Singh Gurjar led a large force, estimates varying from 2,000 to 10,000. Bulandshahr and Bijnor also came under the control of Gurjars under Walidad Khan and Maho Singh respectively. Contemporary sources report that nearly all the Gurjar villages between Meerut and Delhi participated in the revolt, in some cases with support from Jullundur, and it was not until late July that, with the help of local Jats, the British managed to regain control of the area.
The Imperial Gazetteer of India states that throughout the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Gurjars and Ranghars (Muslim rajpoots) proved the "most irreconcilable enemies '' of the British in the Bulandshahr area.
Mufti Nizamuddin, a renowned scholar of Lahore, issued a Fatwa against the British forces and called upon the local population to support the forces of Rao Tula Ram. Casualties were high at the subsequent engagement at Narnaul (Nasibpur). After the defeat of Rao Tula Ram on 16 November 1857, Mufti Nizamuddin was arrested, and his brother Mufti Yaqinuddin and brother - in - law Abdur Rahman (alias Nabi Baksh) were arrested in Tijara. They were taken to Delhi and hanged. Having lost the fight at Nasibpur, Rao Tula Ram and Pran Sukh Yadav requested arms from Russia, which had just been engaged against Britain in the Crimean War.
The British were slow to strike back at first. It took time for troops stationed in Britain to make their way to India by sea, although some regiments moved overland through Persia from the Crimean War, and some regiments already en route for China were diverted to India.
It took time to organise the European troops already in India into field forces, but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla. They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, and hanged numerous Indians along the way. Two months after the first outbreak of rebellion at Meerut, the two forces met near Karnal. The combined force including two Gurkha units serving in the Bengal Army under contract from the Kingdom of Nepal, fought the main army of the rebels at Badli - ke - Serai and drove them back to Delhi.
The Company established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north of the city and the Siege of Delhi began. The siege lasted roughly from 1 July to 21 September. However, the encirclement was hardly complete, and for much of the siege the Company forces were outnumbered and it often seemed that it was the Company forces and not Delhi that were under siege, as the rebels could easily receive resources and reinforcements. For several weeks, it seemed likely that disease, exhaustion and continuous sorties by rebels from Delhi would force the Company forces to withdraw, but the outbreaks of rebellion in the Punjab were forestalled or suppressed, allowing the Punjab Movable Column of British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers under John Nicholson to reinforce the besiegers on the Ridge on 14 August. On 30 August the rebels offered terms, which were refused.
The Jantar Mantar observatory in Delhi in 1858, damaged in the fighting
Mortar damage to Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, 1858
Hindu Rao 's house in Delhi, now a hospital, was extensively damaged in the fighting
Bank of Delhi was attacked by mortar and gunfire
An eagerly awaited heavy siege train joined the besieging force, and from 7 September, the siege guns battered breaches in the walls and silenced the rebels ' artillery. An attempt to storm the city through the breaches and the Kashmiri Gate was launched on 14 September. The attackers gained a foothold within the city but suffered heavy casualties, including John Nicholson. The British commander wished to withdraw, but was persuaded to hold on by his junior officers. After a week of street fighting, the British reached the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar had already fled to Humayun 's tomb. The British had retaken the city.
The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were killed in retaliation for the Europeans and Indian civilians that had been slaughtered by the rebels. During the street fighting, artillery was set up city 's main mosque, neighbourhoods within range were bombarded; the homes of the Muslim nobility that contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches destroyed.
The British soon arrested Bahadur Shah, and the next day the British agent William Hodson had his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khazir Sultan, and grandson Mirza Abu Bakr shot under his own authority at the Khooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. On hearing the news Zafar reacted with shocked silence while his wife Zinat Mahal was content as she believed her son was now Zafar 's heir. Shortly after the fall of Delhi, the victorious attackers organised a column that relieved another besieged Company force in Agra, and then pressed on to Cawnpore, which had also recently been retaken. This gave the Company forces a continuous, although still tenuous, line of communication from the east to west of India.
In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore (now Kanpur) rebelled and besieged the European entrenchment. Wheeler was not only a veteran and respected soldier but also married to a high - caste Indian lady. He had relied on his own prestige, and his cordial relations with the Nana Sahib to thwart rebellion, and took comparatively few measures to prepare fortifications and lay in supplies and ammunition.
The besieged endured three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore with little water or food, suffering continuous casualties to men, women and children. On 25 June Nana Sahib made an offer of safe passage to Allahabad. With barely three days ' food rations remaining, the British agreed provided they could keep their small arms and that the evacuation should take place in daylight on the morning of the 27th (the Nana Sahib wanted the evacuation to take place on the night of the 26th). Early in the morning of 27 June, the European party left their entrenchment and made their way to the river where boats provided by the Nana Sahib were waiting to take them to Allahabad. Several sepoys who had stayed loyal to the Company were removed by the mutineers and killed, either because of their loyalty or because "they had become Christian. '' A few injured British officers trailing the column were also apparently hacked to death by angry sepoys. After the European party had largely arrived at the dock, which was surrounded by sepoys positioned on both banks of the Ganges, with clear lines of fire, firing broke out and the boats were abandoned by their crew, and caught or were set on fire using pieces of red hot charcoal. The British party tried to push the boats off but all except three remained stuck. One boat with over a dozen wounded men initially escaped, but later grounded, was caught by mutineers and pushed back down the river towards the carnage at Cawnpore. Towards the end rebel cavalry rode into the water to finish off any survivors. After the firing ceased the survivors were rounded up and the men shot. By the time the massacre was over, most of the male members of the party were dead while the surviving women and children were removed and held hostage to be later killed in the Bibighar massacre. Only four men eventually escaped alive from Cawnpore on one of the boats: two private soldiers, a lieutenant, and Captain Mowbray Thomson, who wrote a first - hand account of his experiences entitled The Story of Cawnpore (London, 1859).
During his trial, Tatya Tope denied the existence of any such plan and described the incident in the following terms: the Europeans had already boarded the boats and Tatya Tope raised his right hand to signal their departure. That very moment someone from the crowd blew a loud bugle, which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped off the boats. The rebels started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was staying in Savada Kothi (Bungalow) nearby, was informed about what was happening and immediately came to stop it. Some British histories allow that it might well have been the result of accident or error; someone accidentally or maliciously fired a shot, the panic - stricken British opened fire, and it became impossible to stop the massacre.
The surviving women and children were taken to the Nana Sahib and then confined first to the Savada Kothi and then to the home of the local magistrate 's clerk (the Bibighar) where they were joined by refugees from Fatehgarh. Overall five men and two hundred and six women and children were confined in The Bibigarh for about two weeks. In one week 25 were brought out dead, from dysentery and cholera. Meanwhile, a Company relief force that had advanced from Allahabad defeated the Indians and by 15 July it was clear that the Nana Sahib would not be able to hold Cawnpore and a decision was made by the Nana Sahib and other leading rebels that the hostages must be killed. After the sepoys refused to carry out this order, two Muslim butchers, two Hindu peasants and one of Nana 's bodyguards went into The Bibigarh. Armed with knives and hatchets they murdered the women and children. After the massacre the walls were covered in bloody hand prints, and the floor littered with fragments of human limbs. The dead and the dying were thrown down a nearby well. When the 50 - foot (15 m) deep well was filled with remains to within 6 feet (1.8 m) of the top, the remainder were thrown into the Ganges.
Historians have given many reasons for this act of cruelty. With Company forces approaching Cawnpore and some believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, their murders were ordered. Or perhaps it was to ensure that no information was leaked after the fall of Cawnpore. Other historians have suggested that the killings were an attempt to undermine Nana Sahib 's relationship with the British. Perhaps it was due to fear, the fear of being recognised by some of the prisoners for having taken part in the earlier firings.
Photograph entitled, "The Hospital in General Wheeler 's entrenchment, Cawnpore. '' (1858) The hospital was the site of the first major loss of European lives in Cawnpore
1858 picture of Sati Chaura Ghat on the banks of the Ganges River, where on 27 June 1857 many British men lost their lives and the surviving women and children were taken prisoner by the rebels.
Bibigarh house where European women and children were killed and the well where their bodies were found, 1858.
The Bibighar Well site where a memorial had been built. Samuel Bourne, 1860.
The killing of the women and children hardened British attitudes against the sepoys. The British public was aghast and the anti-Imperial and pro-Indian proponents lost all their support. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British and their allies for the rest of the conflict. Nana Sahib disappeared near the end of the Rebellion and it is not known what happened to him.
Other British accounts state that indiscriminate punitive measures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders at the Bibighar (but after those at both Meerut and Delhi), specifically by Lieutenant Colonel James George Smith Neill of the Madras Fusiliers, commanding at Allahabad while moving towards Cawnpore. At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had attacked and murdered the local European population. On this pretext, Neill ordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned and their inhabitants to be killed by hanging. Neill 's methods were "ruthless and horrible '' and far from intimidating the population, may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities to revolt.
Neill was killed in action at Lucknow on 26 September and was never called to account for his punitive measures, though contemporary British sources lionised him and his "gallant blue caps ''. When the British retook Cawnpore, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibighar and forced them to lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor. They then hanged or "blew from the cannon '', the traditional Mughal punishment for mutiny, the majority of the sepoy prisoners. Although some claimed the sepoys took no actual part in the killings themselves, they did not act to stop it and this was acknowledged by Captain Thompson after the British departed Cawnpore for a second time.
Very soon after the events at Meerut, rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern - day Uttar Pradesh), which had been annexed barely a year before. The British Commissioner resident at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, had enough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound. The Company forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal sepoys. The rebels ' assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began a barrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrence was one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the walls with explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led to underground close combat. After 90 days of siege, defended by John Eardley Inglis, numbers of Company forces were reduced to 300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non-combatants.
On 25 September, a relief column under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and accompanied by Sir James Outram (who in theory was his superior) fought its way from Cawnpore to Lucknow in a brief campaign, in which the numerically small column defeated rebel forces in a series of increasingly large battles. This became known as ' The First Relief of Lucknow ', as this force was not strong enough to break the siege or extricate themselves, and so was forced to join the garrison. In October, another larger army under the new Commander - in - Chief, Sir Colin Campbell, was finally able to relieve the garrison and on 18 November, they evacuated the defended enclave within the city, the women and children leaving first. They then conducted an orderly withdrawal, firstly to Alambagh 4 miles (6.4 km) north where a force of 4,000 were left to construct a fort, then to Cawnpore, where they defeated an attempt by Tatya Tope to recapture the city in the Second Battle of Cawnpore.
In March 1858, Campbell once again advanced on Lucknow with a large army, meeting up with the force at Alambagh, this time seeking to suppress the rebellion in Awadh. He was aided by a large Nepalese contingent advancing from the north under Jang Bahadur. Campbell 's advance was slow and methodical, with a force under General Outram crossing the river on cask bridges on 4 March to enable them to fire artillery in flank, the forces drove the large but disorganised rebel army from Lucknow with the final fighting shooting on 21 March, there were few casualties to his own troops. This nevertheless allowed large numbers of the rebels to disperse into Awadh, and Campbell was forced to spend the summer and autumn dealing with scattered pockets of resistance while losing men to heat, disease and guerrilla actions.
Jhansi was a Maratha - ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. When the Raja of Jhansi died without a biological male heir in 1853, it was annexed to the British Raj by the Governor - General of India under the doctrine of lapse. His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi protested against the denial of rights of their adopted son. When war broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of the rebellion. A small group of Company officials and their families took refuge in Jhansi Fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation. However, when they left the fort they were massacred by the rebels over whom the Rani had no control; the Europeans suspected the Rani of complicity, despite her repeated denials.
By the end of June 1857, the Company had lost control of much of Bundelkhand and eastern Rajasthan. The Bengal Army units in the area, having rebelled, marched to take part in the battles for Delhi and Cawnpore. The many princely states that made up this area began warring amongst themselves. In September and October 1857, the Rani led the successful defence of Jhansi against the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha.
On 3 February, Sir Hugh Rose broke the 3 - month siege of Saugor. Thousands of local villagers welcomed him as a liberator, freeing them from rebel occupation.
In March 1858, the Central India Field Force, led by Sir Hugh Rose, advanced on and laid siege to Jhansi. The Company forces captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise.
After being driven from Jhansi and Kalpi, on 1 June 1858 Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebels captured the fortress city of Gwalior from the Scindia rulers, who were British allies. This might have reinvigorated the rebellion but the Central India Field Force very quickly advanced against the city. The Rani died on 17 June, the second day of the Battle of Gwalior, probably killed by a carbine shot from the 8th King 's Royal Irish Hussars according to the account of three independent Indian representatives. The Company forces recaptured Gwalior within the next three days. In descriptions of the scene of her last battle, she was compared to Joan of Arc by some commentators.
Colonel Henry Marion Durand, the then - Company resident at Indore, had brushed away any possibility of uprising in Indore. However, on 1 July, sepoys in Holkar 's army revolted and opened fire on the cavalry pickets of the Bhopal Contingent (a locally raised force with British officers). When Colonel Travers rode forward to charge, the Bhopal Cavalry refused to follow. The Bhopal Infantry also refused orders and instead levelled their guns at European sergeants and officers. Since all possibility of mounting an effective deterrent was lost, Durand decided to gather up all the European residents and escape, although 39 European residents of Indore were killed.
What was then referred to by the British as the Punjab was a very large administrative division, centered on Lahore. It included not only the present - day Indian and Pakistani Punjabi regions but also the North West Frontier districts bordering Afghanistan
Much of the region had been the Sikh Empire, ruled by Ranjit Singh until his death in 1839. The kingdom had then fallen into disorder, with court factions and the Khalsa (the Sikh army) contending for power at the Lahore Durbar (court). After two Anglo - Sikh Wars, the entire region was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. In 1857, the region still contained the highest numbers of both European and Indian troops.
The inhabitants of the Punjab were not as sympathetic to the sepoys as they were elsewhere in India, which limited many of the outbreaks in the Punjab to disjointed uprisings by regiments of sepoys isolated from each other. In some garrisons, notably Ferozepore, indecision on the part of the senior European officers allowed the sepoys to rebel, but the sepoys then left the area, mostly heading for Delhi. At the most important garrison, that of Peshawar close to the Afghan frontier, many comparatively junior officers ignored their nominal commander, General Reed, and took decisive action. They intercepted the sepoys ' mail, thus preventing their coordinating an uprising, and formed a force known as the "Punjab Movable Column '' to move rapidly to suppress any revolts as they occurred. When it became clear from the intercepted correspondence that some of the sepoys at Peshawar were on the point of open revolt, the four most disaffected Bengal Native regiments were disarmed by the two British infantry regiments in the cantonment, backed by artillery, on 22 May. This decisive act induced many local chieftains to side with the British.
Jhelum in Punjab saw a mutiny of native troops against the British. Here 35 British soldiers of Her Majesty 's 24th Regiment of Foot (South Wales Borderers) were killed by mutineers on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring. To commemorate this event St. John 's Church Jhelum was built and the names of those 35 British soldiers are carved on a marble lectern present in that church.
The final large - scale military uprising in the Punjab took place on 9 July, when most of a brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi. They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island. Three days later, Nicholson annihilated the 1,100 trapped sepoys in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.
The British had been recruiting irregular units from Sikh and Pakhtun communities even before the first unrest among the Bengal units, and the numbers of these were greatly increased during the Rebellion, 34,000 fresh levies eventually being raised.
At one stage, faced with the need to send troops to reinforce the besiegers of Delhi, the Commissioner of the Punjab (Sir John Lawrence) suggested handing the coveted prize of Peshawar to Dost Mohammed Khan of Afghanistan in return for a pledge of friendship. The British Agents in Peshawar and the adjacent districts were horrified. Referring to the massacre of a retreating British army in 1842, Herbert Edwardes wrote, "Dost Mahomed would not be a mortal Afghan... if he did not assume our day to be gone in India and follow after us as an enemy. Europeans can not retreat -- Kabul would come again. '' In the event Lord Canning insisted on Peshawar being held, and Dost Mohammed, whose relations with Britain had been equivocal for over 20 years, remained neutral.
In September 1858 Rae Ahmed Nawaz Khan Kharal, head of the Khurrul tribe, led an insurrection in the Neeli Bar district, between the Sutlej, Ravi and Chenab rivers. The rebels held the jungles of Gogaira and had some initial successes against the British forces in the area, besieging Major Crawford Chamberlain at Chichawatni. A squadron of Punjabi cavalry sent by Sir John Lawrence raised the siege. Ahmed Khan was killed but the insurgents found a new leader in Mahr Bahawal Fatyana, who maintained the uprising for three months until Government forces penetrated the jungle and scattered the rebel tribesmen.
Kunwar Singh, the 80 - year - old Rajput Zamindar of Jagdispur, whose estate was in the process of being sequestrated by the Revenue Board, instigated and assumed the leadership of revolt in Bihar.
On 25 July, mutiny erupted in the garrisons of Dinapur. Mutinying sepoys from the 7th, 8th and 40th regiments of Bengal Native Infantry quickly moved towards the city of Arrah and were joined by Kunwar Singh and his men. Mr. Boyle, a British railway engineer in Arrah, had already prepared an outbuilding on his property for defence against such attacks. As the rebels approached Arrah, all European residents took refuge at Mr. Boyle 's house. A siege soon ensued -- eighteen civilians and 50 loyal sepoys from the Bengal Military Police Battalion under the command of Herwald Wake, the local magistrate, defended the house against artillery and musketry fire from an estimated 2000 to 3000 mutineers and rebels.
On 29 July 400 men were sent out from Dinapore to relieve Arrah, but this force was ambushed by the rebels around a mile away from the siege house, severely defeated, and driven back. On 30 July, Major Vincent Eyre, who was going up the river with his troops and guns, reached Buxar and heard about the siege. He immediately disembarked his guns and troops (the 5th Fusiliers) and started marching towards Arrah, disregarding direct orders not to do so. On 2 August, some 6 miles (9.7 km) short of Arrah, the Major was ambushed by the mutineers and rebels. After an intense fight, the 5th Fusiliers charged and stormed the rebel positions successfully. On 3 August, Major Eyre and his men reached the siege house and successfully ended the siege.
After receiving reinforcements Major Eyre pursued Kunwar Singh to his palace in Jagdispur, however Singh had left by the time Eyre 's forces arrived. Eyre then proceeded to destroy the palace and the homes of Singh 's brothers.
In September 1857, sepoys took control of the treasury in Chittagong. The treasury remained under rebel control for several days. Further mutinies on 18 November saw the 2nd, 3rd and 4th companies of the 34th Bengal Infantry Regiment storming the Chittagong Jail and releasing all prisoners. The mutineers were eventually suppressed by the Gurkha regiments. The mutiny also spread to Dacca, the former Mughal capital of Bengal. Residents in the city 's Lalbagh area were kept awake at night by the rebellion. Sepoys joined hands with the common populace in Jalpaiguri to take control of the city 's cantonment. In January 1858, many sepoys received shelter from the royal family of the princely state of Hill Tippera.
The interior areas of Bengal proper were already experiencing growing resistance to Company rule due to the Muslim Faraizi movement.
In central and north Gujarat, the rebellion was sustained by land owner Jagirdars, Talukdars and Thakors with the support of armed communities of Bhil, Koli, Pathans and Arabs, unlike the mutiny by sepoys in north India. Their main opposition of British was due to Inam commission. The Bet Dwarka island, along with Okhamandal region of Kathiawar peninsula which was under Gaekwad of Baroda State, saw a revolt by the Vaghers in January 1858 who, by July 1859, controlled that region. In October 1859, a joint offensive by British, Gaekwad and other princely states troops ousted the rebels and recaptured the region.
The authorities in British colonies with an Indian population, sepoy or civilian, took measures to secure themselves against copycat uprisings. In the Straits Settlements, and Trinidad the annual Hosay processions were banned, riots broke out in penal settlements in Burma, and the Settlements, in Penang the loss of a musket provoked a near riot, and security was boosted especially in locations with an Indian convict population.
Both combatant sides committed atrocities against civilians.
In Oudh alone, 150,000 Indians were estimated to have been killed during the war, with 100,000 of them being civilians. The general population in places such as Delhi, Allahabad, Kanpur and Lucknow was massacred after being recaptured by British forces.
Another notable atrocity was carried out by General Neill who massacred thousands of Indian mutineers and Indian civilians suspected of supporting the rebellion.
The rebels ' murder of women, children and wounded British soldiers at Cawnpore, and the subsequent printing of the events in the British papers, left many British soldiers outraged and seeking revenge. As well as hanging mutineers, the British had some "blown from cannon, '' (an old Mughal punishment adopted many years before in India), in which sentenced rebels were tied over the mouths of cannons and blown to pieces when the cannons were fired. A particular act of cruelty on behalf of the British troops at Cawnpore included forcing many Muslim or Hindu rebels to eat pork or beef, as well as licking buildings freshly stained with blood of the dead before subsequent public hangings.
Most of the British press, outraged by the stories of rape and the killings of civilians and wounded British soldiers, did not advocate clemency of any kind. Governor General Canning ordered moderation in dealing with native sensibilities and earned the scornful sobriquet "Clemency Canning '' from the press and later parts of the British public.
In terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were much higher on the Indian side. A letter published after the fall of Delhi in the Bombay Telegraph and reproduced in the British press testified to the scale of the Indian casualties:
... All the city 's people found within the walls of the city of Delhi when our troops entered were bayoneted on the spot, and the number was considerable, as you may suppose, when I tell you that in some houses forty and fifty people were hiding. These were not mutineers but residents of the city, who trusted to our well - known mild rule for pardon. I am glad to say they were disappointed.
From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858. On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the rebellion ended. The last rebels were defeated in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had either been slain or had fled.
Edward Vibart, a 19 - year - old officer whose parents, younger brothers, and two of his sisters had died in the Cawnpore massacre, recorded his experience:
The orders went out to shoot every soul... It was literally murder... I have seen many bloody and awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again. The women were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered, were most painful... Heaven knows I feel no pity, but when some old grey bearded man is brought and shot before your very eyes, hard must be that man 's heart I think who can look on with indifference...
Some British troops adopted a policy of "no prisoners ''. One officer, Thomas Lowe, remembered how on one occasion his unit had taken 76 prisoners -- they were just too tired to carry on killing and needed a rest, he recalled. Later, after a quick trial, the prisoners were lined up with a British soldier standing a couple of yards in front of them. On the order "fire '', they were all simultaneously shot, "swept... from their earthly existence ''.
The aftermath of the rebellion has been the focus of new work using Indian sources and population studies. In The Last Mughal, historian William Dalrymple examines the effects on the Muslim population of Delhi after the city was retaken by the British and finds that intellectual and economic control of the city shifted from Muslim to Hindu hands because the British, at that time, saw an Islamic hand behind the mutiny.
The scale of the punishments handed out by the British "Army of Retribution '' were considered largely appropriate and justified in a Britain shocked by embellished reports of atrocities carried out against British and European civilians by the rebels. Accounts of the time frequently reach the "hyperbolic register '', according to Christopher Herbert, especially in the often - repeated claim that the "Red Year '' of 1857 marked "a terrible break '' in British experience. Such was the atmosphere -- a national "mood of retribution and despair '' that led to "almost universal approval '' of the measures taken to pacify the revolt.
Incidents of rape allegedly committed by Indian rebels against European women and girls appalled the British public. These atrocities were often used to justify the British reaction to the rebellion. British newspapers printed various eyewitness accounts of the rape of English women and girls. One such account was published by The Times, regarding an incident where 48 English girls as young as 10 had been raped by Indian rebels in Delhi. Karl Marx criticized this story as false propaganda, and pointed out that the story was written by a clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion, with no evidence to support his allegation. Individual incidents captured the public 's interest and were heavily reported by the press. One such incident was that of General Wheeler 's daughter Margaret being forced to live as her captor 's concubine, though this was reported to the Victorian public as Margaret killing her rapist then herself. Another version of the story suggested that Margaret had been killed after her abductor had argued with his wife over her.
During the aftermath of the rebellion, a series of exhaustive investigations were carried out by British police and intelligence officials into reports that British women prisoners had been "dishonored '' at the Bibighar and elsewhere. One such detailed enquiry was at the direction of Lord Canning. The consensus was that there was no convincing evidence of such crimes having been committed, although numbers of European women and children had been killed outright.
The term ' Sepoy ' or ' Sepoyism ' became a derogatory term for nationalists, especially in Ireland.
Bahadur Shah was arrested at Humanyun 's tomb and tried for treason by a military commission assembled at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. In 1877 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India on the advice of Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli.
The rebellion saw the end of the East India Company 's rule in India. In August, by the Government of India Act 1858, the company was formally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferred to the British Crown. A new British government department, the India Office, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor - General of India gained a new title, Viceroy of India, and implemented the policies devised by the India Office. Some former East India Company territories, such as the Straits Settlements, became colonies in their own right. The British colonial administration embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing attempts at Westernization. The Viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates.
Essentially the old East India Company bureaucracy remained, though there was a major shift in attitudes. In looking for the causes of the Rebellion the authorities alighted on two things: religion and the economy. On religion it was felt that there had been too much interference with indigenous traditions, both Hindu and Muslim. On the economy it was now believed that the previous attempts by the Company to introduce free market competition had undermined traditional power structures and bonds of loyalty placing the peasantry at the mercy of merchants and money - lenders. In consequence the new British Raj was constructed in part around a conservative agenda, based on a preservation of tradition and hierarchy.
On a political level it was also felt that the previous lack of consultation between rulers and ruled had been another significant factor in contributing to the uprising. In consequence, Indians were drawn into government at a local level. Though this was on a limited scale a crucial precedent had been set, with the creation of a new ' white collar ' Indian elite, further stimulated by the opening of universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, a result of the Indian Universities Act. So, alongside the values of traditional and ancient India, a new professional middle class was starting to arise, in no way bound by the values of the past. Their ambition can only have been stimulated by Queen Victoria 's Proclamation of November 1858, in which it is expressly stated, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to our other subjects... it is our further will that... our subjects of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge. ''
Acting on these sentiments, Lord Ripon, viceroy from 1880 to 1885, extended the powers of local self - government and sought to remove racial practices in the law courts by the Ilbert Bill. But a policy at once liberal and progressive at one turn was reactionary and backward at the next, creating new elites and confirming old attitudes. The Ilbert Bill had the effect only of causing a white mutiny and the end of the prospect of perfect equality before the law. In 1886 measures were adopted to restrict Indian entry into the civil service.
The Bengal army dominated the Indian army before 1857 and a direct result after the rebellion was the scaling back of the size of the Bengali contingent in the army. The Brahmin presence in the Bengal Army was reduced because of their perceived primary role as mutineers. The British looked for increased recruitment in the Punjab for the Bengal army as a result of the apparent discontent that resulted in the Sepoy conflict.
The rebellion transformed both the native and European armies of British India. Of the 74 regular Bengal Native Infantry regiments in existence at the beginning of 1857, only twelve escaped mutiny or disbandment. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments were lost. The old Bengal Army had accordingly almost completely vanished from the order of battle. These troops were replaced by new units recruited from castes hitherto under - utilised by the British and from the minority so - called "Martial Races '', such as the Sikhs and the Gurkhas.
The inefficiencies of the old organisation, which had estranged sepoys from their British officers, were addressed, and the post-1857 units were mainly organised on the "irregular '' system. From 1797 until the rebellion of 1857, each regular Bengal Native Infantry regiment had had 22 or 23 British officers, who held every position of authority down to the second - in - command of each company. In irregular units there were fewer European officers, but they associated themselves far more closely with their soldiers, while more responsibility was given to the Indian officers.
The British increased the ratio of British to Indian soldiers within India. From 1861 Indian artillery was replaced by British units, except for a few mountain batteries. The post-rebellion changes formed the basis of the military organisation of British India until the early 20th century.
Medals were awarded to members of the British Armed Forces and the British Indian Army during the rebellion. The 182 recipients of the Victoria Cross are listed here.
290,000 Indian Mutiny Medals were awarded. Clasps were awarded for the siege of Delhi and the siege and relief of Lucknow.
A military and civilian decoration of British India, the Indian Order of Merit was first introduced by the East India Company in 1837, and was taken over by the Crown in 1858, following the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The Indian Order of Merit was the only gallantry medal available to Native soldiers between 1837 and 1907.
There is no universally agreed name for the events of this period.
In India and Pakistan it has been termed as the "War of Independence of 1857 '' or "First War of Indian Independence '' but it is not uncommon to use terms such as the "Revolt of 1857 ''. The classification of the Rebellion being "First War of Independence '' is not without its critics in India. The use of the term "Indian Mutiny '' is considered by some Indian politicians as belittling the importance of what happened and therefore reflecting an imperialistic attitude. Others dispute this interpretation.
In the UK and parts of the Commonwealth it is commonly called the "Indian Mutiny '', but terms such as "Great Indian Mutiny '', the "Sepoy Mutiny '', the "Sepoy Rebellion '', the "Sepoy War '', the "Great Mutiny '', the "Rebellion of 1857 '', "the Uprising '', the "Mahomedan Rebellion '', and the "Revolt of 1857 '' have also been used. "The Indian Insurrection '' was a name used in the press of the UK and British colonies at the time.
Adas (1971) examines the historiography with emphasis on the four major approaches: the Indian nationalist view; the Marxist analysis; the view of the Rebellion as a traditionalist rebellion; and intensive studies of local uprisings. Many of the key primary and secondary sources appear in Biswamoy Pati, ed. 1857 Rebellion.
Thomas Metcalf has stressed the importance of the work by Cambridge professor Eric Stokes (1924 -- 1981), especially Stokes ' The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India (1978). Metcalf says Stokes undermines the assumption that 1857 was a response to general causes emanating from entire classes of people. Instead, Stokes argues that 1) those Indians who suffered the greatest relative deprivation rebelled and that 2) the decisive factor in precipitating a revolt was the presence of prosperous magnates who supported British rule. Stokes also explores issues of economic development, the nature of privileged landholding, the role of moneylenders, the usefulness of classical rent theory, and, especially, the notion of the "rich peasant. ''
To Professor Kim Wagner, who has the most recent survey of the historiography, modern Indian historiography is yet to move beyond responding to the '' prejudice '' of colonial accounts. Wagner sees no reason why atrocities committed by Indians should be understated or inflated merely because these things '' offend our post-colonial sensibilities. ''
Wagner also stresses the importance of William Dalrymple 's The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857. Dalrymple was assisted by Mahmood Farooqui, who translated key Urdu and Shikastah sources and published a selection in Besieged: Voices from Delhi 1857. Dalrymple emphasized the role of religion, and explored in detail the internal divisions and politico - religious discord amongst the rebels. He did not discover much in the way of proto - nationalism or any of the roots of modern India in the rebellion. Sabbaq Ahmed has looked at the ways in which ideologies of royalism, militarism, and Jihad influenced the behaviour of contending Muslim factions.
Almost from the moment the first sepoys mutinied in Meerut, the nature and the scope of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 has been contested and argued over. Speaking in the House of Commons in July 1857, Benjamin Disraeli labelled it a ' national revolt ' while Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister, tried to downplay the scope and the significance of the event as a ' mere military mutiny '. Reflecting this debate, an early historian of the rebellion, Charles Ball, used the word mutiny in his title, but labelled it a ' struggle for liberty and independence as a people ' in the text. Historians remain divided on whether the rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not, although it is popularly considered to be one in India. Arguments against include:
A second school of thought while acknowledging the validity of the above - mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeed be called a war of India 's independence. The reasons advanced are:
The Government of India celebrated the year 2007 as the 150th anniversary of "India 's First War of Independence ''. Several books written by Indian authors were released in the anniversary year including Amresh Mishra 's "War of Civilizations '', a controversial history of the Rebellion of 1857, and "Recalcitrance '' by Anurag Kumar, one of the few novels written in English by an Indian based on the events of 1857.
In 2007, a group of retired British soldiers and civilians, some of them descendants of British soldiers who died in the conflict, attempted to visit the site of the Siege of Lucknow. However, fears of violence by Indian demonstrators, supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party, prevented the British visitors from visiting the site. Despite the protests, Sir Mark Havelock was able to make his way past police to visit the grave of his ancestor, General Henry Havelock.
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what is the metal thing they put on boxers faces | Cutman - wikipedia
A cutman is a person responsible for preventing and treating physical damage to a fighter during the breaks between rounds of a full contact match such as a boxing, kickboxing or a mixed martial arts bout. Cutmen typically handle swelling, nosebleeds and lacerations. The rules of combat sports stipulate that these injuries can be a cause for premature match stoppage, counting as a loss to the injured fighter. The cutman is therefore essential to the fighter, and can be a decisive factor in the outcome of the match.
The compensation for cutmen varies, generally staying within 10 -- 15 % of fighter 's prize money. For many fighters on a low budget, the cutman duties are performed by their cornerman. While most athletic commissions require cutmen to be licensed, there is usually no formal training or certification required. Most cutmen learn their trade through apprenticeship and self - education.
Unlike boxing, cutmen for mixed martial arts events are generally provided by the promotion, rather than the fighter 's corner. This is to prevent allegations of "greasing '' (applying petroleum jelly to areas other than the forehead, which provides an unfair advantage in grappling situations).
Cutmen should not be confused with the fight physician, an official who monitors the health of the fighters and whose task is closer to that of a neutral referee. The fight physician provides medical advice, monitors the safety of both fighters in accordance with regulations or law, and evaluates their ability to continue fighting.
Before the fight, cutmen will usually put petroleum jelly on the most likely areas of impact, especially the fighter 's face, making the skin more elastic and slippery, and hence less likely to tear. It is not considered good practice to use large amounts of petroleum jelly, since during the fight it is likely to end up on the gloves of the opponent, and later in the eyes of the fighter if the opponent lands a punch close to their eyes. Cutmen might also tape fighters ' hands, which helps protect the bones and tendons. Wraps are used during training but are illegal during competition, though people still commonly use the term "wrap '' in error to describe the taping method of using gauze and tape.
During the fight, cutmen try to control any swelling or bleeding during the breaks between rounds. Since cutmen are not doctors, and have a very short period of time to treat the fighter, their treatments are limited to advanced first aid treatments.
Swelling is usually associated with facial hematomas (bruises), and is traditionally reduced by applying firm pressure with a chilled enswell or an ice bag on top of the area of trauma. The cutman presses the enswell against a fighter 's skin to cool and reduce swelling from injuries, especially in areas around the eyes where swelling can impair vision. Since the time between rounds is very short, cutmen try to apply the enswell right away and hold it as long as they can, but a common mistake is using the enswell to push directly on the swollen area in an attempt to disperse it or move it into a safer place such as away from the eye. Such treatment will not move the hematoma, and may disrupt the microscopic blood vessels under the skin, thus causing an increase in bleeding and enlargement of the swelled area.
Cuts (lacerations) are the primary focus of the cutman because unless the bleeding is stopped promptly, the fight physician may stop the fight and declare that the injured fighter has lost the match. Physicians also will stop a match for a laceration that is perpendicular to the eye. The most common area of the face to be cut is around the eye. Cuts are treated by applying a cold towel to clean and simultaneously cool the area of the cut, causing a decrease in blood flow. A cotton swab soaked in epinephrine is applied with pressure to decrease blood flow even more, and Avitene is put into the cut to coagulate the blood. A cutman might also cover the area with petroleum jelly to prevent further damage.
Most nosebleeds occur near the opening of the nose. To stop the bleeding, cutmen generally apply a cotton swab soaked in adrenaline hydrochloride to the damaged area, while simultaneously pressing the nostril against the cotton swab with the other hand. Once the bleeding has stopped, the area is chilled with an ice pack or an enswell. The fighter is usually instructed to breathe through the mouth during the treatment.
A broken nose is a more difficult case, and can be detected by a heavy flow of dark colored blood from the nose. The bleeding is generally treated the same way; however, the fighter is usually instructed to avoid swallowing blood as it may induce nausea or vomiting, and the cutman is more likely to consult the ringside physician to ensure the fighter 's safety.
Cutmen used to create their own medications, and the recipes were passed from masters to apprentices as trade secrets. Today, the use of various medications in sports is highly controlled, and most cutmen use only two or three standard medications from the list below.
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when did the iron age begin and end | Iron Age - wikipedia
Bronze Age collapse (1200 -- 1150 BC)
Ancient Near East (1200 -- 550 BC)
Ancient Europe
Aegean (1190 -- 700 BC):
Italy (1100 -- 700 BC)
Balkans (1100 BC -- 150 AD)
Eastern Europe (900 -- 650 BC)
Central Europe (800 -- 50 BC)
Great Britain (800 BC -- 100 AD)
Northern Europe (500 BC -- 800 AD)
East Asia (500 BC -- 300 AD)
South Asia (1200 -- 200 BC)
Iron metallurgy in Africa
Iron Age metallurgy Ancient iron production
The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three - age system, preceded by the Stone Age (Neolithic) and the Bronze Age. It is an archaeological era in the prehistory and protohistory of Europe and the Ancient Near East, and by analogy also used of other parts of the Old World. The three - age system was introduced in the first half of the 19th century for the archaeology of Europe in particular, and by the later 19th century expanded to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East. As its name suggests, Iron Age technology is characterized by the production of tools and weaponry by ferrous metallurgy (ironworking), more specifically from carbon steel.
The duration of the Iron Age varies depending on the region under consideration. It is defined by archaeological convention, and the mere presence of cast or wrought iron is not sufficient to represent an Iron Age culture; rather, the term "Iron Age '' implies that the production of carbon steel has been perfected to the point where mass production of tools and weapons superior to their bronze equivalents become possible. In the Ancient Near East, this transition takes place in the wake of the so - called Bronze Age collapse, in the 12th century BC. The technology soon spreads throughout the Mediterranean region and to South Asia. Its further spread to Central Asia, Eastern and Central Europe is somewhat delayed, and Northern Europe is reached still later, by about 500 BC.
The Iron Age is taken to end, also by convention, with the beginning of the historiographical record. This usually does not represent a clear break in the archaeological record; for the Ancient Near East the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire c. 550 BC (considered historical by virtue of the record by Herodotus) is usually taken as a cut - off date, and in Central and Western Europe the Roman conquests of the 1st century BC serve as marking for the end of the Iron Age. The Germanic Iron Age of Scandinavia is taken to end c. AD 800, with the beginning of the Viking Age.
The extension of the term "Iron Age '' to the archaeology of South, East and Southeast Asia is more recent, and may be used loosely. In South Asia, the Iron Age is taken to begin with the ironworking Painted Gray Ware culture and to end with the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BC). In the prehistory of East and Southeast Asia, the term "Iron Age '' is not well - defined and may be used more loosely. The Sahel (Sudan region) and Sub-Saharan Africa are outside of the three - age system, there being no Bronze Age, but the term "Iron Age '' is sometimes used in reference to early cultures practicing ironworking such as the Nok culture of Nigeria.
Increasingly the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India (with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization), ancient Iran, and ancient Greece (with the Greek Dark Ages). In other regions of Europe the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe and the 6th century BC in Northern Europe. The Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I (1200 -- 1000 BC) illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age. There is no definitive cultural break between the 13th and 12th centuries BC throughout the entire region, although certain new features in the hill country, Transjordan and coastal region may suggest the appearance of the Aramaean and Sea People groups. There is evidence, however, of strong continuity with Bronze Age culture, although as one moves later into Iron I the culture begins to diverge more significantly from that of the late 2nd millennium.
The Iron Age as an archaeological period is roughly defined as that part of the prehistory of a culture or region during which ferrous metallurgy was the dominant technology of metalworking. The periodization is not strictly tied to the presence of ferrous metallurgy and is to some extent a matter of convention.
The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is mass production of tools and weapons made from steel, typically alloys with a carbon content between approximately 0.30 % and 1.2 % by weight. Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does ferrous metallurgy result in tools or weapons that are equal or superior to bronze. To this day bronze and brass have not been replaced in many applications, with the spread of steel being based as much on economics as on metallurical advancements. A range of techniques have been used to produce steel from smelted iron, including techniques such as case - hardening and forge welding that were used to make cutting edges stronger.
By convention, the Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is taken to last from c. 1200 BC (the Bronze Age collapse) to c. 550 BC (or 539 BC), taken as the beginning of historiography (Herodotus) or the end of the proto - historical period. In Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age is taken to last from c. 800 BC to c. 1 BC, in Northern Europe from c. 500 BC to 800 AD. In China, there is no recognizable prehistoric period characterized by ironworking, as Bronze Age China transitions almost directly into the Qin dynasty of imperial China; "Iron Age '' in the context of China is sometimes used for the transitonal period of c. 500 BC to 100 BC during which ferrous metallurgy was present even if not dominant.
The following gives an overview over the different conventions delimiting the "Iron Age '' for various regions of the Old World, with indication of the subsequent historical epoch.
The earliest - known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering. Meteoric iron, a characteristic iron -- nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its native metallic state, required no smelting of ores.
Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middle Bronze Age. Whilst terrestrial iron is naturally abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 ° C (2,800 ° F) placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tin 's low melting point of 231.9 ° C (449.4 ° F) and copper 's relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 ° C (1,985 ° F) placed them within the capabilities of the Neolithic pottery kilns, which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 900 ° C (1,650 ° F). In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production needed to develop complex procedures for the removal of impurities, for regulating the admixture of carbon in combination with hot - working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength (steel) and for adding alloys to prevent rust; see Ferrous metallurgy.
The earliest tentative evidence for iron - making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto - Hittite layers at Kaman - Kalehöyük and dated to 2200 -- 2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and archaeometallurgical examination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia ''. Souckova - Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities around 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (∼ 1400 -- 1200 BC).
Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC ''. By the Middle Bronze Age increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia and South Asia. African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC.
Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large - scale iron production in around 1200 BC, marking the end of the Bronze Age. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of iron objects was fast and far - flung. Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin, as a part of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BC, forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time. More widespread use of iron led to improved steel - making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently.
The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia or the Caucasus and Balkans in the late 2nd millennium BC (c. 1300 BC). The earliest bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh, Jordan around 930 BC (C dating).
In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC. One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known was a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia, dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC.
The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age - Early Iron Age, the Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron - working technology in the region. It was long held that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly '' on ironworking at the time. Accordingly, the invading Sea Peoples would have been responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. The view of such a "Hittite monopoly '' has come under scrutiny and no longer represents a scholarly consensus. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons.
The Iron Age in Egyptian archaeology essentially corresponds to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt.
Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by Neo-Assyrian Empire in 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to lie in the fact that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It was attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa. In the Black Pyramid of Abusir, dating before 2000 BC, Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron. In the funeral text of Pepi I, the metal is mentioned. A sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold - decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit. A dagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun 's tomb, 13th century BC, was recently examined and found to be of meteoric origin.
In Europe, the use of iron covers the last years of the prehistoric period and the early years of the historic period. The regional Iron Age may be defined as including the last stages of the prehistoric period and the first of the proto - historic periods. Iron working was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia.
Archaeological artifact from the work developed in the area of Citânia de Briteiros
Cross or cruzado in Citânia de Briteiros
Informative plaque of the proto - historic settlement of Citânia de Briteiros
Another artifact from Citânia de Briteiros
A pedra formosa
The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resembles in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.
The Iron Age in Central Asia began when iron objects appear among the Indo - European Saka in present - day Xinjiang between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou.
The Pazyryk culture is an Iron Age archaeological culture (ca. 6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in the Siberian permafrost in the Altay Mountains.
In China, Chinese bronze inscriptions are found around 1200 BC. The development of iron metallurgy was known by the 9th century BC. The large seal script is identified with a group of characters from a book entitled Shĭ Zhoù Piān (c. 800 BC). Iron metallurgy reached the Yangzi Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing. The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid-to - late Warring States period (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include Iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei - cun of the 4th century BC.
The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan. The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments and the sophisticated cast.
An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.
In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during the late Yayoi period (c. 300 BC -- AD 300) or the succeeding Kofun period (c. AD 250 -- 538), most likely through contacts with the Korean Peninsula and China.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period; The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from that era.
Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state - level societies in the Yellow Sea area in the 4th century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but before the Western Han Dynasty began. Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast - iron axes in southern Korea are found in the Geum River basin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto - historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased in this period.
The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began during the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi, Allahabad in present - day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800 -- 1200 BC. Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site. Rakesh Tewari believes that around the beginning of the Indian Iron Age (13th century BC), iron smelting was widely practiced in India. Such use suggests that the date of the technology 's inception may be around the 16th century BC.
The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy was achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One iron working centre in east India has been dated to the first millennium BC. In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian Upanishads mention metallurgy. and the Indian Mauryan period saw advances in metallurgy. As early as 300 BC, certainly by AD 200, high quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the crucible technique. In this system, high - purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.
The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. however evidence of Iron usage was found in Excavation of a Protohistoric Canoe burial Site in Haldummulla and has been dated to 2400 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected from Anuradhapura and Aligala shelter in Sigiriya. The Anuradhapura settlement is recorded to extend 10 ha (25 acres) by 800 BC and grew to 50 ha (120 acres) by 700 -- 600 BC to become a town. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, Jaffna. The name ' Ko Veta ' is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King '' in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporary Brahmi inscriptions in south India. It is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist in Kandarodai, Matota, Pilapitiya and Tissamaharama.
Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age.
In Philippines and Vietnam, the Sa Huynh culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. Han - Dynasty - style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely, Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, Taiwan (Orchid Island).
In Sub-Saharan Africa, where there was no continent - wide universal Bronze Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the use of stone. Metallurgy was characterized by the absence of a Bronze Age, and the transition from "stone to steel '' in tool substances. Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such as KM2 and KM3 in northwest Tanzania. Nubia was one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along with Egypt and much of the rest of North Africa.
Very early copper and bronze working sites in Niger may date to as early as 1500 BC. There is also evidence of iron metallurgy in Termit, Niger from around this period. Nubia was a major manufacturer and exporter of iron after the expulsion of the Nubian dynasty from Egypt by the Assyrians in the 7th century BC.
Iron and copper working in Sub-Saharan Africa spread in conjunction with the Bantu expansion, from the Cameroon region to the African Great Lakes in the 3rd century BC, reaching the Cape around AD 400. However, iron working may have been practiced in Central Africa as early as the 3rd millennium BC. Instances of carbon steel based on complex preheating principles were found to be in production around the 1st century AD in northwest Tanzania.
Dun Carloway broch, Lewis, Scotland
A replica Iron Age thatched roof, Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire, England
Iron Age roundhouse
Iron Age roundhouse
Iron Age roundhouse
Broborg Knivsta, prehistoric castle
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when did american pie the song come out | American Pie (song) - wikipedia
"American Pie '' is a song by American folk rock singer and songwriter Don McLean. Recorded and released on the American Pie album in 1971, the single was a number - one US hit for four weeks in 1972. In the UK, the single reached No. 2 on its original 1972 release and a reissue in 1991 reached No. 12. The song was listed as the No. 5 song on the RIAA project Songs of the Century. A truncated version of the song was covered by Madonna in 2000 and reached No. 1 in several countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia.
The repeatedly mentioned "day the music died '' refers to the 1959 plane crash which killed early rock and roll performers Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper, and Ritchie Valens. (The crash was not known by that name until after McLean 's song became a hit.) The meaning of the other lyrics has long been debated, and for decades, McLean declined to explain the symbolism behind the many characters and events mentioned. However, the overall theme of the song is the loss of innocence of the early rock and roll generation as symbolized by the plane crash which claimed the lives of three of its heroes.
In 2017, McLean 's original recording was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant ''.
While it has been claimed that Don McLean began writing the song in upstate Saratoga Springs, New York, at Caffe Lena, a 2011 New York Times article quotes Don McLean as disputing this claim. Some employees at Caffe Lena claim that he started writing the song there, and then continued to write the song in both Cold Spring, New York, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. McLean claims that the song was only written in Cold Spring and Philadelphia. Tin & Lint, a bar on Caroline Street in Saratoga Springs, claims the song was written there, and a plaque marks the table. While some have said that other places, such as Saint Joseph 's University, were where the song was first performed, McLean insists that the song made its debut in Philadelphia at Temple University when he opened for Laura Nyro on March 14, 1971.
Except to acknowledge that he first learned about Buddy Holly 's death on February 3, 1959 -- McLean was age 13 -- when he was folding newspapers for his paper route on the morning of February 4, 1959 (the line "February made me shiver / with every paper I 'd deliver ''), McLean has generally avoided responding to direct questions about the song 's lyrics; he has said: "They 're beyond analysis. They 're poetry. '' He also stated in an editorial published in 2009, on the 50th anniversary of the crash that killed Holly, Ritchie Valens, and J.P. "The Big Bopper '' Richardson, that writing the first verse of the song exorcised his long - running grief over Holly 's death and that he considers the song to be "a big song (...) that summed up the world known as America ''. McLean dedicated the American Pie album to Holly.
It was also speculated that the song contains numerous references to post-World War II American events (such as the murders of civil rights workers Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner), and elements of culture, including 1960s culture (e.g. sock hops, cruising, Bob Dylan, The Beatles, Charles Manson, and much more).
When asked what "American Pie '' meant, McLean jokingly replied, "It means I do n't ever have to work again if I do n't want to. '' Later, he stated, "You will find many interpretations of my lyrics but none of them by me... Sorry to leave you all on your own like this but long ago I realized that songwriters should make their statements and move on, maintaining a dignified silence. '' He also commented on the popularity of his music, "I did n't write songs that were just catchy, but with a point of view, or songs about the environment. ''
In February 2015, McLean announced he would reveal the meaning of the lyrics to the song when the original manuscript went for auction in New York City, in April 2015. The lyrics and notes were auctioned on April 7, and sold for $1.2 million. In the sale catalogue notes, McLean revealed the meaning in the song 's lyrics: "Basically in American Pie things are heading in the wrong direction... It (life) is becoming less idyllic. I do n't know whether you consider that wrong or right but it is a morality song in a sense. '' The catalogue confirmed some of the better known references in the song 's lyrics, including mentions of Elvis Presley ("the king '') and Bob Dylan ("the jester ''), and confirmed that the song culminates with a near - verbatim description of the death of Meredith Hunter at the Altamont Free Concert, ten years after the plane crash that killed Holly, Valens, and Richardson.
Mike Mills of R.E.M. reflected: "American Pie just made perfect sense to me as a song and that 's what impressed me the most. I could say to people this is how to write songs. When you 've written at least three songs that can be considered classic that is a very high batting average and if one of those songs happens to be something that a great many people think is one of the greatest songs ever written you 've not only hit the top of the mountain but you 've stayed high on the mountain for a long time. ''
In 2017, Bob Dylan was asked about how he was referenced in the song. "A jester? Sure, the jester writes songs like ' Masters of War, ' ' A Hard Rain 's a-Gonna Fall, ' ' It 's Alright, Ma ' -- some jester. I have to think he 's talking about somebody else. Ask him. ''
In 1999, "Weird Al '' Yankovic wrote and recorded a parody of "American Pie ''. Titled "The Saga Begins '', the song recounts the plot of Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace from Obi - Wan Kenobi 's point of view. While McLean gave permission for the parody, he did not make a cameo appearance in its video, despite popular rumor. McLean himself praised the parody, even admitting to almost singing Yankovic 's lyrics during his own live performances because his children played the song so often.
The City of Grand Rapids, Michigan created a lip dub video to "American Pie '' in response to a Newsweek article that stated the city was "dying ''. The video was hailed as a fantastic performance by many including Roger Ebert, who said it was "the greatest music video ever made. ''
On March 21, 2013, Harmonix announced that "American Pie '' would be the final downloadable track made available for the Rock Band series of music video games.
On March 14, 2015, the National Museum of Mathematics announced that one of two winners of its songwriting contest was "American Pi '' by mathematics education professor Dr. Lawrence M. Lesser. The contest was in honor of "Pi Day of the Century '' because "3 / 14 / 15 '' would be the only day in the 21st - century showing the first five digits of π (pi).
American pop singer Madonna released a cover version of the song in March 2000 to promote the soundtrack to her film The Next Best Thing (2000), with the song being serviced to radio on February 2. Her cover is much shorter than the original (it contains only the beginning of the first verse and all of the second and sixth verses) and was recorded as a dance - pop song. It was co-produced by Madonna and William Orbit and released on the singer 's Maverick label, after Rupert Everett (Madonna 's co-star in The Next Best Thing) had convinced her to cover the song for the film 's soundtrack.
Released in March 2000, the song was a worldwide hit, reaching No. 1 in many countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Italy, Germany (her first since "La Isla Bonita '', in 1987), Switzerland, Austria, and Finland. The song was the 19th best selling of 2000 in the UK and the 9th best selling of 2000 in Italy. The single was not released commercially in the United States, but it reached No. 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 due to strong radio airplay.
NME gave it a negative review, saying that it was "sub-karaoke fluff '' and that "it 's a blessing she did n't bother recording the whole thing. '' Chuck Taylor from Billboard, on the other hand, was impressed by the recording and commented, "Applause to Madonna for not pandering to today 's temporary trends and for challenging programmers to broaden their playlists. (...) In all, a fine preview of the forthcoming soundtrack to The Next Best Thing. '' Don McLean himself praised the cover, saying it was "a gift from a goddess '', and that her version is "mystical and sensual. '' He also jokingly said, "It means that if I do n't want to, I do n't have to work again. '' According to The Official Charts Company, the song has sold 385,000 copies in the United Kingdom and is her 16th best selling single to date in the UK.
The music video, filmed in the Southern USA and in London and directed by Philipp Stölzl, depicts a diverse array of ordinary Americans, including scenes showing same - sex couples kissing. Throughout the music video Madonna, who is wearing a tiara on her head, dances and sings in front of a large American flag.
Two official versions of the video were produced, the first of which now appears on Madonna 's greatest - hits DVD compilation, Celebration, and was released as the official video worldwide. The second version was issued along with the "Humpty Remix '', a more upbeat and dance - friendly version of the song. This video was aired on MTV 's dance channel in the United States to promote the film The Next Best Thing, starring Madonna and Rupert Everett; it contains totally different footage and new outtakes of the original and omits the lesbian kiss. Everett, who provides backing vocals in the song, is also featured in the video.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where did most of the fighting occur in vietnam | Vietnam War - wikipedia
North Vietnamese Victory
Military support:
Military support:
≈ 860,000 (1967)
≈ 1,420,000 (1968)
Second
Third
American intervention 1965
1966
1967
Tet Offensive and Aftermath
Vietnamization 1969 -- 71
Easter Offensive
Post-Paris Peace Accords (1973 -- 1974)
Spring ' 75
Air operations
Naval operations
The Vietnam War (Vietnamese: Chiến tranh Việt Nam), also known as the Second Indochina War, and in Vietnam as the Resistance War Against America (Vietnamese: Kháng chiến chống Mỹ) or simply the American War, was a conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The North Vietnamese army was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist allies and the South Vietnamese army was supported by the United States, South Korea, Australia, Thailand and other anti-communist allies. The war is considered a Cold War - era proxy war by some US perspectives. The majority of Americans believe the war was unjustified. The war would last roughly 19 years and would also form the Laotian Civil War as well as the Cambodian Civil War, which also saw all three countries become communist states in 1975.
There are several competing views on the conflict, with some on the North Vietnamese and National Liberation Front side viewing the struggle against US forces as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States especially the light of the failed 1954 Geneva Conference calls for elections. Other interpretations of the North Vietnamese side include viewing it as a civil war especially in the early and later phases following the U.S interlude between 1965 and 1970 as well as a war of liberation. The perspective of some Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam, the successor to the Việt Cộng were motivated in part by significant social changes in the post-WW2 Vietnam, and had initially saw it as a revolutionary war supported by Hanoi. The pro-government side in South Vietnam viewed it as a civil war, a defensive war against communism or were motivated to fight to defend their homes and families. The U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam. This was part of the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism.
Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina. Most of the funding for the French war effort was provided by the U.S. The Việt Cộng, also known as Front national de libération du Sud - Viêt Nam or FNL (the National Liberation Front), a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region, while the People 's Army of Vietnam, also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in more conventional warfare, and had launched armed struggles from 1959 onward. U.S. involvement escalated in 1960 under Kennedy, with troop levels gradually surging under the MAAG program, from just under a thousand in 1959 to 16,000 in 1963.
By 1964 there were already 23,000 U.S troops involved, but this escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which a U.S. destroyer was alleged to have clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft. This was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave Lyndon B. Johnson authorisation to increase U.S. military presence, deploying for the first time ground combat units and increasing troop levels to 184,000. Every year onward there was significant build - up despite little progress, with Robert McNamara, one of the principle architects of the war begin to express doubts of victory by the end of 1966. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes. In the course of the war, the U.S. conducted a large - scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. Following the Tết Offensive, US forces begun withdrawal under the Vietnamization phase, while Army of the Republic of Vietnam unconventional and conventional capabilities increased following a period of neglect and became modelled on heavy fire - power focused doctrines modelled after US Forces. Operations crossed international borders: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were used by North Vietnam as supply routes and were heavily bombed by U.S. forces.
Gradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces began as part of "Vietnamization '', which aimed to end American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the communists to the South Vietnamese themselves and begun the task of modernising their armed forces. Morale declined significantly among US forces during the wind - down period and incidents of fragging, drug - use and insubordination increased with General Creighton Abrams remarking "I need to get this army home to save it ''. From 1969 onwards the military actions of the Việt Cộng insurgency decreased as the role and engagement of the NVA grew. Initially fielding less conventional and poorer weaponry, from 1970 onward the People 's Army of Vietnam and its branch People 's Liberation Armed Forces of South Vietnam had increasingly became mechanised and armoured, capable of modernised combined arms and mobile warfare and begun to widely deploy newer, untested weapons. These two sides would see significant, rapid changes throughout its lifetime from their original post-colonial armies, and by mid-1970s the ARVN became the fourth largest army with the PAVN became the fifth largest army in the world in two countries with a population of roughly 20 million each.
Despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued in the "war - of - the - flags '' period in which both Saigon and Hanoi attempted to take territory before and after the accord and the ceasefire was broken just days after its signing. In the U.S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the largest such anti-war movement up to that point in history. The war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North -- South relations, and had significantly influenced the political landscape in the United States, across much of Western Europe and U.S. ground - force intervention spurred the rise of transnational political movements and campaigning.
All U.S. air force and naval units and all other forces were completely withdrawn in 15 August 1973. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities (see Vietnam War casualties). Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 275,000 -- 310,000 Cambodians, 20,000 -- 62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict, and a further 1,626 remain missing in action. The Sino - Soviet split re-emerged following the lull during the Vietnam War and ties between the DRV and its Cambodian allies in the Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea, the newly - formed Democratic Kampuchea begun almost immediately in a series of border raids by the Khmer Rouge and erupted into the Cambodian -- Vietnamese War, with Chinese forces directly intervening in the Sino - Vietnamese War. The end of the war and resumption of the Third Indochina War would precipitate the Vietnamese boat people and the bigger Indochina refugee crisis, which saw an estimated 250,000 people perish at sea.
Various names have been applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English. It has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict.
As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this particular conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is generally known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ (Resistance War Against America), but less formally as ' Cuộc chiến tranh Mỹ ' (The American War '). It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam (The Vietnam War).
The primary military organizations involved in the war were, on one side, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the United States armed forces, and, on the other side, the People 's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) (more commonly called the North Vietnamese Army, or NVA, in English - language sources), and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, more commonly known as the Viet Cong in English language sources), a South Vietnamese communist guerrilla force.
Daniel Ellsberg contends that U.S. participation in Vietnam had begun in 1945 when it gave support to a French effort to reconquer its colony in Vietnam, a nation which had just declared independence in August 1945.
Indochina was a French colony during the 19th century. When the Japanese invaded during World War II, the Viet Minh opposed them with support from the USA, Russia and China. They received some Japanese arms when Japan surrendered. The Viet Minh, a Communist - led common front under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, then initiated an insurgency against French rule. Hostilities escalated into the First Indochina War (beginning in December 1946). By the 1950s, the conflict had become entwined with the Cold War. In January 1950, the People 's Republic of China and the Soviet Union recognized the Viet Minh 's Democratic Republic of Vietnam, based in Hanoi, as the legitimate government of Vietnam. The following month the United States and Great Britain recognized the French - backed State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, as the legitimate Vietnamese government. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 convinced many Washington policymakers that the war in Indochina was an example of communist expansionism directed by the Soviet Union.
Military advisors from the People 's Republic of China (PRC) began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950. PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army. In September 1950, the United States created a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers. By 1954, the United States had spent US $1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war.
During the Battle of Dien Bien Phu U.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin and the U.S. conducted reconnaissance flights. There were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three tactical nuclear weapons was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are vague and contradictory. According to U.S. Vice-President Richard Nixon, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French. Nixon, a so - called "hawk '' on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to "put American boys in ''. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower made American participation contingent on British support, but the British were opposed. Eisenhower decided against U.S. military intervention, being wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success.
On 7 May 1954, the French garrison at Dien Bien Phu surrendered. The defeat marked the end of French military involvement in Indochina. At the Geneva Conference, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
At the 1954 Geneva peace conference, Vietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh had wished to continue the war in the south, but was restrained by his Chinese allies who convinced him that he could win control by electoral means. Under the terms of the Geneva Accords, civilians were to be given the opportunity to move freely between the two provisional states for a 300 - day period. Elections throughout the country were to be held in 1956 to establish a unified government. Around one million northerners, mainly minority Catholics, fled south, fearing persecution by the communists. This followed an American psychological warfare campaign, designed by Edward Lansdale for the CIA, which exaggerated anti-Catholic sentiment among the Viet Minh and which falsely claimed the US was about to drop atomic bombs on Hanoi. The exodus was coordinated by a U.S. - funded $93 million relocation program, which included the use of the Seventh Fleet to ferry refugees. The northern, mainly Catholic refugees gave the later Ngô Đình Diệm regime a strong anti-communist constituency. Diệm staffed his government 's key posts mostly with northern and central Catholics.
In addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 130,000 "Revolutionary Regroupees '' went to the north for "regroupment '', expecting to return to the south within two years. The Viet Minh left roughly 5,000 to 10,000 cadres in the south as a "politico - military substructure within the object of its irredentism. '' The last French soldiers were to leave Vietnam in April 1956. The PRC completed its withdrawal from North Vietnam at around the same time. Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north.
Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction '' and "land reform '', which resulted in significant political oppression. During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time, although likely greater than 13,500. In 1956, leaders in Hanoi admitted to "excesses '' in implementing this program and restored a large amount of the land to the original owners.
The south, meanwhile, constituted the State of Vietnam, with Bảo Đại as Emperor and Ngô Đình Diệm (appointed in July 1954) as his prime minister. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm 's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions ''. The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan '', with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The United States said, "With respect to the statement made by the representative of the State of Vietnam, the United States reiterates its traditional position that peoples are entitled to determine their own future and that it will not join in any arrangement which would hinder this ''. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower wrote in 1954,
I have never talked or corresponded with a person knowledgeable in Indochinese affairs who did not agree that had elections been held as of the time of the fighting, possibly eighty percent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh as their leader rather than Chief of State Bảo Đại. Indeed, the lack of leadership and drive on the part of Bảo Đại was a factor in the feeling prevalent among Vietnamese that they had nothing to fight for.
According to the Pentagon Papers, however, from 1954 to 1956 "Ngô Đình Diệm really did accomplish miracles '' in South Vietnam: "It is almost certain that by 1956 the proportion which might have voted for Ho -- in a free election against Diệm -- would have been much smaller than eighty percent. '' In 1957, independent observers from India, Poland, and Canada representing the International Control Commission (ICC) stated that fair, unbiased elections were not possible, with the ICC reporting that neither South nor North Vietnam had honored the armistice agreement
From April to June 1955, Diệm eliminated any political opposition in the south by launching military operations against two religious groups: the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo of Ba Cụt. The campaign also focused on the Bình Xuyên organized crime group which was allied with members of the communist party secret police and had some military elements. As broad - based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diệm increasingly sought to blame the communists.
In a referendum on the future of the State of Vietnam on 23 October 1955, Diệm rigged the poll supervised by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and was credited with 98.2 percent of the vote, including 133 % in Saigon. His American advisors had recommended a more modest winning margin of "60 to 70 percent. '' Diệm, however, viewed the election as a test of authority. Three days later, he declared South Vietnam to be an independent state under the name Republic of Vietnam (ROV), with himself as president. Likewise, Ho Chi Minh and other communist officials always won at least 99 % of the vote in North Vietnamese "elections ''.
The domino theory, which argued that if one country fell to communism, then all of the surrounding countries would follow, was first proposed as policy by the Eisenhower administration. John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. Senator, said in a speech to the American Friends of Vietnam: "Burma, Thailand, India, Japan, the Philippines and obviously Laos and Cambodia are among those whose security would be threatened if the Red Tide of Communism overflowed into Vietnam. ''
A devout Roman Catholic, Diệm was fervently anti-communist, nationalist, and socially conservative. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes that "Diệm represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism. '' The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist, and were alarmed by actions such as Diệm 's dedication of the country to the Virgin Mary.
Beginning in the summer of 1955, Diệm launched the "Denounce the Communists '' campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured, or executed. He instituted the death penalty against any activity deemed communist in August 1956. According to Gabriel Kolko about 12,000 suspected opponents of Diệm were killed between 1955 and 1957 and by the end of 1958 an estimated 40,000 political prisoners had been jailed.
In May 1957, Diệm undertook a ten - day state visit to the United States. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diệm 's honor in New York City. Although Diệm was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diệm had been selected because there were no better alternatives.
Former Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara wrote in Argument Without End (1999) that the new American patrons of the Republic of Vietnam (ROV) were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country. There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions, though Diệm warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.
Between 1954 and 1957 there was large - scale but disorganized dissidence in the countryside which the Diệm government succeeded in quelling. In early 1957 South Vietnam enjoyed its first peace in over a decade. Incidents of political violence began to occur in mid-1957, but the government "did not construe it as a campaign, considering the disorders too diffuse to warrant committing major GVN (Government of Vietnam) resources. '' By early 1959, however, Diệm had come to regard the (increasingly frequent) disorders as an organized campaign and implemented Law 10 / 59, which made political violence punishable by death and property confiscation. There had been some division among former Viet Minh whose main goal was to hold the elections promised in the Geneva Accords, leading to "wildcat '' activities separate from the other communists and anti-GVN activists.
In December 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF, a.k.a. the Viet Cong) was formally created with the intent of uniting all anti-GVN activists, including non-communists. It was formed in Memot, Cambodia, and directed through a central office known as COSVN. According to the Pentagon Papers, the Viet Cong "placed heavy emphasis on the withdrawal of American advisors and influence, on land reform and liberalization of the GVN, on coalition government and the neutralization of Vietnam. '' Often the leaders of the organization were kept secret.
Support for the NLF was driven by peasant resentment of Diem 's reversal of land reforms in the countryside. The vast majority of the population lived in villages in the countryside, where a key demand was for land reform. In areas they controlled, the Viet Minh had confiscated large private landholdings, reduced rents and debts, and leased communal lands, mostly to the poorer peasants. Diem brought the landlords back to the villages. People who were farming land they had held for years now had to return it to landlords and pay years of back rent. This rent collection was enforced by the South Vietnamese army. The divisions within villages reproduced those that had existed against the French: "75 percent support for the NLF, 20 percent trying to remain neutral and 5 percent firmly pro-government, ''
Sources disagree on whether North Vietnam played a direct role in aiding and organizing South Vietnamese rebels prior to 1960. Kahin and Lewis assert:
Contrary to United States policy assumptions, all available evidence shows that the revival of the civil war in the South in 1958 was undertaken by Southerners at their own -- not Hanoi 's -- initiative... Insurgency activity against the Saigon government began in the South under Southern leadership not as a consequence of any dictate from Hanoi, but contrary to Hanoi 's injunctions.
Similarly, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. states that "it was not until September, 1960 that the Communist Party of North Vietnam bestowed its formal blessing and called for the liberation of the south from American imperialism ''.
By contrast, James Olson and Randy Roberts assert that North Vietnam authorized a low - level insurgency in December 1956. To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the Viet Cong was stressed in communist propaganda.
In March 1956, southern communist leader Lê Duẩn presented a plan to revive the insurgency entitled "The Road to the South '' to the other members of the Politburo in Hanoi, but as both China and the Soviets opposed confrontation at this time, Lê Duẩn 's plan was rejected. However the North Vietnamese leadership approved tentative measures to revive the southern insurgency in December 1956. Communist forces were under a single command structure set up in 1958. The North Vietnamese Communist Party approved a "people 's war '' on the South at a session in January 1959 and in May, Group 559 was established to maintain and upgrade the Ho Chi Minh trail, at this time a six - month mountain trek through Laos. About 500 of the "regroupees '' of 1954 were sent south on the trail during its first year of operation. The first arms delivery via the trail was completed in August 1959. About 40,000 communist soldiers infiltrated into the south from 1961 to 1963.
In the 1960 U.S. presidential election, Senator John F. Kennedy defeated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America "loomed larger than Asia on his sights. '' In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty. '' In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev when they met in Vienna to discuss key U.S. -- Soviet issues. Only 16 months later, the Cuban Missile Crisis (16 -- 28 October 1962) played out on television worldwide. It was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full - scale nuclear war, and the U.S. raised the readiness level of Strategic Air Command (SAC) forces to DEFCON 2.
The Kennedy administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War foreign policy inherited from the Truman and Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, the U.S. had 50,000 troops based in South Korea, and Kennedy faced a three - part crisis -- the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the Berlin Wall, and a negotiated settlement between the pro-Western government of Laos and the Pathet Lao communist movement. These crises made Kennedy believe that another failure on the part of the United States to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally damage U.S. credibility with its allies and his own reputation. Kennedy was thus determined to "draw a line in the sand '' and prevent a communist victory in Vietnam. He told James Reston of The New York Times immediately after his Vienna meeting with Khrushchev, "Now we have a problem making our power credible and Vietnam looks like the place. ''
Kennedy 's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diệm and his forces had to ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences. '' The quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Poor leadership, corruption, and political promotions all played a part in weakening the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN). The frequency of guerrilla attacks rose as the insurgency gathered steam. While Hanoi 's support for the Viet Cong played a role, South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis.
One major issue Kennedy raised was whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the United States. Although Kennedy stressed long - range missile parity with the Soviets, he was also interested in using special forces for counterinsurgency warfare in Third World countries threatened by communist insurgencies. Although they were originally intended for use behind front lines after a conventional Soviet invasion of Europe, Kennedy believed that the guerrilla tactics employed by special forces such as the Green Berets would be effective in a "brush fire '' war in Vietnam.
Kennedy advisors Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea but increased military assistance yet again. In April 1962, John Kenneth Galbraith warned Kennedy of the "danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did. '' By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower 's 900 advisors.
The Strategic Hamlet Program was initiated in late 1961. This joint U.S. -- South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. However, by November 1963 the program had waned, and it officially ended in 1964.
On 23 July 1962, fourteen nations, including China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising to respect the neutrality of Laos.
The inept performance of the South Vietnamese army was exemplified by failed actions such as the Battle of Ap Bac on 2 January 1963, in which a small band of Viet Cong won a battle against a much larger and better - equipped South Vietnamese force, many of whose officers seemed reluctant even to engage in combat.
The Army of the Republic of Vietnam forces were led in that battle by Diệm 's most trusted general, Huỳnh Văn Cao, commander of the IV Corps. Cao was a Catholic who had been promoted due to religion and fidelity rather than skill, and his main job was to preserve his forces to stave off coups; he had earlier vomited during a communist attack. Some policymakers in Washington began to conclude that Diệm was incapable of defeating the communists and might even make a deal with Ho Chi Minh. He seemed concerned only with fending off coups, and had become more paranoid after attempts in 1960 and 1962, which he partly attributed to U.S. encouragement. As Robert F. Kennedy noted, "Diệm would n't make even the slightest concessions. He was difficult to reason with... ''
As historian James Gibson summed up the situation:
Strategic hamlets had failed... The South Vietnamese regime was incapable of winning the peasantry because of its class base among landlords. Indeed, there was no longer a ' regime ' in the sense of a relatively stable political alliance and functioning bureaucracy. Instead, civil government and military operations had virtually ceased. The National Liberation Front had made great progress and was close to declaring provisional revolutionary governments in large areas.
Discontent with Diệm 's policies exploded following the Huế Phật Đản shootings of nine majority Buddhists who were protesting against the ban on the Buddhist flag on Vesak, the Buddha 's birthday. This resulted in mass protests against discriminatory policies that gave privileges to the Catholic Church and its adherents. Diệm 's elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the Archbishop of Huế and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state. Thuc 's anniversary celebrations shortly before Vesak had been bankrolled by the government, and Vatican flags were displayed prominently. There had also been reports of Buddhist pagodas being demolished by Catholic paramilitaries throughout Diệm 's rule. Diệm refused to make concessions to the Buddhist majority or take responsibility for the deaths. On 21 August 1963, the ARVN Special Forces of Colonel Lê Quang Tung, loyal to Diệm 's younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu, raided pagodas across Vietnam, causing widespread damage and destruction and leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds.
U.S. officials began discussing the possibility of a regime change during the middle of 1963. The United States Department of State was generally in favor of encouraging a coup, while the Defense Department favored Diệm. Chief among the proposed changes was the removal of Diệm 's younger brother Nhu, who controlled the secret police and special forces and was seen as the man behind the Buddhist repression and more generally the architect of the Ngô family 's rule. This proposal was conveyed to the U.S. embassy in Saigon in Cable 243.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was in contact with generals planning to remove Diệm. They were told that the United States would not oppose such a move nor punish the generals by cutting off aid. President Diệm was overthrown and executed, along with his brother, on 2 November 1963. When Kennedy was informed, Maxwell Taylor remembered that he "rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face. '' He had not anticipated Diệm 's murder. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge, invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Ambassador Lodge informed Kennedy that "the prospects now are for a shorter war ''. Kennedy wrote Lodge a letter congratulating him for "a fine job ''.
Following the coup, chaos ensued. Hanoi took advantage of the situation and increased its support for the guerrillas. South Vietnam entered a period of extreme political instability, as one military government toppled another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was viewed by the communists as a puppet of the Americans; whatever the failings of Diệm, his credentials as a nationalist (as Robert McNamara later reflected) had been impeccable.
U.S. military advisors were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. They were however criticized for ignoring the political nature of the insurgency. The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on pacification and "winning over the hearts and minds '' of the population. The military leadership in Washington, however, was hostile to any role for U.S. advisors other than conventional troop training. General Paul Harkins, the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory by Christmas 1963. The CIA was less optimistic, however, warning that "the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of the effort ''.
Paramilitary officers from the CIA 's Special Activities Division trained and led Hmong tribesmen in Laos and into Vietnam. The indigenous forces numbered in the tens of thousands and they conducted direct action missions, led by paramilitary officers, against the Communist Pathet Lao forces and their North Vietnamese supporters. The CIA also ran the Phoenix Program and participated in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam -- Studies and Observations Group (MAC - V SOG), which was originally named the Special Operations Group, but was changed for cover purposes.
At the time Lyndon B. Johnson took over the presidency after the death of Kennedy, he had not been heavily involved with policy toward Vietnam. Upon becoming president, however, Johnson immediately focused on the war: on 24 November 1963, he said, "the battle against communism... must be joined... with strength and determination. '' However, Johnson knew that he had inherited a rapidly deteriorating situation in South Vietnam, believing in the widely accepted arguments that were used for defending the South: Should they retreat or appease, either action would imperil other nations beyond the conflict.
The military revolutionary council, meeting in lieu of a strong South Vietnamese leader, was made up of 12 members headed by General Dương Văn Minh -- whom Stanley Karnow, a journalist on the ground, later recalled as "a model of lethargy ''. Lodge, frustrated by the end of the year, cabled home about Minh: "Will he be strong enough to get on top of things? '' His regime was overthrown in January 1964 by General Nguyễn Khánh. However, there was persistent instability in the military as several coups -- not all successful -- occurred in a short period of time.
In a statement similar to that made to the French almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans "want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea. '' Some have argued that the policy of North Vietnam was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia.
On 2 August 1964, the USS Maddox, on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam 's coast, allegedly fired upon and damaged several torpedo boats that had been stalking it in the Gulf of Tonkin. A second attack was reported two days later on the USS Turner Joy and Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. Lyndon Johnson commented to Undersecretary of State George Ball that "those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish. ''
An undated NSA publication declassified in 2005 revealed that there was no attack on 4 August.
The second "attack '' led to retaliatory air strikes, and prompted Congress to approve the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on 7 August 1964, Although most Congressmen at the time denied that this was a full - scale war declaration, the Tonkin Resolution granted the president unilateral power to launch any military actions he deemed necessary. In the same month, Johnson pledged that he was not "committing American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land ''.
The National Security Council recommended a three - stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On 7 February 1965 following an attack on a U.S. Army base in Pleiku, Operation Flaming Dart (initiated when Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin was on a state visit to North Vietnam), Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Arc Light commenced. The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the Viet Cong by threatening to destroy North Vietnam 's air defenses and industrial infrastructure. As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese. Between March 1965 and November 1968, "Rolling Thunder '' deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs.
Bombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as Operation Barrel Roll, targeted different parts of the Viet Cong and NVA infrastructure. These included the Ho Chi Minh trail supply route, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The ostensibly neutral Laos had become the scene of a civil war, pitting the Laotian government backed by the US against the Pathet Lao and its North Vietnamese allies.
Massive aerial bombardment against the Pathet Lao and People 's Army of Vietnam forces were carried out by the US to prevent the collapse of the Royal central government, and to deny the use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Between 1964 and 1973, the U.S. dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the U.S. dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population.
The objective of stopping North Vietnam and the Viet Cong was never reached. The Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force Curtis LeMay, however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the communists that "we 're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age ''.
Following the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Hanoi had anticipated the arrival of US troops and begun expanding the Viet Cong as well as sending increasing numbers of North Vietnamese personnel southwards, and at this phase equipping and standardising the equipment of the Viet Cong forces with AK - 47 rifles and other supplies as well as forming the 9th Division. "From a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959 the Viet Cong 's ranks grew to about 100,000 at the end of 1964... Between 1961 and 1964 the Army 's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men. '' The numbers for U.S. troops deployed to Vietnam during the same period were quite different; 2,000 in 1961, rising rapidly to 16,500 in 1964. During this phase, the use of captured equipment decreased while greater numbers of ammunition and supplies were required to maintained regular units, and Group 559 was tasked with expanding the Ho Chi Minh Trail, in light of the near constant bombardment by US warplanes. The war had begun to shift into the final, conventional warfare phase of Hanoi 's three - stage protracted warfare model, in which they were tasked with destroying the ARVN and capturing and holding areas, however the Viet Cong were not yet strong enough to assault major towns and cities.
In December 1964, ARVN forces had suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Bình Giã, in a battle that both sides viewed as a watershed. Previously, communist forces had utilised hit - and - run guerrilla tactics. However, at Binh Gia, they had defeated a strong ARVN force in a conventional battle and remaining in the field for four days. Tellingly, South Vietnamese forces were again defeated in June 1965 at the Battle of Đồng Xoài.
On 8 March 1965, 3,500 U.S. Marines were dispatched to South Vietnam, unilaterally and without the consultation of the South Vietnamese government. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment. The Marines ' initial assignment was defensive. The first deployment of 3,500 in March 1965 was increased to nearly 200,000 by December. The U.S. military had long been schooled in offensive warfare. Regardless of political policies, U.S. commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission.
General William Westmoreland informed Admiral U.S. Grant Sharp Jr., commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical. He said, "I am convinced that U.S. troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF (Viet Cong) ''. With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America 's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. commitment became open - ended. Westmoreland outlined a three - point plan to win the war:
The plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration 's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967. Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity. The change in U.S. policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in a contest of attrition and morale. The opponents were locked in a cycle of escalation. The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved. Westmoreland and McNamara furthermore touted the body count system for gauging victory, a metric that would later prove to be flawed.
The one - year tour of duty of American soldiers deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times. '' As a result, training programs were shortened.
South Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, "the main PX (Post Exchange), located in the Saigon suburb of Cholon, was only slightly smaller than the New York Bloomingdale 's... '' The American buildup transformed the economy and had a profound effect on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed.
Washington encouraged its SEATO allies to contribute troops. Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, and the Philippines all agreed to send troops. South Korea would later ask to join the Many Flags program in return for economic compensation. Major allies, however, notably NATO nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington 's troop requests. The U.S. and its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations Masher, Attleboro, Cedar Falls, and Junction City. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great tactical flexibility. By 1967, these operations had generated large - scale internal refugees, numbering nearly 2.1 million in South Vietnam with 125,000 people evacuated and rendered homeless during Operation Masher which was the largest search - and - destroy operation in the war up to that point. Operation Masher, the largest search - and - destroy operation up to that point would have negligible impact as the PAVN / VC returned to the province just four months after the operation ended. Despite the continual conductance of major operations, in which the Viet Cong would typically evade, the war was characterised by smaller - unit, contacts or engagements. Up to the war 's end, the Viet Cong and NVA would initiate 90 % of large firefights of which 80 % were clear and well - planned operations and thus the NVA / Viet Cong would retain strategic Initiative despite overwhelming US force and fire - power deployment. The PAVN / NLF had furthermore developed strategies capable of countering US military doctrines and tactics, see NLF and PAVN battle tactics.
Meanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilise with the coming to power of prime minister Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and figurehead Chief of State, General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, in mid-1965 at the head of a military junta. This ended a series of coups that had happened more than once a year. In 1967, Thieu became president with Ky as his deputy, after rigged elections. Although they were nominally a civilian government, Ky was supposed to maintain real power through a behind - the - scenes military body. However, Thieu outmanoeuvred and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one - candidate election in 1971.
The Johnson administration employed a "policy of minimum candor '' in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage by emphasizing stories that portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media 's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so - called credibility gap developed. Despite Johnson and Westmoreland publicly proclaiming victory was being achieved, with Westmoreland divulging that the "end is coming into view '' internal reports in the Pentagon Papers indicate that Viet Cong forces still retained strategic initiative, being able to control their losses widely, with 30 % of all engagements being Viet Cong attacks against static US positions, 23 % being a VC / NVA ambush and encirclement, and just 5 % of engagements being US forces attacking a Viet Cong emplacement and 9 % being a US ambush against Viet Cong / NVA forces.
Total Engagements
Are 66.2 % Of All Engagements
Engagement A Virtual Surprise To US Commanders
or VC - NVA Alerted or Anticipated
VC / NVA Defensive Perimeter
VC / NVA Represent 14.3 %
Of All Engagements
In late 1967 the PAVN lured American forces into the hinterlands at Đắk Tô and at the Marine Khe Sanh combat base in Quảng Trị Province where the United States had engaged, in a series of battles known as The Hill Fights. Part of this would form a diversionary strategy that was meant to draw US forces towards the Central Highlands. Preparation for the General Offensive, General Uprising, known as Tet Mau Than, or the Tet Offensive was prepared, with the intention by Văn Tiến Dũng for forces to launch "direct attacks on the American and puppet nerve centers -- Saigon, Hue, Danang, all the cities, towns and main bases... '' Hanoi sought to placate critics whom were critical of the ongoing stalemate, and had sought a decisive victory. They had reasoned this could be achieved through sparking a general uprising within the towns and cities and mass - defections among ARVN units, who were on holiday leave, during the period truce. Over 100 cities were attacked by over 85,000 enemy troops including assaults on key military installations, headquarters, and government buildings and offices, including the U.S. Embassy in Saigon.
U.S. and South Vietnamese forces were initially shocked by the scale, intensity and deliberative planning of the urban offensive, as infiltration of personnel and weapons into the cities were done in intense covertness, and the offensive constituted an intelligence failure on the scale of Pearl Harbor. Most cities were recaptured within weeks except the former capital city of Huế in which NVA and Viet Cong troops captured most of the city and citadel except the headquarters of the 1st Division and held on in the fighting for 26 days. During that time, they had executed approximately 2,800 unarmed Huế civilians and foreigners they considered to be enemies. In the following Battle of Huế American forces employed massive firepower that left 80 percent of the city in ruins. Further north, at Quảng Trị City, the ARVN Airborne Division, the 1st Division and a regiment of the US 1st Cavalry Division had managed to hold out and overcome an assault intended to capture the city. In Saigon, Viet Cong / NVA fighters had captured areas in and around the city, attacking key installations and the neighbourhood of Cholon before members of the ARVN Rangers dislodged them after three weeks. During one battle, Peter Arnett, had reported an infantry commander saying of Bến Tre (laid to rubble by U.S. attacks) that "it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it. ''
During the first phase of the offensive, 1,100 Americans and other allied troops, 2,100 ARVN, 14,000 civilians, were killed with some US authors claiming the NVA and Viet Cong suffered 17,000 KIA and 32,000 total casualties including wounded. A month later a second offensive known as the Phase II / May Offensive was launched, although less widespread, it had still demonstrated the Viet Cong were still capable of carrying out nationally orchestrated nationwide offensives By the end of the first two offensives nearly 5,000 ARVN were killed, over 4,000 US forces were killed, with total including wounded being 45,820 and an unknown number of PAVN casualties. Two months following the May Offensive, a third offensive was launched, the Phase III / August Offensive. The PAVN 's own official records of their losses across all three offensives was 45,267 killed and 111,179 total casualties. By then it had become the bloodiest year of the war up to that point. The failure to spark a general uprising, and the fact that no units within the ARVN defected meant both war goals of Hanoi had fallen flat at enormous costs.
Prior to Tet in November 1967, Westmoreland had spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support. In a speech before the National Press Club he had said a point in the war had been reached "where the end comes into view. '' Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland 's predictions were trumped by Tet. For General Westmoreland, public approval of his overall performance dropped from 48 percent to 36 percent -- and endorsement for his war effort fell from 40 percent to 26 percent. '' The American public and media begun to turn against Johnson as the three offensives had contradicted claims of progress made by the Johnson administration and the military. Westmoreland 's later request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media and the subsequent fallout combined with the intelligence failure caused him to be removed from command on March 1968, succeeded by his deputy Creighton Abrams
On 10 May 1968, peace talks began between the United States and North Vietnam in Paris. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam. At the same time, Hanoi realising it could not achieve a "total victory '' employed a strategy known as "talking while fighting, fighting while talking '', in which military offensives would occur concurrently with negotiations.
President Lyndon B. Johnson declined to run for re-election as his approval rating slumped from 48 to 36 percent. LBJ 's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps cost 30,000 American lives by that point and was regarded to have destroyed his presidency. Refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was also seen as Johnson 's admission that the war was lost. As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, "the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead. ''
Vietnam was a major political issue during the United States presidential election in 1968. The election was won by Republican party candidate Richard Nixon.
U.S. President Richard Nixon began troop withdrawals in 1969. His plan, called the Nixon Doctrine, was to build up the ARVN, so it could take over the defense of South Vietnam. The policy became known as "Vietnamization ''. Theater commander Creighton Abrams shifted to smaller operations, aimed at disrupting logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN. On 27 October 1969, Nixon had ordered a squadron of 18 B - 52s loaded with nuclear weapons to race to the border of Soviet airspace to convince the Soviet Union, in accord with the madman theory, that he was capable of anything to end the Vietnam War ("Operation Giant Lance ''). Nixon had also sought détente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with China which decreased global tensions and led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both superpowers, however there was disappointed when both sides continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid.
In September 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at age seventy - nine. The failure of Tet in sparking a popular uprising caused a shift in Hanoi 's war strategy and the Giáp - Chinh "Northern - First '' faction had regained control over military affairs from the Lê Duẩn - Hoàng Văn Thái "Southern - First '' faction. An unconventional victory was sidelined for a strategy built on conventional victory through conquest. Large - scale offensives were rolled back in favour of small - unit and sapper attacks as well as targeting the pacification and Vietnamization strategy. In the two year period following Tet, the PAVN had begun its transformation from a fine light - infantry, limited mobility force into a high - mobile and mechanised combined arms force.
The anti-war movement was gaining strength in the United States. Nixon appealed to the "silent majority '' of Americans who he said supported the war without showing it in public. But revelations of the My Lai Massacre, in which a U.S. Army platoon raped and killed civilians, and the 1969 "Green Beret Affair '' where eight Special Forces soldiers, including the 5th Special Forces Group Commander, were arrested for the murder of a suspected double agent provoked national and international outrage.
In 1971 the Pentagon Papers were leaked to The New York Times. The top - secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. government. The Supreme Court ruled that its publication was legal.
Following the Tet Offensive and the US public beginning to publicly turn against the war, US forces begun a period of morale collapse, disillusionment and disobedience. At home, desertion rates quadrupled from 1966 levels. Among enlisted only 2.5 % chose infantry combat positions in 1969 - 1970. ROTC enrollment decreased from 191,749 in 1966 to 72,459 by 1971 and reaching an all - time low of 33,220 in 1974, depriving US forces of much - needed military leadership.
Open refusal of engaging in patrols, carrying out orders and disobedience begun to emerge during this period as well with notable case of an entire company refusing orders to engage or carry out operations. Unit cohesion begun to dissipate, and focused on minimising contact with Viet Cong and NVA troops. A practice known as "sand - bagging '' started occurring, were units ordered to go on patrol would go into the country - side, find a site out of view from superiors and rest while radioing in false coordinates and unit reports. Drug usage increased rapidly among US forces during this period, as 30 % of US troops engaged in regular usage of marijuana while a House subcommittee found 10 - 15 % of US troops in Vietnam regularly used high - grade heroin. From 1969 on - ward search - and - destroy operations started to become referred to as "search and evade '' or "search and avoid '' operations, falsifying battle reports while avoiding guerrilla fighters. A total of 900 fragging and suspected fragging incidents were investigated, most occurring between 1969 to 1971. In 1969 field - performance of the US Forces was characterised by lowered morale, lack of motivation, and poor leadership. One battle which is used by historians to high - light the significant decline in US morale was the Battle of FSB Mary Ann, one of the final engagements in which a sapper attack had rampaged and destroyed the base, relatively unchallenged. William Westmoreland, no - longer in command but tasked with its investigation cited a clear dereliction of duty, lax defensive postures and lack of officers being in charged as the reason.
On the collapse of US morale, historian Shelby Stanton wrote:
In the last years of the Army 's retreat, its remaining forces were relegated to static security. The American Army 's decline was readily apparent in this final stage. Racial incidents, drug abuse, combat disobedience, and crime reflected growing idleness, resentment, and frustration... the fatal handicaps of faulty campaign strategy, incomplete wartime preparation, and the tardy, superficial attempts at Vietnamization. An entire American army was sacrificed on the battlefield of Vietnam.
Beginning in 1970, American troops were withdrawn from border areas where most of the fighting took place, instead redeployed along the coast and interior, and US casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969 casualties after being relegated to less active combat. At the same time that US forces were deployed, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam took over combat operations throughout the country, with casualties doubled US casualties in 1969, and more than tripled US ones in 1970. The post-Tet environment saw a rise in membership in Regional Force and Popular Force militias, now more capable of providing village security which the Americans could not under Westmoreland. In 1970 Nixon announced the withdrawal of an additional 150,000 American troops, reducing the number of Americans to 265,500. By 1970 the Viet Cong forces were no - longer southern - majority, and nearly 70 % of units were northerners. Between 1969 to 1971 the Viet Cong and some PAVN units had reverted to small unit tactics typical of 1967 and prior instead of nation - wide grand offensives. In 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers and U.S. troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. The United States also reduced support troops and in March 1971 the 5th Special Forces Group, the first American unit deployed to South Vietnam, withdrew to Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
Prince Norodom Sihanouk had proclaimed Cambodia neutral since 1955, but permitted the PAVN / NLF to use Cambodia as a staging ground for the Sihanouk Trail. Nixon had by then launched a massive bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia / Vietnam border. Only five high - ranking Congressional officials were informed of Operation Menu.
In 1970, Prince Sihanouk was deposed by his pro-American prime minister Lon Nol. North Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1970 at the request of Khmer Rouge deputy leader Nuon Chea. A series of military operations in Cambodia by the South Vietnamese alongside Lon Nol 's FANK was the closest that the entire leadership of the Viet Cong came to being captured. This was a goal that US / RVN Intelligence failed to achieve for nearly a decade. Lon Nol had also started rounding up Vietnamese civilians in Cambodia into internment camps and begun massacring them, provoking harsh reactions from both the North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese government. A month after COSVN 's escape, U.S. and ARVN forces launched a second invasion into Cambodia to attack NVA and Viet Cong bases. A counter-offensive later that year as part of Operation Chenla II by the PAVN would recapture most of the border areas and decimate most of Lon Nol 's forces.
This invasion sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement. Four students were killed by National Guardsmen at Kent State University during a protest in Ohio, which provoked further public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement. The U.S. Air Force continued to heavily bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of Operation Freedom Deal.
Building up on the success of ARVN units in Cambodia, and further testing the Vietnamization program, the ARVN were tasked to launch Operation Lam Son 719 in February 1971, the first major operation aimed directly at occupying the Ho Chi Minh trail by attacking the major crossroad of Tchperone. This offensive would also be the first time the PAVN would field - test its combined arms force. The first few days were considered a success but the momentum had slowed after fierce resistance. Nguyễn Văn Thiệu had halted the general advance, leaving armoured divisions able to surround them. Thieu had ordered air assault troops to capture Tchepone and withdraw, despite facing four - times larger numbers. During the withdrawal the PAVN counterattack had forced a panicked rout. Half of the ARVN troops involved were either captured or killed, half of the ARVN / US support helicopters were downed by AA and the operation was considered a fiasco, demonstrating operational deficiencies still present within the ARVN. Richard Nixon and President Thieu had sought to use this event to show - case victory simply by capturing Tchepone, and it was spun off as an "operational success ''.
Vietnamization was again tested by the Easter Offensive of 1972, a massive conventional NVA invasion of South Vietnam. The NVA and Viet Cong quickly overran the northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. American airpower responded, beginning Operation Linebacker, and the offensive was halted.
The war was central to the 1972 U.S. presidential election as Nixon 's opponent, George McGovern, campaigned on immediate withdrawal. Nixon 's National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger had continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam 's Lê Đức Thọ and on October 1972 reached an agreement. President Thieu demanded changes to the peace accord upon its discovery and when North Vietnam went public with the agreement 's details, the Nixon administration claimed they were attempting to embarrass the president. The negotiations became deadlocked when Hanoi demanded new changes. To show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18 -- 29 December 1972. Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid while promising an air - response in case of invasion.
On 15 January, all US combat activities was suspended. Lê Đức Thọ and Henry Kissinger, along with the PRG Foreign Minister Nguyễn Thị Bình and a reluctant President Thiệu signed the Paris Peace Accords on 27 January 1973. This officially ended direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, created a ceasefire between North and South Vietnam, guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam under the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for elections or a political settlement between the Provisional Revolutionary Government and South Vietnam and allowed 200,000 communist troops to remain in the south, alongside a POW exchange. There was a sixty - day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. "This article '', noted Peter Church, "proved... to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out. '' All US forces personnel were completely withdrawn by March 1973.
Fighting begun almost immediately the next day on 28 January, this time without US participation and continued throughout the year. North Vietnam was allowed to continue supplying troops in the South but only to the extent of replacing expended material. Both sides vied for control continually during the "war - of - the - flags '' phase, in which each side required civilians to display appropriate flags in their areas of control. Later that year the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Kissinger and Thọ, but the Vietnamese negotiator declined it saying that a true peace did not yet exist.
On 15 March 1973, Nixon implied the US would intervene again militarily if the North launched a full offensive and Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger during his June 1973 confirmation hearings re-affirmed this. Public and congressional reaction to Nixon 's statement was unfavourable which prompted the U.S. Senate to pass the Case -- Church Amendment to prohibit an intervention.
PAVN / VC leaders expected the ceasefire terms would favor their side but Saigon, bolstered by a surge of U.S. aid received just before the ceasefire went into effect, began to roll back the Viet Cong. The communists responded with a new strategy hammered out in a series of meetings in Hanoi in March 1973, according to the memoirs of Trần Văn Trà. With U.S. bombings suspended, work on the Ho Chi Minh trail and other logistical structures could proceed unimpeded. Logistics would be upgraded until the North was in a position to launch a massive invasion of the South, projected for 1975 -- 76 dry season. Tra calculated that this date would be Hanoi 's last opportunity to strike before Saigon 's army could be fully trained. The Viet Cong resumed offensive operations when the dry season begun in 1973, and by January 1974, recaptured territory it lost during the previous dry season.
Within South Vietnam, there was increasing chaos as the departure of the US military and the global recession that followed the Arab oil embargo compromised an economy partly dependent on U.S. financial support and troop presence. After two clashes that left 55 South Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thieu announced on 4 January 1974, that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no longer in effect. This was despite there being over 25,000 South Vietnamese casualties during the ceasefire period.
The success of the 1973 -- 74 dry season offensive inspired Trà to return to Hanoi in October 1974 and plead for a larger offensive the next dry season. This time, Trà could travel on a drivable highway with regular fueling stops, a vast change from the days when the Ho Chi Minh trail was a dangerous mountain trek. Giáp, the North Vietnamese defence minister, was reluctant to approve of Trà 's plan since a larger offensive might provoke U.S. reaction and interfere with the big push planned for 1976. Trà appealed over Giáp 's head to first secretary Lê Duẩn, who approved of the operation. Trà 's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phước Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of South Vietnamese forces, and determine whether U.S. would return.
At the start of 1975, the South Vietnamese had three times as much artillery and twice the number of tanks and armoured cars as the opposition. They also had 1,400 aircraft and a two - to - one numerical superiority in combat troops over their Communist enemies. However, the rising oil prices meant that much of this could not be used, and the rushed nature of Vietnamization, intended to cover the US retreat, saw a lack of spare parts, ground - crew and maintenance personnel, rendering most of the equipment given inoperable. Gerald Ford took over as U.S. president on 9 August 1974 after President Nixon resigned due to the Watergate scandal and Congress cut financial aid to South Vietnam from $1 billion a year to $700 million. Congress also voted in further restrictions on funding to be phased in through 1975 and to culminate in a total cutoff in 1976.
On 13 December 1974, North Vietnamese forces attacked Route 14 in Phước Long Province. Phuoc Binh, the provincial capital, fell on 6 January 1975. Ford desperately asked Congress for funds to assist and re-supply the South before it was overrun. Congress refused. The fall of Phuoc Binh and the lack of an American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized.
The speed of this success led the Politburo to reassess its strategy. It was decided that operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General Văn Tiến Dũng and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Before he left for the South, Dũng was addressed by Lê Duẩn: "Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now. ''
On 10 March 1975, General Dung launched Campaign 275, a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was Buôn Ma Thuột, in Đắk Lắk Province. If the town could be taken, the provincial capital of Pleiku and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught, and its forces collapsed on 11 March. Once again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Dung now urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and then turn his attention to Kon Tum. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation.
President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat, which soon turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN General Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kon Tum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the "column of tears ''.
On 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Huế, Vietnam 's third - largest city, be held at all costs, and then changed his policy several times. As the North Vietnamese launched their attack, panic set in, and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the NVA opened the siege of Huế. Civilians flooded the airport and the docks hoping for any mode of escape. As resistance in Huế collapsed, North Vietnamese rockets rained down on Da Nang and its airport. By 28 March 35,000 VPA troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By 30 March 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the NVA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end.
With the northern half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered General Dung to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the Ho Chi Minh Campaign called for the capture of Saigon before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh, and Da Lat.
On 7 April, three North Vietnamese divisions attacked Xuân Lộc, 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. For two bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders made a last stand to try to block the North Vietnamese advance. By 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison were ordered to withdraw towards Saigon. An embittered and tearful president Thieu resigned on the same day, declaring that the United States betrayed South Vietnam. In a scathing attack, he suggested U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had tricked him into signing the Paris peace agreement two years earlier, promising military aid that failed to materialize. Having transferred power to Trần Văn Hương, he left for Taiwan on 25 April.
By the end of April, the ARVN collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. Thousands of refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On 27 April 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the NVA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.
Chaos, unrest, and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S., and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. Operation Frequent Wind had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador Graham Martin 's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached.
Schlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from Saigon by helicopter of the last U.S. diplomatic, military, and civilian personnel. Frequent Wind was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space. Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had soured on this conflict.
President Gerald Ford had given a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were left to their fate.
On 30 April 1975, NVA troops entered the city of Saigon and quickly overcame all resistance, capturing key buildings and installations. A tank from the 324th Division crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace at 11: 30 am local time and the Viet Cong flag was raised above it. President Dương Văn Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered.
During the course of the Vietnam War a large segment of the American population came to be opposed to U.S. involvement in southeast Asia. Public opinion steadily turned against the war following 1967 and by 1970 only a third of Americans believed that the U.S. had not made a mistake by sending troops to fight in Vietnam. Nearly a third of the American population were strongly against the war, a position which lasted through subsequent decades.
Early opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam drew its inspiration from the Geneva Conference of 1954. American support of Diệm in refusing elections was seen as thwarting the democracy America claimed to support. John F. Kennedy, while Senator, opposed involvement in Vietnam. Nonetheless, it is possible to specify certain groups who led the anti-war movement at its peak in the late 1960s and the reasons why. Many young people protested because they were the ones being drafted while others were against the war because the anti-war movement grew increasingly popular among the counterculture. Some advocates within the peace movement advocated a unilateral withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam. Opposition to the Vietnam War tended to unite groups opposed to U.S. anti-communism and imperialism and, for those involved with the New Left such as the Catholic Worker Movement. Others, such as Stephen Spiro opposed the war based on the theory of Just War. Some wanted to show solidarity with the people of Vietnam, such as Norman Morrison emulating the self - immolation of Thích Quảng Đức.
High - profile opposition to the Vietnam War increasingly turned to mass protests in an effort to shift U.S. public opinion. Riots broke out at the 1968 Democratic National Convention during protests against the war. After news reports of American military abuses such as the 1968 My Lai Massacre, brought new attention and support to the anti-war movement, some veterans joined Vietnam Veterans Against the War. On 15 October 1969, the Vietnam Moratorium attracted millions of Americans. The fatal shooting of four students at Kent State University in 1970 led to nationwide university protests. Anti-war protests declined with the final withdrawal of troops after the Paris Peace Accords in 1973.
2,000 years of Chinese - Vietnamese enmity and hundreds of years of Chinese and Russian mutual suspicions were suspended when they united against us in Vietnam.
In 1950, the People 's Republic of China extended diplomatic recognition to the Viet Minh 's Democratic Republic of Vietnam and sent heavy weapons, as well as military advisers led by Luo Guibo to assist the Viet Minh in its war with the French (1946 - 1954). The first draft of the 1954 Geneva Accords was negotiated by French prime minister Pierre Mendès France and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai who, seeing U.S. intervention coming, urged the Viet Minh to accept a partition at the 17th parallel.
China 's support for North Vietnam when the U.S started to intervene included both financial aid and the deployment of hundreds of thousands of military personnel in support roles. In the summer of 1962, Mao Zedong agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. Starting in 1965, China sent anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South. China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million. The Chinese military claims to have caused 38 % of American air losses in the war. China claimed that its military and economic aid to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong totaled $20 billion (approx. $143 billion adjusted for inflation in 2015) during the Vietnam War. Included in that aid were donations of 5 million tons of food to North Vietnam (equivalent to NV food production in a single year), accounting for 10 -- 15 % of the North Vietnamese food supply by the 1970s.
Sino - Soviet relations soured after the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused. The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at Zhenbao Island in March 1969. The Chinese also began financing the Khmer Rouge as a counterweight to the Vietnamese communists at this time.
China "armed and trained '' the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward.
The Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975 -- 1978. When Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge, China launched a brief, punitive invasion of Vietnam in 1979.
Soviet ships in the South China Sea gave vital early warnings to Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. The Soviet intelligence ships would pick up American B - 52 bombers flying from Okinawa and Guam. Their airspeed and direction would be noted and then relayed to COSVN, North Vietnam 's southern headquarters. Using airspeed and direction, COSVN analysts would calculate the bombing target and tell any assets to move "perpendicularly to the attack trajectory. '' These advance warning gave them time to move out of the way of the bombers, and, while the bombing runs caused extensive damage, because of the early warnings from 1968 to 1970 they did not kill a single military or civilian leader in the headquarters complexes.
The Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, anti-aircraft missiles and other military equipment. Soviet crews fired Soviet - made surface - to - air missiles at U.S. F - 4 Phantoms, which were shot down over Thanh Hóa in 1965. Over a dozen Soviet citizens lost their lives in this conflict. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian officials acknowledged that the Soviet Union had stationed up to 3,000 troops in Vietnam during the war.
Some Russian sources give more specific numbers: Between 1953 and 1991, the hardware donated by the Soviet Union included 2,000 tanks, 1,700 APCs, 7,000 artillery guns, over 5,000 anti-aircraft guns, 158 surface - to - air missile launchers, 120 helicopters. During the war, the Soviets sent North Vietnam annual arms shipments worth $450 million. From July 1965 to the end of 1974, fighting in Vietnam was observed by some 6,500 officers and generals, as well as more than 4,500 soldiers and sergeants of the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, Soviet military schools and academies began training Vietnamese soldiers -- in all more than 10,000 military personnel.
The KGB had also helped developed the signals intelligence capabilities of the North Vietnamese, through an operation known as Vostok (also known as Phương Đông, meaning "Orient '' and named after the Vostok 1). The Vostok program was a counterintelligence and espionage program. These programs helped proved pivotal in detecting and defeating CIA and South Vietnamese commando teams sent into North Vietnam, as they were detected and captured. Soviet - assistance had helped the Ministry of Public Security come into its own as it had recruited foreigners within high - level diplomatic circles among the Western - allies of the US, under a clandestine program known as "B12, MM '' which produced thousands of high - level documents for nearly a decade, including targets of B - 52 strikes. In 1975, the SIGINT services had broken information from Western US - allies in Saigon, determining that the US would not intervene to save South Vietnam from collapse.
The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was a member of the Warsaw Pact whom had sent significant aid to North Vietnam, both prior to and after the Prague Spring. The Czechoslovakian government created committees which sought to not only promote and establish peace, but also to promote victory for Viet Cong and Viet Minh forces. In the wake of the Prague Spring uprising, Czechoslovakia saw increasing parallels between its own conflict with the Soviet Union, and North Vietnam 's increasing conflict with the United States. Czech - made equipment and military aid would increase significantly following the Prague Spring. Czechoslovakian weapons created by Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod with the Vz. 58 being alleged to be highly valued among People 's Army of Vietnam forces, and Czechoslovakia continued to send tens of thousands of Czech - made rifles alongside mortar and artillery throughout the war. In general, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic were quite aligned with European leftist movements, and there were simultaneous protests ongoing demonstrating against both the Soviet - intervention in Prague as well as the US intervention in Vietnam.
Cooperation between North Vietnam and Czechoslovakia on the development of its air capabilities begun as early as 1956. Czechoslovak instructors and trainers had instructed the Vietnam People 's Air Force in China and had helped them develop a modernised airforce, with the Czech - built Aero Ae - 45 and Aero L - 29 Delfín alongside Zlín Z 26 aircraft utilised significantly for training, and regarded as preferential to Soviet - built Yakovlev Yak - 3 as training aircraft.
As a result of a decision of the Korean Workers ' Party in October 1966, in early 1967 North Korea sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served. In addition, at least two anti-aircraft artillery regiments were sent as well.
The contribution to North Vietnam by the Republic of Cuba, under Fidel Castro have been recognized several times by representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fidel Castro mentioned in his discourses the Batallón Girón (Giron Battalion) as comprising the Cuban contingent that served as military advisors during the war. In this battalion, alongside the Cubans, fought Nguyễn Thị Định, founding member of the Viet Cong, who later became the first female Major General in the North Vietnamese Army.
There are numerous allegations by former U.S. prisoners of war that Cuban military personnel were present at North Vietnamese prison facilities during the war and that they participated in torture activities. Witnesses to this include Senator John McCain, 2008 U.S. Presidential candidate and former Vietnam prisoner of war, according to his 1999 book Faith of My Fathers.
German Democratic Republic. The Ministry of Public Security of Vietnam (Bộ Công An) states there was special interest towards the Stasi in establishing an intelligence and security apparatus, particularly since the Stasi was well - regarded, considered "industrial, modern, and (with a) scientific working - style ''. In official Vietnamese language histories on the Vietnamese Ministry of Public Security, the assistance provided by the Soviet and East German intelligence services to Vietnam is usually rated as the most important within the socialist bloc. East Germany had also provided a substantive aid in helping North Vietnam duplicate "Green Dragon '' identity cards, which were difficult to duplicate identity cards created by Saigon in order to identify North Vietnamese combatants.
East German authorities had also begun providing material and technical aid to help develop and modernise the North Vietnamese economy and military. Alongside providing military and economic aid, East Germany had also vigorously denounced the US war effort, and had reaped significant international and diplomatic standing as a result of its anti-war campaigns.
The Polish People 's Republic had played a substantive role in brokering and serving as an intermediary for peace - talks between Hanoi and Saigon, as part of a delegation under the International Control Commission alongside Western European nations. Recent evidence has emerged that Poland played an early role in attempting to broker talks between Ngô Đình Nhu and the Diem regime and Hanoi in 1963 in an effort to prevent the expansion of the war, given that Polish representatives were the only communist nation present in Saigon and had acted as a broker and representative on behalf of Hanoi.
On the anti-communist side, South Korea (a.k.a. the Republic of Korea, ROK) had the second - largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, President Park Chung - hee proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed. On 1 May 1964 Lyndon Johnson requested South Korean participation. The first South Korean troops began arriving in 1964 and large combat formations began arriving a year later. The ROK Marine Corps dispatched their 2nd Marine Brigade while the ROK Army sent the Capital Division and later the 9th Infantry Division. In August 1966 after the arrival of the 9th Division the Koreans established a corps command, the Republic of Korea Forces Vietnam Field Command, near I Field Force, Vietnam at Nha Trang.
Official records are vindictive of the role of ROK Forces in the war, as State Department reports publicly questioned their usefulness in the conflict, as they have "appeared to have been reluctant to undertake offensive operations, and are only useful in guarding a small sector of the populated area ''. State department reports furthermore state that ROK forces engaged in systemic, well - organised corruption in diverting US - equipment, and that actual security has often been provided by ARVN Territorial Forces whom lacked organic firepower and heavy artillery but served as a buffer between Korean units and the North Vietnamese Army. In addition, a RAND author conducting studies in South Vietnam in 1970 alleges that ROK forces had a "deliberate, systematic policy of committing atrocities '' prompting civilians to leave ROK - controlled sectors. The conduct of ROK forces often emboldened and strengthened the Viet Cong, adding ranks from an otherwise neutral population and undermining efforts to defeat the insurgency overall.
Approximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam, each serving a one - year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50,000 in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973. About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war. South Korea claimed to have killed 41,000 Viet Cong. An unknown percentage of ' enemy combatants ' may have been unarmed civilians, as ROK Forces were estimated to have deliberately killed at least 9,000 civilians. The United States paid South Korean soldiers 236 million dollars for their efforts in Vietnam, and South Korean GNP increased five-fold during the war.
Thai Army formations, including the Royal Thai Volunteer Regiment (Queen 's Cobras) and later the Royal Thai Army Expeditionary Division (Black Panthers), saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations there were heavily outnumbered by the irregular "volunteers '' of the CIA - sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the Ho Chi Minh trail.
Australia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the ANZUS military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the Malayan Emergency and World War II. Their governments subscribed to the Domino theory. New Zealand was however a reluctant participant. Officials prophetically expected a foreign intervention to fail, were concerned that they would be supporting a corrupt regime and did n't want to further stretch their country 's small military (which was already deployed to Malaysia). In the end though, a desire to prove their commitment to the ANZUS alliance and discourage an American withdrawal from Southeast Asia necessitated a military commitment. Australia began by sending advisors to Vietnam in 1962, and combat troops were committed in 1965. New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending special forces and regular infantry which were attached to Australian formations. Australia 's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops and New Zealand 's 552. More than 60,000 Australian personnel were involved during the course of the war, of which 521 were killed and more than 3,000 wounded. Approximately 3,500 New Zealanders served in Vietnam, with 37 killed and 187 wounded. Most Australians and New Zealanders served in the 1st Australian Task Force in Phước Tuy Province.
Australia 's decades of experience from both the Malayan Emergency and its AATTV role in 1962 saw a recognised need for true counter-insurgency which relied on providing village - level security, establishing civilian trust and economic incentives and improving ARVN capabilities. This had brought Australian commanders to conflict with William Westmoreland 's conventional attrition warfare approach since Australian ground forces were required to follow US doctrine. Nevertheless, Australian forces and experience were generally the most capable at the approach of COIN and had helped to train Regional Forces despite being under significant doctrinal constraints.
Some 10,450 Filipino troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG - V or Philippine Civic Action Group - Vietnam. More noteworthy was the fact that the naval base in Subic Bay was used for the U.S. Seventh Fleet from 1964 till the end of the war in 1975. The Navy base in Subic bay and the Air force base at Clark achieved maximum functionality during the war and supported an estimated 80,000 locals in allied tertiary businesses from shoe making to prostitution.
Since November 1967, Taiwan secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and South Vietnam. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or "Frogman unit '' in English. Military commandos from Taiwan were captured by North Vietnamese forces three times trying to infiltrate North Vietnam.
The Brazilian government of President Castelo Branco officially supported the United States 's position in South Vietnam and contributed a medical team and supplies to the country -- the only Latin American country to do so.
Canada, India and Poland constituted the International Control Commission, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement. Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was "non-belligerent '' though there is evidence to the contrary. The Vietnam War entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia asserts plainly that Canada 's record on the truce commissions was a pro-Saigon partisan one.
The ethnic minority peoples of South Vietnam like the Montagnards (Degar) in the Central Highlands, Hindu and Muslim Cham and the Buddhist Khmer Krom were actively recruited in the war. There was an active strategy of recruitment and favorable treatment of Montagnard tribes for the Viet Cong, as they were pivotal for control of infiltration routes. Some groups had split off and formed together the United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (French: Front Uni de Lutte des Races Opprimées, acronym: FULRO) to fight for autonomy or independence. FULRO fought against both the anti-Communist South Vietnamese and the Communist Viet Cong, and then FULRO proceeded to fight against the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam after the fall of South Vietnam.
During the war, the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem began a program to settle ethnic Vietnamese Kinh on Montagnard lands in the Central Highlands region. This provoked a backlash from the Montagnards, some joining the NLF as a result. The Cambodians under both the pro-China King Sihanouk and the pro-American Lon Nol supported their fellow co-ethnic Khmer Krom in South Vietnam, following an anti-ethnic Vietnamese policy. Following Vietnamization many Montagnard groups and fighters were incorporated into the Vietnamese Rangers as border sentries.
A large number of war crimes took place during the Vietnam War. War crimes were committed by both sides during the conflict and included rape, massacres of civilians, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, the widespread use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes included theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.
In 1968, the Vietnam War Crimes Working Group (VWCWG) was established by the Pentagon task force set up in the wake of the My Lai Massacre, to attempt to ascertain the veracity of emerging claims of war crimes by U.S. armed forces in Vietnam, during the Vietnam War period. A probable war - crime which was neither investigated or brought to charge was the Thuy Bo massacre while the Son Thang massacre was one that warranted investigation with its perpetrators court - martial and serving less than a year of prison.
Of the portion of war - crimes which were reported to military authorities, sworn statements by witnesses and status reports indicated that 320 war - crimes incidents had a factual basis. The substantiated cases included 7 massacres between 1967 and 1971 in which at least 137 civilians were killed; seventy eight further attacks targeting non-combatants resulting in at least 57 deaths, 56 wounded and 15 sexually assaulted; one hundred and forty - one cases of US soldiers torturing civilian detainees or prisoners of war with fists, sticks, bats, water or electric shock. Journalism in the ensuing years has documented large numbers of overlooked and uninvestigated war crimes involving every army division that was active in Vietnam, with one prominent non-investigated war - crime being the Tiger Force atrocities. Rummel estimated that American forces committed around 5,500 intentional democidal killings between 1960 and 1972, from a range of between 4,000 and 10,000 killed.
The establishment of numerous free - fire zones by U.S. forces as a tactic to prevent Viet Cong fighters from sheltering in South Vietnamese villages. Such practice, which involved the assumption that any individual appearing in the designated zones was an enemy combatant that could be freely targeted by weapons, is regarded by journalist Lewis M. Simons as "a severe violation of the laws of war ''. Nick Turse, in his 2013 book, Kill Anything that Moves, argues that a relentless drive toward higher body counts, a widespread use of free - fire zones, rules of engagement where civilians who ran from soldiers or helicopters could be viewed as Viet Cong, and a widespread disdain for Vietnamese civilians led to massive civilian casualties and endemic war crimes inflicted by U.S. troops. One example cited by Turse is Operation Speedy Express, an operation by the 9th Infantry Division, which was described by John Paul Vann as, in effect, "many My Lais ''. A report by Newsweek magazine suggested that at minimum 5,000 civilians may have been killed during six months of the operation, as there was around 748 recovered weapons.
R.J. Rummel estimated that 39,000 were killed by South Vietnam during the Diem - era in democide from a range of between 16,000 and 167,000 South Vietnamese civilians; for 1964 to 1975, Rummel estimated a total of 50,000 killed in democide, from a range of between 42,000 and 128,000. Thus, the total for 1954 to 1975 is 81,000, from a range of between 57,000 and 284,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam. Benjamin Valentino attributes possibly 110,000 -- 310,000 "counter-guerrilla mass killings '' of non-combatants to U.S. and South Vietnamese forces during the war. An estimated 26,000 to 41,000 civilian members of the PRG / NLF termed "VC Infrastructure '' were killed during the Phoenix Program, by US and South Vietnamese intelligence and security, with an unknown number being innocent civilians.
Torture and ill - treatment were frequently applied by the South Vietnamese to POWs as well as civilian prisoners. During their visit to the Con Son Prison in 1970, U.S. Congressmen Augustus F. Hawkins and William R. Anderson witnessed detainees either confined in minute "tiger cages '' or chained to their cells, and provided with poor - quality food. A group of American doctors inspecting the prison in the same year found many inmates suffering symptoms resulting from forced immobility and torture. During their visits to transit detention facilities under American administration in 1968 and 1969, the International Red Cross recorded many cases of torture and inhumane treatment before the captives were handed over to South Vietnamese authorities. Torture was conducted by the South Vietnamese government in collusion with the CIA.
South Korean forces were also accused of war crimes as well. One documented event was the Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất massacre where the 2nd Marine Brigade of the South Korean Army reportedly killed 69 -- 79 civilians on 12 February 1968 in Phong Nhị and Phong Nhất village, Điện Bàn District of Quảng Nam Province in South Vietnam. South Korean forces are also accused of perpetrating other massacres, namely: Bình Hòa massacre, Binh Tai Massacre and Hà My massacre alongside the Bình An / Tây Vinh massacre.
Ami Pedahzur has written that "the overall volume and lethality of Viet Cong terrorism rivals or exceeds all but a handful of terrorist campaigns waged over the last third of the twentieth century '', based on the definition of terrorists as a non-state actor, and examining targeted killings and civilian deaths which are estimated at over 18,000 from 1966 to 1969. The US Department of Defense estimates the VC / NVA had conducted 36,000 murders and almost 58,000 kidnappings from 1967 to 1972, c. 1973. Statistics for 1968 -- 72 suggest that "about 80 percent of the terrorist victims were ordinary civilians and only about 20 percent were government officials, policemen, members of the self - defence forces or pacification cadres. '' Benjamin Valentino attributes 45,000 -- 80,000 "terrorist mass killings '' of non-combatants to the Viet Cong during the war. Viet Cong tactics included the frequent mortaring of civilians in refugee camps, and the placing of mines on highways frequented by villagers taking their goods to urban markets. Some mines were set only to go off after heavy vehicle passage, causing extensive slaughter aboard packed civilian buses.
Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Huế during the Tet Offensive and the killing of 252 civilians during the Đắk Sơn massacre. 155,000 refugees fleeing the final North Vietnamese Spring Offensive were reported to have been killed or abducted on the road to Tuy Hòa in 1975. According to Rummel, North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops killed 164,000 civilians in democide between 1954 and 1975 in South Vietnam, from a range of between 106,000 and 227,000 (50,000 of which were reportedly killed by shelling and mortar on ARVN forces during the retreat to Tuy Hoa). North Vietnam was also known for its abusive treatment of American POWs, most notably in Hỏa Lò Prison (aka the Hanoi Hilton), where torture was employed to extract confessions.
During the Vietnam War, American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs. Early in 1963, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war, on 8 June 1969. One civilian doctor, Eleanor Ardel Vietti, who was captured by Viet Cong on May 30, 1962 in Buôn Ma Thuột, remains the only American woman unaccounted for from the Vietnam War.
Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers. They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male - dominated environment created tensions between the sexes. By 1973, approximately 7,500 women had served in Vietnam in the Southeast Asian theater. American women serving in Vietnam were subject to societal stereotypes. To address this problem, the ANC released advertisements portraying women in the ANC as "proper, professional and well protected. '' This effort to highlight the positive aspects of a nursing career reflected the feminism of the 1960s -- 1970s in the United States. Although female military nurses lived in a heavily male environment, very few cases of sexual harassment were ever reported.
Unlike the American women who went to Vietnam, both South and North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the combat zone. Women were enlisted in both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent force in South Vietnam, many joining due to the promises of female equality and a greater social role within society. Some women also served for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong intelligence services. The deputy military commander of the PLAF, the armed wing of the Viet Cong, was a female general Nguyễn Thị Định. All female units were present throughout the entirety of the war, ranging from front - line combat troops to anti-air units, scout and reconnaissance units and others providing intelligence. There was female combat squads present at the Cu Chi theatre. alongside the Battle of Hue. Large numbers of women volunteered in addition throughout North Vietnam, manning anti-aircraft batteries, providing village security as well as serving in logistics on the Ho Chi Minh trail. Many more women would be embedded with troops on the front - line, serving as doctors and medical personnel. Đặng Thùy Trâm became renown after her diary was published following her death. The Foreign Minister for the National Liberation Front and later the PRG was also a woman, Nguyễn Thị Bình.
In South Vietnam, many women voluntarily served in the ARVN 's Women 's Armed Force Corps (WAFC) and various other Women 's corps in the military. Some, like in the WAFC, fought in combat with other soldiers. Others served as nurses and doctors in the battlefield and in military hospitals, or served in South Vietnam or America 's intelligence agencies. During Diệm 's presidency, Madame Nhu was the commander of the WAFC. Many women joined provincial and voluntary village - level militia in the People 's Self Defense Force as part of the South Vietnamese Popular Force especially during the ARVN expansions later in the war.
The war saw more than one million rural people migrate or flee the fighting in the South Vietnamese countryside to the cities, especially Saigon. Among the internal refugees were many young women who became the ubiquitous "bargirls '' of wartime South Vietnam "hawking her wares -- be that cigarettes, liquor, or herself '' to American and allied soldiers. American bases were ringed by bars and brothels.
8,040 Vietnamese women came to the United States as war brides between 1964 and 1975. Many mixed - blood Amerasian children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam. 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s.
The Vietnam War also saw women play a prominent role as front - line reporters in the conflict, directly reporting on the conflict as it occurred. A number of women volunteered on the North Vietnamese side as embedded journalists including author Lê Minh Khuê embedded with PAVN forces, including on the Ho Chi Minh trail as well as on combat fronts. A number of prominent Western journalists were also involved in covering the war, with Dickey Chapelle being among the first as well as the first American female reporter killed in a war. The French - speaking Australian journalist Kate Webb was captured alongside a photographer and others by the Viet Cong in Cambodia and travelled into Laos with them, released back into Cambodia afterwards after 23 days of captivity. She would be the first Western journalist to be captured and released, as well as cover the perspective of the Viet Cong in her memoir On The Other Side. Another French - speaking journalist Catherine Leroy was briefly captured and released by North Vietnamese forces during the Battle of Huế, capturing some of the famous photos from the battles that would appear on the cover of Life Magazine.
The experience of American military personnel of African origin during the Vietnam War had received significant attention. For example, the website "African - American Involvement in the Vietnam War '' compiles examples of such coverage, as does the print and broadcast work of journalist Wallace Terry.
Terry 's book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Points he makes on the latter topic include: the higher proportion of combat casualties in Vietnam among African American servicemen than among American soldiers of other races, the shift toward and different attitudes of black military careerists versus black draftees, the discrimination encountered by black servicemen "on the battlefield in decorations, promotion and duty assignments '' as well as their having to endure "the racial insults, cross-burnings and Confederate flags of their white comrades '' -- and the experiences faced by black soldiers stateside, during the war and after America 's withdrawal. Civil rights leaders protested the disproportionate casualties and the over-representation in hazardous duty and combat roles experienced by African American servicemen, prompting reforms that were implemented beginning in 1967 -- 68. As a result, by the war 's completion in 1975, black casualties had declined to 12.5 % of US combat deaths, approximately equal to percentage of draft - eligible black men, though still slightly higher than the 10 % who served in the military.
During the early stages of their insurgency, the Viet Cong mainly sustained itself with captured arms (often of American manufacture) or crude, self - made weapons (e.g. copies of the US Thompson submachine gun and shotguns made of galvanized pipes). Most arms were captured from poorly defended ARVN militia outposts.
In the summer and fall of 1967, all Viet Cong battalions were reequipped with arms of Soviet design such as the AK - 47 assault rifle and the RPG - 2 anti-tank weapon. Their weapons were principally of Chinese or Soviet manufacture. The period up to the conventional phase in the 1970, the Viet Cong and NVA were primarily limited to mortars 81 - mm mortars, recoil-less rifles and small - arms and had significantly lighter equipment and firepower in comparison with the US arsenal, relying on ambushes alongside superior stealth, planning, marksmanship and small - unit tactics to face the disproportionate US technological advantage.
Many divisions within the NVA would incorporate armoured and mechanised battalions including the Type 59 tank., BTR - 60, Type 60 artillery and rapidly altered and integrated new war doctrines following the Tet Offensive into a mobile combined - arms force. The North Vietnamese had both amphibious tanks (such as the PT - 76) and light tanks (such the Type 62) used during the conventional phase. Experimental Soviet equipment started being used against ARVN forces at the same time, including MANPADS 9K32 Strela - 2, and anti-tank missiles including the 9M14 Malyutka. By 1975 they had fully transformed from the strategy of mobile light - infantry and using the people 's war concept used against the United States.
The US service rifle was initially the M14 (though some units were still using the WWII - era M1 Garand for a lack of M14s). Found to be unsuitable for jungle warfare, the M14 was replaced by M16 which was more accurate and lighter than the AK - 47. For a period, the gun suffered from a jamming flaw. According to a congressional report, the jamming was due to inadequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration. That issue was solved in early 1968 with the issuance of the M16A1 that featured a chrome plated.
The M60 machine gun GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun) was the main machine gun of the US army at the time and many of them were put on helicopters, to provide suppressive fire when landing in hostile regions. The MAC - 10 machine pistol was supplied to many special forces troops in the midpoint of the war. It also armed many CIA agents in the field.
Two aircraft which were prominent in the war were the AC - 130 "Spectre '' Gunship and the UH - 1 "Huey '' gunship. The AC - 130 was a heavily armed ground - attack aircraft variant of the C - 130 Hercules transport plane; it was used to provide close air support, air interdiction and force protection. The AC - 130H "Spectre '' was armed with two 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannons, one Bofors 40mm autocannon, and one 105 mm M102 howitzer. The Huey is a military helicopter powered by a single, turboshaft engine, and approximately 7,000 UH - 1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam. The US ' heavily armored, 90 mm M48A3 Patton tank saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces. At their disposal ground forces had access to B - 52 and F - 4 Phantom II and others to launch napalm, white phosphorus, tear gas and chemical weapons as well.
The Claymore M18A1, an anti-personnel mine was widely used, and is command - detonated and directional shooting 700 steel pellets in the kill zone. The aircraft ordnance used during the war included precision - guided munition, cluster bombs, a thickening / gelling agent generally mixed with petroleum or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, initially against buildings and later primarily as an anti-personnel weapon that sticks to skin and can burn down to the bone.
The Vietnam War was the first conflict where U.S. forces had secure voice communication equipment available at the tactical level. The National Security Agency ran a crash program to provide U.S. forces with a family of security equipment code named NESTOR, fielding 17,000 units initially. Eventually 30,000 units were produced. However limitations of the units, including poor voice quality, reduced range, annoying time delays and logistical support issues led to only one unit in ten being used. While many in the U.S. military believed that the Viet Cong and NVA would not be able to exploit insecure communications, interrogation of captured communication intelligence units showed they were able to understand the jargon and codes used in realtime and were often able to warn their side of impending U.S. actions.
The U.S. dropped over 7 million tons of bombs on Indochina during the war -- more than triple the 2.1 million tons of bombs the U.S. dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, and more than ten times the amount dropped by the U.S. during the Korean War. 500 thousand tons were dropped on Cambodia, 1 million tons were dropped on North Vietnam, and 4 million tons were dropped on South Vietnam. On a per capita basis, the 2 million tons dropped on Laos make it the most heavily bombed country in history; The New York Times noted this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos. '' Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to ban the weapons, and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.
Former U.S. Air Force official Earl Tilford has recounted "repeated bombing runs of a lake in central Cambodia. The B - 52s literally dropped their payloads in the lake '': The Air Force ran many missions of this kind for the purpose of securing additional funding during budget negotiations, so the amount of tonnage expended does not directly correlate with the resulting damage.
On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in President Nixon 's words, "massacre the civilians there (South Vietnam) by the millions, '' there is a widespread consensus that no mass executions in fact took place. However, in the years following the war, a vast number of South Vietnamese was sent to re-education camps where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labor. According to Amnesty International Report 1979, this figure varied considerably depend on different observers: "(...) included such figures as "50,000 to 80,000 '' (Le Monde, 19 April 1978), "150,000 '' (Reuter from Bien Hoa, 2 November 1977), "150,000 to 200,000 '' (Washington Post, 20 December 1978), and "300,000 '' (Agence France Presse from Hanoi, 12 February 1978). '' These large variation may be due to "Some estimates may include not only detainees but also people sent from the cities to the countryside. '' According to a native observer, there were 443.360 people who had to register for a period in re-education camps in Saigon alone, some of them were released after a few days, while others stayed there for more than a decade.
Gabriel García Márquez, a Nobel Prize winner writer, described South Vietnam as a "False paradise '' after the war, when he visited this country in 1980: "The cost of this delirium was stupefying: 360,000 people mutilated, a million widows, 500,000 prostitutes, 500,000 drug addicts, a million tuberculous and more than a million soldiers of the old regime, impossible to completely rehabilitate into a new society. Ten percent of the population of Ho Chi Minh City was suffering from serious venereal diseases when the war ended, and there were 4 million illiterates throughout the South. '' The US used its security council veto to block Vietnam 's recognition by the United Nations three times, an obstacle to the country receiving international aid.
By 1975, the Viet Minh had lost influence over the Cambodian communists. Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, fell to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1 -- 3 million Cambodians out of a population of around 8 million, in one of the bloodiest genocides in history.
The relationship between Vietnam and Cambodia, then ruled by the Khmer Rouge communist party, escalated right after the end of the war, April 1975. In response to the Khmer Rouge taking over Phu Quoc on 17 April and Tho Chu on 4 May 1975, and was thought to be their responsibility for the disappearance of 500 Vietnamese natives on Tho Chu, Vietnam launched a counterattack to take back these islands. After several failed attempt to negotiate from both sides, in 1978, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and outed the Khmer Rouge, who were being supported by China, in the Cambodian -- Vietnamese War. In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a brief border war, known as the Sino - Vietnamese War. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were expelled.
The Pathet Lao overthrew the monarchy of Laos in December 1975, establishing the Lao People 's Democratic Republic under the leadership of a member of the royal family, Souphanouvong. The change in regime was "quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic ' velvet revolution ' '' -- although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducation camps, often enduring harsh conditions for several years. The conflict between Hmong rebels and the Pathet Lao continued in isolated pockets.
The millions of cluster bombs the US dropped on southeast Asia rendered the landscape hazardous. In Laos alone, some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country, rendering vast swathes of land impossible to cultivate and killing or maiming 50 Laotians every year. It is estimated that the explosive that still remains buried in the ground will not be removed entirely until the next few centuries. Over 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the Indochina refugee crisis. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people. Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the United States, while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000. China accepted 250,000 people. Of all the countries of Indochina, Laos experienced the largest refugee flight in proportional terms, as 300,000 people out of a total population of 3 million crossed the border into Thailand. Included among their ranks were "about 90 percent '' of Laos 's "intellectuals, technicians, and officials. '' An estimated 200,000 to 400,000 Vietnamese boat people died at sea, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Agent Orange and similar chemical substances used by the U.S. have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries in the intervening years, including among the US Air Force crew that handled them. Scientific reports have concluded that refugees exposed to chemical sprays while in South Vietnam continued to experience pain in the eyes and skin as well as gastrointestinal upsets. In one study, ninety - two percent of participants suffered incessant fatigue; others reported monstrous births. Meta - analyses of the most current studies on the association between Agent Orange and birth defects have concluded that there is a statistically significant correlation such that having a parent who was exposed to Agent Orange at any point in their life will increase one 's likelihood of either possessing or acting as a genetic carrier of birth defects. The most common deformation appears to be spina bifida. There is substantial evidence that the birth defects carry on for three generations or more. In 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam.
In the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention. As General Maxwell Taylor, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, "First, we did n't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another Korean War, but this was a different country. Secondly, we did n't know our South Vietnamese allies... And we knew less about North Vietnam. Who was Ho Chi Minh? Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we 'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It 's very dangerous. '' President Ronald Reagan coined the term "Vietnam Syndrome '' to describe the reluctance of the American public and politicians to support further international interventions after Vietnam. According to a 2004 Gallup poll, 62 percent of Americans believed it was an unjust war. US public polling in 1978 reveal nearly 72 % of Americans believing the war was "fundamentally wrong and immoral '', nearly a decade later the number reduced to 66 % and by 1985 to 2000 surveys consistently show 34 - 35 % believing the war was fundamentally wrong and immoral. Nearly a third of Americans believed the war was a noble cause when surveyed in 2000.
Failure of the war is often placed at different institutions and levels. Some have suggested that the failure of the war was due to political failures of US leadership. The official history of the United States Army noted that "tactics have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, strategies, and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced tactical success and strategic failure... success rests not only on military progress but on correctly analysing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy 's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam. ''
Others point to a failure of US military doctrine. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that "the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion. '' The inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. miscalculation, and demonstrated the limitations of US military abilities in achieving political goals. As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, "if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power could n't do the job. '' Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, "I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented. '' U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that "in terms of military tactics, we can not help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail. ''
Hanoi had persistently sought unification of the country since the Geneva Accords, and the effects of US bombings had negligible diplomatic impacts on the goals of the North Vietnamese government. The effects of US bombing campaigns had mobilised the people throughout North Vietnam and mobilised international support for North Vietnam due to the perception of a super-power attempting to bomb a significantly smaller, agrarian society into submission.
The Vietnam War POW / MIA issue, concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for many years after the war 's conclusion. The costs of the war loom large in American popular consciousness; a 1990 poll showed that the public incorrectly believed that more Americans lost their lives in Vietnam than in World War II.
Between 1953 and 1975, the United States was estimated to have spent $168 billion on the war ($1.02 trillion in FY2015 dollars). This resulted in a large federal budget deficit. Other figures point to $138.9 billion from 1965 to 1974 (not inflation - adjusted), ten times the amount of support for all education spending in the US and 50 times more than housing and community development spending within that time period. General record - keeping was reported to have been sloppy for government spending during the war. It was stated that war - spending could have paid off every mortgage in the US at that time, with money leftover.
More than 3 million Americans served in the Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in Vietnam. James E. Westheider wrote that "At the height of American involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered combat troops. '' Conscription in the United States had been controlled by the president since World War II, but ended in 1973.
As of 2013, the U.S. government is paying Vietnam veterans and their families or survivors more than $22 billion a year in war - related claims.
By war 's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed, more than 150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been permanently disabled. The average age of the U.S. troops killed in Vietnam was 23.11 years. According to Dale Kueter, "Of those killed in combat, 86.3 percent were white, 12.5 percent were black and the remainder from other races. '' Approximately 830,000 Vietnam veterans suffered some degree of posttraumatic stress disorder. An estimated 125,000 Americans left for Canada to avoid the Vietnam draft, and approximately 50,000 American servicemen deserted. In 1977, United States president Jimmy Carter granted a full and unconditional pardon to all Vietnam - era draft dodgers.
As the Vietnam War continued inconclusively and became more unpopular with the American public, morale declined and disciplinary problems grew among American enlisted men and junior, non-career officers. Drug use, racial tensions, and the growing incidence of fragging -- attempting to kill unpopular officers and non-commissioned officers with grenades or other weapons -- created severe problems for the U.S. military and impacted its capability of undertaking combat operations. By 1971, a U.S. Army colonel writing in the Armed Forces Journal declared: "By every conceivable indicator, our army that now remains in Vietnam is in a state approaching collapse, with individual units avoiding or having refused combat, murdering their officers and non commissioned officers, drug - ridden, and dispirited where not near mutinous... The morale, discipline, and battle - worthiness of the U.S. Armed Forces are, with a few salient exceptions, lower and worse than at any time in this century and possibly in the history of the United States. '' Between 1969 and 1971 the US Army recorded more than 700 attacks by troops on their own officers. Eighty - three officers were killed and almost 650 were injured.
The Vietnam War called into question the U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps General Victor H. Krulak heavily criticised Westmoreland 's attrition strategy, calling it "wasteful of American lives... with small likelihood of a successful outcome. '' In addition, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces. Furthermore, throughout the war there was found to be considerable flaws and dishonesty by officers and commanders due to promotions being tied to the body count system touted by Westmoreland and McNamara.
Ron Milam has questioned the severity of the "breakdown '' of the U.S. armed forces, especially among combat troops, as reflecting the opinions of "angry colonels '' who deplored the erosion of traditional military values during the Vietnam War. Although acknowledging serious problems, he questions the alleged "near mutinous '' conduct of junior officers and enlisted men in combat. Investigating one combat refusal incident, a journalist declared, "A certain sense of independence, a reluctance to behave according to the military 's insistence on obedience, like pawns or puppets... The grunts (infantrymen) were determined to survive... they insisted of having something to say about the making of decisions that determined whether they might live or die. '' The morale and discipline problems and resistance to conscription (the draft) were important factors leading to the creation of an all - volunteer military force by the United States and the termination of conscription. The last conscript was inducted into the army in 1973. The all - volunteer military moderated some of the coercive methods of discipline previously used to maintain order in military ranks.
One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical defoliants between 1961 and 1971. They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.
Early in the American military effort, it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple - canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as Operation Ranch Hand. Corporations like Dow Chemical Company and Monsanto were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose. American officials also pointed out that the British had previously used 2, 4, 5 - T and 2, 4 - D (virtually identical to America 's use in Vietnam) on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s in order to destroy bushes, crops, and trees in effort to deny communist insurgents the concealment they needed to ambush passing convoys. Indeed, Secretary of State Dean Rusk told President John F. Kennedy on 24 November 1961, that "(t) he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying. ''
The defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color - coded bands, included the "Rainbow Herbicides '' -- Agent Pink, Agent Green, Agent Purple, Agent Blue, Agent White, and most famously, Agent Orange, which included dioxin as a byproduct of its manufacture. About 11 -- 12 million gallons (41.6 -- 45.4 million L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over southern Vietnam between 1961 and 1971. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the Mekong Delta, where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water 's edge.
In 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13 % of South Vietnam 's land. In 1965, 42 % of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN - controlled areas.
Vietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but District Court Judge Jack B. Weinstein dismissed their case. They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of dioxin poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard.
In 2006, Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta - analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity (different findings) between studies, a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue on the effect of Agent Orange in Vietnam. Despite this, statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects / relative risk (RR) from exposure to agent orange / dioxin "appears '' to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese - funded studies, but 1.29 in the rest of the world. There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still - births, cleft palate, and neural tube defects, with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect. The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies.
The US Veterans Administration has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, Diabetes mellitus type 2, B - cell lymphomas, soft - tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange.
Estimates of the number of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for the period 1955 to 2002. A detailed demographic study calculated 791,000 -- 1,141,000 war - related deaths during the war for all of Vietnam, for both military and civilians. Between 195,000 and 430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam in Operation Rolling Thunder range from 30,000 to 182,000. A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimates nearly 1.4 million civilians killed and wounded between 1965 and 1974, and attributed over half as resulting from US and South Vietnamese military action.
The military forces of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974 and additional deaths from 1954 to 1959 and in 1975. Other estimates point to higher figures of 313,000 casualties. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 PAVN / NLF forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials believed that these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent. In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one - third of the reported "enemy '' killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of PAVN / PLAF military forces was probably closer to 444,000.
According to figures from internal PAVN / PLAF figures released by the Vietnamese government there was 849,018 military deaths on the PAVN / NLF side during the war. The Vietnamese government released its estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of 1955 to 1975. This figure includes battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in Laotian Civil War and Cambodian Civil War in which the PAVN was a major participant and 30 - 40 % of the figure are non-combat deaths, but does not include deaths of South Vietnamese and allied soldiers.
US reports of "enemy KIA '', referred to as body count were thought to have been subject to "falsification and glorification '', and a true estimate of PAVN / NLF combat deaths may be difficult to assess, as US victories were assessed by having a "greater kill ratio ''. It was difficult to distinguish between civilians and military personnel on the Viet Cong side as many persons were part - time guerrillas or impressed labourers who did not wear uniforms and civilians actually killed were oftentimes written off as enemy KIA, with an example of the My Lai Massacre, written off as a victory. Other times there was reporting of civilians killed in air - strikes as "enemy KIA ''. Alongside standard practice in MACV operation reports that rarely made a distinction between unarmed civilians and combatants, there was drastic inflation of enemy casualties since it was directly tied to promotions and commendation. Examples include claims that the battle of Ia Drang had a body - count inflation on the order of four, and another battle where a "body - count '' of two was inflated to 200.
Between 275,000 and 310,000 Cambodians were estimated to have died during the war including between 40,000 to 150,000 combatants and civilians from US bombings. 20,000 -- 62,000 Laotians also died, and 58,318 U.S. military personnel were killed, of which 1,598 are still listed as missing as of 2018.
Unexploded ordnance, mostly from U.S. bombing, continue to detonate and kill people today. According to the Vietnamese government, ordnance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended. According to the government of Laos, unexploded ordnance has killed or injured over 20,000 Laotians since the end of the war. Casualties from Agent Orange ex (psure is not known currently.
The Vietnam War has been featured extensively in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries. In Vietnam, one notable film made during Operation Linebacker II was the film Girl from Hanoi (1975) depicting war - time life in Hanoi. Another notable work was the diary of Đặng Thùy Trâm, a Vietnamese doctor who enlisted in the Southern battlefield, and was killed at the age of 27 by US forces near Quảng Ngãi. Her diaries were later published in Vietnam as Đặng Thùy Trâm 's Diary (Last Night I Dreamed Of Peace), where it had become a best - seller and was later made into a film Do n't Burn (Đừng Đốt). In Vietnam the diary has often been compared to The Diary of Anne Frank and both are used in literary education. Another Vietnamese film produced was The Abandoned Field: Free Fire Zone (Cánh đồng hoang) in 1979 which weaves the narrative of living on the ground in a US "free - fire zone '' as well as perspectives from US helicopters.
In American popular culture, the "Crazy Vietnam Veteran '', who was suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder, became a common stock character after the war.
One of the first major films based on the Vietnam War was John Wayne 's pro-war film, The Green Berets (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, including Michael Cimino 's The Deer Hunter (1978), Francis Ford Coppola 's Apocalypse Now (1979), Oliver Stone 's Platoon (1986) -- based on his service in the U.S. military during the Vietnam War, Stanley Kubrick 's Full Metal Jacket (1987), Hamburger Hill (1987), and Casualties of War (1989). Later films would include We Were Soldiers (2002) and Rescue Dawn (2007).
The war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro / anti-communist. The band Country Joe and the Fish recorded "I - Feel - Like - I 'm - Fixin ' - To - Die Rag '' / The "Fish '' Cheer in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems. Many songwriters and musicians supported the anti-war movement, including Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Peggy Seeger, Ewan MacColl, Barbara Dane, The Critics Group, Phil Ochs, John Lennon, Nina Simone, Neil Young, Tom Paxton, Jimmy Cliff and Arlo Guthrie.
On May 25, 2012, President Barack Obama issued a proclamation of the commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War. On November 10, 2017, President Donald Trump issued an additional proclamation commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War.
General:
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i only want to be with you 2018 | I Only Want to Be with You - wikipedia
"I Only Want to Be with You '' is a rock and roll song written by Mike Hawker and Ivor Raymonde. The debut solo single released by British singer Dusty Springfield under her long - time producer Johnny Franz, "I Only Want to Be with You '' peaked at number 4 on the UK Singles chart in January 1964. Three remakes of the song have been UK chart hits, the first two by the Bay City Rollers (1976) and the Tourists (1979) matching the number 4 peak of the Dusty Springfield original, while the 1989 remake by Samantha Fox peaked at number 16. In the US on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, "I Only Want to Be with You '' has been a Top 40 hit three times, with both the Dusty Springfield original and the Bay City Rollers ' remake peaking at number 12 while the Samantha Fox remake peaked at number 31. "I Only Want to Be with You '' has also been recorded by a wide range of artists, several of whom sing the song with lyrics translated from the original English.
According to Jean Ryder, the ex-wife of songwriter Mike Hawker, "I Only Want to Be With You '' was written soon after she and Hawker married on 1 December 1961, being inspired by Hawker 's intense romantic feelings for his new bride. Ryder, who would later be a member of the Breakaways, had been a member of a vocal chorale, the Vernons Girls. Reportedly, she and Hawker had intended that she herself would record "I Only Want to Be With You ''. However, no formal arrangement for this eventuality had apparently been made by the autumn of 1963, when Hawker received a phone call from Philips A&R director Johnny Franz. Ryder paraphrases Franz as saying "Look we need something which is going to put this girl into the charts, because everybody is knocking her, everybody is saying she 'll never make it (solo) - have you got a song that 's a guaranteed hit? '' Springfield had already recorded nine solo tracks, none of which was deemed the right vehicle to launch her solo career. With Ryder 's permission, Hawker submitted "I Only Want to Be With You '' to Franz, having made a demo featuring Ryder singing while keeping the beat by tapping on a biscuit tin lid. Franz, and then Springfield, approved the song, which Springfield recorded in a 25 October 1963 session at Olympic Studios, arranged and conducted by Ivor Raymonde, and recorded by engineer Keith Grant. Jean Ryder was included in the vocal chorale on the session. For unknown reasons, a version with (Dusty 's) unadulterated vocals was rejected.
Released in November 1963, three weeks after the Springfields ' final concert, "I Only Want to Be With You '' was a global success, reaching number 4 UK, number 12 US, number 6 Australia, and number 21 Canada. In the US, Dusty Springfield was the second artist of the British Invasion, after the Beatles, to have a hit, entering the Billboard chart at number 77 in the last week of January 1964 (the Beatles having "She Loves You '' at number 69 and "I Want to Hold Your Hand '' at number 3).
Raymonde 's arrangement is unmistakable, with its relentless "ticker - ticker '' beat and cascading drum rolls, full - on choirs and "Tower of Power '' horn section pitched against soaring rock strings. It set the production standard for Springfield 's later hits, such as "Stay Awhile '' and "Little by Little ''. Springfield also recorded the song with an almost identical arrangement in German, with the title "Auf dich nur wart ' ich immerzu ''.
The song was performed by Springfield on the first - ever edition of the BBC 's Top of the Pops, on 1 January 1964.
The song was re-released in 1988, coinciding with its use in a soft - drink commercial, as a 7 '' & 12 '' single (see cover in infobox). It peaked at number 83 in the UK.
It also was featured as the theme song for the comedy series Arliss, which ran on HBO from 1996 to 2002.
In 2018, the song was used as the outro for the "Woman 's Work '' episode of The Handmaid 's Tale, as sung by Madeline Brewer in character as "Janine. ''
"Write a Letter '' (North America)
August 29, 1976 (US)
Arista (North America)
The Bay City Rollers recorded "I Only Want to Be with You '' for their 1976 album Dedication in June and July 1976 at Soundstage Studio in Toronto with producer Jimmy Ienner. Dedication was the first Bay City Rollers recorded under the auspices of Arista Records, and it was Arista president Clive Davis who suggested that the group remake "I Only Want to Be with You. '' Jimmy Ienner was chosen by Davis to produce the Bay City Rollers on the basis of Ienner 's work with the Raspberries.
In the US "I Only Want to Be with You '' was issued as advance single from Dedication in August 1976: that October the track reached a Billboard Hot 100 peak of number 12, besting the number 28 peak of the precedent Bay City Rollers ' single "Rock and Roll Love Letter '' while failing to match the Top Ten success the group had enjoyed in 1975 -- 1976 with "Saturday Night '' and in 1976 with "Money Honey ''. "I Only Want to Be with You '' appeared to wrap up the group 's burst of North American stardom as their next three US single releases were Top 40 shortfalls: however the group 's fourth US single release subsequent to "I Only Want to Be With You '': "You Made Me Believe in Magic '', did afford the group a final Top Ten hit.
Issued in the UK as a non-album single on 3 September 1976, "I Only Wanna Be with You '' -- so entitled -- reached number 4 UK, affording the Bay City Rollers ' a tenth and final Top Ten hit.
It 's noteworthy that the US and UK chart peaks of the Bay City Rollers ' 1976 remake of "I Only Want to Be with You '' exactly match the US and UK chart peaks achieved in 1964 by the Dusty Springfield original. However the Springfield original version had had a significantly stronger UK chart run holding at number 4 for 4 weeks -- as opposed to the Bay City Rollers remake 's one week chart peak -- with the original 's Top 50 tenure of 18 weeks being twice as long as the remake 's. Conversely in the US the Bay City Rollers ' remake had a Billboard Hot 100 tenure of 15 weeks while the Springfield original had maintained a Hot 100 presence for 10 weeks in total. (Comparisons between the chart impact of singles issued in distinct time periods should be considered imprecise, the methodology behind both the UK and US chart rankings having been frequently revised.)
In 1979, the song was also covered by The Tourists, a band which included Annie Lennox on vocals. This was the band 's biggest hit. The song was used on a montage of stars when Thames Television went off the air in 1992.
In 1988, Samantha Fox covered the song as "I Only Wanna Be with You '' for her album I Wanna Have Some Fun. It was released as the second single in the United States and Europe from her third studio album I Wanna Have Some Fun (1988). The song was another hit for Fox, reaching number 16 in the United Kingdom and number 31 in the United States. The music video includes scenes of Fox hunting through trash cans, dancing, fireworks, and the singer in bed with her bespectacled lover.
Television shows Fox performed the song on include Top of the Pops in 1989 and Viva el espectáculo on TVE1 in 1990.
Mexican singer Luis Miguel recorded a cover version of the song, titled "Ahora Te Puedes Marchar '' ("Now You Can Leave '') which was released as the first single from his Grammy - nominated album Soy Como Quiero Ser (1987), the first album recorded by the singer under the WEA record label. It was produced by Juan Carlos Calderón and adapted by Luis Gomez Escolar. This single became very successful, peaking at number - one in the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart for three non-consecutive weeks in 1987, being the first chart topper for the singer on the chart. At the time, Luis Miguel was the youngest to score a number - one hit on the Hot Latin Tracks at the age of 17, ironically replacing veteran Julio Iglesias at the summit. In 2005, Luis Miguel included this song on his compilation album Grandes Éxitos. This version ranked at number 28 in the Hot Latin Tracks Year - End Chart of 1988.
Two music videos were shot. The first one was shot with Angélica Rivera, while the second one was shot dancing in a bridge. The second one was included in Grandes Exitos Videos.
1964 Les Surfs as "A Présent Tu Peux t'en Aller ' '' French also recorded
1965 Enrique Guzman on his album Éxitos internacionalesas "Solo quiero estar contigo '' Spanish also recorded by Juan Ramón (es) on his album Más corazón que nunca 1966 Les Surfs as "Ahora Te Puedes Marchar '' Spanish 1967 Helena Vondráčková as "Chytila jsem na pasece motýlka '' Czech 1969 Elin as "Det har jeg altid ønsket mig '' Danish
1975 Chelsia Chan on her debut album Dark Side Of Your Mind
1976 Howard Carpendale as "Ab Heute Weht Ein Neuer Wind '' (German)
1982 Barbara Dickson on her album Here We Go... Barbara Dickson Live on Tour
1983 The Flirts on their album Flirts
1986 Southside Johnny & The Jukes on their album At Least We Got Shoes
1989 Danny Chan on his album Yat sang ho kau
1991 Maywood on their Walking Back to Happiness album 1992 Paula Koivuniemi on her album Se kesäni mun as "Haluun
1993 Beatriz Rico (es) on her album Baila Sin Parar as "Ahora Te Puedes
1997 Ash covered the song for a promotional tour 1998 * Twiggy & Twiggy on the soundtrack of Dead Man on Campus
1999 Argema (cs) on their album Milion Snů as "Žába '' Czech
2001 Me First and the Gimme Gimmes on their album Blow in the Wind 2002 Vonda Shepard on her album Songs from Ally McBeal 2003 Maleewan Jemina (th) on her 2003 album Me & Moment in Time 2004 Tommy February on her single L ・ O ・ V ・ E ・ L ・ Y ~ 夢見る LOVELY BOY ~ 2005 Taiwanese female group 7 Flowers on their eponymous album
2007 Tina Arena on her album Songs of Love & Loss
2008 Shelby Lynne on her Dusty Springfield tribute album Just a Little Lovin ' 2009 Jessica Andersson as "I Only Wanna Be With You '' on her album Wake Up
2011 Amy Macdonald: recorded 2008 for canceled multi-artist Dusty Springfield
2013 Lodovica Comello (it / es) as "I Only Want To Be With You '' on her album
2018 South Korean boy band Super Junior (ko) as "Ahora Te Puedes Marchar '' on their mini-album One More Time, their first fully Spanish song after Korean / Spanish collaborations with Leslie Grace and Reik
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when was the current president of mexico elected | President of Mexico - wikipedia
The President of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos), commonly shortened to President of Mexico, is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces. The current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1, 2012.
Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, in that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917. Another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six - year term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the presidential system of government.
Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the executive branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president, as well as the qualifications for the office. He is vested with the "supreme executive power of the Union ''.
To be eligible to serve as president, Article 82 of the Constitution specifies that the following requirements must be met:
The ban on any sort of presidential re-election dates back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution. It is so entrenched in Mexican politics that it has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a second consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election. However, the president remained barred from re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive.
The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, and has been set at six years since 1934. The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election.
The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36.38 % of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results). Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43 % of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48 % of the vote, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50 %. The current president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38 % of the popular vote.
The history of Mexico has not been a peaceful one. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 because of the Mexican Revolution, there was no stable government until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, which later changed its name to the Party of the Mexican Revolution, and is now the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional). From then until 1988, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one - party state.
Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI 's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as "the tap of the finger '' (Spanish: el dedazo). Until 1988, the PRI 's candidate was virtually assured of election, winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote -- results that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. In 1988, however, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center - left parties (now the PRD). Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front 's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to a majority, and might actually be defeated. While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to stronger than ever allegations of electoral fraud.
The PRI enacted a strict internal discipline and government presence in the country, and electoral fraud became common. After the country regained its peace, this pattern of fraud continued, with the opposition losing every election until the later part of the 20th century. The first presidential election broadly considered legitimate was the one held in 1994, when the PRI 's Ernesto Zedillo took office, and in his term several reforms were enacted to ensure fairness and transparency in elections. Partly as a consequence of these reforms, the 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN / PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. This historical defeat was accepted on election night by the PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election.
The role of unions in the new balance of power and future elections is documented in works like historian Enrique Krauze 's Analysis of the Corporative System.
After the presidential election, political parties may issue challenges to the election. These challenges are heard by the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judicial Power; after it has heard and ruled on them, the Tribunal must either declare the election invalid, or certify the results of the elections in accordance to their rulings. Once the Tribunal declares the election valid, it issues a "Certificate of Majority '' (Constancia de Mayoría) to the candidate who obtained a plurality. That candidate then becomes President - elect. The final decision is made in September, two months after the election is carried out.
The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States, providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than his American counterpart. However, this has only recently become the case in practice.
For the first 71 years after the enactment of the 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the de facto monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, he effectively chose his successor as president by personally nominating the PRI 's candidate in the next election. In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed him to designate party officials and candidates all the way down to the local level. He thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of his power had to be shared with unions and other groups, but as an individual he had no peers). This, and his constitutional powers, made some political commentators describe the president as a six - year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency ''. The situation remained largely unchanged until the early 1980s, when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president 's power was no longer absolute but still impressive.
An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once he assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection '' is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect his successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single man holding power for decades, prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico 's political system "the perfect dictatorship '', since the president 's powers were cloaked by democratic practice.
With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president 's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administration, called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy ''. The current rights and powers of the president of Mexico are established, limited and enumerated by Article 89 of the Constitution which include the following:
A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, and the President may issue decrees as well. However, they have all the power of laws, but can not be changed except by the power that issued them. Decrees are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which is issued by congress. The president 's office may suggest a budget, but at the end of the day, it is congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox 's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress.
Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and the ruling President usually found his efforts blocked: the PRI 's Zedillo by opposing PAN / PRD congressmen, and later the PAN 's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and vice versa. This situation, novel in a country where Congress was + 90 % dominated by the president 's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president 's power. Formerly almost a dictator (because of PRI 's party discipline), the current times show the president 's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, non jurisprudence - setting ruling stated he could return the budget with observations).
Upon taking office, the President raises his / her right arm to shoulder - level and takes the following oath:
Protesto guardar y hacer guardar la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos y las leyes que de ella emanen, y desempeñar leal y patrióticamente el cargo de Presidente de la República que el pueblo me ha conferido, mirando en todo por el bien y prosperidad de la Unión; y si así no lo hiciere que la Nación me lo demande.
Translation:
I affirm to follow and uphold the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States and the laws that emanate from it, and to perform the office of President of the Republic which the people have conferred upon me with loyalty and patriotism, in all actions looking after the good and prosperity of the Union; and if I do not fulfill these obligations, may the Nation demand it of me.
The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with red on top, white in the center, and green on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest - high. During the swearing - in ceremony of a newly elected President, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of Congress, who in turn gives it to the new President after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and may only be worn by the current President.
According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, the President must wear the sash at the swearing - in ceremony, when he makes his annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on September 15 of each year, and when he receives the diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. He is also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity ''. The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat except during the swearing - in ceremony, when both the out - going and incoming president wear it over their coat (Article 36).
In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; the flag has imprinted the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold.
The President 's official residence and main workplace is Los Pinos, located inside the Bosque de Chapultepec (Chapultepec Park). The President has the right to use this residence for the six - year term of office.
The National Palace, a building facing the Mexico City Zócalo, is officially the seat of the Executive Power, but is used only for ceremonies or national holidays such as Independence Day or Revolution Day. Some areas of the historic building are open to the public, and others hold some government offices.
The President also has the use of Chapultepec Castle, formerly an Imperial palace of the Second Mexican Empire, and afterwards the official residence of Mexican Presidents until the Presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas.
Article 84 of the Mexican Constitution states that "in case of absolute absence of a President '' the following should happen:
No person who has already served as President, whether elected, Provisional, Interim, or Substitute, can be designated as Provisional, Interim, or Substitute President.
The designation of the Secretary of the Interior as the immediate successor dates to August 2012, when the changes to the Constitution were published in the Official Diary.
The succession provisions have come into play only twice since the current constitution was enacted. In 1928, after the assassination of president - elect Álvaro Obregón, Congress appointed Emilio Portes Gil as Interim President; Portes Gil served in the position for 14 months while new elections were called. Pascual Ortiz Rubio was elected President in the special elections that followed in 1930, but he resigned in 1932. Abelardo L. Rodríguez was then appointed Interim President to fill out the remainder of Ortiz Rubio 's term (under current law Rodríguez would be Substitute President, but at the time there was no distinction between Interim, Substitute, and Provisional Presidents).
There are five living former presidents. The most recent former president to die was Miguel de la Madrid (1982 -- 1988), on 1 April 2012.
Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry the title "President '' until death but are rarely referred by it; they are commonly called ex-Presidents. They are also given protection by the Estado Mayor Presidencial. Former presidents are also given a lifelong pension, which they can refuse, as in the case of Ernesto Zedillo.
Contrary to what happens in many other countries, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead a discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas. Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for the last five years. However, when Cárdenas showed he was going to rule in fact as well as in name, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho, establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors.
For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in the United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self - imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI 's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. Carlos Salinas also lived in a self - imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas, freed after he was jailed in the early days of Zedillo 's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu. Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several prestigious universities in that country. Felipe Calderón was given a contract to work as a professor for Harvard University in 2013, but he returned to Mexico in 2014. It was rumored that he would look after the then newly created Humanist Party; this fact was eventually denied by his wife.
Along with Felipe Calderón, two other surviving former presidents, Luis Echeverría and Vicente Fox, still live in Mexico. On June 30, 2006, Echeverría was placed under house arrest under charges of genocide for his role as Secretary of the Interior during the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. The house arrest was lifted in 2009.
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can't take my eyes off you french version | Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You - wikipedia
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' is a 1967 single credited to Frankie Valli. The song was among his biggest hits, earning a gold record and reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a week, stuck behind "Windy '' by The Association. It was co-written by producer Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio, a bandmate of Valli 's in The Four Seasons. It was Valli 's biggest solo hit until he hit # 1 in 1974 with "My Eyes Adored You ''.
"Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' has had hundreds of cover versions, many of which have been on the charts in different countries. The song is a staple of television and film soundtracks, even being featured as part of the plot of some films, such as when the lead characters sing or arrange their own version of the song. Its chorus has also become a popular football chant, with supporters of various teams inserting their club 's name or a popular player 's name into the beat (for instance, A.S. Roma fans sing "Francesco Totti, la la, la la la la! ''). The Valli version was also used by NASA as a wake - up song on the STS - 126 space shuttle mission, to celebrate the anniversary of astronaut Christopher Ferguson, one of the mission 's crew members.
The song was written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio. Arrangement was done by Artie Schroeck and Gaudio. The original recording was made at A&R Recording Studios at 799 7th Avenue, with Bob Crewe producing and Phil Ramone engineering.
The song has been covered by some 200 artists over the years, in many countries, under both versions of the title. A few notable examples of cover versions that appeared on the charts:
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when did the battle of beaumont hamel end | Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland memorial - wikipedia
Statistics source: Cemetery details. Commonwealth War Graves Commission.
The Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial is a memorial site in France dedicated to the commemoration of Dominion of Newfoundland forces members who were killed during World War I. The 74 - acre (300,000 m) preserved battlefield park encompasses the grounds over which the Newfoundland Regiment made their unsuccessful attack on 1 July 1916 during the first day of the Battle of the Somme.
The Battle of the Somme was the regiment 's first major engagement, and during an assault that lasted approximately 30 minutes the regiment was all but wiped out. Purchased in 1921 by the people of Newfoundland, the memorial site is the largest battalion memorial on the Western Front, and the largest area of the Somme battlefield that has been preserved. Along with preserved trench lines, there are a number of memorials and cemeteries contained within the site.
Officially opened by British Field Marshal Earl Haig in 1925, the memorial site is one of only two National Historic Sites of Canada located outside of Canada. (The other is the Canadian National Vimy Memorial). The memorial site and experience of the Newfoundland Regiment at Beaumont - Hamel has come to represent the Newfoundland First World War experience. As a result, it has become a Newfoundland symbol of sacrifice and a source of identity.
During the First World War, Newfoundland was a largely rural Dominion of the British Empire with a population of 240,000, and not yet part of Canada. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led the Government of Newfoundland to recruit a force for service with the British Army. Even though the island had not possessed any formal military organization since 1870, enough men soon volunteered that an entire battalion was formed, and later maintained throughout the war. The regiment trained at various locations in the United Kingdom and increased from an initial contingent of 500 men to full battalion strength of 1,000 men, before being deployed. After a period of acclimatization in Egypt, the regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay on the Gallipoli peninsula with the 29th British Division in support of the Gallipoli Campaign. With the close of the Gallipoli Campaign the regiment spent a short period recuperating before being transferred to the Western Front in March 1916.
In France, the regiment regained battalion strength in preparation for the Battle of the Somme. The regiment, still with the 29th British Division, went into the line in April 1916 at Beaumont - Hamel. Beaumont - Hamel was situated near the northern end of the 45 - kilometre front being assaulted by the joint French and British force. The attack, originally scheduled for 29 June 1916 was postponed by two days to July 1, 1916, partly on account of inclement weather, partly to allow more time for the artillery preparation. The 29th British Division, with its three infantry brigades faced defences manned by experienced troops of the 119th (Reserve) Infantry Regiment of the 26th (Wurttemberg) Reserve Division. The 119th (Reserve) Infantry Regiment had been involved in the invasion of France in August 1914 and had been manning the Beaumont - Hamel section of the line for nearly 20 months prior to the battle. The German troops were spending a great deal of their time not only training but fortifying their position, including the construction of numerous deep dugouts and at least two tunnels.
The infantry assault by the 29th British Division on 1 July 1916 was to be preceded ten minutes earlier by a mine explosion under the heavily fortified Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt. The explosion of the 18,000 kilogram (40,000 lb) Hawthorn Mine underneath the German lines successfully destroyed a major enemy strong point but also served to alert the German forces to the imminent attack. Following the explosion, troops of the 119th (Reserve) Infantry Regiment immediately deployed from their dugouts into the firing line, even preventing the British from taking control of the resulting crater as they had planned. When the assault finally began, the troops from the 86th and 87th Brigade of the 29th British Division were quickly stopped. With the exception of the 1st Battalion of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers on the right flank, the initial assault foundered in No Man 's Land at, or short of, the German barbed wire. At divisional headquarters, Major - General Beauvoir De Lisle and his staff were trying to unravel the numerous and confusing messages coming back from observation posts, contact aircraft and the two leading brigades. There were indications that some troops had broken into and gone beyond the German first line. In an effort to exploit the perceived break in the German line he ordered the 88th Brigade, which was in reserve, to send forward two battalions to support attack.
At 8: 45 a.m. the Newfoundland Regiment and 1st Battalion of the Essex Regiment received orders to move forward. The Newfoundland Regiment was situated at St. John 's Road, a support trench 250 yards (230 m) behind the British forward line and out of sight of the enemy. Movement forward through the communication trenches was not possible because they were congested with dead and wounded men and under shell fire. Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Lovell Hadow, the battalion commander, decided to move immediately into attack formation and advance across the surface, which involved first navigating through the British barbed wire defences. As they breasted the skyline behind the British first line, they were effectively the only troops moving on the battlefield and clearly visible to the German defenders. Subjected to the full force of the 119th (Reserve) Infantry Regiment, most of the Newfoundland Regiment who had started forward were dead, dying or wounded within 15 to 20 minutes of leaving St. John 's Road trench. Most reached no further than the Danger Tree, a skeleton of a tree that lay in No Man 's Land that was being utilized as a landmark. So far as can be ascertained, 22 officers and 758 other ranks were directly involved in the advance. Of these, all the officers and slightly under 658 other ranks became casualties. Of the 780 men who went forward only about 110 survived unscathed, of whom only 68 were available for roll call the following day. For all intents and purposes the Newfoundland Regiment had been wiped out, the unit as a whole having suffered a casualty rate of approximately 80 %. The only unit to suffer greater casualties during the attack was the 10th Battalion of the West Yorkshire Regiment, attacking west of Fricourt village.
Major - General Sir Beauvoir De Lisle referring to the Newfoundland Regiment at Beaumont - Hamel
After July 1916, the Beaumont - Hamel front remained relatively quiet while the Battle of the Somme continued to the south. In the final act in the Somme Offensive, Beaumont - Hamel was assaulted by the 51st (Highland) Division on 13 November 1916 on the opening of the Battle of the Ancre. Within two days, all the 29th Division objectives of 1 July had been taken along with a great many German prisoners. The area of the memorial site then became a rear area with troops lodged in the former German dugouts and a camp was established in the vicinity of the present Y Ravine Cemetery. With the German withdrawal in March 1917 to the Hindenburg Line, about 30 kilometres from Beaumont - Hamel, the battlefield salvage parties moved in, many dugouts were closed off and initial efforts were probably made to restore some of the land to agriculture. However, in March 1918, the German Spring Offensive was here checked on exactly the same battle lines as before. Until the Battle of Amiens and the German withdrawal in late August 1918, the protagonists confronted each other over the same ground, although the only actions were those of routine front line trench raids, patrols and artillery harassment.
In 1921, Newfoundland purchased the ground over which the Newfoundland Regiment made its unsuccessful attack during the first day of the Battle of the Somme. Much of the credit for the establishment of the 74 - acre (300,000 m) memorial site is given to Lieutenant Colonel Tom Nangle, the former Roman Catholic Priest of the regiment. As Director of Graves Registration and Enquiry and Newfoundland 's representative on the Imperial War Graves Commission he negotiated with some 250 French landowners for the purchase of the site. He also played a leading role in selecting and developing the sites where the Newfoundland memorials currently stand, as well as supervising the construction of each memorial. The memorials, including that at the Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial site, were constructed for the Government of Newfoundland between 1924 and 1925.
The Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial site was officially opened, and the memorial unveiled, by Field Marshal Earl Haig on 7 June 1925. Since Newfoundland 's confederation with Canada in 1949, the Canadian Government, through the Department of Veterans Affairs, has been responsible for the site 's maintenance and care. The site had fallen into some disrepair during the German occupation of France in the Second World War and following confederation the replacement of the original site cabin with a modern building as well as some trench restoration work was undertaken in time for the 45th anniversary of the battle. The memorial site was established as one of only two National Historic Sites of Canada located outside of Canada by the then Minister of Canadian Heritage Sheila Copps on 10 April 1997.
The Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial site is situated 9 kilometres (6 mi) north of Albert, France near the village of Beaumont - Hamel in an area containing numerous cemeteries and memorials related to the Battle of the Somme. The site is one of the few places on the former Western Front where a visitor can see the trench lines of the First World War and the related terrain in a preserved natural state. It is the largest site dedicated to the memory of the Newfoundland Regiment, the largest battalion memorial on the Western Front, and the largest area of the Somme battlefield that has been preserved.
Although the site was founded to honour the memory of the Newfoundland Regiment, it also contains a number of memorials as well as four cemeteries maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission; that of Y Ravine Cemetery, Hawthorn Ridge Cemeteries No. 1 and No. 2 and the unusual mass burial site of Hunter 's Cemetery. Beyond being a popular location for battlefield tours the site is also an important location in the burgeoning field of First World War battlefield archaeology, because of its preserved and largely undisturbed state. The ever - increasing number of visitors to the Memorial has resulted in the authorities taking measures to control access by fencing off certain areas of the former battlefield.
Near the entrance to site is situated a memorial to the 29th British Division, the division of which the Newfoundland Regiment was a part. Lieutenant - General Beauvoir De Lisle, wartime commander of the 29th British Division, unveiled the monument the morning of the official opening of the site on 7 June 1925. Each wartime unit of the 29th British Division sent a representative to form a guard of honour for the occasion. Afterwards, this detachment, joined by French infantry from Arras formed the honour guard for the unveiling of the Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial.
The memorial is one of six memorials erected by the Government of Newfoundland following the First World War. Five were erected in France and Belgium and the sixth at Bowring Park in St. John 's, Newfoundland, Canada. The memorial is a bronze caribou, the emblem of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment, standing atop a cairn of Newfoundland granite facing the former foe with head thrown high in defiance. At the Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial site the mound rises approximately 50 feet (15 m) from ground level. The mounds are also surrounded by native Newfoundland plants. At the base of the Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial mound, three bronze tablets carry the names of 820 members of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment, the Newfoundland Royal Naval Reserve, and the Mercantile Marines who gave their lives in the First World War and have no known grave. The memorial is situated close to the headquarters dugout of the 88th Brigade, the brigade of which the Newfoundland Regiment was a part. Sixteen memorial designs were submitted to Nangle for review. He recommended that the government accept British sculptor Basil Gotto 's plan to erect five identical caribou statues in memory of the regiment. Gotto was already well known in Newfoundland as he had been previously commissioned to execute the statue of the Fighting Newfoundlander located in Bowring Park. The landscape architect who designed the sites and supervised their construction, was Rudolph Cochius, a native of the Netherlands living in St. John 's. It was decided to plant many of Newfoundland 's native tree species, such as spruce, dogberry and juniper, along the boundaries of the site. In total, over 5,000 trees were transplanted before the project was completed in 1925. The memorial was unveiled at the official opening of the site by Field Marshal Earl Haig on 7 June 1925. Those that participated or were present included Chief of the French General Staff, Marshal of France Marie Émile Fayolle, Newfoundland Colonial Secretary John Bennett, Lieutenant Generals Aylmer Hunter - Weston and Beauvoir De Lisle, Major - General D.E. Cayley and former regimental commanding officers Lieutenant - Colonel Arthur Lovell and Adolph Ernest Bernard.
Overlooking Y Ravine is the memorial to 51st (Highland) Division. The ground originally donated by the commune of Beaumont - Hamel to the Veterans of the 51st Division was found to be unstable because of the many dugouts beneath it. Lieutenant Colonel Nangle offered a location overlooking Y Ravine within the Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial site. The Y ravine had been the scene of fierce fighting for the division on 13 November 1916. The selected sculptor for the 51st Division Monument was George Henry Paulin. The base of the monument consists of rough blocks of Rubislaw granite which were produced by Garden & Co. in Aberdeen, Scotland, and are assembled in a pyramid form. Company Sergeant Major Bob Rowan of the Glasgow Highlanders was used as the model for the kilted figure atop the memorial. The figure faces east towards the village of Beaumont - Hamel. On the front is a plaque inscribed in Gaelic: La a'Blair s'math n Cairdean which in English translates as "Friends are good on the day of battle ''. The 51st Division Monument was unveiled on 28 September 1924 by Marshal of France Ferdinand Foch, the former Allied Supreme Commander. The memorial was rededicated on 13 July 1958, the front panel now referring to not only those who died during the First World War but the Second as well. A wooden Celtic cross directly across the track from the memorial was originally sited at High Wood and subsequently moved to the Newfoundland site. The cross commemorates the men of the 51st Highland Division who fell at High Wood in July 1916.
The Danger Tree had been part of a clump of trees located about halfway into No Man 's Land and had originally been used as a landmark by a Newfoundland Regiment trench raiding party in the days before the Battle of the Somme. British and German artillery bombardments eventually stripped the tree of leaves and left nothing more than a shattered tree trunk. During the Newfoundland Regiment 's infantry assault, the tree was once again used as a landmark, where the troops were ordered to gather. The tree was however a highly visible landmark for the German artillery and the site proved to be a location where the German shrapnel was particularly deadly. As a result, the regiment suffered a large concentration of casualties around the tree. A replica representation of the twisted tree now stands at the spot.
There is a Visitors ' Centre which exhibits the historical and social circumstances of Newfoundland at the beginning of the 20th century and traces the history of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment and some of its personalities. A Memorial room within the Centre houses a copy of the Newfoundland Book of Remembrance, along with a bronze plaque listing the Battle Honours won by the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. The centre also incorporates the administrative offices and site archive. Canadian student guides based at the site are available to provide guided tours or explain particular facets of the battlefield and the Newfoundland involvement.
The significance of the events at Beaumont - Hamel on the first day of the Battle of the Somme was perhaps most strongly felt by the Dominion of Newfoundland, as it was the first great conflict experienced by that dominion. Newfoundland was left with a sense of loss that marked an entire generation. The effects on the post-war generation were compounded by chronic financial problems caused both by Newfoundland 's large debt from the war, and a prolonged post-war economic recession due to a decline in the fisheries.
Lasting impressions of the war experience are ever - prevalent on the island. In Canada, 1 July is celebrated as Canada Day, in recognition of Canadian confederation. In the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador the date is Memorial Day, in remembrance of the Newfoundland Regiment 's losses at Beaumont - Hamel. Memorial University College, now Memorial University of Newfoundland, was originally established as a memorial to Newfoundlanders who had lost their lives in active service during the First World War. Lastly, the six caribou memorials and the National War Memorial erected following the First World War, and the establishment of the preserved battlefield park at Beaumont - Hamel which is visited by thousands of tourists a year. The Beaumont - Hamel Newfoundland Memorial site also serves an informal ambassadorial function, educating visitors not only about the experience of the Newfoundland Regiment but also regarding the history of the island.
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when is the last time the bears went to the superbowl | Super Bowl XLI - wikipedia
Super Bowl XLI was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Indianapolis Colts and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Chicago Bears to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2006 season. The Colts defeated the Bears by the score of 29 -- 17. The game was played on February 4, 2007, at Dolphin Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida.
This game featured two teams ending long Super Bowl appearance droughts. The Colts, who finished with a 12 -- 4 regular season record, were making their first Super Bowl appearance since winning Super Bowl V in the 1970 season during the team 's tenure in Baltimore; they had moved to Indianapolis in 1984. Meanwhile, the Bears, who posted an NFC - best 13 -- 3 regular season record, were making their first appearance since winning Super Bowl XX in the 1985 season. In addition, the Bears ' Lovie Smith and the Colts ' Tony Dungy both became the first African - American head coaches to coach in the Super Bowl, with Dungy the first to win.
In the first Super Bowl played in rainy conditions, the Colts overcame a 14 -- 6 first - quarter deficit to outscore the Bears 23 -- 3 in the last three quarters. Chicago posted the then - earliest lead in Super Bowl history when returner Devin Hester ran back the opening kickoff 92 yards for a touchdown after 14 seconds had elapsed (a record later broken in Super Bowl XLVIII when the Seattle Seahawks scored a safety 12 seconds into the game). The Colts forced five turnovers, including cornerback Kelvin Hayden 's 56 - yard interception return for a touchdown. Indianapolis kicker Adam Vinatieri also scored three field goals. Colts quarterback Peyton Manning was named the game 's Most Valuable Player (MVP), completing 25 of 38 passes for 247 yards and a touchdown, with one interception for a passer rating of 81.8.
CBS ' broadcast of the game was watched by an estimated average of 93.2 million viewers, making it at the time the fifth most watched program in U.S. television history. The halftime show, headlined by the musician Prince, peaked at 140 million television viewers, and was widely acclaimed by music critics.
Dolphin Stadium won the bid to host Super Bowl XLI on September 17, 2003 after a campaign against Phoenix, Tampa, New York City, and Washington, D.C. With this game, the Miami Metropolitan Area tied New Orleans, Louisiana as the city to host the most Super Bowls (9).
This was the fourth Super Bowl at Dolphin Stadium, which has also been known as "Joe Robbie Stadium '' and "Pro Player Stadium ''. The venue previously hosted Super Bowls XXIII (broadcast on NBC), XXIX (on ABC), and XXXIII (on FOX). Super Bowls II, III, V, X, and XIII were also in Miami, but held at the Miami Orange Bowl. This was the first Super Bowl played at the stadium since the city of Miami Gardens where the stadium is located was incorporated on May 13, 2003.
In February 2006, the NFL and the South Florida Super Bowl XLI Host Committee unveiled the slogan "one game, one dream '' for the game, referring to the entire South Florida region working together to present the event. The Super Bowl XLI logo was also unveiled, featuring the colors orange (to represent the sun) and blue (for the ocean). The "I '' in the Roman numeral "XLI '' was drawn to resemble a pylon placed at each corner of an end zone because "the goal is to get to the game. '' This year 's logo has the same shade of orange as the logo of the host city 's home team, the Miami Dolphins. The "XL '' part is similar to that of Super Bowl XL 's logo.
The Colts ' first trip to the Super Bowl in 36 years set a record for longest time between appearances by a team. Their return was the culmination of a nine - year - long building process. In 1998, they drafted quarterback Peyton Manning to lead the team. Over the next four seasons, Manning, along with other stars such as receiver Marvin Harrison and running back Edgerrin James, turned the Colts into one of the best offensive teams in the NFL, but the team struggled to find consistency on defense and always ended up with either a losing season or elimination from the playoffs in the first round. In 2002, Indianapolis fired head coach Jim Mora and replaced him with Tony Dungy. Dungy had developed one of the best defenses in the NFL while coaching the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and it was hoped he could solve the Colts ' defensive problems as well.
Over the next four seasons, the Colts won 48 of 64 games, but still could not find much success in the postseason. In 2002, they were blown out 41 -- 0 in the wild card round by the New York Jets. In 2003, they won their first two playoff games behind impressive offensive performances, and reached the AFC title game. There, they lost to the eventual champion New England Patriots 24 -- 14, with Manning throwing four interceptions. In 2004, the Colts had one of the most spectacular offensive seasons in NFL history, scoring 522 points and gaining 6,582 yards, while Manning set NFL records for most touchdown passes and highest passer rating. But again the Patriots ' defense (and snowy conditions) proved too formidable, as they lost 20 -- 3 in the divisional round of the playoffs.
In 2005, the Colts ' defense improved, making the team the clear favorites in the NFL. They won the first 13 games of the season and finished with a 14 -- 2 record, while ranking second in the NFL in both points scored and fewest points allowed. But once again they lost in the divisional round of the playoffs, this time to the # 6 seeded Pittsburgh Steelers, 21 -- 18. After another disappointing loss, Manning had developed a reputation of being unable to make it to a championship, a reputation that followed him from college after he was unable to win an NCAA title with the Tennessee Volunteers (who won a title the year after he graduated). The Colts lost some key players after the 2005 season, including James, who departed the Colts for the Arizona Cardinals, and kicker Mike Vanderjagt, the NFL 's all - time leader in field goal percentage, who left for the Dallas Cowboys.
Still, the Colts remained one of the AFC 's top teams in the 2006 season. Manning made the Pro Bowl for the 7th time in his career, completing 362 of 555 passes for 4,397 yards and an NFL - best 31 touchdowns, with an additional 4 rushing touchdowns and with only 9 interceptions and 15 sacks. His favorite target was Harrison, who caught 95 passes for 1,366 yards and 12 touchdowns. Receiver Reggie Wayne was also a major deep threat with 86 receptions for 1,310 yards and 9 touchdowns. Tight ends Ben Utecht and Dallas Clark were also reliable targets, each recording over 30 receptions for over 300 yards. On the ground, rookie running back Joseph Addai led the team with 1,081 yards and a 4.8 yards - per - carry average despite not starting any games in the regular season. He also caught 40 receptions for 325 yards and scored 8 touchdowns. Running back Dominic Rhodes was also a major contributor, rushing for 641 yards and catching 36 passes for 251 yards. The offensive line was led by Pro Bowlers Jeff Saturday and Tarik Glenn. On special teams, the Colts signed kicker Adam Vinatieri to replace Vanderjagt. While Vinatieri 's career field goal percentage was lower, the Colts considered him to be an improvement because of his reputation for making "clutch '' kicks, a reputation aided by his game winning field goals in Super Bowl XXXVI and Super Bowl XXXVIII.
Indianapolis ' defense ranked second in the NFL in fewest passing yards allowed. Dwight Freeney and Robert Mathis (who recorded 9.5 sacks and forced 4 fumbles) were widely considered to be among the best pass - rushing defensive ends in the NFL. Behind them, linebacker Cato June led the team in tackles (92) and interceptions (3). The Colts ' run defense, however, was a major problem, giving up 2,768 yards on the ground, an average of 173 per game and last in the NFL. Another major issue for the Colts was their coverage teams, as they ranked 30th out of 32 teams in average kickoff return yardage allowed and 31st in average punt return yardage allowed.
Indianapolis started out the season winning their first nine games, but ended up losing four of their next seven and finished with a 12 -- 4 record, giving them the # 3 playoff seed. Thus, having to play in a wild card playoff game. In the playoffs, they defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 23 - 8, defeated the Baltimore Ravens 15 - 6 in the divisional round, and advanced to Super Bowl XLI with a 38 - 34 win over the New England Patriots in the AFC Championship game.
Chicago finished the season with an NFC best 13 -- 3 record and advanced to the second Super Bowl in franchise history. They defeated the Seattle Seahawks 27 - 24 in the divisional round of the playoffs, and the New Orleans Saints 39 - 14 in the NFC Championship game to advance to Super Bowl XLI. The team excelled on defense, ranking third in fewest points allowed (255) and second in fewest points allowed per drive. They also ranked second in scoring (427 points), although only tenth in points per offensive drive thanks to a league leading 65 points scored on defensive or special teams plays.
The Bears offense was led by quarterback Rex Grossman, the team 's first round draft pick in 2003. Over the previous three seasons, Grossman had played in just 8 regular season games due to injuries, but he recovered to start in all 16 games in 2006. By the end of the season, he finished with 3,193 yards and 23 touchdowns, the most by a Bears quarterback since 1995. Grossman had difficulty avoiding turnovers, however, and threw 20 interceptions and lost five fumbles during the year. In the last seven games of the season, he turned the ball over 18 times. Many fans and sports writers expected head coach Lovie Smith to bench him at some point, but Smith insisted that Grossman would be the starter throughout the entire season.
Receivers Muhsin Muhammad (60 receptions, 863 yards, 5 touchdowns) and Bernard Berrian (51 receptions, 775 yards, 7 touchdowns) provided the main deep threat on the team, along with tight end Desmond Clark, who caught 45 passes for 626 yards and 6 touchdowns. Chicago 's running game was led by running backs Thomas Jones and Cedric Benson. Jones rushed for 1,210 yards and caught 36 passes, while Benson rushed for 647 yards and scored 6 touchdowns.
Chicago 's defense allowed the 5th least total yardage, allowed less than 100 yards per game on the ground, and allowed the fewest yards per drive of any NFL team. The line was anchored by Adewale Ogunleye, who had 6.5 sacks, and Pro Bowler Tommie Harris, who recorded 5, along with rookie Mark Anderson, who led the team with 12 sacks. Behind them, two of the three Bears starting linebackers, Lance Briggs, and Brian Urlacher, were selected to the 2007 Pro Bowl. In the secondary, cornerbacks Ricky Manning and Charles Tillman each recorded five interceptions. The defense was also able to make up for the offense 's poor performance earlier in the season, as explained in the win against the Cardinals in Week 6.
The loss of Harris to injury after the twelfth game of the season coincided with a decline in defensive performance. Before his loss, the Bears allowed only two opponents to score more than twenty points (23 points to the Arizona Cardinals in week six and 31 to the Miami Dolphins in week 9). After his injury, Chicago opponents scored more than 20 points in six of the seven remaining games, including two of three playoff games. Only the New Orleans Saints in the NFC Championship game were held below 21 points.
The Bears ' special teams sent three players to the Pro Bowl, including special teams ace Brendon Ayanbadejo, kicker Robbie Gould (who led all NFL kickers with 143 points), and rookie return man Devin Hester, who gained 600 punt return yards with a 12.8 yards per return average, the second highest in the NFL. He also set a league record with 6 touchdowns on special teams.
The chart below provides a comparison of regular season statistics in key categories (overall rank amongst 32 teams in parentheses).
Although the Colts ' rushing defense looked extremely weak during the season, it ended up being a key factor on their road to the Super Bowl. First, Indianapolis defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 23 -- 8, holding Chiefs running back Larry Johnson (who rushed for 1,789 yards during the season) to just 32 yards on 13 carries. Then, they defeated the Baltimore Ravens 15 -- 6, winning on a playoff record - tying five field goals by Vinatieri and holding running back Jamal Lewis (who rushed for 1,132 yards during the season) to just 53 yards.
Then the Colts faced their arch - rival New England Patriots in the AFC Championship Game. New England jumped to an early 21 -- 3 lead, but Indianapolis stormed back in the second half, outscoring the Patriots 32 -- 13 with an additional field goal late in the first half. With 2: 22 left in the game, the Colts had the ball on their own 20 - yard line trailing 34 -- 31. On the first four plays of the drive, Manning completed three passes, moving the ball 69 yards to the Patriots 11 - yard line in just 24 seconds. Three plays later, Addai scored a 3 - yard touchdown run to put them in the lead, 38 -- 34 with only 60 seconds left in regulation. The Patriots responded with a drive to the Colts 45 - yard line, but defensive back Marlin Jackson ended the drive with an interception to give Indianapolis the win. This happened to be the biggest comeback in AFC - NFC Conference Championship history.
Meanwhile, the Bears started out their post-season with a 27 -- 24 win over the Seattle Seahawks with Robbie Gould 's 49 - yard field goal in overtime. One week later, they defeated the New Orleans Saints 39 -- 14 in the NFC Championship Game. Chicago dominated most of the game, jumping to a 16 -- 0 early lead. Two touchdown passes from Saints quarterback Drew Brees, cut the score to 16 -- 14, but the Bears responded with 23 unanswered points to propel them to their first Super Bowl since 1985. Thomas Jones finished the game with a franchise postseason record 123 rushing yards and two touchdowns.
It was the first time since the 1996 postseason that the home team won both of the conference championship games. The Colts were the first dome team to win the Super Bowl in an outdoor game (the St. Louis Rams were the first dome team to win a Super Bowl, XXXIV inside the Georgia Dome in Atlanta). The 2006 Indianapolis Colts were the first division champion to win a Super Bowl with four postseason wins and the second division champion (2003 Carolina Panthers) to win a conference title with three postseason wins.
For the Bears, this marked the first time that a Chicago sports team not owned by Jerry Reinsdorf had reached the champion game / series in their league since the Blackhawks lost in the 1992 Stanley Cup Finals.
The Indianapolis Colts held pre-game practices for Super Bowl XLI at the Miami Dolphins Training Facility on the campus of Nova Southeastern University in Davie, Florida. The Colts ' "Team and Family '' hotel was the Marriott Harbor Beach. At the 2007 Indianapolis 500 pre-race ceremonies on May 27, 2007, eventual Super Bowl XLI MVP Peyton Manning stated to ABC Sports commentator Brent Musburger the day before the game that two - time Indianapolis 500 winner Hélio Castroneves gave a pep talk to the Colts team.
The Chicago Bears held pre-game practices for Super Bowl XLI at the Miami Hurricanes Football Facility, on the campus of the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida.
Chicago defensive tackle Tank Johnson was required to request a judge 's order to leave the state of Illinois due to an arrest for unlicensed ownership of six firearms and two assault rifles. On January 23, 2007, the judge granted him permission to travel out of state to play in the Super Bowl.
Chicago and Indianapolis are the two closest cities, geographically, to ever play in a Super Bowl; at 182 miles (293 km) apart (connected by a route that is mostly Interstate 65), they are slightly closer than New York and Baltimore, whose teams played each other at III (207 miles) and XXXV (188 miles). This prompted Colts coach Tony Dungy to joke to Jim Nantz, at the end of the AFC Championship game, that the two teams should split the difference and play the game in Fort Wayne.
This was the first Super Bowl since Super Bowl VI that all players on both teams wore black shoes.
The game was televised in the United States by CBS in high - definition with play - by - play announcer Jim Nantz and color commentator Phil Simms. This was the first Super Bowl announced by Nantz. Additionally, the game had Steve Tasker (Bears sideline) and Solomon Wilcots (Colts sideline) reporting on the sidelines and Lesley Visser (Bears sideline) and Sam Ryan (Colts sideline) in the stands.
This was the first Super Bowl aired on CBS since the Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake incident three years earlier, in Super Bowl XXXVIII; and the first since the Viacom / CBS split at the end of 2005. Extensive pre-game coverage, hosted by The NFL Today team of James Brown, Shannon Sharpe, Boomer Esiason and Dan Marino, whose name graces the address of the game site (2269 Dan Marino Boulevard), began at noon (US EST) with NFL Films ' "Road to the Super Bowl '' year in review (narrated by Tom Selleck). This was followed by "The Phil Simms All - Iron Team '', and a four - and - a-half - hour Super Bowl Today pre-game show followed by game coverage at 6: 25 PM. Other contributors to the pre-game show included Katie Couric, anchor of the CBS Evening News, Armen Keteyian, CBS News Chief Investigative Corrrespondent, Randy Cross, who reported from Iraq where U.S. military forces played a touch football game known as "The Baghdad Bowl '' and Dick Enberg, who participated in his 12th Super Bowl telecast as a host, play - by - play announcer, or contributor. Westwood One provided radio coverage of the event, with Marv Albert and Boomer Esiason as announcers.
The American Forces Network (AFN) provided coverage of the Super Bowl for U.S. forces stationed overseas and to all U.S. Navy ships at sea.
The opening title sequence of CBS television coverage featured the composition Lux Aeterna, by artist Clint Mansell, in the background.
Nielsen Media Research reported 93 million viewers for Super Bowl XLI, making it at the time the fifth most watched program in U.S. television history (trailing only the M * A * S * H finale and Super Bowls XLIII, XXX, and XLII).
Advertising rates were reported as being slightly higher than in the year before, with CBS confirming a price of $2.6 million for some 30 - second spots, compared with $2.5 million during Super Bowl XL. However, CNN reported that after discounts, the average price is likely closer to $1.8 to $2 million. Familiar advertisers in recent years such as Anheuser - Busch, CareerBuilder, General Motors and Coca - Cola bought multiple advertising spots, and other popular advertisers like Go Daddy and Emerald Nuts had commercials this year.
The only major hype related to commercials in the months leading up to Super Bowl XLI involved various campaigns to allow consumers to be involved in the creation of Super Bowl ads, inspired by consumer - generated content sites like YouTube. Frito - Lay announced a campaign in September 2006 to allow the public to submit ads for their Doritos brand and vote on the best one, which aired during the Super Bowl. Doritos actually aired two of the ads due to a close voting margin; the winning ad (featuring a chance meeting with a man and a woman that feature the qualities of Doritos) aired in the first quarter, while a second (with a checkout lady overly enamored with the product) aired in the second quarter. The five finalists each received $10,000 in this contest. General Motors announced a similar contest, open only to college students, for their Chevrolet brand; however, the ad would be produced professionally based on ideas suggested by the public. The winning ad featured men gathering around an HHR model with women in it and stripping off their clothes and giving it a car wash. The NFL itself advertised a similar contest to generate suggestions for a commercial promoting the league, with the winning concept featuring fans ' disappointment that their teams ' season was over.
The annual USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter survey chose a Budweiser ad featuring crabs worshiping an ice chest with that particular beer inside as the top ad of Super Bowl XLI, followed by another Bud commercial featuring a stray dog with mud spots climbing onto the brewery 's trademark Clydsedale - drawn wagon in a parade. In all, Anheuser - Busch took seven of the top ten spots in the annual survey, sweeping the top three spots. A YouTube user survey chose the Doritos "Snack Hard '' ad (produced for the incredible price of $12, the cost of three bags of the snack product) as their top ad, that ad finished fourth in the USA Today survey. ADBOWL results were slightly different with only 6 of Anheuser - Busch 's ads finishing in the top ten. The highest ranked being the Bud Light "Rock, Paper, Scissors '' spot. Also in the top ten were Blockbuster Video 's "Mouse '', Doritos ' "Car Wreck '', GM 's "Robot '' and Taco Bell 's "Lion 's Talk ' Carne '. ''
One ad that drew criticism from the gay community was for the Snickers candy bar featuring two men accidentally "kissing '' each other after sharing the product in question, then proceeded to rip chest hairs as a manly act as homophobic. The ad proved to be controversial, and the ad was cancelled the next day by Masterfoods USA (Mars, Incorporated 's snack food division), and three other versions were deleted from the snickers.com web site. The ad was ninth in the USA Today ad survey, and according to a Masterfoods publicist, not intended to harm anyone.
A different ad for General Motors featured a laid off assembly line robot contemplating suicide, which drew criticism from the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention. The group asked for an apology from GM, and that the ad be taken off the air and the company 's website. The suicide scene was replaced with a scene of the robot watching a car being crushed at a junkyard when it was shown again during the 79th Academy Awards on February 25.
The Super Bowl was broadcast live in Canada on CBS (which is available in Canada) as well as Global TV and NTV which both took the main CBS commentary, and on the French cable channel RDS. In the United Kingdom the Super Bowl was broadcast on ITV1, Sky Sports 1 & Sky Sports HD1 with Sky Sports taking the main CBS commentary and ITV taking the NFL supplied international commentary feed of Spero Dedes and Sterling Sharpe.
Super Bowl XLI was broadcast in over 200 countries. Amongst the television networks who broadcast Super Bowl XLI were:
Before the game, Cirque du Soleil, Romero Britto and Little Louie Vega performed as the pre-game act, and Billy Joel sang the National Anthem, accompanying himself on piano. He also performed at Super Bowl XXIII, which was played at the same venue. Joel became the second person to sing the National Anthem twice for a Super Bowl; Aaron Neville sang the national anthem before Super Bowl XXIV, in New Orleans, and Super Bowl XL (along with Aretha Franklin), in Detroit. This was also the last time until Luke Bryan sang at Super Bowl LI that a male artist had sung the national anthem at a Super Bowl.
Marlee Matlin and Jason Hay - Southwell performed the National Anthem in American Sign Language.
Besides participating in the CBS telecast of the pre-game show, Dan Marino also participated in the coin toss along with Norma Hunt, the widow of Lamar Hunt, the former owner of the Kansas City Chiefs and the man who gave the Super Bowl its name.
American singer and musician Prince performed in the halftime show. The setlist for Prince 's performance was a short rendition of "We Will Rock You '' by Queen, his signature hit "Let 's Go Crazy '', "Baby, I 'm a Star '', cover versions of the Creedence Clearwater Revival hit "Proud Mary '', the Bob Dylan composition "All Along the Watchtower '', and the Foo Fighters song "Best of You '', and in light of the conditions, he fittingly finished the performance with another signature song, "Purple Rain '' in the downpour. The 12 - minute performance featured Prince accompanied by two dancers he calls "The Twinz '' and the Florida A&M University marching band, the Marching 100. Prince had rehearsed with the drum line for a week before the performance. The performance was on a large, central stage which was shaped after the artist 's logo, and was outlined with lights. He played before 74,512 fans at Dolphin Stadium (who had been given flashlights to point at the stage during the performance of Purple Rain). The event was carried "to the biggest audience of his life -- 140 million television viewers. '' Overall, the show was energetic and quite well received by the rain - soaked audience surrounding the stage. Music critics were extremely enthusiastic about his performance, one calling it "arguably the best halftime show in Super Bowl history '', and others saying it was one of the best ever.
Following the game, however, controversy emerged about a silhouetted camera shot of Prince, projected against a large sheet by a bright light on the other side of the performer. The controversy centered around his guitar, which detractors claimed seemed phallic, and critics stating that it "looked embarrassingly rude, crude and unfortunately placed. '' Though the guitar has been considered by some an extension of a male player 's sexuality (especially highlighted by such artists as Jimi Hendrix, Eddie Van Halen, and even Prince himself), supporters of Prince say that the show did not, in fact, become any more sexually charged than usual, noting that "a guitar at waist level does look like an enormous phallus. '' ABC late - night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live! responded to this mild controversy by including two satirically pixelized Super Bowl clips on its weekly segment "This Week in Unnecessary Censorship '' for the February 9, 2007 episode. The first "censored '' clip was the kickoff show introduction for CBS ' coverage of the Super Bowl, with the first two letters of "kickoff '' blurred out as if "jackoff '' were censored, then with a clip of the shadow of Prince playing guitar with the guitar neck blurred out as if an actual penis were being blurred.
Former Colts and Dolphins head coach Don Shula presented the Vince Lombardi Trophy to the Colts after the game, and Peyton Manning was named MVP.
The Bears won the coin toss and elected to receive. For the first time in Super Bowl history, the game was played in the rain, which was continuous throughout the game.
The rain did not hinder Bears ' return man Devin Hester, who ran back the opening kickoff 92 yards for a touchdown to give Chicago the then earliest lead in Super Bowl history, after only 14 seconds. The Colts avoided kicking to Hester for the rest of the game, allowing him only one punt return, and choosing to squib kick whenever Hester was in the deep kickoff return position.
On Indianapolis ' first drive of the game, defensive back Chris Harris intercepted a deep, third - down pass from Peyton Manning and returned it 6 yards to the Bears ' 35 - yard line. However, Chicago could not gain a first down on their ensuing possession and they were forced to punt. After several short runs and passes, Manning beat the Bears ' defense with a 53 - yard touchdown pass to Reggie Wayne, cutting the Bears ' lead to 7 -- 6. The touchdown occurred because of a mental error on the Bears ' secondary. Cornerback Charles Tillman passed Reggie Wayne onto safety Danieal Manning. However, Manning chose to follow tight end Ben Utecht over the middle, leaving Wayne all alone. The score remained the same, at 7 -- 6, after punter / holder Hunter Smith fumbled the snap on the point - after - touchdown (PAT) attempt. On the ensuing kickoff, Chicago tight end Gabe Reid fumbled Adam Vinatieri 's bouncing kickoff while being tackled by Robert Mathis; Colts linebacker Tyjuan Hagler recovered the loose ball. However, on the next play, Indianapolis gave the ball back when running back Joseph Addai fumbled the handoff and Bears defensive end Mark Anderson recovered it.
On the first play after the turnover, Thomas Jones 's 52 - yard run moved the ball to the Colts ' 5 - yard line. Three plays later, Rex Grossman threw a 4 - yard touchdown pass to receiver Muhsin Muhammad, giving the Bears a 14 -- 6 lead. After forcing an Indianapolis punt, Chicago lost another turnover when Cedric Benson 's fumble was recovered by Colts defensive end Dwight Freeney on the Bears ' 43 - yard line. Indianapolis subsequently advanced to the 36 - yard line, but decided to punt rather than risk a 53 - yard field - goal attempt.
Following a Chicago punt, Indianapolis drove 47 yards and scored with Vinatieri 's 29 - yard field goal to make the score 14 -- 9. Chicago was forced to punt again on their next drive, and return man Terrence Wilkins returned the ball 12 yards to his own 42 - yard line. Manning started out the drive with a 22 - yard completion to Marvin Harrison. His next pass went to tight end Dallas Clark for 17 yards. Two more completions moved the ball to the Bears ' 11 - yard line, and then Dominic Rhodes took the ball to the end zone with three consecutive carries, the last one a 1 - yard touchdown run to give his team a 16 -- 14 lead with 6: 09 left in the second quarter.
After another Chicago punt, the Colts advanced to the Bears ' 36 - yard line before Tillman ended the drive by forcing and recovering a fumble from tight end Bryan Fletcher. But on the next play, Grossman fumbled a snap, and Colts defensive lineman Raheem Brock recovered the ball. Manning then led the Colts to Chicago 's 17 - yard line. With two seconds left, Vinatieri attempted a 36 - yard field goal, but his kick sailed wide left, and the score remained 16 -- 14 at halftime.
Wilkins returned the second half kickoff 26 yards to the Colts 's 38 - yard line. On the ensuing possession, Addai rushed five times for 25 yards and caught four passes for 19 yards as the Colts drove 56 yards in 13 plays and scored with a 29 - yard field goal from Vinatieri, increasing their lead to 19 -- 14. On the Bears ' next drive, Jones started out with a 14 - yard run, and then Muhammad caught a 9 - yard pass, bringing up second down and one on the Colts ' 45 - yard line. But on the next play, Grossman was sacked for an 11 - yard loss by Anthony McFarland. Then, on third down, he fumbled the snap. Grossman recovered the fumble himself, but the Bears were forced to punt, and Wilkins returned the ball 12 yards to the Colts ' 36 - yard line. Rhodes then gained 52 yards on four carries, with a facemask penalty adding another 10. Chicago managed to halt the drive at their own 2 - yard line, but Vinatieri kicked his third field goal to make the score 22 -- 14.
Chicago tight end John Gilmore picked up Vinatieri 's bouncing kickoff and returned it 9 - yards to his own 45 - yard line, with an unnecessary roughness penalty on Mathis adding another 15 yards and giving the Bears a first down on the Colts ' 40 - yard line. Chicago could only gain 14 yards on their ensuing possession, but it was enough for Robbie Gould to make a 44 - yard field goal, cutting the score to 22 -- 17.
After an Indianapolis 7 - play drive ended in a punt, Chicago started on their own 20 - yard line with 13: 38 left in the game. But four plays later, Colts defensive back Kelvin Hayden intercepted a pass intended for Muhammad and returned it 56 yards for a touchdown.
From that point on, the Colts took over the game. Four plays after the ensuing kickoff, Colts defensive back Bob Sanders intercepted Grossman 's pass and returned it 38 yards to the Bears 41 - yard line. Chicago 's defense eventually forced a punt, but Smith 's 32 - yard kick pinned the Bears back at their own 8 - yard line. The Bears drove to their own 47, but on a fourth down conversion attempt, tight end Desmond Clark dropped a potential first down reception after being leveled by defensive back Matt Giordano. The Colts subsequently called eight consecutive Dominic Rhodes runs before turning the ball over on downs themselves, leaving only 1: 42 remaining in regulation. Five plays later, the game was over.
at Dolphin Stadium, Miami Gardens, Florida
This was the third Super Bowl to have two players rush for more than 100 yards as Dominic Rhodes had 113 for the Colts and Thomas Jones had 112 for the Bears. Tony Dungy is the third man to win the Super Bowl as a head coach as well as a player, following Tom Flores and Mike Ditka.
For the Colts, Rhodes rushed for 113 yards and a touchdown, while also catching an 8 - yard reception. Addai rushed for 77 yards and caught 10 passes for 66 yards. Wilkins returned four kickoffs for 89 yards and 3 punts for 42 yards. Adam Vinatieri became the first kicker ever to play in five Super Bowls and the first to win four Super Bowl rings. Vinatieri 's three field goals and two extra points gave him a total of 49 points for the entire 2006 post-season, an NFL record. The Colts ' win was the first major professional championship for Indiana since the Indiana Pacers ' ABA title in the 1972 -- 73 season.
Hester 's touchdown for the Bears on the opening kickoff was the first one in Super Bowl history, and the ninth kick return for a touchdown in a Super Bowl; only three of the nine teams who did this went on to win the game (the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXI, the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowls XXXV and XLVII, and the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLVIII). Hester 's return also kept a streak alive for there being a kickoff return for a touchdown in each Super Bowl played at Dolphin Stadium. Hester 's and Wayne 's touchdowns in the first quarter marked the first time in Super Bowl history the first two touchdowns were scored by players from the same college (University of Miami). Jones was the Bears ' top rusher with 112 yards, while also catching four passes for 18 yards. Desmond Clark was the Bears ' top receiver with six receptions for 64 yards. Grossman completed 20 of 28 passes for 165 yards and a touchdown, with two interceptions, leaving him with a QB rating of 68.3 for the game. Muhsin Muhammad became the third player ever to score a touchdown in the Super Bowl for two different teams, joining Ricky Proehl and Jerry Rice.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XLI, Super Bowl XLI Play Finder Ind, Super Bowl XLI Play Finder Chi
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
Hall of Fame ‡
The NFL upset many fans by banning the traditional practice of tailgating at Super Bowl XLI. Originally, spokesmen for Dolphin Stadium announced that tailgating would be permitted as usual. However, the NFL quickly contradicted this statement, announcing an NFL owner - imposed ban on all tailgating and prohibiting non-ticketed fans within a two - block - radius of the stadium.
The NFL upset a large number of fans by threatening churches with lawsuits if they had Super Bowl parties. National Football League assistant counsel Rachel L. Margolies sent a letter to the Fall Creek Baptist Church in Indianapolis, ordering the church to cancel its party and remove the trademarked Super Bowl name from its website. She said that the church could not use the words "Super Bowl '' as it violates trademark law, could not charge admission as that violates copyright law, could not use its projection screen (only one television could be used and it could not be over 55 inches), and could not "promote a message '' in connection with the game. Regarding the last point, the Fall Creek Baptist church planned to also show an extra video to highlight the Christian testimonies of Colts coach Tony Dungy and Chicago Bears coach Lovie Smith. "While this may be a noble message '', Rachel L. Margolies wrote, "we are consistent in refusing the use of our game broadcasts in connection with events that promote a message, no matter the content. '' Sports bars nationwide were allowed to show the game, as were businesses that televised sports as part of their everyday operations because they did n't charge admission and they left the message the NFL intended intact.
The Indianapolis Star picked up the story, and soon pastors across the U.S. were working to cancel their parties. Immediately the NFL received a backlash of bad publicity, with indignant football fans in constant sarcasm (akin to rules imposed about on - field behavior i.e. taunting opposition teams) referring to the NFL as the "No Fun League. '' For example, the enforcement of this policy earned the NFL a "Worst Person in the World '' silver on the edition of February 2, 2007 of Countdown with Keith Olbermann.
After a long series of bad press, the NFL issued a written statement clarifying their policy, saying that they did not object to churches hosting Super Bowl parties so long as they did not charge admission and showed the game on "a television of the type commonly used at home ''. This statement did not attempt to forbid coordination of any other message with the game, something typically done by churches, nor did it attempt to forbid the use of the term "Super Bowl. ''
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distinguish amps and etacs system in mobile communications | Advanced mobile phone system - wikipedia
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is an analog mobile phone system standard developed by Bell Labs, and officially introduced in the Americas on October 13, 1983, Israel in 1986, Australia in 1987, Singapore in 1988, and Pakistan in 1990. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000, in Pakistan by October 2004, and Brazil by 2010.
The first cellular network efforts began at Bell Labs and with research conducted at Motorola. In 1960, John F. Mitchell, an electrical engineer who had graduated from the Illinois Institute of Technology, became Motorola 's chief engineer for its mobile - communication products. Mitchell oversaw the development and marketing of the first pager to use transistors.
Motorola had long produced mobile telephones for automobiles, but these large and heavy models consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobile 's engine running. Mitchell 's team, which included the gifted Dr. Martin Cooper, developed portable cellular telephony, and Mitchell was among the Motorola employees granted a patent for this work in 1973. The first call on the prototype connected, reportedly, to a wrong number.
While Motorola was developing a cellular phone, from 1968 - 1983 Bell Labs worked out a system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), which became the first cellular network standard in the United States. The first system was successfully deployed in Chicago, Illinois, in 1979. Motorola and others designed and built the cellular phones for this and other cellular systems.
Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at Motorola, led a team that produced the DynaTAC8000x, the first commercially available cellular phone small enough to be easily carried, and made the first phone call from it. He later introduced the so - called Bag Phone.
In 1992 the first smartphone, called IBM Simon, used AMPS. Frank Canova led its design at IBM and it was demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer - industry trade - show. A refined version of the product was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator. The Simon was the first device that can be properly referred to as a "smartphone '', even though that term was not yet coined.
AMPS is a first - generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or "channels '', for each conversation (see frequency - division multiple access (FDMA)). It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In general terms, AMPS was very similar to the older "0G '' Improved Mobile Telephone Service, but used considerably more computing power in order to select frequencies, hand off conversations to PSTN lines, and handle billing and call setup.
What really separated AMPS from older systems is the "back end '' call setup functionality. In AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used in various locations without interference. This allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers coined the term "cellular '' because of its use of small hexagonal "cells '' within a system.
AMPS suffered from many weaknesses compared to today 's digital technologies. As an analog standard, it was susceptible to static and noise, and there was no protection from ' eavesdropping ' using a scanner.
In the 1990s an epidemic of "cloning '' cost the cellular carriers millions of dollars. An eavesdropper with specialized equipment could intercept a handset 's ESN (Electronic Serial Number) and MDN or CTN (Mobile Directory Number or Cellular Telephone Number). The Electronic Serial Number, a 12 - digit number sent by the handset to the cellular system for billing purposes, uniquely identified that phone on the network. The system then allowed or disallowed calls and or features based on its customer file. A person intercepting an ESN / MDN pair could clone the combination onto a different phone and use it in other areas for making calls without paying.
Cellular phone cloning became possible with off - the - shelf technology in the 1990s. Would - be cloners required three key items:
The radio, when tuned to the proper frequency, would receive the signal transmitted by the cell phone to be cloned, containing the phone 's ESN / MDN pair. This signal would feed into the sound - card audio - input of the PC, and Banpaia would decode the ESN / MDN pair from this signal and display it on the screen. The hacker could then copy that data into the Oki 900 phone and reboot it, after which the phone network could not distinguish the Oki from the original phone whose signal had been received. This gave the cloner, through the Oki phone, the ability to use the mobile - phone service of the legitimate subscriber whose phone was cloned - just as if that phone had been physically stolen, except that the subscriber retained his or her phone, unaware that the phone had been cloned -- at least until that subscriber received his or her next bill.
The problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls. Eventually, the cellular companies initiated a system called RF Fingerprinting, whereby it could determine subtle differences in the signal of one phone from another and shut down some cloned phones. Some legitimate customers had problems with this though if they made certain changes to their own phone, such as replacing the battery and / or antenna. The Oki 900, the ultimate tool of cell - phone hackers, could listen in to AMPS phone - calls right out - of - the - box with no hardware modifications.
AMPS was originally standardized by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as EIA / TIA / IS - 3. EIA / TIA / IS - 3 was superseded by EIA / TIA - 553 and TIA interim standard with digital technologies, the cost of wireless service is so low that the problem of cloning has virtually disappeared.
AMPS cellular service operated in the 850 MHz Cellular band. For each market area, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed two licensees (networks) known as "A '' and "B '' carriers. Each carrier within a market used a specified "block '' of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company, and the A (non-wireline) license was given to wireless telephone providers.
At the inception of cellular in 1983, the FCC had granted each carrier within a market 333 channel pairs (666 channels total). By the late 1980s, the cellular industry 's subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity. In 1989, the FCC granted carriers an expansion from the previous 666 channels to the final 832 (416 pairs per carrier). The additional frequencies were from the band held in reserve for future (inevitable) expansion. These frequencies were immediately adjacent to the existing cellular band. These bands had previously been allocated to UHF TV channels 70 -- 83.
Each duplex channel was composed of 2 frequencies. 416 of these were in the 824 -- 849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869 -- 894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations. Each cell site used a different subset of these channels than its neighbors to avoid interference. This significantly reduced the number of channels available at each site in real - world systems. Each AMPS channel had a one way bandwidth of 30 kHz, for a total of 60 kHz for each duplex channel.
Laws were passed in the US which prohibited the FCC type acceptance and sale of any receiver which could tune the frequency ranges occupied by analog AMPS cellular services. Though the service is no longer offered, these laws remain in force.
Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to D - AMPS, often referred to as TDMA (though TDMA is a generic term that applies to many 2G cellular systems). D - AMPS, commercially deployed since 1993, was a digital, 2G standard used mainly by AT&T Mobility and U.S. Cellular in the United States, Rogers Wireless in Canada, Telcel in Mexico, Telecom Italia Mobile (TIM) in Brazil, VimpelCom in Russia, Movilnet in Venezuela, and Cellcom in Israel. In most areas, D - AMPS is no longer offered and has been replaced by more advanced digital wireless networks.
AMPS and D - AMPS have now been phased out in favor of either CDMA2000 or GSM, which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as WAP, Multimedia Messaging System (MMS), and wireless Internet access. There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, D - AMPS and GSM all in one phone (using the GAIT standard).
In 2002, the FCC decided to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS service as of February 18, 2008. All AMPS carriers have converted to a digital standard such as CDMA2000 or GSM. Digital technologies such as GSM and CDMA2000 support multiple voice calls on the same channel and offer enhanced features such as two - way text messaging and data services.
Unlike in the United States, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and Industry Canada have not set any requirement for maintaining AMPS service in Canada. Rogers Wireless has dismantled their AMPS (along with IS - 136) network; the networks were shut down May 31, 2007. Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility, who operated AMPS networks in Canada, announced that they would observe the same timetable as outlined by the FCC in the United States, and as a result would not begin to dismantle their AMPS networks until after February 2008.
OnStar relied heavily on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because, when the system was developed, AMPS offered the most comprehensive wireless coverage in the US. In 2006, ADT asked the FCC to extend the AMPS deadline due to many of their alarm systems still using analog technology to communicate with the control centers. Cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) were required to provide analog service until February 18, 2008. After that point, however, most cellular companies were eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for digital services. OnStar transitioned to digital service with the help of data transport technology developed by Airbiquity, but warned customers who could not be upgraded to digital service that their service would permanently expire on January 1, 2008.
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describe in terms of composition one way in which daltons | Law of multiple proportions - wikipedia
In chemistry, the law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the atomic theory, alongside the law of conservation of mass (matter) and the law of definite proportions. It is sometimes called Dalton 's Law after its discoverer, the British chemist John Dalton, who published it in the first part of the first volume of his "New System of Chemical Philosophy '' (1803). Here is the statement of the law:
If two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers.
For example, Dalton knew that the element carbon forms two oxides by combining with oxygen in different proportions. A fixed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other. The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266: 133 = 2: 1, a ratio of small whole numbers. Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom. In modern notation the first is CO (carbon monoxide) and the second is CO (carbon dioxide).
John Dalton first expressed this observation in 1804. A few years previously, the French chemist Joseph Proust had proposed the law of definite proportions, which expressed that the elements combined to form compounds in certain well - defined proportions, rather than mixing in just any proportion; and Antoine Lavoisier proved the law of conservation of mass, which helped out Dalton. Careful study of the actual numerical values of these proportions led Dalton to propose his law of multiple proportions. This was an important step toward the atomic theory that he would propose later that year, and it laid the basis for chemical formulas for compounds.
Another example of the law can be seen by comparing ethane (C H) with propane (C H). The weight of hydrogen which combines with 1 g carbon is 0.252 g in ethane and 0.224 g in propane. The ratio of those weights is 1.125, which can be expressed as the ratio of two small numbers 9: 8.
The law of multiple proportions is best demonstrated using simple compounds. For example, if one tried to demonstrate it using the hydrocarbons decane (chemical formula C H) and undecane (C H), one would find that 100 grams of carbon could react with 18.46 grams of hydrogen to produce decane or with 18.31 grams of hydrogen to produce undecane, for a ratio of hydrogen masses of 121: 120, which is hardly a ratio of "small '' whole numbers.
The law fails with non-stoichiometric compounds and also does n't work well with polymers and oligomers.
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the biggest loser australia season 10 episode 9 | The Biggest Loser Australia (season 10) - Wikipedia
The tenth season of the Australian version of the original NBC reality television series The Biggest Loser, known as The Biggest Loser Australia: Families 2 (stylised as TBL Families), premiered on 13 September 2015 and airs at 7.30 pm Sundays to Tuesday on Network Ten. Daniel Jofre was crowned Biggest Loser, which saw him awarded $100,000. In addition, the Jofre family received $100,000 for being the family to lose the most weight.
The following is a list of contestants:
For its premiere week, the trainers lived with the contestants, following their diet of poor nutrition, excessive portions and no exercise. They weighed in during the Week 1 episode, gaining 4.5 to 7.6 kg.
The family with the most weight percentage lost combined received $100,000
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when did sam get married on ncis la | Sam Hanna (character) - wikipedia
Sam Hanna (portrayed by LL Cool J) is a fictional character in the show NCIS: Los Angeles. He is a former U.S. Navy SEAL and a Senior NCIS Special Agent. He first appeared in the NCIS season six episode "Legend (Part I) ''.
The son of a Marine colonel, Hanna attended a military school and excelled in football, playing wide receiver. Like the actor, Hanna is a native of New York City.
Outside his job, Hanna has a varied range of interests, including boxing, origami and collecting vinyl records and antique cars. He also tends to follow the latest health food and fitness fads. He suffers from coulrophobia (fear of clowns) and has a fear of maggots.
Of all the members of the team, Hanna has known Callen the longest and is the only one who calls him "G ''. In the season 3 episode "Partners '' it is established that the duo have been partners for five years. Whereas Callen has the tendency to be a lone wolf, Hanna is a team player who is able to work with anyone.
In the season 8 episode "The Silo '', Sam revealed that he is a devout Muslim, something that had previously been hinted at on numerous occasions throughout the show 's run.
Hanna first met his wife Michelle, a CIA agent, during a joint task force mission. The couple have two children, son Aiden and daughter Kamran. Aiden attends the fictional Keating Military Academy. He is portrayed to be a doting and very protective father, even going so far as to tail his daughter for a month when she first started riding the school bus and dressing up as Sully (from Monsters, Inc.) at her birthday party. He rarely speaks of his family and prefers to keep his work and home life separate, as shown by the fact that Kensi and Deeks only find out that he has kids in the episode "Anonymous ''. Michelle and Kamran are not introduced until season 3 and Callen is apparently one of the few people who is close to the Hanna family as he is known to the children as "Uncle Callen ''.
Prior to joining NCIS, Hanna served in the U.S. Navy, from which he retired with the rank of Senior Chief Petty Officer (E-8), although this contradicts his service record as shown in the episode "Betrayal '' which states that he left as a Chief Petty officer (E-7). He was a member of the Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU) (formerly "Team Six '') based in Dam Neck in Virginia. Despite his inability to swim when he first enlisted, he went on to have a distinguished career as a SEAL and various characters have referenced his "legendary '' status within the SEAL community. Much of his career is vague due to the highly classified nature of most of his missions, although it has been mentioned that he served in Bosnia (Yugoslav Wars), Chad (Pan Sahel Initiative) and Iraq and was stationed at the Naval Special Warfare Center in Coronado at some point. His area of expertise is the Middle East and he reads and speaks Arabic fluently and has an encyclopedic knowledge of the Qur'an. He is also multilingual, having a working knowledge of Japanese, Persian, Danish, Hebrew, Korean, and Spanish.
Hanna has a strong sense of duty and becomes particularly indignant when the criminal is from a military background. In the episode "Vengeance '' he was forced to interrogate a group of SEALs about their involvement in the death of a Navy officer suspected of leaking classified information and was visibly affected, leading Hetty to observe that she felt like she was "making him interrogate his family. ''
In the two - part crossover episode with Hawaii Five - 0 it is revealed that he is friends with head of the Five - 0 Task Force and former SEAL Lieutenant Commander Steve McGarrett, although the story of how they met has yet to be addressed.
It is established during the first several episodes, from vague references in their casual conversations, that he and Callen have been working together for some time and are good friends. In the episode "Fame '' he was initially hostile to Detective Marty Deeks, the newly appointed LAPD liaison officer and called him "Temp '' throughout the episode.
In the season two episode "Little Angels '', Sam reveals that he was once buried alive by Serbian paramilitary soldiers when his SEAL team was tasked to uncover evidence of ethnic cleansing and mass graves in the former Yugoslavia. In the season two finale, Sam resigns from NCIS along with Callen and Kensi in order to follow Hetty 's trail to Prague without Director Vance 's authorization.
It is revealed in the episode "Greed '' that Sam has been working undercover on a joint CIA task force in Sudan for the past year. His teammates had already been suspicious due to Sam uncharacteristically turning up late for work and taking leaves of absence. During the investigation he crosses paths with fellow undercover operative Michael Saleh (Sherman Augustus), who revealed that he suspected his cover had been blown due to a leak in the agency. In the following episode "Betrayal '' Callen travels to Sudan to find Sam after a charred corpse is discovered and identified as Saleh.
In the episode "Lohkay '', Sam revealed that he was once separated from his SEAL team and was hunted by the Taliban. An Afghani villager named Yousef saved his life. The Taliban searched the village looking for Sam only to discover that he was already gone. They killed Yousef 's entire family except one nephew, Amir. Yousef reached out to Sam for help, and Sam said that he "pulled some strings '' to get them into the USA. In this episode, Sam is once again hunted by the Taliban. Later, it was revealed that Amir was working for a terrorist named Habib. His mission is to kill Sam, "the one that got away ''. Sam was trapped inside their boat shed and beaten up by Habib 's men with Callen, Kensi and Deeks launching a rescue operation which was successful, resulting in the deaths of the terrorists. Throughout the episode, Callen and Hetty are worried because Sam is personally involved in the case. Hetty "punishes '' Sam for using federal resources, once again, by buying expensive Scotch at his expense.
In "Rude Awakenings '', it is revealed that Sam 's wife, Michelle, is a former undercover CIA operative. They fell in love when they worked together on a failed Joint Task Force mission to capture Isaak Sidorov, a Russian arms dealer. She had managed to successfully infiltrate Sidorov 's organization as an assassin - for - hire under the alias of "Quinn '' before Sidorov escaped and the mission was aborted. Michelle is reactivated after NCIS, FBI and CIA discover that Sidorov has stolen three Cold War - era nuclear devices from former KGB sleeper agents in the United States. She confides to Sam that she misses her undercover work when he expresses his disapproval about her desire to return to active duty. In the season four finale, Sam is partnered with Deeks who confronts him over his indifference towards him. Sam admits to Deeks that he has some personal flaws.
Later, Deeks saves Sam 's life and ends up captured and tortured by Sidorov. In the season five premiere ' Ascension ', after being found by Kensi and Granger, Deeks tells Sam he did n't give up Michelle even under torture. Sam visits him, stating he now owes him for the rest of his life for what Deeks did for him and Michelle. When Deeks admits he was thinking about quitting, Sam said it would be a mistake, saying that Deeks is a great cop. In the next episode, after a deep talk with Sam, Nate believes that although Sam is still very strong, he can not withstand much more punishment like that at the risk of his mental health.
In season six, it is revealed that Sam 's father, USMC Colonel Hanna, sent him to military school, and was disappointed when his son joined the Navy rather than the Marine Corps. Sam 's own son, Aiden, also attends a military school and around Christmas 2014, was promoted to Cadet Sergeant.
In season eight, Sam 's wife, Michelle, was murdered.
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Senior Chief Hanna.
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how many kingdoms in donkey kong jungle beat | Donkey Kong Jungle Beat - wikipedia
Donkey Kong Jungle Beat is a platforming video game developed and published by Nintendo for the GameCube. It was released in Japan in December 2004, in Europe in February 2005, and in North America and Australia in March 2005. In 2008 and 2009, the game was re-released in the New Play Control! series of revamped GameCube titles. Donkey Kong Jungle Beat features the ape Donkey Kong and is played with the DK Bongos.
The Wii version of Donkey Kong Jungle Beat is somewhat changed from the original GameCube version, including new levels, modifications of old levels, and traditional controls that have the player use the analog stick to move and the A button to jump, unlike the GameCube version which required the player to beat the bongos to do both. Takashi Nagasako, who previously did the voice of Ganondorf in The Legend of Zelda series, does the voice of Donkey Kong and has continued the role in the years that have followed.
Gameplay involves combat, jumping, and counterattacking. While the traditional GameCube controllers are compatible, Donkey Kong Jungle Beat uses a pair of bongo drums to control Donkey Kong 's (DK) actions. Hitting the left drum causes DK to move left, while hitting the right drum causes him to move right. Hitting both drums at the same time causes DK to jump. Clapping one 's hands or hitting the sides of the drums also causes DK to clap, which has various consequences depending on the situation.
This is a unique game in the nature of play; it is a platformer where the goal is not simply to get to the end of the level. The goal is to get as many points, or "beats '', as possible. Beats are obtained by grabbing bananas during gameplay, and lost by getting hurt or touching the ground. The player can obtain additional beats by performing combos while grabbing the bananas. For example, three combo moves will earn four beats for each banana collected. Combos can go as high as 30, meaning that 31 beats can be earned from a single banana. Time records can also be earned for stages and for racing sections of stages.
DK can perform moves such as backflips, the ground - pound, vine swinging, corner hopping, and wall jumping. He can also use other objects and animals in the game to add to the combo score. When performing "combo - moves '', a counter is started, rising with each successive combo move acquired before landing. The combo counter is lost when DK is hurt or falls, and all beats are lost. If DK 's beat count reaches zero, he loses and will have to restart the level. In the Wii version of the game, hearts represent DK 's health instead of the beats, and there are extra lives and checkpoints throughout the level.
Clapping or making any other noise that the microphone in the Bongos picks up makes DK clap his hands. The hand clap produces two rings, a small red one and a giant green one. Enemies in the small red ring are usually defeated, and those in the larger green ring are usually stunned. Stunned enemies can then be jumped on and defeated by hitting the bongos repeatedly. Any bananas in the small red ring are grabbed in a chain, each incremented in value relative to the last (e.g., if three combo moves are done when DK clap - grabs 5 bananas, the bananas are worth 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).
The level system consists of several "kingdoms ''. Each kingdom contains three platforming levels. The first two sometimes contain racing and puzzle elements, which the final "boss '' stage contains a fight against a large enemy. The beats obtained in the previous two levels are used as health for the fight against the boss, and the aim is to beat the boss without taking too many hits, lowering your beat count. There are many different types of bosses, each requiring different tactics to beat. For example, fights with other gorillas are fought in a Punch - Out!! - style bout, while battles against elephants require throwing back bombs that they fire. The gameplay relies on rhythm elements, such as clapping at the right time to get all of the bananas in an area, or incapacitate a boss.
Between each level, there is a short minigame where the player must tap the bongos as fast as they can to earn extra bananas. The exception to this are levels in which DK rides a wildebeest, in which case the minigame is to either fly the farthest from a jump, or stay on high ground long enough to collect many bananas without touching the ground.
At the end of the kingdom, the total sum of beats (after deducting any damage taken during the boss fight) is tallied up. Completing a kingdom earns a crest, while additional crests are earned by achieving certain amounts of beats. Crests are required to play new kingdoms, which is determined by the number shown. Clearing all the kingdoms in a section unlocks the next set of kingdoms. Players can revisit earlier levels to try to earn more beats, thus earning more crests.
Shigeru Miyamoto told Takao Shimizu and Yoshiaki Koizumi that they should make a Donkey Kong game. Development began in July 2003. Soon, Miyamoto directed the two developers to a meeting featuring the Bongo controller, which at the time was only compatible with Donkey Konga. They were shown how the controller worked and took a pair of the bongos with them. Most of Koizumi 's earlier work had focused on character and camera controls, so he started to think of ways the bongo peripheral could simplify the platform game 's control scheme.
Donkey Kong Jungle Beat received "generally favorable '' reviews across both its releases. Most reviewers considered it unique and fun to play but rather short given the retail price. It was praised for its wide appeal; possessing both a simplicity targeted at new gamers, and a complex, skill - oriented combo system to attract more hardcore gamers. IGN praised the GameCube version 's graphics, saying, "DK 's fur makes StarFox Adventures ' models look primitive ''. Criticisms include the game 's short length, despite the replayability offered by the score system in levels. There were also complaints of repetitive boss fights, as the same four bosses are used several times throughout the game with limited features to distinguish them. One of the primary criticisms, however, was the lack of past characters and elements from Rare 's Donkey Kong Country games. However, despite these criticisms it was rated the 95th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's Top 200 Games list.
Non video - game publications also praised the GameCube version. The New York Times gave it a favorable review and called it "wildly entertaining ''. The Sydney Morning Herald gave it four stars out of five and called it "a charming romp through dazzling jungle environments via glistening ice chambers, volcanic caverns and aquatic wonderlands. But sadly, many players will complete Jungle Beat in just a few hours. '' Detroit Free Press gave it three stars out of four and stated that "the bongos are, indeed, special. They mean the difference between a predictable game and one that marches to a different drummer. '' Common Sense Media gave the Wii version four stars out of five and stated that "The bottom line is that it 's fun but brief. Even with its relatively low price tag, the new Jungle Beat might make a better rental than purchase. ''
Many gameplay elements from Donkey Kong Jungle Beat were reused in Super Mario Galaxy, which was made by the same development team. The helper monkeys were originally going to appear in the game as enemies, but were later removed. These gameplay elements would also be used in its sequel.
In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, a stage based on Donkey Kong Jungle Beat appears in the form of Rumble Falls. It is a stage that scrolls upward, similar to Melee 's Icicle Mountain stage. One of the music pieces that can be played on the stage is the BGM of the level "Battle for Storm Hill. '' Additionally, Donkey Kong 's "Final Smash '' move involves him repetitively hitting bongo drums and clapping for a brief time, similar to how Jungle Beat is played, and grows in range and damage if the player pressed buttons in sync with the beat. Several stickers and trophies based on the game can be collected.
Donkey Kong Jungle Beat was reformatted for the New Play Control! program, a brand of Nintendo GameCube video game remakes for the Wii. It was released on December 11, 2008, in Japan and later in North America and Europe on May 4, 2009, and June 5, 2009, respectively. It uses a combination of the Wii Remote and the Nunchuk instead of the DK Bongos (the DK Bongos are not compatible with the Wii version), using both traditional controls and motion controls. As well different modes in the remake, there are a few changes to the gameplay. Health is no longer determined by the amount of beats, but instead uses a more traditional heart and life system. Clap attacks are also directional as opposed to all around.
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who played in the 2014 world cup final | 2014 FIFA World Cup final - wikipedia
The 2014 FIFA World Cup Final was a football match that took place on 13 July 2014 at the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to determine the 2014 FIFA World Cup champion. Germany defeated Argentina 1 -- 0 in extra time, with the only goal being scored by Mario Götze, who collected André Schürrle 's cross from the left on his chest before volleying a high left - footed shot into the net. The match was the third final between the two countries, a World Cup record, after their 1986 and 1990 matches, and billed as the world 's best player (Lionel Messi) versus the world 's best team (Germany).
Before the match, Germany had reached the World Cup final seven times (six times as West Germany from 1954 to 1990), winning three (1954, 1974, 1990) and being runners - up four times (1966, 1982, 1986, 2002); Argentina had reached four finals, winning twice (1978, 1986) and placing second twice (1930, 1990).
The result marked Germany 's fourth World Cup title and their first World championship as a unified nation. The victory meant that three consecutive World Cups have been won by teams from the same continent, following Italy and Spain in 2006 and 2010 respectively, the first time this has happened in World Cup history. It was also the first time that three consecutive World Cup finals were still tied after 90 minutes. The final marked the first time a World Cup hosted in the Americas was not won by a team from the continent.
In the winning German team, Miroslav Klose, who had become the top scorer in World Cup history in the semi-final victory over Brazil, became one of the very few players ever to have won gold, silver and bronze medals in the World Cup (bronze in 2006 and 2010, silver in 2002 and gold in 2014), joining a club with earlier German players like Franz Beckenbauer, Sepp Maier and Wolfgang Overath (1966 -- 1974), as well as Italian Franco Baresi (1982 - 1994).
According to FIFA, 1.013 billion individuals globally watched the final match of this tournament.
The two teams had met in 20 previous matches, with nine wins for Argentina, six wins for Germany and five draws. In these games, both teams had scored a total of 28 goals. Six of these matches were at a World Cup, two of them in the final. The 2014 final was the seventh World Cup match between them, equalling a tournament record for meetings between two teams (along with Brazil vs Sweden, and Germany vs Yugoslavia). The last three meetings were in three consecutive World Cups, having met in quarter - finals of 2006 and 2010 campaigns.
In the 1966 FIFA World Cup, Argentina and West Germany played a 0 -- 0 draw in the group stage. FIFA cautioned Argentina for its violent style against the Germans which saw Argentine Rafael Albrecht get sent off and suspended for the next match.
The 1990 FIFA World Cup Final saw two Argentine players get sent off and West Germany won 1 -- 0 due to a controversial penalty kick late in the match.
The 2006 quarter - final game, where Germany won 4 -- 2 in the shootout after the game ended 1 -- 1, was marred by a post-match brawl caused by the Argentines, which resulted in suspensions for two Argentine players and one German player.
The most recent meeting between the two teams was a friendly match played on 15 August 2012 at Commerzbank - Arena, Frankfurt am Main, won by Argentina 3 -- 1. Before the tournament, a friendly was scheduled for 3 September 2014, being the first match for both teams after the World Cup. Argentina won this meeting 4 -- 2.
Among the players in the 2014 World Cup squads, the following played in the 2006 and 2010 meetings:
Klose scored one goal in the 2006 meeting and two goals in the 2010 meeting, while Müller scored one goal in the 2010 meeting. Germany manager Joachim Löw was the assistant manager in 2006 and the manager in 2010.
The match ball for the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, announced on 29 May 2014, featured a variation of the Adidas Brazuca named the Adidas Brazuca Final Rio. Whilst the technical aspects of the ball were the same, the design was different from the Brazuca balls used in the group stages and other playoffs, with a green, gold and black coloring. It was the third special ball for FIFA World Cup final matches, after the + Teamgeist Berlin (2006) and the Jo'bulani (2010).
Nicola Rizzoli, from Italy, was named as the referee of the final, together with fellow Italians Renato Faverani and Andrea Stefani as the assistant referees, and Carlos Vera and Christian Lescano from Ecuador as the fourth and fifth officials. Earlier in the 2014 World Cup, Rizzoli took charge of the Spain -- Netherlands and Nigeria -- Argentina matches in the group stage, and the Argentina -- Belgium quarter - final. He had previously taken charge of the 2010 UEFA Europa League Final and the 2013 UEFA Champions League Final. He was also one of the referees at the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup, UEFA Euro 2012 and the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He became the third Italian referee to take charge of a World Cup final, after Sergio Gonella in 1978 and Pierluigi Collina in 2002.
Both teams named unchanged starting line - ups from their semi-finals, but German midfielder Sami Khedira withdrew during the warm - up with a calf injury. He was replaced by Christoph Kramer, who had made two brief substitute appearances during the tournament. Kramer himself suffered a head injury after a collision with Ezequiel Garay inside the penalty area, but was initially cleared to continue playing. Fourteen minutes later in the 31st minute however, he collapsed to the ground, apparently suffering from concussion and was replaced by André Schürrle.
Argentina 's Gonzalo Higuaín missed a good opportunity in the first half, dragging his shot wide after being put through on goal by a misjudged header from Toni Kroos. He had a goal disallowed later in the first half, when he was ruled offside after tapping in a cross by Ezequiel Lavezzi from the right wing. Lionel Messi missed a chance early in the second half, firing wide of the German goal from inside the penalty area after receiving a through pass. In extra time, Rodrigo Palacio 's lob over Manuel Neuer went just wide after the forward received a cross, missed by Mats Hummels, in the German penalty area. Germany had the closest chance when Benedikt Höwedes ' header hit the post after a corner.
Mario Götze of Germany scored during extra time, in the 113th minute, when he collected Schürrle 's cross from the left on his chest before volleying left - footed into the net. He became the first substitute to score a World Cup - winning goal, as well as the youngest player to score in a World Cup Final since German Wolfgang Weber in 1966 (same age, 22). Prior to Götze 's goal, Germany came close to scoring on a number of occasions, including a header by Benedikt Höwedes that struck the Argentine goalpost just before halftime. Schürrle later struck a close - range shot straight at Argentine goalkeeper Sergio Romero early in the first half of extra time, after a pass from Götze. Thomas Müller had a chance to double Germany 's lead after dribbling past two defenders, but his shot across the net was too wide.
Late in extra time, Messi had a free kick within goal - scoring distance, which would have equalised, but he hit it over the crossbar.
Man of the Match: Mario Götze (Germany)
Assistant referees: Renato Faverani (Italy) Andrea Stefani (Italy) Fourth official: Carlos Vera (Ecuador) Fifth official: Christian Lescano (Ecuador)
Match rules:
Due to the Argentina -- Brazil football rivalry, the Brazilians in the crowd supported Germany, despite their resounding 7 -- 1 victory over Brazil in the semi-finals, as the Germans had shown respect to the defeated hosts, while Argentine fans had celebrated Brazil 's elimination. Most Brazilians were reportedly relieved that their rivals did not win the World Cup in Brazil 's iconic home stadium.
Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff invited the BRICS leaders to the final ahead of the 6th BRICS summit. Among those who showed up were Vladimir Putin, the President of Russia, the next World Cup hosts, and Jacob Zuma, the President of South Africa, the previous hosts. The Chinese President, Xi Jinping, and the Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, did not attend the event. Other world leaders Viktor Orbán (Hungary), Ali Bongo Ondimba (Gabon) and Gaston Browne (Antigua and Barbuda) also attended the event, which led The Guardian to label the guest list "bizarre and random '', as those countries were failed to qualify for this World Cup.
German President Joachim Gauck and Chancellor Angela Merkel were present for the final. Merkel already watched the Germany vs. Portugal match in Salvador, when the German team won 4 -- 0. The President of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, did not attend because of both her grandson 's birthday and a case of pharyngo - laryngitis.
Russian comedian Vitaly Zdorovetskiy ran onto the pitch during the match with "Natural Born Prankster '' written across his torso and attempted to kiss Benedikt Höwedes of Germany. Brazilian authorities arrested him, and he was released hours after the match.
Several celebrities also attended the final, including Rihanna, Mick Jagger, David Beckham, Ashton Kutcher, Daniel Craig, Tom Brady, and LeBron James. Former World Cup winners like Fabio Cannavaro, Lothar Matthäus, Daniel Passarella -- who all had won the World Cup as captain -- and Pelé were present as well.
The closing ceremony took place about an hour and forty minutes before the final. A performance of two acts, the ceremony lasted about 20 minutes. The first act featured 22 samba dancers and a host of other performers, with 32 of the dancers wearing dresses decorated in the colours of the 32 participating teams. The second act featured musical performances headlined by Colombian singer Shakira, and included singers Carlinhos Brown, Wyclef Jean, Alexandre Pires, Ivete Sangalo and guitarist Carlos Santana.
Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bündchen and Carles Puyol, a member of Spain 's winning team in 2010, unveiled the FIFA World Cup Trophy.
President Rousseff of Brazil delivered the trophy to German captain Philip Lahm during the awards ceremony on the stands. Alongside her during the trophy handover was FIFA president Sepp Blatter. As Lahm raised the trophy, the outro of the tournament 's official song "We Are One (Ole Ola) '' was played.
According to FIFA, 1.013 billion individuals globally watched the final match of this tournament.
Media related to 2014 FIFA World Cup Match 64, Germany v Argentina at Wikimedia Commons
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who does the federal motor carrier safety regulations apply to | Federal motor Carrier safety Administration - wikipedia
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) is an agency in the United States Department of Transportation that regulates the trucking industry in the United States. The primary mission of the FMCSA is to reduce crashes, injuries and fatalities involving large trucks and buses.
The agency was established as a separate administration within U.S. Department of Transportation on January 1, 2000, pursuant to the "Motor Carrier Safety Improvement Act of 1999. '' FMCSA is headquartered in Washington, D.C. and employs more than 1,000 people in all 50 States and the District of Columbia, all dedicated to improving the safety of commercial motor vehicles (CMV) and saving lives.
In carrying out its safety mandate to reduce crashes, injuries, and fatalities involving large trucks and buses, FMCSA:
Raymond P. Martinez is currently the Administrator of the FMCSA. He was sworn in by Secretary of Transportation Elaine Chao on February 28, 2018. Previously, Martinez served as Chairman and Chief Administrator of the New Jersey Motor Vehicle Commission.
Cathy F. Gautreaux became the Agency 's Deputy Administrator in November 2017 after serving as the Executive Director of the Louisiana Motor Transportation Association for 29 years.
The FMCSA is divided into 8 offices:
The field organizations deliver program services to FMCSA partners and customers. This organization consists of Field Operations, Service center and State - level motor carrier division offices.
These offices answer questions and provide guidance concerning the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations.
Compliance, Safety, Accountability (CSA) is described by FMCSA as its "data - driven safety compliance and enforcement program designed to improve safety and prevent commercial motor vehicle crashes, injuries, and fatalities ''. This highly controversial program oversees carriers ' safety performance through roadside inspections and crash investigations, issuing violations when instances of noncompliance with safety regulations are uncovered. The Agency 's safety investigation team and state law enforcement partners are small compared to the millions of CMV companies and commercial driver license (CDL) holders nationwide. A key component of the CSA program -- known as the Safety Measurement System (SMS) -- relies on data analysis to identify non-compliant and unsafe companies to prioritize them for enforcement interventions.
While the methodology for calculating SMS safety scores has evolved over time in response to suggestions from stakeholders, the program has proven effective at identifying unsafe, high - risk carriers. FMCSA is expected to publicly release additional changes to SMS designed to strengthen the Agency 's ability to identify companies for investigation before they are involved in a crash. The program 's future remains in doubt as it has been the subject of heavy criticism from the DOT 's own Inspector General, the Government Accountability Office, and Congress itself in the FAST Act. That Act requires the National Research Council of the National Academies of Science (NAS) to conduct a thorough study of the Compliance, Safety, Accountability (CSA) program, specifically the Safety Measurement System (SMS).
In July 2013, FMCSA updated HOS regulation to help reduce the incidence of CMV driver fatigue on the nation 's roadways. The final rule required truck drivers who use the "34 - hour restart '' provision to maximize their weekly work hours to limit the restart to once a week and to include in the restart period at least two nights off duty from 1: 00 to 5: 00 a.m., when one 's 24 - hour body clock needs and benefits from sleep the most.
In December 2014, Congress passed the FAST Act, which suspended the new 34 - hour restart provision in the HOS rule and instructed FMCSA to study its effectiveness. In 2015, FMCSA selected Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI) to conduct the largest naturalistic study of its kind that the Agency had ever undertaken. FMCSA anticipated releasing the findings in 2017.
Implemented in 2014, the National Registry rule requires all Medical Examiners (ME) who conduct physical examinations and issue medical certifications for interstate CMV drivers to complete training on FMCSA 's physical qualification standards, pass a certification test, and demonstrate competence through periodic training and testing. CMV drivers whose medical certifications expire must use MEs on the National Registry for their examinations.
FMCSA has reached its goal of at least 40,000 certified MEs signing onto the registry, meaning drivers can now find certified medical examiners throughout the country who can competently perform their medical exam. FMCSA is preparing to issue a follow - on "National Registry 2 '' rulemaking that will require MEs to submit medical certificate information on a daily basis. These daily updates, which FMCSA will transmit to states electronically, will dramatically decrease the chance of drivers falsifying medical cards.
All non-exempt commercial motor vehicles that cross state lines, including big - rig trucks, are subject to the federal motor carrier safety regulations. If these semi-trucks are operating within one state, they need to abide by state - equivalent motor carrier safety regulations. The intent of the regulations is to cover all persons and entities involved in operating commercial vehicles, including:
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations (FMCSRs) set forth minimum standards for those involved with the operation of commercial motor vehicles in interstate commerce, in order to cover all people and entities involved in interstate operation of these trucks.
Overall, buses and motorcoaches are a safe and convenient means of travel. However, disreputable companies and unqualified drivers contribute disproportionately to what are often highly publicized crashes. The Look Before You Book campaign encourages trip planners and passengers to think about more than price and to consider safety first when choosing bus companies and drivers. The program features DOT 's first app -- SaferBus -- that provides safety data on each bus company under FMCSA 's jurisdiction. The primary audiences for this campaign are travel planners that serve faith - based organizations, seniors and student groups.
Of the estimated 35 million Americans who move each year, about 600,000 hire a company to move their household goods across state lines. While most of these movers are legitimate businesses that do professional work, FMCSA receives about 3,000 complaints annually about deceptive practices and fraud by dishonest operators.
The Protect Your Move program aims to protect consumers and counter interstate moving fraud in two ways: 1) by educating consumers who are preparing to move to make informed decisions about moving companies and avoid being taken advantage of by a disreputable mover; and 2) by providing tools and information to victims after moving fraud has occurred to help them resolve mover disputes and / or file fraud complaints and seek arbitration or legal action.
1. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration - About Us
2. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration - Key Programs
3. Comprehensive Safety Analysis 2010
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how herd immunity is responsible for the eradication of smallpox | Herd immunity - wikipedia
Herd immunity (also called herd effect, community immunity, population immunity, or social immunity) is a form of indirect protection from infectious disease that occurs when a large percentage of a population has become immune to an infection, thereby providing a measure of protection for individuals who are not immune. In a population in which a large number of individuals are immune, chains of infection are likely to be disrupted, which stops or slows the spread of disease. The greater the proportion of individuals in a community who are immune, the smaller the probability that those who are not immune will come into contact with an infectious individual.
Individual immunity can be gained through recovering from a natural infection or through artificial means such as vaccination. Some individuals can not become immune due to medical reasons and in this group herd immunity is an important method of protection. Once a certain threshold has been reached, herd immunity gradually eliminates a disease from a population. This elimination, if achieved worldwide, may result in the permanent reduction in the number of infections to zero, called eradication. This method was used for the eradication of smallpox in 1977 and for the regional elimination of other diseases. Herd immunity does not apply to all diseases, just those that are contagious, meaning that they can be transmitted from one individual to another. Tetanus, for example, is infectious but not contagious, so herd immunity does not apply.
The term herd immunity was first used in 1923. It was recognized as a naturally occurring phenomenon in the 1930s when it was observed that after a significant number of children had become immune to measles, the number of new infections temporarily decreased, including among susceptible children. Mass vaccination to induce herd immunity has since become common and proved successful in preventing the spread of many infectious diseases. Opposition to vaccination has posed a challenge to herd immunity, allowing preventable diseases to persist in or return to communities that have inadequate vaccination rates.
Some individuals either can not develop immunity after vaccination or for medical reasons can not be vaccinated. Newborn infants are too young to receive many vaccines, either for safety reasons or because passive immunity renders the vaccine ineffective. Individuals who are immunodeficient due to HIV / AIDS, lymphoma, leukemia, bone marrow cancer, an impaired spleen, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy may have lost any immunity that they previously had and vaccines may not be of any use for them because of their immunodeficiency. Vaccines are typically imperfect as some individuals ' immune systems may not generate an adequate immune response to vaccines to confer long - term immunity, so a portion of those who are vaccinated may lack immunity. Lastly, vaccine contraindications may prevent certain individuals from becoming immune. In addition to not being immune, individuals in one of these groups may be at a greater risk of developing complications from infection because of their medical status, but they may still be protected if a large enough percentage of the population is immune.
High levels of immunity in one age group can create herd immunity for other age groups. Vaccinating adults against pertussis reduces pertussis incidence in infants too young to be vaccinated, who are at the greatest risk of complications from the disease. This is especially important for close family members, who account for most of the transmissions to young infants. In the same manner, children receiving vaccines against pneumococcus reduces pneumococcal disease incidence among younger, unvaccinated siblings. Vaccinating children against pneumococcus and rotavirus has had the effect of reducing pneumococcus - and rotavirus - attributable hospitalizations for older children and adults, who do not normally receive these vaccines. Influenza (flu) is more severe in the elderly than in younger age groups, but influenza vaccines lack effectiveness in this demographic due to a waning of the immune system with age. The prioritization of school - age children for seasonal flu immunization, which is more effective than vaccinating the elderly, however, has shown to create a certain degree of protection for the elderly.
For sexually transmitted infections (STIs), high levels of immunity in one sex induces herd immunity for both sexes. Vaccines against STIs that are targeted at one sex result in significant declines in STIs in both sexes if vaccine uptake in the target sex is high. Herd immunity from female vaccination does not, however, extend to homosexual males. If vaccine uptake among the target sex is low, then the other sex may need to be immunized so that that sex can be sufficiently protected. High - risk behaviors make eliminating STIs difficult since even though most infections occur among individuals with moderate risk, the majority of transmissions occur because of individuals who engage in high - risk behaviors. For these reasons, in certain populations it may be necessary to immunize high - risk persons or individuals of both sexes to establish herd immunity.
Herd immunity itself acts as an evolutionary pressure on certain viruses, influencing viral evolution by encouraging the production of novel strains, in this case referred to as escape mutants, that are able to "escape '' from herd immunity and spread more easily. At the molecular level, viruses escape from herd immunity through antigenic drift, which is when mutations accumulate in the portion of the viral genome that encodes for the virus 's surface antigen, typically a protein of the virus capsid, producing a change in the viral epitope. Alternatively, the reassortment of separate viral genome segments, or antigenic shift, which is more common when there are more strains in circulation, can also produce new serotypes. When either of these occur, memory T cells no longer recognize the virus, so people are not immune to the dominant circulating strain. For both influenza and norovirus, epidemics temporarily induce herd immunity until a new dominant strain emerges, causing successive waves of epidemics. As this evolution poses a challenge to herd immunity, broadly neutralizing antibodies and "universal '' vaccines that can provide protection beyond a specific serotype are in development.
Serotype replacement, or serotype shifting, may occur if the prevalence of a specific serotype declines due to high levels of immunity, allowing other serotypes to replace it. Initial vaccines against Streptococcus pneumoniae significantly reduced nasopharyngeal carriage of vaccine serotypes (VTs), including antibiotic - resistant types, only to be entirely offset by increased carriage of non-vaccine serotypes (NVTs). This did not result in a proportionate increase in disease incidence though since NVTs were less invasive than VTs. Since then, pneumococcal vaccines that provide protection from the emerging serotypes have been introduced and have successfully countered their emergence. The possibility of future shifting remains, so further strategies to deal with this include expansion of VT coverage and the development of vaccines that use either killed whole - cells, which have more surface antigens, or proteins present in multiple serotypes.
If herd immunity has been established and maintained in a population for a sufficient time, the disease is inevitably eliminated -- no more endemic transmissions occurs. If elimination is achieved worldwide and the number of cases is permanently reduced to zero, then a disease can be declared eradicated. Eradication can thus be considered the final effect or end - result of public health initiatives to control the spread of infectious disease. The benefits of eradication include ending all morbidity and mortality caused by the disease, financial savings for individuals, health care providers, and governments, and enabling resources used to control the disease to be used elsewhere. To date, two diseases have been eradicated using herd immunity and vaccination: rinderpest and smallpox. Eradication efforts that rely on herd immunity are currently underway for poliomyelitis, though civil unrest and distrust of modern medicine have made this difficult. Mandatory vaccination may be beneficial to eradication efforts if not enough people choose to get vaccinated.
Herd immunity is vulnerable to the free rider problem. Individuals who lack immunity, primarily those who choose not to vaccinate, free ride off the herd immunity created by those who are immune. As the number of free riders in a population increases, outbreaks of preventable diseases become more common and more severe due to loss of herd immunity. Individuals may choose to free ride for a variety of reasons, including the perceived ineffectiveness of a vaccine, believing that the risks associated with vaccines are greater than those associated with infection, mistrust of vaccines or public health officials, bandwagoning or groupthinking, social norms or peer pressure, and religious beliefs. Individuals are more likely to free ride if vaccination rates are high enough so as to convince a person that he or she may not need to be immune since a sufficient number of others already are.
Individuals who are immune to a disease act as a barrier in the spread of disease, slowing or preventing the transmission of disease to others. An individual 's immunity can be acquired via a natural infection or through artificial means, such as vaccination. When a critical proportion of the population becomes immune, called the herd immunity threshold (HIT) or herd immunity level (HIL), the disease may no longer persist in the population, ceasing to be endemic. This threshold can be calculated by taking R, the basic reproduction number, or the average number of new infections caused by each case in an entirely susceptible population that is homogeneous, or well - mixed, meaning each individual can come into contact with every other susceptible individual in the population, and multiplying it by S, the proportion of the population who are susceptible to infection:
S can be rewritten as (1 - p) because p is the proportion of the population that is immune and p + S equals one. Then, the equation can be rearranged to place p by itself as follows:
With p being by itself on the left side of the equation, it can now be written as p to represent the critical proportion of the population needed to become immune to stop the transmission of disease, or the herd immunity threshold. R functions as a measure of contagiousness, so low R values are associated with lower HITs, whereas higher R s result in higher HITs. For example, the HIT for a disease with an R of 2 theoretically is only 50 %, whereas with disease with an R of 10 the HIT is 90 %. These calculations assume that the entire population is susceptible, meaning no individuals are immune to the disease. In reality, varying proportions of the population are immune to any given disease at any given time. To account for this, the effective reproductive number R, also written as R, or the average number of infections caused at time t, can found by multiplying R by the fraction of the population that is still susceptible. When R is reduced to and sustained below 1, the number of cases occurring in the population gradually decreases until the disease has been eliminated. If a population is immune to a disease in excess of that disease 's HIT, the number of cases reduces at a faster rate, outbreaks are even less likely to happen, and outbreaks that occur are smaller than they would be otherwise. If R increases to above 1, then the disease is neither in a steady state nor decreasing in incidence but is actively spreading through the population and infecting a larger number of people than usual.
A second assumption in these calculations is that populations are homogeneous, or well - mixed, meaning that every individual comes into contact with every other individual, when in reality populations are better described as social networks as individuals tend to cluster together, remaining in relatively close contact with a limited number of other individuals. In these networks, transmission only occurs between those who are geographically or physically close to one another. The shape and size of a network is likely to alter a disease 's HIT, making incidence either more or less common. In heterogeneous populations, R is now considered to be a measure of the number of cases generated by a "typical '' infectious person, which depends on how individuals within a network interact with each other. Interactions within networks are more common than between networks, in which case the most highly connected networks transmit disease more easily, resulting in a higher R and a higher HIT than would be required in a less connected network. In networks that either opt not to become immune or are not immunized sufficiently, diseases may persist despite not existing in better - immunized networks.
The primary way to boost levels of immunity in a population is through vaccination. Vaccination is originally based on the observation that milkmaids exposed to cowpox were immune to smallpox, so the practice of inoculating people with the cowpox virus began as a way to prevent smallpox. Well - developed vaccines provide protection in a far safer way than natural infections, as vaccines generally do not cause the diseases they protect against and severe adverse effects are significantly less common than complications from natural infections. The immune system does not distinguish between natural infections and vaccines, forming an active response to both, so immunity induced via vaccination is similar to what would have occurred from contracting and recovering from the disease. To achieve herd immunity through vaccination, vaccine manufacturers aim to produce vaccines with low failure rates and policy makers aim to encourage their use. After the successful introduction and widespread use of a vaccine, sharp declines in the incidence of diseases it protects against can be observed, necessarily decreasing the number of hospitalizations and deaths caused by such diseases.
Assuming a vaccine is 100 % effective, then the equation used for calculating the herd immunity threshold can be used for calculating the vaccination level needed to eliminate a disease, written as V. Vaccines are usually imperfect however, so the effectiveness, E, of a vaccine must be accounted for:
From this equation, it can be observed that if E is less than (1 − 1 / R), then it is impossible to eliminate a disease, even if the entire population is vaccinated. Similarly, waning vaccine - induced immunity, as occurs with acellular pertussis vaccines, requires higher levels of booster vaccination to sustain herd immunity. If a disease has ceased to be endemic to a population, then natural infections no longer contribute to a reduction in the fraction of the population that is susceptible. Only vaccination contributes to this reduction. The relation between vaccine coverage and effectiveness and disease incidence can be shown by subtracting the product of the effectiveness of a vaccine and the proportion of the population that is vaccinated, p, from the herd immunity threshold equation as follows:
It can be observed from this equation that, ceteris paribus, any increase in either vaccine coverage or vaccine effectiveness, including any increase in excess of a disease 's HIT, further reduces the number of cases of a disease. The rate of decline in cases depends on a disease 's R, with diseases with lower R values experiencing sharper declines. Vaccines usually have at least one contraindication for a specific population for medical reasons, but if both effectiveness and coverage are high enough herd immunity can protect these individuals. Vaccine effectiveness is often, but not always, adversely affected by passive immunity, so additional doses are recommended for some vaccines while others are not administered until after an individual has lost his or her passive immunity.
Individual immunity can also be gained passively, in which antibodies to a pathogen are transferred from one individual to another. This can occur naturally, whereby maternal antibodies, primarily immunoglobulin G antibodies, are transferred across the placenta and in colostrum to fetuses and newborns, or artificially, by which antibodies from the serum or plasma of an immune individual are injected into a susceptible person. Protection generated from passive immunity is immediate but wanes over the course of weeks to months, so any contribution to herd immunity is temporary. For diseases that are especially severe among fetuses and newborns, such as influenza and tetanus, pregnant women may be immunized in order to transfer antibodies to the child. In the same way, high - risk groups that are either more likely to experience infection or are more likely to develop complications from infection may receive antibody preparations to prevent these infections or to reduce the severity of symptoms.
Herd immunity is often accounted for when conducting cost -- benefit analyses of vaccination programs. It is regarded as a positive externality of high levels of immunity, producing an additional benefit of disease reduction that would not occur had no herd immunity been generated in the population. Therefore, herd immunity 's inclusion in cost -- benefit analyses results in more favorable cost - effectiveness or cost -- benefit ratios and an increase in the number of disease cases averted by vaccination. Study designs done to estimate herd immunity 's benefit include recording disease incidence in households in which a member was vaccinated, randomizing a population in a single geographic area to be vaccinated or not, and observing disease incidence before and after a vaccination program is introduced. From these, it can be observed that disease incidence may decrease to a level beyond what can be predicted from direct protection alone, indicating that herd immunity contributed to the reduction. When serotype replacement is accounted for, it reduces the predicted benefits of vaccination.
The term herd immunity was first used in 1923 to refer to an entire population 's immunity, in reference to research examining disease mortality in mouse populations with varying degrees of immunity. Herd immunity was first recognized as a naturally occurring phenomenon in the 1930s when A.W. Hedrich published research on the epidemiology of measles in Baltimore and took notice that after many children had become immune to measles, the number of new infections temporarily decreased, including among susceptible children. In spite of this knowledge, efforts to control and eliminate measles were unsuccessful until mass vaccination using the measles vaccine began in the 1960s. Mass vaccination, discussions of disease eradication, and cost -- benefit analyses of vaccination subsequently prompted more widespread use of the term herd immunity. In the 1970s, the theorem used to calculated a disease 's herd immunity threshold was developed. During the smallpox eradication campaign in the 1960s and 1970s, the practice of ring vaccination, of which herd immunity is integral to, began as a way to immunize every person in a "ring '' around an infected individual to prevent outbreaks from spreading.
Since the adoption of mass and ring vaccination, complexities and challenges to herd immunity have arisen. Modeling of the spread of infectious disease originally made a number of assumptions, namely that entire populations are susceptible and well - mixed, which do not exist in reality, so more precise equations have been developed. In recent decades, it has been recognized that the dominant strain of a microorganism in circulation may change due to herd immunity, either because of herd immunity acting as an evolutionary pressure or because herd immunity against one strain allowed another already - existing strain to spread. Emerging or ongoing vaccine controversies and various reasons for opposing vaccination have reduced or eliminated herd immunity in certain communities, allowing preventable diseases to persist in or return to these communities.
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essay on importance of newspaper in gujarati language | Category talk: gujarati - language newspapers - Wikipedia
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nba team record for 3 pointers made in a season | NBA Regular season records - wikipedia
This article lists all - time records achieved in the NBA regular season in major statistical categories recognized by the league, including those set by teams and individuals in a game, season, and career. The NBA also recognizes records from its original incarnation, the Basketball Association of America (BAA).
In 2006, the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must wait a year before entering the NBA, making age - related records harder to break.
Note: Other than the longest game and disqualifications in a game, all records in this section are since the 24 - second shot clock was instituted for 1954 -- 55 season onward.
* This award has only been given since the 1968 -- 69 season. * * This award has only been given since the 1982 -- 83 season.
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mention the name of two newspapers edited by mahatma gandhi | Young India - Wikipedia
Young India was a weekshed - a weekly paper or journal - in English published by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi from 1919 to 1931. Gandhi wrote various quotations in this journal that inspired many. He used Young India to spread his unique ideology and thoughts regarding the use of nonviolence in organising movements and to urge readers to consider, organise, and plan for India 's eventual independence from Britain.
In 1933 Gandhiji started publishing a weekly newspaper, Harijan, in English. Harijan - which means "People of God '', and was also Gandhi 's term for the untouchable caste - lasted until 1948. During this time Gandhi also published Harijan Bandu in Gujarati, and Harijan Sevak in Hindi. All three papers focused on India 's and the world 's social and economic problems.
The journal was reprinted in USA by the India Home Rule League of America.
Young India Journal Collection
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several species of small furry animals gathered together in a cave | Several Species of small Furry Animals Gathered Together in a Cave and Grooving with a Pict - wikipedia
"Several Species of Small Furry Animals Gathered Together in a Cave and Grooving with a Pict '' is a track written and performed by Roger Waters from the 1969 Pink Floyd double album, Ummagumma. It also holds the distinction of having the longest title of any of the band 's songs.
The track consists of several minutes of noises resembling rodents and birds simulated by Waters ' voice and other techniques, such as tapping the microphone played at different speeds, followed by Waters providing a few stanzas of spoken word in an exaggerated Scottish burr.
The Picts were the indigenous people of what is now Scotland who merged with the Scots.
There is a hidden message in the song at about 4: 32. If played at half speed, Waters can be heard to say, "That was pretty avant - garde, was n't it? '' (sample (help info)). Also, at the very end of the rant, Waters is heard to say, "Thank you. ''
A small sample of these effects can also be heard at about 4: 48 on Waters ' other track on Ummagumma, "Grantchester Meadows ''.
"It 's not actually anything, it 's a bit of concrete poetry. Those were sounds that I made, the voice and the hand slapping were all human generated - no musical instruments. ''
The title of the Man or Astro - man? song "Many Pieces of Large Fuzzy Mammals Gathered Together at a Rave and Schmoozing with a Brick '' is based on this song.
A quotation in Karl Edward Wagner 's Bloodstone (1975) pays tribute to the song: "several species of small furry animals gathered together in cave and grooving with a pict. ''
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who is the lead singer in casting crowns | Casting Crowns - Wikipedia
Casting Crowns is a contemporary Christian and Christian rock band started in 1999 by youth pastor Mark Hall, who serves as the band 's lead vocalist, as part of a youth group at First Baptist Church in Downtown Daytona Beach, Florida. They later moved to Stockbridge, Georgia, and more members joined. Some members of the band currently work as ministers for Eagle 's Landing First Baptist Church in McDonough, Georgia. The band has won a Grammy and a Dove Award.
Christian rock group Casting Crowns began as a student worship band in Daytona Beach, Florida, in 1999. Led by singer, songwriter, and youth pastor Mark Hall, the group initially included guitarists Juan DeVevo and Hector Cervantes, violinist Melodee DeVevo, and drummer Rob Cervantes (a.k.a. Chavez). The group relocated to Stockbridge, Georgia, in 2001, adding Chris Huffman on bass, Megan Garrett on keyboards and accordion, and drummer Andy Williams. This augmented version of Casting Crowns released two independent albums on CD, both of which were well received in the Atlanta area. Both independent albums were efforts on the part of Mark Hall and the rest of the group as outreach projects for youth in the area. The group won the GMA regional songwriters competition at Palm Beach Atlantic University, West Palm Beach, Florida, in both the "Best Song '' and the "Best Artist '' categories in 2004. Although the group was not searching for a record label, one of the group 's albums found its way into the hands of Mark Miller, lead singer for country group Sawyer Brown, who was struck by Casting Crowns ' driving pop / rock style and Hall 's vocal delivery of his hard - hitting but devout songs. Miller signed Casting Crowns to his fledgling Beach Street Records, a division of Reunion Records with distribution by the Provident Label Group, making Casting Crowns the first artist signed to Beach Street Records.
Mark Miller took the group into the studio along with co-producer Steven Curtis Chapman, himself a popular artist on the CCM musical scene. The resulting eponymous album, Casting Crowns, was released in 2003 on the Beach Street imprint. The album quickly made them one of the fastest selling debut artists in Christian music history. The album 's third single, "Voice of Truth '', spent a record - breaking fourteen consecutive weeks at No. 1 beginning in 2003. "Voice of Truth '' is also used in the trailer and the ending from the movie Facing the Giants. The album was certified platinum in 2005, and in 2011, the group received their first gold certification for a single for the song ' Who Am I ' from their debut record.
Lifesong followed in 2005, debuting at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 chart. The album had three singles: "Lifesong '', "Praise You in this Storm '', and "Does Anybody Hear Her? ''. "Lifesong '' spent nine weeks in the top spot, with "Praise You in This Storm '' remaining at No. 1 for seven weeks. Apart from being successful in the charts, Lifesong earned Casting Crowns their first Grammy Award for their work on the album in 2006.
In 2006, the group released Lifesong Live, which included live performances of songs from their studio album Lifesong.
The band 's third studio album The Altar and the Door debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 albums chart and No. 1 on the Hot Christian Albums chart upon its release in August 2007. Ten weeks after the album 's release date, it was certified gold by the RIAA. On September 27, 2007, the band embarked on the ' Altar and the Door ' tour with Leeland and John Waller. The tour was highly successful, grossing $4.4 million in ticket sales. Casting Crowns broke their own record in 2007 when the single "East to West '' from The Altar and the Door hit sixteen consecutive weeks at No. 1. The song ended up enjoying the top spot for a total of nineteen weeks, now their most successful single to date. "Slow Fade '' was also released as a single, and was included in the soundtrack of the Kirk Cameron film Fireproof.
In 2008, Casting Crowns scored their eighth number one hit with "I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day '', a track from their newly released Christmas album entitled Peace on Earth.
Casting Crowns was one of the only American bands to ever have been invited to North Korea. They attended the 2009 Spring Friendship Arts Festival in Pyongyang where they performed with The Annie Moses Band. This was Casting Crowns ' second time invited to the festival sponsored by Global Resource Services, the first time being in 2007. On August 30, 2009, Casting Crowns performed on Huckabee, Mike Huckabee 's political show.
Casting Crowns ' fourth major studio album, Until the Whole World Hears, was released on November 17, 2009, debuting at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and selling over 167,000 copies in its first week alone, setting a new record for the highest Christian album debut in history. It was certified gold within four weeks. The title track and first single from the album became the group 's ninth No. 1 single in January 2010.
In April 2010, Casting Crowns won the Dove Award for Artist of the Year, their first ever win in that category. A music video for the title track of Until the Whole World Hears was posted on the band 's YouTube page on August 23, 2010.
The track "Glorious Day '' was released as a single in 2011 and reached No. 1 on Billboard Christian Songs during the week of April 23, 2011.
"Courageous '', was released as a single on July 19, 2011. The music video for the song was released on June 13, 2011 and promotes the film Courageous. The song was featured on, Come to the Well, which was released on October 18, 2011. "Jesus, Friend of Sinners '', the album 's second single, was released in 2012.
In 2012, Josh Mix joined the band, replacing guitar player Hector Cervantes.
The Acoustic Sessions: Volume One, was released on January 22, 2013.
In early 2013, the band recorded their own version of the hymn "I Surrender All '' for the album Jesus, Firm Foundation. Also, lead singer Mark Hall recorded the title song with Mike Donehey of Tenth Avenue North, Steven Curtis Chapman, and Mandisa. To end the year, the band joined Chapman, Natalie Grant, Matthew West, and other artists on "The Story Tour 2013 '' performing sings from The Story.
In September 2013, the band released "All You 've Ever Wanted '', the first single from Thrive which was released on January 28, 2014. and charted No. 6 in Billboard 's Top 200 in its first week.
In early 2015, Casting Crowns released the hymns - album, Glorious Day - Hymns of Faith, exclusively through Cracker Barrel Old Country Stores. The album includes Casting Crowns ' Until the Whole World Hears singles "Glorious Day '' and "Blessed Redeemer '', and acoustic versions of "If We Are the Body '' and "Praise You in This Storm '' as well as eight hymns, mostly covers.
In November 2015, the band released A Live Worship Experience. The album was recorded live at the band 's home church, Eagle 's Landing First Baptist Church, and features 12 songs, including worship songs "Great Are You Lord, '' and "Good Good Father, '' and Casting Crowns ' songs "Just Be Held '' and "Thrive. ''
On September 16, 2016, the band released their seventh studio album, The Very Next Thing, which was preceded by the single "One Step Away ''. It was followed by a second single from the album, "Oh My Soul ''.
On October 20, 2017, the band released a new EP, It 's Finally Christmas, and embarked on "A Glorious Christmas '' tour with for KING & COUNTRY shortly after its release.
On October 11, 2018, the band announced their new album, Only Jesus, scheduled for release on November 16, 2018, with a video introduction by Mark Hall and made the title track available to those on their fans list. On October 12, 2018, they also released a second track, "Nobody '', featuring Matthew West, to fans. On October 19, they released a third track, "In the Hands of the Potter '' to those on their fans list.
In keeping with The Great Commission, Hall describes their music as a "ministry of discipleship ''.
Mark Hall is youth minister at Eagle 's Landing First Baptist Church in McDonough, Georgia, while the other members are active in their respective churches. They do the band part - time around their full - time work of raising families and church service. < https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7511374/casting-crowns-the-very-next-album > They often tour from Thursday to Saturday so that they can be home for church on Sunday morning and Wednesday night.
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which amendment extends most of the provisions of the bill of rights | Incorporation of the Bill of Rights - wikipedia
Incorporation, in U.S. law, is the process by which American courts have applied portions of the U.S. Bill of Rights to the states. When it was first ratified, the Bill of Rights only protected the rights it enumerated from federal infringement, allowing states and local governments to abridge them. However, beginning in 1897 with Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad v. City of Chicago, various portions have been held to be incorporated against state and local government through the Fourteenth Amendment.
Prior to the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and the development of the incorporation doctrine, the Supreme Court in 1833 held in Barron v. Baltimore that the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal, but not any state governments. Even years after the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court in United States v. Cruikshank (1876) still held that the First and Second Amendment did not apply to state governments. However, beginning in the 1920s, a series of United States Supreme Court decisions interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment to "incorporate '' most portions of the Bill of Rights, making these portions, for the first time, enforceable against the state governments.
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the United States Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). Although James Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government.
In the 1833 case of Barron v. Baltimore, the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments; such protections were instead provided by the constitutions of each state. After the Civil War, Congress and the states ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, which included the Due Process Clause and the Privileges or Immunities Clause. While the Fifth Amendment had included a due process clause, the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment crucially differed from the Fifth Amendment in that it explicitly applied to the states. The Privileges or Immunities Clause also explicitly applied to the states, unlike the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV of the Constitution. In the Slaughter - House Cases (1873), the Supreme Court ruled that the Privileges or Immunities Clause was not designed to protected individuals from the actions of state governments. In Twining v. New Jersey (1908), the Supreme Court acknowledged that the Due Process Clause might incorporate some of the Bill of Rights, but continued to reject any incorporation under the Privileges or Immunities Clause.
The doctrine of incorporation has been traced back to either Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad v. City of Chicago (1897) in which the Supreme Court appeared to require some form of just compensation for property appropriated by state or local authorities (although there was a state statute on the books that provided the same guarantee) or, more commonly, to Gitlow v. New York (1925), in which the Court expressly held that States were bound to protect freedom of speech. Since that time, the Court has steadily incorporated most of the significant provisions of the Bill of Rights. Provisions that the Supreme Court either has refused to incorporate, or whose possible incorporation has not yet been addressed include the Fifth Amendment right to an indictment by a grand jury, and the Seventh Amendment right to a jury trial in civil lawsuits.
Incorporation applies both procedurally and substantively to the guarantees of the states. Thus, procedurally, only a jury can convict a defendant of a serious crime, since the Sixth Amendment jury - trial right has been incorporated against the states; substantively, for example, states must recognize the First Amendment prohibition against a state - established religion, regardless of whether state laws and constitutions offer such a prohibition. The Supreme Court has declined, however, to apply new procedural constitutional rights retroactively against the states in criminal cases (Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288 (1989)) with limited exceptions, and it has waived constitutional requirements if the states can prove that a constitutional violation was "harmless beyond a reasonable doubt. ''
Rep. John Bingham, the principal framer of the Fourteenth Amendment, advocated that the Fourteenth applied the first eight Amendments of the Bill of Rights to the States. The U.S. Supreme Court subsequently declined to interpret it that way, despite the dissenting argument in the 1947 case of Adamson v. California by Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black that the framers ' intent should control the Court 's interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment (he included a lengthy appendix that quoted extensively from Bingham 's congressional testimony). Although the Adamson Court declined to adopt Black 's interpretation, the Court during the following twenty - five years employed a doctrine of selective incorporation that succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. '' The 14th Amendment has vastly expanded civil rights protections and is cited in more litigation than any other amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
In the 1940s and 1960s the Supreme Court gradually issued a series of decisions incorporating several of the specific rights from the Bill of Rights, so as to be binding upon the States. A dissenting school of thought championed by Justice Hugo Black supported that incorporation of specific rights, but urged incorporation of all specific rights instead of just some of them. Black was for so - called mechanical incorporation, or total incorporation, of Amendments 1 through 8 of the Bill of Rights (Amendments 9 and 10 being patently connected to the powers of the state governments). Black felt that the Fourteenth Amendment required the States to respect all of the enumerated rights set forth in the first eight amendments, but he did not wish to see the doctrine expanded to include other, unenumerated "fundamental rights '' that might be based on the Ninth Amendment. Black felt that his formulation eliminated any arbitrariness or caprice in deciding what the Fourteenth Amendment ought to protect, by sticking to words already found in the Constitution. Although Black was willing to invalidate federal statutes on federalism grounds, he was not inclined to read any of the first eight amendments as states ' rights provisions as opposed to individual rights provisions. Justice Black felt that the Fourteenth Amendment was designed to apply the first eight amendments from the Bill of Rights to the states, as he expressed in his dissenting opinion in Adamson v. California. This view was again expressed by Black in his concurrence in Duncan v. Louisiana citing the Fourteenth Amendment 's Privileges or Immunities Clause: "' No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ' seem to me an eminently reasonable way of expressing the idea that henceforth the Bill of Rights shall apply to the States. ''
Justice Felix Frankfurter, however, felt that the incorporation process ought to be incremental, and that the federal courts should only apply those sections of the Bill of Rights whose abridgment would "shock the conscience, '' as he put it in Rochin v. California (1952). Such a selective incorporation approach followed that of Justice Moody, who wrote in Twining v. New Jersey (1908) that "It is possible that some of the personal rights safeguarded by the first eight Amendments against National action may also be safeguarded against state action, because a denial of them would be a denial of due process of law. If this is so, it is not because those rights are enumerated in the first eight Amendments, but because they are of such a nature that they are included in the conception of due process of law. '' The due process approach thus considers a right to be incorporated not because it was listed in the Bill of Rights, but only because it is required by the definition of due process, which may change over time. For example, Moody 's decision in Twining stated that the 5th Amendment right against self - incrimination was not inherent in a conception of due process and so did not apply to states, but was overruled in Malloy v. Hogan (1964). Similarly, Justice Cardozo stated in Palko v. Connecticut (1937) that the right against double jeopardy was not inherent to due process and so does not apply to the states, but that was overruled in Benton v. Maryland (1969). Frankfurter 's incrementalist approach did carry the day, but the end result is very nearly what Justice Black advocated, with the exceptions noted below.
Some have suggested that the Privileges or Immunities Clause would be a more appropriate textual basis than the due process clause for incorporation of the Bill of Rights. It is often said that the Slaughter - House Cases "gutted the privileges or immunities clause '' and thus prevented its use for applying the Bill of Rights against the states. In his dissent to Adamson v. California, however, Justice Hugo Black pointed out that the Slaughter - House Cases did not directly involve any right enumerated in the Constitution:
(T) he state law under consideration in the Slaughter - House cases was only challenged as one which authorized a monopoly, and the brief for the challenger properly conceded that there was "no direct constitutional provision against a monopoly. '' The argument did not invoke any specific provision of the Bill of Rights, but urged that the state monopoly statute violated "the natural right of a person '' to do business and engage in his trade or vocation.
Thus, in Black 's view, the Slaughterhouse Cases should not impede incorporation of the Bill of Rights against the states, via the Privileges or Immunities Clause. Some scholars go even further, and argue that the Slaughterhouse Cases affirmatively supported incorporation of the Bill of Rights against the states. In dicta, Justice Miller 's opinion in Slaughterhouse went so far as to acknowledge that the "right to peaceably assemble and petition for redress of grievances... are rights of the citizen guaranteed by the Federal Constitution, '' although in context Miller may have only been referring to assemblies for petitioning the federal government.
In the 2010 landmark case McDonald v. Chicago, the Supreme Court declared the Second Amendment is incorporated through the Due Process Clause. However, Justice Thomas, the fifth justice in the majority, criticized substantive due process and declared instead that he reached the same incorporation only through the Privileges or Immunities Clause. No other justice attempted to question his rationale. This is considered by some as a "revival '' of the Privileges or Immunities Clause, however as it is a concurring opinion and not the majority opinion in the case, it holds no legal weight in lower courts; it is merely an indication that SCOTUS may be inclined, given the proper question, to reconsider and ultimately reverse the Slaughterhouse Cases.
Many of the provisions of the First Amendment were applied to the States in the 1930s and 1940s, but most of the procedural protections provided to criminal defendants were not enforced against the States until the Warren Court of the 1960s, famous for its concern for the rights of those accused of crimes, brought state standards in line with federal requirements. The following list enumerates, by amendment and individual clause, the Supreme Court cases that have incorporated the rights contained in the Bill of Rights. (The Ninth Amendment is not listed; its wording indicates that it "is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution. '' The Tenth Amendment is also not listed; by its wording, it is a reservation of powers to the states and to the people.)
Guarantee against establishment of religion
Guarantee of free exercise of religion
Guarantee of freedom of speech
Guarantee of freedom of the press
Guarantee of freedom of assembly
Guarantee of the right to petition for redress of grievances
Guarantee of freedom of expressive association
Right to keep and bear arms
Freedom from quartering of soldiers
In 1982, the Second Circuit applied the Third Amendment to the states in Engblom v. Carey. This is a binding authority over Connecticut, New York, and Vermont, but is only a persuasive authority over the remainder of the United States.
The Tenth Circuit has suggested that the right is incorporated because the Bill of Rights explicitly codifies the "fee ownership system developed in English law '' through the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Amendments, and the Fourteenth Amendment likewise forbids the states from depriving citizens of their property without due process of law. See United States v. Nichols, 841 F. 2d 1485, 1510 n. 1 (10th Cir. 1988).
The "problem '' is that the third amendment, by and large, is the only one that is almost never violated by the states and Federal government, almost nobody is suing over the issue, so very few cases are being heard. The U.S. Supreme Court has never had a third amendment case appealed to it.
Unreasonable search and seizure
Warrant requirements
Right to indictment by a grand jury
Protection against double jeopardy
Constitutional privilege against self - incrimination
Protection against taking of private property without just compensation
Right to a speedy trial
Right to a public trial
Right to trial by impartial jury
Right to a jury selected from residents of the state and district where the crime occurred
Right to notice of accusations
Right to confront adverse witnesses
Right to compulsory process (subpoenas) to obtain witness testimony
Right to assistance of counsel
Right to jury trial in civil cases
Re-Examination Clause
Protection against excessive bail
Protection against excessive fines
Protection against cruel and unusual punishments
A similar legal doctrine to incorporation is that of reverse incorporation. Whereas incorporation applies the Bill of Rights to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, in reverse incorporation, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment has been held to apply to the federal government through the Due Process Clause located in the Fifth Amendment. For example, in Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954), which was a companion case to Brown v. Board of Education, the schools of the District of Columbia were desegregated even though Washington is federal. Likewise, in Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña 515 U.S. 200 (1995), an affirmative action program by the federal government was subjected to strict scrutiny based on equal protection.
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list of texans who died at the alamo | List of Alamo defenders - wikipedia
The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 -- March 6, 1836) was a crucial conflict of the Texas Revolution. In 1835, colonists from the United States joined with Tejanos (Mexicans born in Texas) in putting up armed resistance to the centralization of the Mexican government. President Antonio López de Santa Anna and the government in Mexico City believed the United States had instigated the insurrection with a goal of annexing Texas.
In an effort to tamp down on the unrest, martial law was declared and military governor General Martín Perfecto de Cos established headquarters in San Antonio de Béxar, stationing his troops at the Alamo. When the Texian volunteer soldiers gained control of the fortress at the Siege of Béxar, compelling Cos to surrender on December 9, many saw his expulsion to the other side of the Rio Grande as the end of Mexican forces in Texas. Most Texian soldiers in Béxar left to join a planned invasion of Matamoros, Mexico.
Garrison commander James C. Neill went home on family matters February 11, 1836, leaving James Bowie and William B. Travis as co-commanders over the predominantly volunteer force. When the Mexican Army of Operations under the command of Santa Anna arrived in Béxar with 1,500 troops on February 23, the remaining Alamo garrison numbered 150. Over the course of the next several days, new volunteers arrived inside the fortress while others were sent out as couriers, to forage for food, or to buy supplies.
A fierce defense was launched from within the walls, even as Bowie and Travis made unsuccessful attempts to negotiate with the Mexican army. Travis repeatedly dispatched couriers with pleas for reinforcements. Although Santa Anna refused to consider a proposed conditional surrender, he extended an offer of amnesty for all Tejanos inside the fortress to walk away unharmed. Most Tejanos evacuated from the fortress about February 25, either as part of the amnesty, or as a part of Juan Seguín 's company of courier scouts on their last run.
In response to pleas from Travis, James Fannin started from Goliad with 320 men, supplies and armaments, yet had to abort a day later due to a wagon breakdown. Final reinforcements were able to enter the Alamo during March 1 -- 4, most of them from Gonzales which had become a recruitment camp. Others who had left intending to return were unable to re-enter. At 5: 30 a.m. on March 6, the Mexican army began the final siege. An hour later, all combatants inside the Alamo were dead. The bodies, with the exception of Gregorio Esparza 's, were cremated on pyres and abandoned. Esparza 's brother Francisco was a soldier in the Mexican army and received permission from Santa Anna for a Christian burial.
Juan Seguín oversaw the 1837 recovery of the abandoned ashes and officiated at the February 25 funeral. The March 28 issue of the Telegraph and Texas Register only gave the burial location as where "the principal heap of ashes '' had been found. In the following decades, the public wanted to know the location of the burial site, but Seguín gave conflicting statements, perceived as due to age - related memory problems. Remains thought to be those of the Alamo defenders were discovered at the Cathedral of San Fernando during the Texas 1936 centennial, and re-interred in a marble sarcophagus. Purported to hold the ashes of Travis, Bowie and Crockett, some have doubted it can be proven whose remains are entombed there.
Below are 256 known combatants: 212 who died during the siege, 43 survivors, and one escapee who later died of his wounds.
Mexican Colonel Juan Almonte, Santa Anna 's aide - de-camp, recorded the Texian fatality toll as 250 in his March 6 journal entry. He listed the survivors as five women, one Mexican soldier and one slave. Almonte did not record names, and his count was based solely on who was there during the final assault. Santa Anna reported to Mexico 's Secretary of War Tornel that Texian fatalities exceeded 600. Historians Jack Jackson and John Wheat attributed that high figure to Santa Anna 's playing to his political base.
Research into the battle, and exactly who was inside the fortress, began when the Alamo fell and has continued with no signs of abatement. The first published Texian list of casualties was in the March 24, 1836 issue of the Telegraph and Texas Register. The 115 names were supplied by couriers John Smith and Gerald Navan, whom historian Thomas Ricks Lindley believed likely drew from their own memories, as well as from interviews with those who might have left or tried to enter. In an 1860 statement for the Texas Almanac, former San Antonio alcalde (mayor) Francisco Antonio Ruiz set the number at 182.
When the Alamo Cenotaph was created by Pompeo Coppini in 1939, the 187 defender names on the monument came from the research of Amelia Williams, considered the leading Alamo authority of her day. Her work is still used by some as a benchmark, although skepticism has been voiced. Lindley 's 2003 Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions is the result of his 15 - year study of the battle, and upended much of what was previously accepted as fact. He devoted a chapter to deconstructing Williams ' research as "misrepresentation, alteration, and fabrication of data '', criticizing her sole reliance on the military land grants without checking through the muster lists to identify the combatants. In lieu of service pay, the cash - poor Republic of Texas adopted the system of military land grants. Issuance was dependent upon the military muster lists and either the veterans or their heirs filing a claim, a process that required an upfront fee to complete. Lacking a completed claim, proof of service would appear only on a muster list.
In the pursuit of uncovering every infinitesimal piece of evidence about what happened during the battle, more thorough research methods continue to evolve and Tejanos have begun to add their voices. Until recent decades, accounts of Tejano participation in the Texas revolution were notably absent, but historians such as Timothy M. Matovina and Jesús F. de la Teja have helped add that missing perspective to the battle 's events.
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where do axons of secondary neurons of the anterior spinocerebellar tract decussate | Posterior column -- medial lemniscus pathway - wikipedia
Posterior column -- medial lemniscus pathway (PCML) (also known as the dorsal column - medial lemniscus pathway (DCML)) is a sensory pathway of the central nervous system that conveys localized sensations of fine touch, vibration, two - point discrimination, and proprioception (position sense) from the skin and joints. It transmits information from the body to the postcentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex.
There are three neurons involved in the pathway: first - order neurons, second - order neurons, and third - order neurons. The first - order neurons reside in dorsal root ganglia and send their axons through the gracile fasciculus and cuneate fasciculus. The first - order axons make contact with second order neurons at the gracile and cuneate nuclei in the lower medulla. The second - order neurons send their axons to the thalamus. The third order neurons arise from thalamus to the postcentral gyrus.
The posterior column is composed of gracile fasciculus and cuneate fasciculus. The gracile fasciculus carries input from the lower half of the body and the cuneate fasciculus carries input from the upper half of the body. The gracile fasciculus arise from the fibers more medial than the cuneate fasciculus.
When the axons of second - order neurons of the PCML decussate in the medulla, they are called internal arcuate fibers. The crossings of the internal arcuate fibers form the medial lemniscus.
The name comes from the two structures that the sensation travels up: the posterior (or dorsal) column of the spinal cord, and the medial lemniscus in the brainstem.
The PCML pathway is composed of rapidly conducting, large, myelinated fibers.
Discriminative sensation is well developed in the fingers of humans, and allows us to feel fine textures and determine what an unknown object in our hands is without looking at it (stereognosis).
This fine sensation is detected by mechanoreceptors called tactile corpuscles that lie in the dermis of the skin close to the epidermis. When these structures are stimulated by slight pressure, an action potential is started. Alternatively, proprioceptive muscle spindles and other skin surface touch receptors such as Merkel cells, bulbous corpuscles, lamellar corpuscles, and hair follicle receptors (peritrichial endings) may involve the first neuron in this pathway.
The sensory neurons in this pathway are pseudounipolar, meaning that they have a single process emanating from the soma (also known as the cell body, perikaryon, or cyton) with two distinct branches: one peripheral branch that functions somewhat like a dendrite of a typical neuron by receiving input (although it should not be confused with a true dendrite), and one central branch that functions like a typical axon by carrying information to other neurons (again, both branches are actually part of one axon).
The action potential that was initiated in the tactile corpuscles will travel up the peripheral branch of the pseudounipolar neuron 's axon and reach the neuron 's soma in the dorsal root ganglion. Then it will continue along the central branch of that same neuron 's axon through the posterior root, into the posterior horn, and up the posterior column of the spinal cord.
PCML pathway axons from the lower body enter the posterior column inferior to T6 and travel in a medial section of the column called the fasciculus gracilis (also known as the tract of Goll, gracile fasciculus, or gracile tract). Axons from the upper body enter at or superior to T6 and travel up a more lateral section called the fasciculus cuneatus (also known as the tract of Burdach, cuneate fasciculus, or cuneate tract). In effect, the shorter upper body axons enter "after '' and travel outside the longer lower body axons.
At the level of the closed medulla oblongata, lower body axons synapse with neurons in the gracile nucleus (nucleus gracilis), and upper body axons synapse with neurons in the cuneate nucleus (nucleus cuneatus).
The secondary neurons (that start in the nuclei) cross over to the other side of the medulla (as internal arcuate fibres) to form the medial lemniscus. This crossing over is commonly referred to as the sensory decussation.
At the medulla, the medial lemniscus is orientated perpendicular to the way the fibres travelled in the posterior columns. For example, in the columns, lower limb is medial, upper limb is more lateral. At the medial lemniscus, axons from the leg are more ventral, and axons from the arm are more dorsal. Fibres from the trigeminal nerve (supplying the head) come in dorsal to the arm fibres, and travel up the lemniscus too.
The medial lemniscus rotates 90 degrees at the pons. The secondary axons from neurons giving sensation to the head, stay at around the same place, while the leg axons move outwards.
The axons travel up the rest of the brainstem, and synapse at the thalamus (at the ventral posterolateral nucleus for sensation from the neck, trunk, and extremities, and at the ventral posteromedial nucleus for sensation from the head).
Neurons starting in the thalamus travel up the posterior limb of the internal capsule, and again head and leg swap relative positions. The axons synapse in the primary somatosensory cortex, with lower body sensation most medial (e.g., the paracentral lobule) and upper body more lateral. Consider: Corona Radiata -- > 3 1 2 Brodmann
The pathway is tested with the Romberg 's test. Lesions to the posterior column - medial lemniscus pathway below the decussation of its fibers produce loss of sensation on the same side of the body as the lesion. Above the decussation produces loss of sensation on the opposite side of the body than the lesion.
2 ° (Spinomesencephalic tract → Superior colliculus of Midbrain tectum)
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when do they leave neverland in once upon a time | Going Home (Once Upon a Time) - wikipedia
"Going Home '' is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time, and the show 's 55th episode overall. The episode served as the season 's winter finale, and marked the first time in the series that six different story lines were used: four involving the character 's past, one in the present, and a combined alternate past / fast forward outcome, the latter setting things up for a new chapter in the series.
In this episode, Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle) hatches a plan to stop Peter Pan (Robbie Kay) from destroying Storybrooke with Regina 's (Lana Parrilla) curse; the end result has Regina making an action that will forever change Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison) and Henry (Jared S. Gilmore).
The episode -- written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz -- received critical acclaim from critics, mainly due to the episode 's ending and Rumplestiltskin 's role; however, the episode saw a significant ratings drop, with 6.44 million viewers watching, and attaining an 18 - 49 rating of 1.9.
Emma Swan 's Volkswagen Beetle drives into the emerald - tinted forest.
As the Curse prepares to take place within hours, Snow White and Prince Charming tell the Blue Fairy that they are worried about the Curse. The Fairy tells them that there was nothing she can do except try to save the baby and that someday everything will be okay... someday. This was not the answer that Snow wanted, but Charming keeps on assuring her that everything will be okay. Snow looks at Emma 's crib and believes the only thing her daughter will have is hope.
While he and Mr. Smee attempt to find a way off the island, Hook is unaware that someone has been following them, and uses a branch that takes Smee out. Hook looks at his unconscious mate and is surprised by Tinker Bell, who pulls out a knife in front of him. However, Hook, figuring out that Tinker Bell is a fairy, tells her that he has only one thing on his mind, which is to seek revenge on Rumplestilskin. He offers her a bottle of rum.
At Rumplestiltskin 's castle, Rumple is marking Baelfire 's birthday, and Belle approaches him. She says that maybe Rumple and his son can someday be together again, but Rumple, who did not want Belle to bother him, doubts that will ever happen.
In the days prior to Emma 's arrival to break the Curse, Henry is talking to Mary Margaret, saying that he is frustrated that no one else in Storybrooke can see that their lives are just following a predictable pattern, referring to the entire town repeating everything since he arrived. As a way to get Henry to believe in himself, Mary Margaret gives him a large book called Once Upon a Time, which will set things up for Henry to bring his birth mother to Storybrooke, this after Henry starts seeing Mary Margaret as Snow White.
Real -- In the prison hospital, Emma gives birth to Henry, but when she is asked by the doctor if she wants to see the baby, Emma refuses.
New -- In 2001, Emma finally gives birth to Henry at the prison hospital. However, the outcome takes a different twist: Instead of giving up Henry, she decides to keep him instead after she sees her son for the first time and she holds him, thus altering the outcome of her destiny thanks to Regina 's spell.
At the well, Pan (who still occupies Henry 's body) and Felix are talking about casting the Curse, as Pan drops the ingredients he took from Regina 's vault in the well. He takes the final element needed to enact it, which was Felix 's heart, because of his loyalty to Pan. Pan rips out Felix 's heart, crushes it, and drops the ashes into the well. Back at the Vault, Gold explains that the only person who can stop it is Regina, but she will need the scroll to do it and since she was the one who enacted it in the first place, Regina is only one who can destroy the scroll. However, Gold warns Regina there will be a price. Gold also tells the others that he may be able to switch Henry and Pan 's bodies back, but he needs the one thing that will reverse it, which is the wand of the Black Fairy. As everyone involved begins the search, Snow talks to Emma, lamenting that she never got to raise her daughter, while at the church (where the other fairies / nuns are gathering for Mother Superior 's wake), David, Tinker Bell, Hook, and Neal are looking for the wand, unaware that another individual is also looking for it as well: Pan 's Shadow. When Hook spots the Shadow he attempts to stop it but ca n't, prompting Tinker Bell to come to his aid and she uses some of her Pixie Dust to fly up to the Shadow, and she traps it and throws it into a nearby fire, apparently killing it. Her actions also bring Mother Superior, whose shadow was taken by Pan 's Shadow, back to life. She restores Tinker Bell as a real fairy and gives them the Black Fairy 's wand.
Back at Gold 's Pawn Shop, everyone gathers again to plan another course of action as Gold puts a special bracelet on Henry (who is occupying Peter Pan 's body) so that when they swap bodies again, Pan will not have any magic. Gold then uses the wand and swaps Pan and Henry 's bodies back. After they see Peter Pan back in his original body, Gold stands over his unconscious and powerless father, saying that he has some "unfinished family business '' as everyone leaves to find Henry and the scroll. They find Henry (now in his original body) at the library, but as he hands the scroll over to Regina, a flash of light comes over her and she is knocked out. Around the same time at the Shop, and as Pan wakes up, Gold taunts him because he wants Pan to see a bit of what life could have been like if they had just been father and son, but Pan wants none of it, telling Gold how horrible it was having a child that crushed his dreams. Gold picks up a sword and approaches Pan, unaware that he is able to remove the bracelet (since Pan created the device) and places it on Gold, rendering him powerless, and then tosses Gold across the room, leaving his son cowering in the corner. Gold attempts to find a way to regain his powers, and the only way he can break free of the bracelet is by chopping off his hand.
Later at the street, Regina wakes up and says she knows what must be done to stop the Curse, however, Pan shows up to retrieve the scroll and freezes all of them. Pan decides to take out his grandson Neal, only to be thwarted by Gold, who shows up to stop him. After vowing to Neal and Belle that he is finally ready to pay the price to keep them safe knowing that means killing himself, Gold 's shadow appears, carrying the Dark One 's Dagger and hands it to Gold, and stabs both Pan and himself at the same time. Pan transforms back into Malcolm, who urges Gold to stop before it is too late, but Gold tells his father "Ah but, I am a villain and villains do n't get happy endings. '' He twists the knife and both men vanish in a burst of light. As Belle cries after they disappear, Neal asks a hesitant Regina if there is a way to stop the Curse, to which Regina reveals that the only way to stop it is to give up the one thing she loved the most: Henry. As the Curse approaches, Regina tells Emma that she and Henry will have to leave Storybrooke forever because once the Curse takes place everyone will return to the Enchanted Forest and since Henry was born in the Land Without Magic, he wo n't be able to go back with them, but Emma will be able to stay with him because she 's the savior and the only one who can escape it. As everyone says goodbye to Emma and Henry, Regina gives the two a spell that will give them good memories but they will not remember the events that broke the Curse in the first place. As Emma and Henry drive away, Regina destroys the scrolls as the Curse consumes everyone and Storybrooke disappears.
One year later after the Curse, in New York City, Emma and Henry are in an apartment, and as she makes breakfast for Henry, she receives a knock on the door. When she opens it, she sees Hook standing outside, saying that he needs her help. This time around Hook warns Emma that her family is in trouble, but she has no idea who this person is or what he is talking about. Hook, believing that "true love 's kiss '' will bring her memories back, attempts to kiss Emma, but the shock results in Emma kicking Hook in the groin, pushing him away, and immediately slamming the door in his face.
During an interview with the Los Angeles Times, Robbie Kay, who portrayed Peter Pan, talked about the body - switching plot and venturing to Storybrooke, saying "so there 's an environmental shift so that character is not in his own court, if you will. So he 's adapting to a new environment and obviously in the most recent episodes there was also a character shift. So I 'm playing Henry and Jared (Gilmore) is playing Pan. That again was crazy, but a lot of fun. ''
The outing saw a slip in the ratings, as it places a 1.9 / 5 among 18 - 49s with only 6.44 million tuning in, a drop of two tenths from the previous outing and matching the same numbers it had for "Save Henry ''. The show placed fourth in its timeslot.
Including DVR playback, which added 2.50 million viewers, the episode was watched by a total of 8.94 million viewers with an 18 - 49 rating of 3.1 When rebroadcast on March 8, 2014, the episode received 1.37 million more viewers and a 0.3 rating, totaling 10.37 and 3.4.
The episode was met with universal acclaim, with many praising the episode 's ending and Rumplestiltskin 's fate.
Amy Ratcliffe of IGN gave the episode a 9.1 out of 10, saying "Once 's winter finale was entertaining and enjoyable with just a few weak points. Losing Rumple hurt, and so did Storybrooke going away, but I do n't think either will last for long. Regardless of what sticks, the events have led to a place that changes the landscape and is sure to set up an intriguing rest of the season. '' The ending of the episode was met positively by Ratcliffe, saying "As far as the jump forward in time, it was a smart decision. You know Emma and Henry have settled into their new life and become accustomed to a certain sense of normal (their breakfast scene had more than a hint of the routine when Desmond first appeared in Lost), but the leap is also necessary for at least one practical reason: Gilmore is growing up and now he has a reason to look older. ''
Jim Halterman of TV Fanatic gave the episode a 4.7 out of 5, saying "The one year time jump surprised me. I expected the show to end with that little yellow bug driving away from the Storybrooke that was. Instead we see Emma and Henry living a domestic and happy life together, until a strange knock at the door revealed a pirate with a hook. I loved that Hook kissed her. He was hoping that true love 's kiss would unlock her memories. Unfortunately it does n't work when it 's a one way street.
Lily Sparks of TV.com gave the episode a highly positive review, saying:
The characters of OUAT have been feeling huge crazy things all season, but because this was the mid-season finale, the show actually tapped the brakes and gave the proceedings some gravity and the actors time to process it and to transfer the feeling to us. And we felt all of it! I get infuriated sometimes at how good this show can be, because it could be this good in every episode if it wanted to. It does n't take flashy CGI to make this show intriguing, all it takes is slowing a scene down every once in a while and letting two people process in some real way the batshit hoop they 're jumping through.
Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B -, noting that "Wow, a lot to process this hour: When Once Upon A Time gives you a midseason finale, they frickin ' mean it. With the Pan plot coming to a close, a new storyline needed to open up. And in Storybrooke 's case, that 's wide open. ''
Hilary Busis of Entertainment Weekly summed it up with these comments:
Remember how season 2 's winter finale brought an entire half - season 's storyline to a satisfying end by conclusively returning Snow and Emma to Storybrooke? Well, Sunday 's episode went about a hundred times farther, effectively tying a pretty white bow on the entire show 's storyline -- at least, until that handy "One Year Later '' tag (Captain Swan lives!) and a preview promising the imminent introduction of the Wicked Witch of the West. (Just what Once needed: Another villain who 's more compelling than any of the show 's heroes.)
Of course, that line of thinking is totally moot because "Going Home '' was n't the end of Once Upon a Time -- it was merely the end of the show 's latest chapter, an oft - frustrating string of episodes that wasted too much time running in place and then decided to launch an all - out sprint to the finish. Luckily, that sprint largely worked -- shoehorned - in Tinker Bell redemption plot and all.
Kylie Peters of Den of Geek looked to the season 's future, saying "Things are going to change a lot in the second half of the season. Storybrooke is gone, so it looks like most of the action will take place in the Enchanted Forest. Hopefully Emma 's denial phase does n't last long; we already saw that all through season 1. ''
Many other critics commented positively on the episode 's flashforward. Andy Swift of Hollywood Life said "We 're used to being bombarded by flashbacks on Once Upon A Time, but the midseason finale decided to throw us for a loop by jumping forward in time at the end of the hour. '' Andrea Reiher of Zap2it commented positively on this, saying "The time jump is nice, since Jared Gilmore is starting to age out of his character. That will help considerably. ''
Rumplestiltskin 's death received much reaction from critics. Jason Evans from the Wall Street Journal said "I hope they figure out a way to bring him back as he 's been my favorite character on the show since the very beginning. But, whether Gold comes back or not, it is clear that when Once Upon a Time comes back in three months, the focus will be on getting Emma and Henry 's memory back. '' Rebecca Martin from Wetpaint also commented on it, saying "Things we expected to happen in the Once Upon a Time Season 3 midseason finale: Peter Pan dying. Things we did not expect to happen in the Once Upon a Time Season 3 winter finale: Rumplestiltskin dying. Things that actually did happen in the Once Upon a Time Season 3 winter finale: both. Or so it would appear. ''
Tierney Bricker of E! Online called Rumplestiltskin 's death and the flashforward ending among the OMG TV Moments of the night.
Liane Bonin Starr of HitFix gave a worrying reaction to the episode, saying:
Because this is "Once Upon A TIme, '' (sic) I do n't know if I accept any character as really and truly dead, um, ever. I do n't accept any plot twist as irreversible, either. But dammit, "OUAT '' has me worried with this midseason finale. Logically, I understand there was a need for the show to make some big moves. I suspect, given the ending, those big moves wo n't be as permanent or lasting as earlier scenes led us to believe. But still, I think Kitsis and Horowitz have decided to shake the toy box to mix things up, and I can only hope (Hope! Hey, the theme of the episode!) it portends a fresh storyline -- one we richly deserve after the claustrophobic Neverland.
Natalie Abrams of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer also acknowledged the episode, saying, "Once Upon a Time will never be the same after Sunday 's midseason finale. ''
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who was the first leader arrested in the non corporation movement | Non-cooperation movement - Wikipedia
The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant phase of the Indian independence movement from British rule. It was led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. It aimed to resist British rule in India through nonviolent means, "satyagraha ''. Protestors would refuse to buy British goods, adopt the use of local handicrafts and picket liquor shops. The ideas of Ahimsa and nonviolence, and Gandhi 's ability to rally hundreds of thousands of common citizens towards the cause of Indian independence, were first seen on a large scale in this movement through the summer 1920. Gandhi feared that the movement might lead to popular violence. The non-cooperation movement was launched on 12st August, 1920.
The Non-cooperation movement was a reaction to the oppressive policies of the British Indian government such as the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. A meeting of civilians held at Jallianwala Bagh near the Golden Temple in Amritsar was fired upon by soldiers under the command of Brigadier - General Reginald Dyer, killing 379 protesters and injuring thousands. The outcry generated by the massacre led to thousands of unrests and more deaths at the hands of the police. The massacre became the most infamous event of British rule in India.
Gandhi was horrified. He lost all faith in the goodness of the British government and declared that it would be a "sin '' to cooperate with the "satanic '' government.
Indian Muslims who had participated in the Khilafat movement to restore the status of the Caliph gave their support to the non-cooperation movement. In response to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and other violence in Punjab, the movement sought to secure Swaraj, independence for India. Gandhi promised Swaraj in one year if his Non-Cooperation programme was fully implemented. The other reason to start the non-cooperation movement was that Gandhi lost faith in constitutional methods and turned from cooperator of British rule to non-cooperator.
Other causes include economic hardships to the common man, which the nationalists attributed to the flow of Indian wealth to Britain, the ruin of Indian artisans due to British factory - made goods replacing handmade goods, and resentment with the British government over Indian soldiers dying in World War I while fighting as part of the British Army.
The calls of early political leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Congress Extremists) were called major public meetings. They resulted in disorder or obstruction of government services. The British took them very seriously and imprisoned him in mandale in Burma and V.O. Chidambaram Pillai Got 40 years imprisonment. The non-cooperation movement aimed to challenge the colonial economic and power structure, and British authorities would be forced to take notice of the demands of the independence movement.
Satyagraha is a Sanskrit term which is a compound of two words: satya ("truth '') and agraha ("holding firmly to '' or "force ''). Gandhi 's call was for a nationwide protest against the Rowlatt Act. All offices and factories would be closed. Indians would be encouraged to withdraw from Raj - sponsored schools, police services, the military, and the civil service, and lawyers were asked to leave the Raj 's courts. Public transportation and English - manufactured goods, especially clothing, was boycotted.
Veterans like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, and Sammed Akiwate opposed the idea outright. The All India Muslim League also criticized the idea. But the younger generation of Indian nationalists were thrilled, and backed Gandhi. The Congress Party adopted his plans, and he received extensive support from Muslim leaders like Maulana Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Maulana Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali.
The eminent Hindi writer, poet, play - wright, journalist, and nationalist Rambriksh Benipuri, who spent more than eight years in prison fighting for India 's independence, wrote:
When I recall Non-Cooperation era of 1921, the image of a storm confronts my eyes. From the time I became aware, I have witnessed numerous movements, however, I can assert that no other movement upturned the foundations of Indian society to the extent that the Non-Cooperation movement did. From the most humble huts to the high places, from villages to cities, everywhere there was a ferment, a loud echo.
The success of the revolt was a total shock to British authorities and a massive encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists. On 5th February, 1922 a clash took place at Chauri Chaura, a small town in the district of Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. A police officer had beaten some volunteers picketing a liquor shop. A whole crowd of peasants that had gathered there went to the police chowki (pron. - chau key) (station). The mob set fire to the police chowki with some 22 police men inside it.
Mahatma Gandhi felt that the revolt was veering off - course, and was disappointed that the revolt had lost its non-violent nature. He did not want the movement to degenerate into a contest of violence, with police and angry mobs attacking each other back and forth, victimizing civilians in between. Gandhi appealed to the Indian public for all resistance to end, went on a fast lasting 3 weeks, and called off the non-cooperation movement.
The non-cooperation movement was withdrawn because of the Chauri Chaura incident. Although he had stopped the national revolt single - handedly, on March 10, 1922, Gandhi was arrested. On March 18, 1922, he was imprisoned for six years for publishing seditious materials. This led to suppression of the movement and was followed by the arrest of other leaders.
Although most Congress leaders remained firmly behind Gandhi, the determined broke away. The Ali brothers would soon become fierce critics. Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das formed the Swaraj Party, rejecting Gandhi 's leadership. Many nationalists had felt that the non-cooperation movement should not have been stopped due to isolated incidents of violence, and most nationalists, while retaining confidence in Gandhi, were discouraged.
Contemporary historians and critics suggest that the movement was successful enough to break the back of British rule, and possibly even the catalyst for the movement that lead to independence in 1947.
But many historians and Indian leaders of the time also defended Gandhi 's judgment. However, there have been claims that Gandhi called off the movement in an attempt to salvage his own personal image, which would have been tarnished had he been blamed for the Chauri Chaura incident, although a similar type of movement was introduced in 1930, the civil disobedience movement. The main difference was the introduction of a policy of violating the law.
Gandhi 's commitment to non-violence was redeemed when, between 1930 and 1934, tens of millions again revolted in the Salt Satyagraha which made India 's cause famous worldwide for its unerring adherence to non-violence. The Satyagraha ended in success: the demands of Indians were met, and the Congress Party was recognized as a representative of the Indian people. The Government of India Act 1935 also gave India its first taste in democratic self - governance.
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who formed the national assembly in france in 1789 answer | National Assembly (French Revolution) - wikipedia
During the French Revolution, the National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale), which existed from 13 June 1789 to 9 July 1789, was a revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate of the Estates - General; thereafter (until replaced by the Legislative Assembly on 30 Sept 1791) it was known as the National Constituent Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale constituante), though popularly the shorter form persisted.
The Estates - General had been called on 4 May 1789 to deal with France 's financial crisis, but promptly fell to squabbling over its own structure. Its members had been elected to represent the estates of the realm: the 1st Estate (the clergy), the 2nd Estate (the nobility) and the 3rd Estate (which, in theory, represented all of the commoners and, in practice, represented the bourgeoisie). The Third Estate had been granted "double representation '' -- that is, twice as many delegates as each of the other estates -- but at the opening session on 5 May 1789 they were informed that all voting would be "by power '' not "by head '', so their double representation was to be meaningless in terms of power. They refused this and proceeded to meet separately.
Shuttle diplomacy among the estates continued without success until 27 May on 28 May the representatives of the 3rd Estate began to meet on their own, calling themselves the Communes ("Commons '') and proceeding with their "verification of powers '' independently of the other bodies; from 13 June to 17 June they were gradually joined by some of the nobles and the majority of the clergy and other people such as the peasants. On 13 June this group began to call itself the National Assembly.
This newly created assembly immediately attached itself onto the capitalists -- the sources of the credit needed to fund the national debt -- and to the common people. They consolidated the public debt and declared all existing taxes to have been illegally imposed, but voted in these same taxes provisionally, only as long as the Assembly continued to sit. This restored the confidence of the capitalists and gave them a strong interest in keeping the Assembly in session. As for the common people, the Assembly established a committee of subsistence to deal with food shortages.
Jacques Necker, finance minister of Louis XVI, had earlier proposed that the king hold a Séance Royale (Royal Session) in an attempt to reconcile the divided Estates. The king agreed; but none of the three orders were formally notified of the decision to hold a Royal Session. All debates were to be put on hold until the séance royale took place.
Events soon overtook Necker 's complex scheme of giving in to the Communes on some points while holding firm on others. No longer interested in Necker 's advice, Louis XVI, under the influence of the courtiers of his privy council, resolved to go in state to the Assembly, annul its decrees, command the separation of the orders, and dictate the reforms to be effected by the restored Estates - General. On 19 June he ordered the Salle des États, the hall where the National Assembly met, closed, and remained at Marly for several days while he prepared his address.
Two days later, deprived of use of the tennis court as well, the National Assembly met in the Church of Saint Louis, where the majority of the representatives of the clergy joined them: efforts to restore the old order had served only to accelerate events. When, on 23 June in accord with his plan, the king finally addressed the representatives of all three estates, he encountered a stony silence. He concluded by ordering all to disperse. The nobles and clergy obeyed; the deputies of the common people remained seated in a silence finally broken by Mirabeau, whose short speech culminated, "A military force surrounds the assembly! Where are the enemies of the nation? Is Catiline at our gates? I demand, investing yourselves with your dignity, with your legislative power, you inclose yourselves within the religion of your oath. It does not permit you to separate till you have formed a constitution. '' The deputies stood firm.
Necker, conspicuous by his absence from the royal party on that day, found himself in disgrace with Louis, but back in the good graces of the National Assembly. Those of the clergy who had joined the Assembly at the church of Saint Louis remained in the Assembly; forty - seven members of the nobility, including the Duke of Orléans, soon joined them; by 27 June the royal party had overtly given in, although the likelihood of a military counter-coup remained in the air. The French military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles.
In the séance royale of 23 June the King granted a Charte octroyée, a constitution granted of the royal favour, which affirmed, subject to the traditional limitations, the right of separate deliberation for the three orders, which constitutionally formed three chambers. This move failed; soon that part of the deputies of the nobles who still stood apart joined the National Assembly at the request of the king. The Estates - General had ceased to exist, having become the National Assembly (and after 9 July 1789, the National Constituent Assembly), though these bodies consisted of the same deputies elected by the separate orders.
Messages of support poured into the Assembly from Paris and other French cities. On 9 July 1789, the Assembly, reconstituting itself as the National Constituent Assembly, addressed the king in polite but firm terms, requesting the removal of the troops (which now included foreign regiments, who showed far greater obedience to the king than did his French troops), but Louis declared that he alone could judge the need for troops, and assured them that the troops had deployed strictly as a precautionary measure. Louis "offered '' to move the assembly to Noyon or Soissons: that is to say, to place it between two armies and deprive it of the support of the Parisian people. Public outrage over this troop presence precipitated the Storming of the Bastille, beginning the Revolution.
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who lived in red hook in the 1950s | Red Hook, Brooklyn - wikipedia
Red Hook is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, New York. The neighborhood is part of Brooklyn Community Board 6.
Red Hook has been part of the Town of Brooklyn since it was organized in the 1600s. It is named for the red clay soil and the point of land projecting into the Upper New York Bay. The village was settled by Dutch colonists of New Amsterdam in 1636, and named Roode Hoek. In Dutch "Hoek '' means "point '' or "corner '' and not the English hook (i.e., not something curved or bent). The actual "hoek '' of Red Hook was a point on an island that stuck out into Upper New York Bay at today 's Dikeman Street west of Ferris Street. From the 1880s to the present time, people who live in the eastern area of Red Hook have referred to their neighborhood as "The Point ''. Today, the area is home to about 11,000 people.
Rapelye Street in Red Hook commemorates the beginnings of one of New Amsterdam 's earliest families, the Rapelje clan, descended from the first European child born in the new Dutch settlement in the New World, Sarah Rapelje. She was born near Wallabout Bay, which later became the site of the New York (Brooklyn) Naval Shipyard. A couple of decades after the birth of his daughter Sarah, Joris Jansen Rapelje removed to Brooklyn, where he was one of the Council of twelve men, and where he was soon joined by son - in - law Hans Hansen Bergen. Rapelye Street in Red Hook is named for Rapelje and his descendants, who lived in Brooklyn for centuries.
During the Battle of Brooklyn (also known as the Battle of Long Island), a fort was constructed on the "hoek '' called "Fort Defiance ''. It is shown on a map called "a Map of the Environs of Brooklyn '' drawn in 1780 by a loyalist engineer named George S. Sproule. The Sproule map shows that Fort Defiance complex actually consisted of three redoubts on a small island connected by trenches, with an earthwork on the island 's south side to defend against a landing. The entire earthwork was about 1,600 feet long and covered the entire island. The three redoubts covered an area about 400 feet by 800 feet. The two principal earthworks were about 150 feet by 175 feet, and the tertiary one was about 75 feet by 100 feet. The Sproule and Ratzer maps show that Red Hook was a low - lying area full of tidal mill ponds created by the Dutch.
General Israel Putnam came to New York on April 4, 1776, to assess the state of its defenses and strengthen them. Among the works initiated were forts on Governor 's Island and Red Hook, facing the bay. On April 10, one thousand Continentals took possession of both points and began constructing Fort Defiance which mounted one three pounder cannon and four eighteen pounders. The cannons were to be fired over the tops of the fort 's walls. In May, Washington described it as "small but exceedingly strong ''. On July 5, General Nathanael Greene called it "a post of vast importance '' and, three days later, Col. Varnum 's regiment joined its garrison. On July 12, the British frigates Rose and Phoenix and the schooner Tyrol ran the gauntlet past Defiance and the stronger Governor 's Island works without firing a shot, and got all the way to Tappan Zee, the widest part of the Hudson River. They stayed there for over a month, beating off harassing attacks, and finally returned to Staten Island on August 18. It appeared that gunfire from Fort Defiance did damage to the British ships.
Samuel Shaw wrote to his parents on July 15:
Almost the entire New York metropolitan area was under British military occupation from the end of 1776 until November 23, 1783, when they evacuated the city.
In 1839, the City of Brooklyn published a plan to create streets, which included filling in all of the ponds and other low - lying areas.
In the 1840s, entrepreneurs began to build ports as the "offloading end '' of the Erie Canal. These included the Atlantic, Erie and Brooklyn Basins. By the 1920s, they made Red Hook the busiest freight port in the world, but this ended in the 1960s with the advent of containerization. In the 1930s, the area was poor, and the site of the current Red Hook Houses was the site of a shack city for the homeless, called a "Hooverville ''.
From the 1920s on, a lot of poor and unemployed Norwegians, mostly former sailors, were living in the area in what they called Ørkenen Sur ("The Bitter Desert '') around places like Hamilton Avenue and Gospel Hill. In 2015 NRK made a documentary about it in Norwegian. There is also an old documentary film about this.
In the 1990s Life magazine named Red Hook as one of the "worst '' neighborhoods in the United States and as "the crack capital of America. '' The principal of P.S. 15 in Red Hook was killed in 1992, in the crossfire of a drug - related shooting while looking for a pupil who had left his school. The school was later renamed the Patrick Daly School after that principal, who was beloved within that school.
In 2010, Red Hook 's first community newspaper, The Red Hook Star - Revue, began publication.
In 2012, Red Hook was heavily damaged by Hurricane Sandy.
The Mary A. Whalen (tanker) and Lehigh Valley Railroad Barge No. 79 are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Red Hook is a peninsula between Buttermilk Channel, Gowanus Bay and Gowanus Canal at the southern edge of Downtown Brooklyn. Red Hook is in the area known as South Brooklyn, which, contrary to its name, is actually in western Brooklyn. This name is derived from the original City of Brooklyn which ended at Atlantic Street, now Atlantic Avenue. By the 1950s, anything south of Atlantic Avenue was considered South Brooklyn; thus, the names "Red Hook '' and "South Brooklyn '' were applied also to today 's Carroll Gardens, Cobble Hill, Columbia Heights, and Gowanus neighborhoods. Portions of Carroll Gardens and Cobble Hill were granted landmark status in the 1970s and were carved out of Red Hook.
Red Hook is the only part of New York City that has a fully frontal view of the Statue of Liberty, which was oriented to face France, the country which donated the statue to the United States following the country 's centennial.
Red Hook is the site of the NYCHA Red Hook Houses, the largest public housing development in Brooklyn, which accommodates roughly 6,000 residents. Red Hook also contains several parks.
Red Hook has a large IKEA store (346,000 square feet (32,100 m)) that opened on June 18, 2008 near the Gowanus Expressway. The building of IKEA was controversial, because it replaced a 19th - century dry dock at 40 ° 40 ′ 19.2 '' N 74 ° 0 ′ 47.5 '' W / 40.672000 ° N 74.013194 ° W / 40.672000; - 74.013194 (dry dock), which was still in use. Residents cited concerns including traffic congestion, a decrease in property values and destruction of this transit - oriented neighborhood and historically significant buildings in the area.
Brooklyn artist Greg Lindquist exhibited a group of paintings in February 2008 in New York City that depicted the IKEA site in process, juxtaposing the maritime decay with the new construction.
A report by the New York City Economic Development Corporation announced the findings and recommendations of its Maritime Support Services Location Study. The study found that New York City needs eight more dry docks. According to the report, it will cost $1 billion to replace the one IKEA is using as a parking lot. No schedule for replacement was announced. In addition, IKEA and its contractor demolished Civil War era buildings and exposed the community to asbestos. IKEA 's contractor was found to be in "violation for not having filed asbestos work, failing to monitor the air, not posting any warnings, failure to construct decontamination protections before disturbing the asbestos - containing materials, and doing nothing to protect and decontaminate the material, as well as the workers and building waste. ''
A once - free ferry service for shoppers from Manhattan proved more popular than expected. IKEA charges a fare for the ferry but reimburses the fare at checkout with a minimum $10 purchase to deter would - be commuters from using the ferry for non-shopping purposes; the ferry, operated by New York Water Taxi, is still free on weekends.
A 58.503 - acre (236,750 m) public park is located in southern Red Hook. It contains a paved path, benches, a flagpole with a yardarm, a drinking fountain, handball courts, softball fields, a soccer and football field, a track and field, picnic tables, the adjacent Sol Goldman Pool, and new trees and plantings. The park is maintained and operated by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, and is bordered by Otsego, Bay, Hicks, Lorraine, Court, and Halleck Streets.
New York City has expanded its water ferry service, operated by New York Water Taxi. This service normally runs between IKEA and Pier 11 in Lower Manhattan, but has added a new stop at Van Brunt Street to support local businesses hurt by Hurricane Sandy. The free ferry runs between 10am and 9pm. Originally, when this free service was first introduced, it proved to be popular with local residents, causing changes in the operating policy to favor IKEA shoppers. Under the current schedule, the ferry runs from Monday to Friday, every 40 minutes from 2pm, $5 for one way. On Saturday and Sunday, it runs free of charge, every 20 minutes from 11am.
Red Hook has been served by NYC Ferry 's South Brooklyn route since 2017.
In the spring of 2006, the new Carnival Cruise Lines terminal, the Brooklyn Cruise Terminal, opened at Pier 12 at Pioneer Street, bringing additional tourists.
The Red Hook Container Terminal is one of four such facilities in the Port of New York and New Jersey and is the only maritime facility in Brooklyn to handle container ships.
The transatlantic liner RMS Queen Mary 2 docks in Red Hook.
Subway service in the area is sparse. The closest subway stops are along the IND Culver Line (F G trains), at either Carroll Street or Smith -- Ninth Streets stations.
New York City Bus service is also sparse, but popular. The B61 bus route provides service from Hamilton Avenue, through Erie Basin / IKEA Plaza, to Van Brunt Street and then northward, through the Columbia Street Waterfront District and terminates in Downtown Brooklyn. It also connects with the Culver Line 's Smith -- Ninth Streets station. The B57 bus connects Red Hook with Downtown Brooklyn and Maspeth, Queens.
IKEA provides a complimentary shuttle that runs to Smith -- Ninth Streets, Fourth Avenue / Ninth Street, and Court Street -- Borough Hall subway stations from 3 to 9 p.m. daily, Monday through Friday every half hour, and Saturday and Sunday from 11 a.m. to 9 p.m. every 20 minutes. Non-shoppers also use this service.
Though electric trolleys have not run in Brooklyn since 1956, activists led by the Brooklyn Historic Railway Association (BHRA) have been trying to revive streetcars in Red Hook since 1989. With permission from New York City 's government to develop a streetcar line running from Beard Street to Borough Hall, in the 1990s BHRA president Robert Diamond collected disused PCC streetcars that had been used in Boston and Buffalo for potential use on the new line. By 1999, Diamond had begun laying new track for the project, but in 2003 transportation officials elected to revoke Diamond 's rights to the route 's right of way, instead intending to sell them to the highest bidder in the event that the project ever moved forward. Diamond 's efforts to secure independent funding were not successful.
In 2005, Rep. Nydia Velázquez helped obtain a $300,000 federal grant for a six - month streetcar study. Though BHRA had estimated $10 -- $15 million would be required to complete the project, the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) streetcar feasibility study (completed in April 2011) concluded that the 6.8 mile line would cost $176 million in capital funding, plus an additional $6.2 to $7.2 million in annual operating funds. A significant portion of the capital cost would be required to make modifications to Red Hook 's narrow streets in order to allow streetcars to make right turns.
Despite finding that Red Hook was underserved by transit, the study concluded that due to a number of factors, a streetcar line would not be an appropriate transit solution for the neighborhood. Because 81.5 percent of Red Hook residents did not own a car and therefore were already dependent on transit, the study estimated that a streetcar would generate only 1,822 daily riders. The study also found that a streetcar would not be a significant upgrade over existing buses in terms of travel times and reliability, and would not likely spur significant economic development unless combined with zoning changes from the New York City Department of City Planning (DCP). Since DCP had designated Red Hook as a "working waterfront, '' no such zoning changes appeared to be forthcoming.
As of June 2013, Diamond had partnered with John Quadrozzi of Gowanus Bay Terminal (a concrete firm), and the Gowanus Canal Community Development Corporation in an effort to revive the project, which he now envisions running partly underground through a 19th - century Long Island Railroad tunnel. Diamond is pursuing federal funding in order to pay for the project, which he estimates would cost $50 million.
Red Hook is connected to Manhattan by the vehicular Brooklyn - Battery Tunnel, whose toll plaza and approaches separate it from Carroll Gardens and Columbia Street to the north.
The Gowanus Expressway (I - 278) also runs through the neighborhood.
The Red Hook Waterfront Arts Festival is an annual summer kick - off held in Louis J. Valentino, Jr. Park & Pier featuring dance, music, and spoken - word poetry. Dance Theatre Etcetera, the producers of the event, concentrate local resources for residents and bring in community partners with activities for the whole family.
Sunday 's at Sunny 's is a reading series held the first Sunday of every month, co-sponsored by Sunny 's Bar and the independent bookstore BookCourt, and co-ordinated by writer Gabriel Cohen.
Red Hook Crit is an annual, unsanctioned bicycle race held on a springtime night on track bikes. It began as an underground event but has grown to become "what is possibly the country 's coolest bike race. ''
The Brooklyn Street Circuit is located in Red Hook and hosts the annual New York City ePrix.
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a list of airlines in the united states | List of Airlines of the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of airlines which have an air operator 's certificate issued by the Federal Aviation Administration of the United States.
Note: Destinations in bold indicate primary hubs, those in italic indicate secondary hubs, while those with regular font indicate focus cities.
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who is the redhead who picks up gibbs | Leroy Jethro Gibbs - wikipedia
Supervisory Special Agent
Leroy Jethro Gibbs is a fictional character of the CBS TV series NCIS, portrayed by Mark Harmon. He is a former U.S Marine Corps Scout Sniper turned special agent who commands a team for the Naval Criminal Investigative Service. Gibbs is the most accomplished marksman on the team and the most skilled at handling violent standoffs; he depends on his other agents heavily for technical forensics and background checks. He is patient but firm with his team and has little patience for bureaucracy; he commands most other main characters -- including his current staff Timothy McGee, Ellie Bishop, Nick Torres and Jacqueline Sloane and previous staff Caitlin Todd (killed in the line of duty), Anthony DiNozzo (left to look after his newly found daughter), Ziva David (killed after leaving NCIS), Alexandra Quinn (left to look after her sick mother) and Clayton Reeves (killed defending Abby Sciuto). Leroy Jethro Gibbs was born before 1959 as confirmed in the episode depicting flash backs referring to the death of Joan Matteson and the team focuses on disappearance of Lieutenant Flores in Afghanistan.
Series creator Donald P. Bellisario initially did not think Mark Harmon would fit the role of Gibbs, a "flinty type with a strong sense of honor and respect for the military '', but changed his mind after viewing a tape of Harmon 's portrayal of a Secret Service agent on The West Wing. Co-executive producer Charles Floyd Johnson recalls, "We all looked at that work. And everybody said, ' He 's Gibbs. ' '' Harmon was cast in 2003, and Bellisario explained, "I said, ' Oh, my God, he 's Gibbs. ' He had matured. He 's good - looking in a totally different way than he was as a young guy. '' At another point, he said, "I am so lucky to have Mark Harmon as the lead. You have no idea. This cast is gold. Mark Harmon is a Middle American guy, even if he was raised in Southern California. His values are exactly the same as mine. ''
Harmon said of his character, "I was attracted by (his) flaws. He has lousy taste in women. He 's addicted to coffee. ''
Gibbs was initially written as "not too far removed '' from characters like Dr. Robert "Bobby '' Caldwell and Dr. Jack McNeil, both previous roles by Harmon. In an early episode, Gibbs "playfully smacked Weatherly 's Dinozzo on the back of the head '' resulting in the trademark "headslap '' that later appeared in many episodes throughout the seasons.
In later years, he is scripted as more stoical, with Bellisario stating, "I thought the best thing to do was to give him a minimum of dialogue. '' It was not until the third season that the backstory surrounding his first wife and daughter 's murder was revealed. His relationships with his coworkers were developed, with him becoming something of a father figure to Special Agent Ziva David and Forensic Specialist Abby Sciuto.
Mark Harmon 's oldest son Sean has appeared on NCIS portraying a younger version of Gibbs in flashbacks.
In the backstory, Gibbs was born on May 2, 1958, (in S3 E8 Under Covers, his birthday falls on the same day as the Marine Corps birthday ball which is held on November 10 every year) and was shown in the episode "Heartland '' to have grown up in Stillwater, Pennsylvania. The town is real, and the scenes in the episode were modeled after Bellisario 's hometown of Cokeburg. His father, Jackson Gibbs (played by Ralph Waite), owned and ran the Stillwater General Store. He is named after his father 's close friend and partner in the store, Leroy Jethro "LJ '' Moore, after they worked together in the coal mines (Winslow Mining Company). In "The Namesake '', it is revealed that LJ, a World War II veteran and Montford Point Marine, had influenced the teenaged Gibbs to join the Marines. Gibbs left Stillwater in 1976 at age 18 to join the Marine Corps and did not return for over thirty years. In a flashback scene in the episode, as a teenager, Gibbs often provoked violence with defiance to his father, who constantly comes to his unwanted aid with a Winchester rifle or shotgun. He was also known around the area as a delinquent, as said by the new sheriff, one of the other delinquents during his teenage years, stating, "Funny, never expected to find you on the same side of the law. '' He met his first wife Shannon (portrayed by both Darby Stanchfield and Aviva Baumann), who worked at the local department store, when both were teenagers. Shannon and Gibbs spoke to each other for the first time while waiting for a train, and Shannon mentioned she had thought about creating a set of life rules for herself; Gibbs later incorporated this idea into his own series of around fifty rules that he now uses for his profession (with the rules in the forties and above constituting emergency situations), with Shannon quietly sneaking in a fifty - first rule to remind him he 's not infallible. In subsequent episodes, Gibbs is known by his first name Leroy to family and people in his hometown, whereas at work he is known as Jethro or "Boss ''.
Gibbs ' mother, Ann, is introduced in "Life Before His Eyes '', the 200th episode. She was a redhead, like all of Gibbs ' wives. While she was dying of cancer, she committed suicide by overdose so her family would not have to watch her suffer ("The Namesake '').
Gibbs enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1976 and was a military police non-commissioned officer at Camp Lejeune before becoming a Scout Sniper. He served on tours of duty in Panama (Operation Just Cause) and with the 1st Battalion 1st Marines in the Persian Gulf (Operation Desert Storm). In the season 6 episode "Deliverance '', it is revealed that he was also deployed to Colombia on a classified mission. Not long after returning from the Gulf, he retired from the Marine Corps with the rank of Gunnery Sergeant and joined the Naval Investigative Service (as the Naval Criminal Investigative Service was then called) in August 1991. As a junior agent, Gibbs was mentored by Mike Franks, and the two became close friends; Franks continued calling him "Probie '' even after retirement. After Franks retired, Gibbs rose to become head of his own Major Case Response Team. Before the time in which NCIS is set, Gibbs was described to have traveled extensively on operations, particularly in Eastern Europe.
Gibbs is a highly skilled marksman with both his agency - issued SIG Sauer P228 pistol (which he replaces with a. 45 Colt M1911A1 pistol in Season 15) and a sniper rifle. In the season 7 premiere, "Truth or Consequences '', he kills the terrorists holding his team hostage from an exceptionally long distance and in "South by Southwest '' he outshoots a professional hit - man in an approaching helicopter. His knowledge of the Marine Corps and training as a sniper often comes into use, as shown in the episodes "Ravenous '', "Vanished '' and "Twenty Klicks '' where he uses his wilderness tracking skills and marksmanship to aid the investigation and / or get the team out of trouble.
Gibbs is a private man of few words who discloses little to nothing about his personal life. He avoids discussing his life or past before he joined NCIS, especially to agents and co-workers under him, which leads to his team members constantly speculating over his private life. Aside from his tendency to use military slang, he rarely mentions or speaks at length about his time in the Marine Corps although he is often referred to as "Gunny '' by other Navy and Marine officers, occasionally dons a "USMC '' hoodie or T - shirt when off duty and has a replica of the iconic Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima photograph framed and mounted above the fireplace in his home.
In the season 4 episode "Singled Out '', McGee asks Gibbs how long he has been a special agent, to which Gibbs responds, "16 years ''. This contradicts Gibbs ' statement in the JAG season 8 episode "Ice Queen '', when in response to Harmon Rabb 's question, "How long have you been doing this, Gibbs? '', Gibbs responds, "19 years ''.
Gibbs holds service personnel in the armed forces in high esteem and to a higher standard. He becomes particularly indignant when the guilty party is someone in a position of trust and authority and has reacted violently on several occasions when apprehending corrupt high - ranking officers who committed crimes for monetary gain.
Gibbs has been married four times, and divorced three (his first wife was killed).
After Shannon and Kelly 's deaths and before he married his second wife, it is suggested that Gibbs had an affair with a woman named Rose Tamayo in Colombia. He was on a classified drug interdiction mission as a Marine Scout Sniper, and was wounded during the mission. In "Deliverance '', Rose 's now - adult son Tomas is introduced as a person of interest in a case. Gibbs team suspected that he was the boy 's father, but Gibbs later reveals to Tomas that Rose was already pregnant when Gibbs came to their village. It is later revealed that the drug lord Gibbs was sent to assassinate was the boy 's father.
Gibbs also had a past romantic relationship with the (now deceased) director of NCIS, Jenny Shepard, who was also his partner at the time. Jenny was also a redhead. In the first, second, and third seasons, he was seen in the company of a mysterious (and never - identified) redheaded woman. According to Bellisario, the purpose of "the mysterious redhead '' was "to make everyone speculate ''.
In season four, he has a steady, serious relationship with Army CID agent Lt. Col. Hollis Mann (Susanna Thompson), but their relationship is revealed to be over at the beginning of season five.
In season 7, Gibbs meets lawyer Margaret Allison Hart (Rena Sofer), who worked for an old enemy of Gibbs, Col. Merton Bell. Although Gibbs and Hart oppose each other over several cases, they are also attracted to one another. When it was discovered that Bell was responsible for the death of Lara Macy in connection with the long - ago murder of Pedro Hernandez, Hart turned her back on Bell, showing her allegiance to Gibbs.
In season 9, Gibbs begins a romance with Dr. Samantha Ryan (Jamie Lee Curtis), a psychologist with the DOD PsyOps, who has collaborated with his team in several episodes.
In the season 6 episode "Heartland '', Gibbs ' frosty relationship with his father Jackson and the backstory behind it is revealed. His father had rarely been mentioned up to that point and Jackson had not known that Gibbs was a "boss '' until Gibbs and his team visited Stillwater to investigate a case. By the end of the episode, they make amends and the two have become closer ever since.
Through a series of episodes over a few years, it becomes clear that Gibbs killed Pedro Hernandez in revenge for the death of his wife Shannon and his daughter Kelly. In the episode "Borderland '' (Season 7, episode 22), an unknown conspirator manipulates events so that Abby ends up investigating the murder as a cold case and finds irrefutable proof that Gibbs is responsible. Hernandez ' now - grown children Paloma Reynosa, the head of the Reynosa drug cartel after taking her spouse 's place when he was killed, and Alejandro Rivera, a high - ranking official of the Mexican Justice Department appear in the episode "Spider and the Fly ''. In this episode, Gibbs manipulates Alejandro Rivera into killing Paloma, and Alejandro is subsequently arrested. Shortly thereafter, Director Vance files Abby 's report proving that Gibbs killed Hernandez deep in the NCIS evidence room. When Gibbs comes under investigation as of the Season 10 finale "Damned If You Do '', in the follow - up opener of Season 11, "Whiskey Tango Foxtrot '', Abby retrieves the report and shreds it, deciding to permanently bury all leads to the truth so that Gibbs will not be found and convicted of murder.
A decorated Marine, Gibbs is portrayed as a consummate organizer, disciplined and demanding. These traits often put him in a stand - off with other authorities when they exert pressure on his team. He is a no - nonsense agent who displays a continuous urgency about the investigation he pursues, specifically when being given technical information about complex subject matter. The typical response to such information is "Give it to me in English '', thus forcing the expert to get to the point, as well as making it easy for the audience to understand. It is a well - known fact with his agents that he dislikes any ambiguous references and terms such as "assuming '' and "maybe '' when discussing a case or dealing with evidence. He also displays elements of sarcasm, particularly in relation to someone in his company stating something obvious. The typical sarcastic answer "Ya think? '' is his preferred retort.
At the end of the episode "Murder 2.0 '', Gibbs was awarded his seventh Navy Meritorious Civilian Service Award, but as with the other six times, he did not attend the award ceremony and Tony accepts the medal on his behalf. When Gibbs shows no interest in it, Tony locks it in a box containing several similar presentation cases, all of which were awarded to Gibbs. One of these medals is revealed to have been a Silver Star, which Gibbs bestows on Corporal Damon Werth in the episode "Corporal Punishment ''. It is revealed in the episode "Hiatus Pt. 1 '' that Gibbs received the Purple Heart after being injured in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War and was in a coma for nineteen days as a result.
Gibbs was shown wearing the following awards and decorations in the episodes "One Shot, One Kill '' and "Honor Code ''. Note: The Navy Meritorious Civilian Service Medal ribbon is placed as a U.S. non-military personal decoration in the order of precedence.
Early reception was primarily positive. During NCIS ' first season on air, Ross Warneke wrote of Gibbs, "He 's still wincing from three failed marriages and is a bit of a renegade within the service. '' He further called Mark Harmon 's performance "convincing '' and added that the character "has a heart of gold ''. Two years later, in November 2005, Noel Holston from the Sun - Sentinel said, "NCIS special agent, Jethro Gibbs, is one of those hard - shelled, soft - centered guys ' guys Bellisario loves to write, a clear - thinking, decisive leader in whose crankiness his subordinates take an almost masochistic pleasure. ''
William Bradly of The Huffington Post wrote an opinion piece in 2011 in response to NCIS being voted America 's favorite television show in which he commented, "Gibbs is a hard - ass, but a very nice hard - ass, who usually has all the answers thanks to his well - honed ' gut. ' And when he does n't, the quirky science nerds are there to help him out in their reassuringly civvy ways. '' In 2012, Kyle Smith from the New York Post praised the show 's respect for the military and Harmon 's portrayal of a Marine.
One reviewer wrote a long analysis:
Never, have I seen a show portray such an accurate description of leadership. Agent Jethro Gibbs is a very intimidating leader; to his agents, and to his suspects. No one wants to mess with Gibbs, and that is no surprise. He is incredibly strong emotionally, and a very loving person to his family. His top qualities are leadership and fearlessness. Gibbs is also very impatient, and easily angered, which do n't serve him well in his relationships. Leadership is Gibbs ' best quality. On the outside, he is tough as nails, seemingly impossible to break. On the inside, he is a compassionate person, who is extremely supportive of his friends and family.
In 2011, June Thomas from Slate magazine wrote, "Team leader Gibbs (Mark Harmon) is a coffee - slurping stoic, a former Marine often exasperated by his sometimes - silly underlings. '' She also discussed the show and its characters ' appeal to conservatives: "They 're intelligent, hard - working, and devoted... Gibbs is an old - fashioned man: strong and silent, a skilled woodworker who does n't lock his front door. '' Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Monthly also suggested that Gibbs, "a former Marine with a Bush - like faith in his ' gut ' '', appeared as a distinctly conservative figure in the series, in contrast to "liberal stand - ins '' McGee and Abby Sciuto.
In 2011, it was reported that the role had made Mark Harmon the fourth most popular actor on primetime television. Several other members of the NCIS cast were also listed in the top ten, including Pauley Perrette (Abby Sciuto), Cote de Pablo (Ziva David), David McCallum (Ducky Mallard), and Michael Weatherly (Anthony DiNozzo).
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does us have free trade agreement with china | List of bilateral Free - Trade agreements - wikipedia
This is list of free - trade agreements between two sides, where each side could be a country (or other customs territory), a trade bloc or an informal group of countries.
Note: Every customs union, common market, economic union, customs and monetary union and economic and monetary union is also a free - trade area.
For fully multilateral agreements (not included below) see: List of multilateral free - trade agreements.
For a general explanation, see free - trade area.
List of agreements between two states, two blocs or a bloc and a state.
ASEAN has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
The People 's Republic of China has bilateral agreements with the following blocs, countries, and its two special administrative regions:
Costa Rica has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs (date it took effect):
EFTA has bilateral agreements with the following countries -- including dependent territories -- and blocs:
The European Union has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
The Faroe Islands have bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Georgia has bilateral agreements with the following countries and organizations:
The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
India has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Japan has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Jordan has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
The Kyrgyz Republic has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Lebanon has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Malaysia has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Maldives has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Mexico has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Morocco has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
New Zealand free trade agreements:
Panama has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Republic of China (Taiwan) has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Peru has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Serbia has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Singapore has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
South Korea has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Switzerland (which has a customs union with Liechtenstein, sometimes included in agreements) has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Thailand has bilateral agreements with the following countries:
Tunisia has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
United States has bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:
Agreements that have been negotiations and signed by the respective head of states but not yet ratified by the country 's legislative body.
List of agreements in negotiation. Agreements that are so far only discussed without any formal action by the parties involved are not listed.
For an interactive list of bilateral and multilateral free trade instruments see the TREND - Analytics website.
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when was the last time the sharks won the stanley cup | San Jose Sharks - wikipedia
The San Jose Sharks are a professional ice hockey team based in San Jose, California. They are members of the Pacific Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The franchise is owned by San Jose Sports & Entertainment Enterprises. Beginning play in the 1991 -- 92 season, the Sharks initially played their home games at the Cow Palace, before they moved to their present home, the SAP Center at San Jose in 1993. The SAP Center is known locally as the Shark Tank.
The Sharks were founded in 1991 and were the first NHL franchise based in the San Francisco Bay Area since the California Golden Seals relocated to Cleveland in 1976. The Sharks have advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals once, losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in 2016. They have won the Presidents ' Trophy once, as the team with the league 's best regular season record in the 2008 -- 09 season. They have also won six division titles as a member of the Pacific Division since 1993.
The club is affiliated with the San Jose Barracuda of the American Hockey League.
The Oakland Coliseum Arena was home to the California Golden Seals of the NHL from 1967 to 1976, who were never successful either on the ice or at the box office. Gordon and George Gund III became minority owners of the Seals in 1974, and were instrumental in their move to Cleveland in 1976 and a 1978 merger with the Minnesota North Stars, which they purchased that year. They had long wanted to bring hockey back to the Bay Area, and asked the NHL for permission to move the North Stars there in the late 1980s, but the league vetoed the proposed move. Meanwhile, a group led by former Hartford Whalers owner Howard Baldwin was pushing the NHL to bring a team to San Jose, where a new arena was being built. Eventually, the League struck a compromise: the Gunds would sell their share of the North Stars to Baldwin 's group, with the Gunds receiving an expansion team in the Bay Area to begin play in the 1991 -- 92 season and being allowed to take a certain number of players from the North Stars to their new club. In return, the North Stars would be allowed to participate as an equal partner in an expansion draft with the new Bay Area team.
On May 5, 1990, the Gunds officially sold their share of the North Stars to Baldwin and were awarded a new team for the Bay Area, based in San Jose. Over 5,000 potential names were submitted by mail for the new team. While the first - place finisher was "Blades '', the Gunds were concerned about the name 's potentially negative association with weapons, and went with the runner - up, "Sharks. '' The name was said to have been inspired by the large number of sharks living in the Pacific Ocean. Seven varieties live there, and one area of water near the Bay Area is known as the "red triangle '' (hence the triangle in the team 's logo) because of its shark population.
The team 's first marketing head, Matt Levine, said of the new name, "Sharks are relentless, determined, swift, agile, bright and fearless. We plan to build an organization that has all those qualities. ''
For their first two seasons, the Sharks played at the Cow Palace in Daly City, just outside San Francisco, a facility the NHL and the Seals had rejected in 1967. Pat Falloon was their first draft choice and led the team in points during their first season. The team was placed in the Campbell Conference 's Smythe Division. George Kingston was their first head coach during their first two seasons. Though the 1991 -- 92 roster consisted primarily of NHL journeymen, minor leaguers and rookies, the Sharks had at least one notable player when they acquired 14 - year veteran and former Norris Trophy - winning defenseman Doug Wilson from the Chicago Blackhawks on September 6, 1991. Wilson was named the team 's first captain and All - Star representative in the inaugural season. However, the Sharks ' first two seasons saw the typical struggles for an expansion team. The 71 losses in 1992 -- 93 is an NHL record, and they also suffered a 17 - game losing streak, while winning just 11 games and earning a mere 24 points in the standings. Kingston was fired following the end of the 1992 -- 93 season.
Despite the Sharks ' futility in the standings, the team led the NHL 's merchandise sales with $150 million, accounting for 27 % of the NHL 's total and behind only National Basketball Association champions Chicago Bulls among all North American leagues. Several team "firsts '' happened in the 1992 -- 93 season. On November 17, 1992, San Jose goaltender Arturs Irbe recorded the first shutout in team history, defeating the Los Angeles Kings 6 -- 0. On December 3, against the Hartford Whalers at the Cow Palace, right winger Rob Gaudreau scored the first hat - trick in franchise history; he also scored the team 's second ever hat - trick nine days later against the Quebec Nordiques.
The inaugural year also saw the birth of the San Jose Sharks mascot, "S.J. Sharkie ''. On January 28, 1992, at a game against the New York Rangers, the then - unnamed mascot emerged from a Zamboni during an intermission. A "Name the Mascot '' contest began that night, with the winning name of "S.J. Sharkie '' being announced on April 15, 1992.
For their third season, 1993 -- 94, the Sharks moved to their new home, the San Jose Arena, and were placed in the Western Conference 's Pacific Division. Under head coach Kevin Constantine, the Sharks pulled off the biggest turnaround in NHL history, finishing with a 33 -- 35 -- 16 record and making the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in team history with 82 points, an NHL record 58 - point jump from the previous season. They were seeded eighth in the Western Conference playoffs and faced the Detroit Red Wings, the top - seeded Western Conference team and a favorite to win the Stanley Cup. In one of the biggest upsets in Stanley Cup playoff history, the underdog Sharks shocked the Red Wings in seven games. In Game 7 at Joe Louis Arena, Jamie Baker scored the game - winning goal in the third period after goaltender Chris Osgood was out of position and the Sharks won 3 -- 2. In the second round, the Sharks had a 3 -- 2 series lead over the Toronto Maple Leafs, but lost the final two games in Toronto, including an overtime loss in Game 6.
In 1994 -- 95, the Sharks earned their second - straight playoff berth and again reached the second round. Ray Whitney scored a goal in double overtime of Game 7 of the Conference Quarter - finals against the Calgary Flames. Key Sharks players included goaltender Arturs Irbe, defenseman Sandis Ozolinsh and forwards Igor Larionov and Sergei Makarov. Despite their success against Calgary, round two would prove to be a disaster for the Sharks, when they lost in a four - game sweep to Detroit (in a rematch of the previous year) without even holding a single lead in all four games. However, the 1995 season also saw the only rainout in the history of the NHL, when the Guadalupe River flooded its banks in March 1995, making it impossible for anyone to get into the San Jose Arena for a game between the Sharks and the Detroit Red Wings.
In 1995 -- 96, the Sharks finished last in the Pacific Division and failed to make the playoffs. The team also underwent major changes: during the season, they traded Ozolinsh and Larionov, and Irbe, who had suffered an off - ice injury, was released at the end of the season. The team began rebuilding, acquiring forward Owen Nolan from the Colorado Avalanche, as well as several other players. Constantine was fired midway through the season and replaced by interim coach Jim Wiley. The next season was no better under Al Sims, with the Sharks again finishing last and winning only 27 games. Their standing would help them draft Patrick Marleau in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft.
The Sharks returned to the playoffs in 1997 -- 98 with goaltender Mike Vernon, whom they acquired from the Red Wings, and new head coach Darryl Sutter. For the next two years, the Sharks made the playoffs, yet never advanced past the first round. In 1999, San Jose acquired former Toronto Maple Leafs and Montreal Canadiens star Vincent Damphousse. San Jose 's luck changed in the 1999 -- 2000 season, when the Sharks finished with their first - ever winning record. In an upset on par with the one they had pulled on Detroit six years earlier, the Sharks managed to eliminate the St. Louis Blues, who had finished first overall in the league that year, in seven games. However, the Sharks were defeated in the second round of the playoffs by the Dallas Stars. It was their second time losing to Dallas.
In 2000 -- 01, Kazakh goaltender Evgeni Nabokov won the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's best rookie. The team also acquired Finnish star forward Teemu Selanne from the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. In the 2001 playoffs, the St. Louis Blues eliminated the Sharks in six games in the first round, avenging their 2000 defeat by San Jose. The team 's breakout year was 2001 -- 02. Veteran Adam Graves was acquired for Mikael Samuelsson, and the Sharks won their first Pacific Division title. They then defeated the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round of the 2002 playoffs, but fell to the Colorado Avalanche in the second round.
Following the 2001 -- 02 season, the Gunds sold the Sharks to a group of local investors headed by team president Greg Jamison. With starting goaltender Nabokov and defenseman Mike Rathje in contract disputes with general manager Dean Lombardi and the retirement of veteran defenseman Gary Suter, the team got off to a terrible start. Kyle McLaren was acquired in a three - way trade with the Montreal Canadiens and Boston Bruins. Dan McGillis was acquired in exchange for long - time Shark Marcus Ragnarsson, but the team could not turn itself around. Sutter was fired and replaced by Ron Wilson midway through that season.
Near the 2003 NHL trade deadline, captain Owen Nolan was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs, signaling a new era in Sharks history. In addition, the newly acquired McGillis was traded to Boston, Bryan Marchment went to Colorado, and American Hockey League (AHL) star Shawn Heins and forward Matt Bradley were moved to the Pittsburgh Penguins. The Sharks acquired Alyn McCauley and Wayne Primeau during this season. Reportedly, due to having just acquired the team as well as the team 's bad start, the ownership group wanted general manager Dean Lombardi to move high - priced players on the roster. Lombardi failed to do so and consequently lost his job. During that debacle year for San Jose, there were some bright spots. Jim Fahey led all rookie defensemen in the NHL in points, despite playing in only 43 games.
2003 -- 04, under new general manager Doug Wilson and head coach Ron Wilson saw another turnaround for the team, resulting in the team 's best season to that point. An injection of youth, with players like Christian Ehrhoff and out - of - college signing Tom Preissing, and the influx of energy from Alexander Korolyuk jump - started San Jose. Doug Wilson acquired Nils Ekman, and a line of Ekman, McCauley and Korolyuk provided strong play for San Jose, with all three players enjoying career years. Midway through the season, key forward Marco Sturm suffered a broken leg / ankle injury. In response, San Jose acquired Curtis Brown. They posted the third - best record in the NHL with 104 points (31 more than the previous season, and the first time the team had earned 100 points), won the Pacific Division championship and were seeded second in the Western Conference.
In the 2004 playoffs, the Sharks defeated the St. Louis Blues in the Western Conference Quarter - finals and the Colorado Avalanche in the Conference Semi-finals. The San Jose Sharks, for the first time, progressed to the Conference Finals. However, they fell to the Calgary Flames, with ex-coach Daryl Sutter behind the Flames ' bench and former Sharks goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff in net. During that season, San Jose, without a captain following Nolan 's trade, utilized a rotating captaincy. When the job eventually fell to Patrick Marleau, he kept the captaincy. During the off - season, forward Vincent Damphousse was lost to the Colorado Avalanche (but never played a game for them, as he announced his retirement during the 2004 -- 05 lockout).
The Sharks started the 2005 -- 06 season slowly, dropping to last place in the Pacific Division. The team lost Alexander Korolyuk. After a ten - game losing streak, the Sharks traded Brad Stuart, Wayne Primeau and Marco Sturm to the Boston Bruins in exchange for star player Joe Thornton. The trade re-energized the team, and with Nabokov sharing starting duties with backup goaltender Vesa Toskala, the Sharks rallied back from their early season slump to clinch the fifth seed in the Western Conference. In the playoffs, the Sharks defeated the Nashville Predators in the Conference Quarter - finals before falling to the Edmonton Oilers in the Conference Semi-finals. Joe Thornton was awarded the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's Most Valuable Player, as well as the Art Ross Trophy for leading the League in points, with 125. Jonathan Cheechoo was awarded the Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy for scoring the most goals during the regular season, with a total of 56.
The Sharks entered the 2006 -- 07 season as the youngest team in average age, as well as the biggest team in average weight, and they raced out to a 20 -- 7 -- 0 start, the best in franchise history. A concern made by fans and members of the media was the lack of a left winger to play on a line with the duo of Thornton and Cheechoo. Wilson seemingly addressed this issue by acquiring 25 - year - old 20 - goal - scorer Mark Bell from the Chicago Blackhawks. Despite scoring a goal in his first two games with San Jose, Bell was widely considered a flop in San Jose. Off - ice issues, including being cited for drunk driving and an alleged hit - and - run contributed to his on - ice play. By the end of the season, Bell was consistently either a healthy scratch or a fourth - liner.
Two significant trades were made at the trade deadline for defenseman Craig Rivet and winger Bill Guerin. The trades coincided with Nabokov putting together a string of outstanding performances. The Sharks finished the regular season with the best record in franchise history at 51 -- 26 -- 5. In the Conference Quarter - finals, the Sharks defeated the Nashville Predators for the second year in a row. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Sharks were defeated for the second time by the Detroit Red Wings.
In that off - season, San Jose lost defenseman Scott Hannan to the Colorado Avalanche, but managed to re-sign pending free agent Craig Rivet. They also added former League star Jeremy Roenick to the roster. Roenick had considered retirement but decided to give it one last try with San Jose. San Jose effectively made Nabokov their number one goaltender by trading Vesa Toskala and Mark Bell to the Toronto Maple Leafs.
In advance of the 2007 -- 08 season, the Sharks updated their logos and jerseys to adjust to the new Rbk EDGE jersey. The Sharks rode on a very hot streak in the month of March. They were aided by the trade - deadline acquisition of Brian Campbell, for whom they gave up Steve Bernier. Going the entire month without a regulation loss, the Sharks captured their third Pacific Division title with a franchise - record 108 points. San Jose started the 2008 playoffs beating the Calgary Flames four games to three in San Jose 's first - ever Game 7 on home ice. San Jose eventually lost to the Dallas Stars in the Western Conference Semi-finals. Game 6 required four overtime periods, and was the longest game in the team 's history. This was the Sharks third playoff loss to Dallas.
The Ron Wilson era officially came to an end on May 12 when the Sharks fired him, citing the San Jose 's disappointing second round losses in the previous three seasons. Wilson ended his tenure in San Jose with an overall record of 206 -- 134 -- 45 in 385 regular - season games and a 28 -- 24 record in 52 post-season games. He moved on to be hired as head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs, along with assistant coaches who were also two former Sharks, Tim Hunter and Rob Zettler, to make up the Toronto coaching staff.
On June 11, 2008, the San Jose Sharks named former Detroit Red Wings assistant coach Todd McLellan as their new head coach for the 2008 -- 09 season. Todd Richards, Trent Yawney and Jay Woodcroft were named assistant coaches, while Brett Heimlich was named staff assistant. During the off - season, San Jose 's major headlines included signing defenseman Rob Blake, acquiring defensemen Dan Boyle and Brad Lukowich, as well as trading defenseman Craig Rivet to the Buffalo Sabres. Midway through the season, San Jose added playoff warrior Claude Lemieux to their roster. Lemieux, 43 years old, was rejoining the NHL after a five - year absence. At the trade deadline, San Jose acquired checking - line winger Travis Moen and the injured defenseman Kent Huskins from the Anaheim Ducks.
The Sharks finished the regular season as Presidents ' Trophy champions with 53 wins and 117 points, both franchise records. Despite their successful regular season, the Sharks were eliminated by the eighth - seeded Anaheim Ducks in six games in the first round of the playoffs. The team was heavily criticized for once again failing to succeed in the post-season. General manager Doug Wilson promised the team would undergo significant changes in the off - season.
In the 2009 off - season, Wilson held to his word with many major moves. The first was Christian Ehrhoff and Brad Lukowich to the Vancouver Canucks. It was widely believed that San Jose made this trade so it could free up salary cap space to make a second trade: Milan Michalek and Jonathan Cheechoo were sent to the Ottawa Senators in exchange for Dany Heatley and a draft pick. Assistant coach Todd Richards left and was replaced by Matt Shaw. Aside from the trades, several contracts were not renewed, including those of Mike Grier, Marcel Goc, Tomas Plihal and Alexei Semenov.
San Jose also signed forward Scott Nichol and added grit to the team by signing Joe Callahan, Jed Ortmeyer and Manny Malhotra, plus Benn Ferriero. Jeremy Roenick and Claude Lemieux both announced their retirements from the NHL. Another major move by San Jose was stripping Patrick Marleau of the captaincy and assigning it to the newly re-signed Rob Blake. One reason for the move was that Marleau was named captain by Wilson and McLellan wanted to name his own. Dan Boyle and Joe Thornton were named the alternates. On February 7, 2010, San Jose acquired Niclas Wallin from the Carolina Hurricanes. On February 12, 2010, San Jose traded Jody Shelley to the New York Rangers for a draft pick.
The Sharks finished the regular season leading the Western Conference with 113 points and being the second team in the NHL after the Washington Capitals. In the Western Conference Quarter - finals, the Sharks eliminated the Colorado Avalanche. In the Conference Semi-finals, the Sharks defeated the Detroit Red Wings. The eventual Stanley Cup champions, the Chicago Blackhawks, beat the Sharks in the Conference Finals with a four - game sweep.
On June 23, 2010, Wilson announced that they would not offer an unrestricted free agent contract to long - time goaltender Evgeni Nabokov after playing ten seasons with the team. Due to the cap issue, the Sharks had to choose between former captain Patrick Marleau and Nabokov. On July 1, 2010, the Sharks signed goalie Antero Niittymaki from the Tampa Bay Lightning. On September 2, 2010, the Sharks signed former member of the Chicago Blackhawks and Stanley Cup - winning goaltender Antti Niemi to a one - year contract. Niemi was the goaltender who helped the Blackhawks defeat the Sharks in the Western Conference Finals the season before. On March 1, 2011, Niemi signed a four - year contract extension with San Jose worth $15.2 million.
On March 31, 2011, the Sharks clinched their 13th (and seventh consecutive) playoff berth in franchise history with a 6 -- 0 victory over the Dallas Stars. Five days later, they clinched their sixth Pacific Division championship. Entering the 2011 playoffs as the second seed in the Western Conference, the Sharks opened their playoff run with the franchise 's first - ever playoff series against division and state rivals, the Los Angeles Kings. After winning Game 1, 3 -- 2 in overtime on a Joe Pavelski goal, the Sharks dropped the second game of the series 4 -- 0, heading to Staples Center with the series tied at one apiece. The Kings took another 4 -- 0 lead in Game 3 but five - second - period goals by the Sharks capped with a Devin Setoguchi overtime winner gave the Sharks a 6 -- 5 victory and tied them for the second - biggest comeback in Stanley Cup playoff history. They would go on to win Game 4, lose Game 5 and finally win the series in its sixth game, with captain Joe Thornton scoring the series winner in the third overtime game of the series.
The Sharks advanced to the Western Conference Semi-finals to face the third - seed Detroit Red Wings, whom they had defeated in five games during the previous post-season's second round. Just like the year prior, the Sharks won the first three games of the series and lost the fourth but instead of replicating the previous year 's success in Game 5, the Sharks dropped two more games as the Red Wings became the eighth team in NHL history to force a Game 7 after losing the first three games of a series. However, they would not become the fourth team in history to pull off the comeback as the Sharks prevailed, 3 -- 2, with the game - winning goal scored by former captain Patrick Marleau who had endured media criticism from former teammate and now NBC Sports Network television personality Jeremy Roenick for his lackluster play in Game 5 of the series against the Red Wings. The Sharks advanced to their third Western Conference Finals series, their first playoff meeting with the Vancouver Canucks. San Jose dropped the first two games of the series at Rogers Arena in Vancouver but rebounded with a 4 -- 3 victory thanks to two first - period goals by Marleau in Game 3. However, they lost the fourth game of the series and eventually were eliminated from the playoffs after a Game 5 in Vancouver that featured a game - tying goal by the Canucks ' Ryan Kesler with 18.3 seconds remaining in the third period as well as a quirky bounce off a side stanchion that allowed Kevin Bieksa to score the overtime goal that advanced Vancouver to their third Stanley Cup Finals and left the Sharks eliminated in Round 3 for the second consecutive post-season.
The first major move made by San Jose in the 2011 off - season was to trade popular winger (and former first - round pick) Devin Setoguchi, the Sharks ' 2010 first - round pick Charlie Coyle and a first - round pick in the 2011 NHL Draft to the Minnesota Wild for All - Star defenseman Brent Burns and a second - round pick in the 2012 Draft. This came after Setoguchi had signed a three - year, $9 million contract extension with the Sharks. The Sharks continued their off - season retool by orchestrating a second transaction with the Wild, shipping Dany Heatley to Minnesota in exchange for Martin Havlat, both to relieve cap space as Heatley was slated to carry a cap hit $2.5 million greater than Havlat 's for the duration of their respective contracts and to acquire a player in Havlat with a history of playoff production at the expense of Heatley, whose post-season numbers with the Sharks had been far less than stellar -- the forward had managed to score just five goals in 32 playoff games in two years with San Jose.
The Sharks finished the 2011 -- 12 season with a 43 -- 29 -- 10 record, good for 96 points and the seventh seed in the Stanley Cup playoffs. However, after winning Game 1 of their first round series with the St. Louis Blues in overtime, they lost the final four games of the series, marking the second time they lost in the Quarter - finals under Todd McLellan. Despite the underachievement of the previous year, it was announced that McLellan would remain on the bench for a fifth season.
Prior to the lockout - shortened 2012 -- 13 season, Hockey Hall of Fame player and coach Larry Robinson was added to McLellan 's coaching staff to assist with San Jose 's penalty - killing unit, which was 29th in the NHL during the previous season. Assistant coach Jim Johnson was also added to bring a defensive style to the play of the Sharks. Brett Heimlich was also promoted to the role of video coordinator to assist the new coaching staff. Along with the two coaches, veteran defenseman Brad Stuart was re-acquired in order to bolster the Sharks ' blue line, and on January 12, he played in his first game at HP Pavilion in over seven years. In the first round of the 2013 playoffs, the Sharks swept the Vancouver Canucks, their first series - sweep in franchise history. The Sharks would subsequently fall 4 -- 3 to the defending Stanley Cup champion Los Angeles Kings in the second round of the playoffs.
Prior to the 2013 -- 14 season, the Sharks unveiled new uniforms, which included less orange, along with adding a lace - up collar. In addition to the new uniforms, prior to the start of the season, Brett Heimlich took on the additional role of statistical analyst for the coaching staff. The Sharks started the season 8 -- 0 -- 1, and were the last team in the NHL to stay undefeated in regulation until October 25, when the Sharks lost to the Boston Bruins. In the first round of the 2014 playoffs, the Sharks were matched with rivals and eventual Stanley Cup champion Los Angeles Kings. Although the Sharks took a 3 -- 0 series lead, the Kings came back to tie the series before advancing with a 5 -- 1 win in game seven (only the fourth time in the 97 - year history of the NHL where a team lost a best - of - seven series after winning their first three games). After the loss, general manager Doug Wilson described the Sharks ' playoff failures "like Charlie Brown trying to kick a football ''.
On August 20, 2014, head coach Todd McLellan announced the team would go into training camp for the 2014 -- 15 season without a captain, and that all players (including former captains Joe Thornton and Patrick Marleau) would have the opportunity to compete for the captaincy. No captain was named during the season. The Sharks hosted the 2015 NHL Stadium Series against the Kings at Levi 's Stadium in February 2015, losing 2 -- 1. Earlier in the season, the Sharks were in playoff contention, but they would ultimately lose games to key Western Conference opponents as the season went on. Despite posting a record of 40 -- 33 -- 9, the Sharks finished fifth in the Pacific Division and missed the playoffs for the first time in ten years. On April 20, 2015, the team announced that they had agreed to "part ways '' with McLellan, Johnson and Woodcroft, as well as Video Coordinator Heimlich.
On May 28, 2015, the team named Peter DeBoer as their new head coach. During the off - season, the Sharks let John Scott and Scott Hannan leave as free agents. They traded goalie Antti Niemi to the Dallas Stars for a seventh - round draft pick in the 2015 Draft. Then, they acquired forward Joel Ward, goaltender Martin Jones, and defenseman Paul Martin. They also named forward Joe Pavelski the team 's captain.
Nearly one year after Peter DeBoer 's arrival and a shaky start, the Sharks surged in the second half of the season to return to the playoffs, finishing with 98 points and third in the Pacific Division. They defeated the Los Angeles Kings in five games, the Nashville Predators in seven games and the St. Louis Blues in six games to win the Western Conference championship. This marked the first time in franchise history that the Sharks advanced to play in the Stanley Cup Final. The Sharks ultimately lost the Stanley Cup Finals in the best - of - seven series against the Pittsburgh Penguins in six games.
In the following season, the Sharks finished in third place in the Pacific Division, but were defeated by the Edmonton Oilers in six games in the first round of the 2017 playoffs. Following the season, long - time stalwart Patrick Marleau left the team to sign with the Toronto Maple Leafs, ending his 20 - year tenure with the team. He left holding almost every offensive record in team history. In the 2017 -- 18 season, the Sharks once again finished in third place in the Pacific Division. They swept the Anaheim Ducks in the first round of the 2018 playoffs, but lost to the Vegas Golden Knights in six games in the second round.
The Sharks ' best - known tradition is their pre-game entrance scene. At the beginning of each Sharks home game, the lights go down and a 17 - foot open shark mouth is lowered from the rafters. As the mouth is lowered the eyes flash red and fog pours out. Then, a live view of the locker room tunnel with Sharks players is shown on the scoreboard and the goalie leads the team out of the locker room, through the mouth, and onto the ice. The Sharks currently use "Seek & Destroy '' by Metallica as their entrance song. Previous entrance songs include Metallica 's version of "Breadfan '' and "Get Ready for This '' by 2 Unlimited. The latter song has been used as the team 's goal song since 2016.
Any time the Sharks go on the power play, the Jaws theme song is played while the fans do "The Chomp '', extending their arms in front and moving them up and down to form a chomping jaw.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Sharks. For the full season - by - season history, see List of San Jose Sharks seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated October 16, 2018
The Sharks have no retired numbers, but the team is unable to issue no. 99 to its players due to NHL retiring the number league - wide in honor of Wayne Gretzky at the 2000 NHL All - Star Game.
These are the top - ten - point - scorers in franchise regular season history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game
These are the top - ten playoff point - scorers in franchise playoff history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P / G = Points per game; * = current Sharks player
Clarence S. Campbell Bowl
Presidents ' Trophy
Art Ross Trophy
Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy
Calder Memorial Trophy
Hart Memorial Trophy
James Norris Memorial Trophy
Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy
NHL Foundation Player Award
All - Star Game head coach
(* -- traded from the Boston Bruins during the 2005 -- 06 season)
One of the first group of broadcasters for the Sharks was Joe Starkey.
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what service industry is an important part of the swiss economy | Economy of Switzerland - Wikipedia
$19,312 (2014, per capita)
The economy of Switzerland is one of the world 's most stable economies. The service sector has also come to play a significant economic role, particularly the Swiss banking industry and tourism. The economy of Switzerland ranks first in the world in the 2015 Global Innovation Index and the 2017 Global Competitiveness Report. According to United Nations data for 2016, Switzerland is the third richest landlocked country in the world after Liechtenstein and Luxembourg, and together with Norway the only two countries in the world with a GDP per capita above US $70,000 that are neither island nations nor ministates.
Switzerland as a federal state was established in 1848. Before that time, the city - cantons of Zurich and Basel in particular began to develop economically based on industry and trade, while the rural regions of Switzerland remained poor and under - developed. While a workshop system had been in existence throughout the early modern period, the production of machines began in 1801 in St. Gallen, with the third generation of machines imported from Great Britain. But in Switzerland, hydraulic power was often used instead of steam - engines because of the country 's topography while there are no significant deposits of coal. By 1814, hand weaving had been mostly replaced by the power loom. Both tourism and banking began to develop as an economic factor from about the same time. While Switzerland was primarily rural, the cities experienced an industrial revolution in the late 19th century, focused especially on textiles. In Basel, for example, textiles, including silk, were the leading industry. In 1888 women made up 44 % of the wage earners. Nearly half the women worked in the textile mills, with household servants the second largest job category. The share of women in the workforce was higher between 1890 and 1910 than it was in the late 1960s and 1970s.
Railways played a major part in industrialization with the first railway appearing in 1847 between Zurich and Baden. Due to competition between private players, Switzerland was covered with more than 1000 km of track by 1860.
The industrial sector began to grow in the 19th century with a Laissez - faire industrial / trade policy, Switzerland 's emergence as one of the most prosperous nations in Europe, sometimes termed the "Swiss miracle '' was a development of the mid 19th / early 20th century, among other things tied to the role of Switzerland during the World Wars.
Switzerland 's total energy consumption, which was dropping from the mid 1910s to the early 1920s, started increasing during the early 1920s. The same got stagnated during the 1930s before dropping again during the early 1940s before an exponential growth which started in the mid 1940s.
In the 1940s, particularly during World War II, the economy profited from the increased export and delivery of weapons to the German Reich, France, Great Britain, and other neighbouring and close countries. However, Switzerland 's energy consumption decreased rapidly. The conduct of the banks cooperating with the Nazis (but not exclusively; they also cooperated extensively with the British and French) and commercial relations with the Axis powers during the war became the subject of sharp criticism, resulting in a short period of international isolation of Switzerland from the world. After World War II, Switzerland 's production facilities remained to a great extent undamaged, which facilitated the country 's swift economic resurgence.
In the 1950s, annual GDP growth averaged 5 % and Switzerland 's energy consumption doubled. Coal lost its rank as Switzerland 's primary energy source, as other fossil fuels such as crude and refined oil and natural and refined gas imports increased. This decade also marked the transition from an industrial economy to a service economy. Since then the service sector has been growing faster than the agrarian and industrial sectors.
In the 1960s, annual GDP growth averaged 4 % and Switzerland 's energy consumption doubled. By the end of the decade oil was Switzerland 's primary energy source.
In the 1970s GDP growth rates gradually declined from a peak of 6.5 % in 1970 until contracting 7.5 % in 1975 and 1976. Switzerland became increasingly dependent on oil imported from its main supplier, the OPEC cartel. The 1973 international oil crisis caused Switzerland 's energy consumption to decrease in the years from 1973 to 1977. In 1974 there were three nationwide car - free Sundays when private transport was prohibited as a result of the oil supply shock. From 1977 onwards GDP grew, although Switzerland was also affected by the 1979 energy crisis which resulted in a short - term decrease in Switzerland 's energy consumption.
In the 1980s, Switzerland 's economy contracted by 1.3 % in 1982 before going on to grow substantially for the rest of the decade with annual gdp growth between approximately 3 % and 4 % apart from 1986 and 1987 where growth decreased to 1.9 % and 1.6 % respectively.
Switzerland 's economy was marred by slow growth in the 1990s, having the weakest economic growth in Western Europe. The economy was affected by a 3 - year - recession from 1991 to 1993 when the economy contracted by 2 %. The contraction also became apparent in Switzerland 's energy consumption and export growth rates. Switzerland 's economy averaged no appreciable increase (only 0.6 % annually) in gross domestic product (GDP).
After having unemployment rates lower than 1 % prior to 1990, the 3 - year - recession also caused the unemployment rate to rise to its all - time peak of 5.3 % in 1997. As of 2008, Switzerland was at the second place among European countries with populations above one million in terms of nominal and purchasing power parity Gross Domestic Product per capita, behind Norway (see list). On numerous occasions in the 1990s real wages decreased since nominal wages could not keep up with inflation. However, beginning in 1997, a global resurgence in currency movement provided the necessary stimulus to the Swiss economy. It slowly gained momentum and peaked in the year 2000 with 3.7 % growth in real terms.
In the early 2000s recession, being so closely linked to the economies of Western Europe and the United States, Switzerland was not able to escape the slowdown felt in these countries. After the worldwide stock market crashes in the wake of the 9 / 11 terrorism attacks there were more announcements of false enterprise statistics and exaggerated managers ' wages. In 2001 the rate of growth dropped to 1.2 %, to 0.4 % in 2002 and in 2003 the real GDP contracted by 0.2 %. That economic slowdown had a noticeable impact on the labour market.
Many companies announced mass dismissals and thus the unemployment rate rose from its low of 1.9 % in June 2000 to its peak of 3.9 % in October 2004, although well below the European Union (EU) unemployment average of 8.9 %. The consumer mood worsened and domestic consumption decreased.
The exports of goods and services in the EU and the USA decreased as a result of the Swiss Franc 's appreciation in value which caused an increase in prices of exported goods and services. On the other hand, Switzerland 's tourism sector slumped and room occupation rates by foreign guests decreased. Besides that a deficit of market competition in many branches of Switzerland 's economy persisted.
On the 10.11. 2002 the economics magazine Cash published 5 measures which political and economic factors were suggested to implement so that Switzerland would once again experience an economic revival:
1. Private consumption should be promoted with decent wage increases. In addition to that families with children should get discounts on their health insurances.
2. Switzerland 's national bank should revive investments by lowering interest rates. Besides that monetary institutes should increasingly credit consumers and offer cheaper land zones which are to be built on.
3. Switzerland 's national bank is asked to devalue the Swiss Franc, especially compared to the Euro.
4. The government should implement the anti-cyclical measure of increasing budget deficits. Government spending should increase in the infrastructural and educational sectors. Lowering taxes would make sense in order to promote private household consumption.
5. Flexible work schedules should be instituted, thus avoiding low demand dismissals.
These measures were applied with successful results along with the government 's policy of the Magical Hexagon which consists of full employment, social equality, economic growth, environmental quality, positive trade balance and price stability. The rebound which started in mid-2003 saw growth rate growth rate averaging 3 % (2004 and 2005 saw a GDP growth of 2.5 % and 2.6 % respectively; for 2006 and 2007, the rate was 3.6 %). In 2008, GDP growth was modest in the first half of the year while declining in the last two quarters. Because of the base effect, real growth came to 1.9 %. While it contracted 1.9 % in 2009, the economy started to pick up in Q3 and by the second quarter of 2010, it had surpassed its previous peak. Growth for 2010 stood at 2.6 %
The stock market collapse has deeply affected investment income earned abroad. This has translated to a substantial fall in the surplus of the current account balance. In 2006, Switzerland recorded a 15.1 % per GDP surplus. It went down to 9.1 % in 2007 and further dropped to 1.8 % in 2008. It recovered in 2009 and 2010 with a surplus of 11.9 % and 14.6 % respectively. As of the first quarter 2010, Switzerland house prices are still edging up.
The chart below shows the trend of the gross domestic product of Switzerland at market prices:
The Swiss economy follows the typical First World model with respect to the economic sectors. Only a small minority of the workers are involved in the primary or agricultural sector (1.3 % of the population, in 2006) while a larger minority is involved in the secondary or manufacturing sector (27.7 % in 2012). The majority of the working population are involved in the tertiary or services sector of the economy (71.0 % in 2012).
While most of the Swiss economic practices have been brought largely into conformity with the European Union 's policies, some trade protectionism remains, particularly for the small agricultural sector.
Switzerland is one of the leaders in exports of high - end watches as well as clocks, Swiss watch making companies produce most of the world 's high - end watches, in 2011, the exports of Switzerland reached nearly 19.3 billion CHF. Swiss watch manufacturers exceeded their previous annual result by 19.2 %. The exports of those watches mainly go to Asia (55 %), Europe (29 %), Americas (14 %), Africa and Oceania (both 1 %).
In 2011, Switzerland had a total export of over 20 billion USD, making it the country with the highest export value of watches, followed by Hong Kong, at under USD $10 billion.
However, Mainland China exports the highest number of watches, at a total of over 682.1 units (in millions), followed by Hong Kong at 402.7, then Switzerland at 29.8 million units.
Switzerland has an extensive industrial sector, which is not very well known around the world, but present with companies in different industrial sectors, such as: food processing like Nestlé, chemical for industrial and construction use like Sika AG, pharmaceutical like Novartis and Roche and roof coating chemicals Sarnafil. LafargeHolcim is the largest construction materials group in the world.
Switzerland is extremely protective of its agricultural industry. High tariffs and extensive domestic subsidisations encourage domestic production, which currently produces about 60 % of the food consumed in the country.
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Switzerland is subsidising more than 70 % of its agriculture compared to 35 % in the EU. The 2007 Agricultural Program, recently adopted by the Swiss Federal Assembly, will increase subsidies by CHF 63 million to CHF 14.092 billion.
Protectionism acts to promote domestic production, but not to reduce prices or the cost of production, and there is no guarantee the increased domestic production is actually consumed internally; it may simply be exported, to the profit of the producers. 90 to 100 % of potatoes, vegetables, pork, veal, cattle and most milk products are produced in the country. Beyond that, Swiss agriculture meets 65 % of the domestic food demand. In 2016 the Swiss government spent about 5.5 % of its total budget (over CHF 3.5 billion) on supporting food production.
The first reform in agricultural policies was in 1993. Among other changes, since 1998 Switzerland has linked the attribution of farm subsidies with the strict observance of good environmental practice. Before farmers can apply for subsidies, they must obtain certificates of environmental management systems (EMS) proving that they: "make a balanced use of fertilizers; use at least 7 % of their farmland as ecological compensation areas; regularly rotate crops; adopt appropriate measures to protect animals and soil; make limited and targeted use of pesticides. '' 1,500 farms are driven out of business each year. But the number of organic farms increased by 3.3 percent between 2003 and 2004, and organic sales increased by 7 percent to $979 million. Moreover, Swiss consumers consider less important the drawback of higher prices for organic food compared to conventional locally produced food.
The CIA World Factbook estimates Switzerland 's 2011 exports at $308.3 billion and the 2010 exports at $258.5 billion. Imports are estimated to be $299.6 billion in 2011 and $246.2 billion in 2010. According to the World Factbook numbers, Switzerland is the 20th largest exporter and the 18th largest importer.
The United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database has lower numbers for Switzerland 's exports and imports. The UN calculates exports at $223.5 billion in 2011 and $185.8 billion in 2010. The value of all imports in 2011 was $197.0 billion and in 2010 it was $166.9 billion.
Switzerland 's largest trading partner is Germany. In 2009, 21 % of Switzerland 's exports and 29 % of its imports came from Germany. The United States was the second largest destination of exports (9.1 % of total exports) and the fourth largest source of imports (6.7 %).
Switzerland 's neighbors made up next largest group; Italy was third for exports (8.6 %) and second for imports (10 %), France was fourth for exports (8 %) and third for imports (8.1 %) and Austria was fifth for exports (4.6 %) and sixth for imports (3.7 %). Major non-European trading partners included; Japan (seventh for exports with 3.6 % and twelfth for imports with 2 %), China (eighth for exports and imports with 3.1 % and 2.5 % respectively) and Turkey (sixteenth for exports with 1.2 % and ninth for imports with 2.3 %).
As a first world country with a skilled labor force, the majority of Swiss exports are precision or ' high tech ' finished products. Switzerland 's largest specific SITC categories of exports include; medicaments, glycosides and vaccines, watches, orthopaedic appliances and precious jewellery. Some raw ores or metals are exported, but the majority of the exports in this category are finished jewellery or other finished products. Agricultural products that Switzerland is famous for, such as cheese (0.29 %), wine (0.05 %) and chocolate (0.39 %) all make up only a small portion of Swiss exports. Switzerland is also a significant exporter of arms and ammunition, and the third largest for small calibers, which accounted for 0.33 % of the total exports in 2012.
Switzerland 's main imports include; medicaments, cars, precious jewellery and other unclassified transactions. While Switzerland has a long tradition of manufacturing cars, there are currently no large - scale assembly line automobile manufacturers in the country.
Switzerland has a highly developed tourism infrastructure, especially in the mountainous regions and cities, making it a good market for tourism - related equipment and services.
14 % of hotels were in Grisons, 12 % each in the Valais and Eastern Switzerland, 11 % in Central Switzerland and 9 % in the Bernese Oberland. The ratio of lodging nights in relation to resident population ("tourism intensity '', a measure for the relative importance of tourism to local economy) was largest in Grisons (8.3) and Bernese Oberland (5.3), compared to a Swiss average of 1.3. 56.4 % of lodging nights were by visitors from abroad (broken down by nationality: 16.5 % Germany, 6.3 % UK, 4.8 % USA, 3.6 % France, 3.0 % Italy)
The total financial volume associated with tourism, including transportation, is estimated to CHF 35.5 billion (as of 2010) although some of this comes from fuel tax and sales of motorway vignettes. The total gross value added from tourism is 14.9 billion. Tourism provides a total of 144,838 full time equivalent jobs in the entire country. The total financial volume of tourist lodging is 5.19 billion CHF and eating at the lodging provides an additional 5.19 billion. The total gross value added of 14.9 billion is about 2.9 % of Switzerland 's 2010 nominal GDP of 550.57 billion CHF.
In 2003, the financial sector comprised an estimated 11.6 % of Switzerland 's GDP and employed approximately 196,000 people (136,000 of whom work in the banking sector); this represents about 5.6 % of the total Swiss workforce.
Swiss neutrality and national sovereignty, long recognized by foreign nations, have fostered a stable environment in which the banking sector was able to develop and thrive. Switzerland has maintained neutrality through both World Wars, is not a member of the European Union, and was not even a member of the United Nations until 2002. Currently an estimated 28 percent of all funds held outside the country of origin (sometimes called "offshore '' funds) are kept in Switzerland. In 2009 Swiss banks managed 5.4 trillion Swiss Francs.
The Bank of International Settlements, an organization that facilitates cooperation among the world 's central banks, is headquartered in the city of Basel. Founded in 1930, the BIS chose to locate in Switzerland because of the country 's neutrality, which was important to an organization founded by countries that had been on both sides of World War I. In May 2006, foreign banks operating in Switzerland managed 870 billion Swiss francs worth of assets. In 2014, this number was estimated to be 960 billion Swiss francs.
The Swiss economy is characterised by a skilled and generally ' peaceful ' workforce. One quarter of the country 's full - time workers are unionised. Labour and management relations are amicable, characterised by a willingness to settle disputes instead of resorting to labour action. They take place between trade unions and branch associations, that are themselves often grouped in Union of Employers, like the Fédération patronale vaudoise or the Fédération des Entreprises Romandes Genève. About 600 collective bargaining agreements exist today in Switzerland and are regularly renewed without major problems. However, there is no country - wide minimum wage across sectors, but some collective bargaining agreement may contain minimum wage requirements for specific sectors or employers. A May 2014 ballot initiative which would have required a Swiss minimum wage to 22 Swiss francs an hour (corresponding to a monthly income of about 4000 Swiss francs) failed to pass, gaining only 23.7 % support on the ballot.
With the peak of the number of bankruptcies in 2003, however, the mood was pessimistic. Massive layoffs and dismissals by enterprises resulting from the global economic slowdown, major management scandals and different foreign investment attitudes have strained the traditional Swiss labour peace. Swiss trade unions have encouraged strikes against several companies, including Swiss International Air Lines, Coca - Cola, and Orange. Total days lost to strikes, however, remain among the lowest in the OECD.
In 2013 the mean household income in Switzerland was CHF 120,624 (c. USD 134,000 nominal, USD 101,000 PPP), the mean household income after social security, taxes and mandatory health insurance was CHF 85,560 (c. USD 95,000 nominal, USD 72,000 PPP). The OECD lists Swiss household gross adjusted disposable income per capita USD 32,594 PPP for 2011.
As of 2016, Switzerland had the highest average wealth per adult, at $ 561,900.
This development was tied to the exchange rate between the US Dollar and the Swiss franc, which caused capital in Swiss francs to more than double its value in dollar terms during the 2000s and especially in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, without any direct increase in value in terms of domestic purchasing power.
Switzerland has a relatively high Gini coefficient of 0.8, similar to the US, indicating unequal distribution. The high average wealth is explained by a comparatively high number of individuals who are extremely wealthy; the median (50th percentile) wealth of a Swiss adult is five times lower than the average, at USD 100,900 (USD 70,000 PPP as of 2011).
Through the United States - Swiss Joint Economic Commission (JEC), Switzerland has passed strict legislation covering anti-terrorism financing and the prevention of terrorist acts, marked by the implementation of several anti-money laundering procedures and the seizure of al - Qaeda accounts.
Apart from agriculture, there are minimal economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland. In the wake of the Swiss voters ' rejection of the European Economic Area Agreement in 1992, the Swiss Government set its sights on negotiating bilateral economic agreements with the EU. Four years of negotiations culminated in Bilaterals, a cross-platform agreement covering seven sectors: research, public procurement, technical barriers to trade, agriculture, civil aviation, land transport, and the free movement of persons. Parliament officially endorsed the Bilaterals in 1999 and it was approved by general referendum in May 2000. The agreements, which were then ratified by the European Parliament and the legislatures of its member states, entered into force on June 1, 2002. The Swiss government has since embarked on a second round of negotiations, called the Bilaterals II, which will further strengthen the country 's economic ties with the organisation.
Switzerland has since brought most of their practices into conformity with European Union policies and norms in order to maximise the country 's international competitiveness. While most of the EU policies are not contentious, police and judicial cooperation to international law enforcement and the taxation of savings are controversial, mainly because of possible side effects on bank secrecy.
Swiss and EU finance ministers agreed in June 2003 that Swiss banks would levy a withholding tax on EU citizens ' savings income. The tax would increase gradually to 35 % by 2011, with 75 % of the funds being transferred to the EU. Recent estimates value EU capital inflows to Switzerland to $8.3 billion.
Switzerland is a member of a number of international economic organizations, including the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
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where is self awareness located in the brain | Neural basis of self - wikipedia
The neural basis of self is the idea of using modern concepts of neuroscience to describe and understand the biological processes that underlie human 's perception of self - understanding. The neural basis of self is closely related to the psychology of self with a deeper foundation in neurobiology.
In order to understand how the human mind makes the human perception of self, there are different experimental techniques. One of the more common methods of determining brain areas that pertain to different mental processes is by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. fMRI data is often used to determine activation levels in portions of the brain. fMRI measures blood flow in the brain. Areas with higher blood flow as shown on fMRI scans are said to be activated. This is due to the assumption that portions of the brain receiving increased blood flow are being used more heavily during the moment of scanning. Positron emission tomography is another method used to study brain activity.
Two areas of the brain that are important in retrieving self - knowledge are the medial prefrontal cortex and the medial posterior parietal cortex. The posterior cingulate cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex are thought to combine to provide humans with the ability to self - reflect. The insular cortex is also thought to be involved in the process of self - reference.
The sense of embodiment is critical to a person 's conception of self. Embodiment is the understanding of the physical body and its relation to oneself. The study of human embodiment currently has a large impact on the study of human cognition as a whole. The current study of embodiment suggests that sensory input and experiences impact human 's overall perception. This idea somewhat challenges previous ideas of human cognition because it challenges the idea of the human mind being innate.
There are two portions of the brain that have recently been found to have a large importance on a person 's perception of self. The temporoparietal junction, located in the cortex is one of these brain regions. The temporoparietal junction is thought to integrate sensory information. The second portion of the brain thought to be involved in perception of embodiment is the extrastriate body area. The extrastriate body area is located in the lateral occipitotemporal cortex. When people are shown images of body parts, the extrastriate body area is activated. The temporoparietal junction is involved in sensory integration processes while the extrastriate body area deals mainly with thoughts of and exposure to human body parts. It has been found that the brain responds to stimuli that involve embodiment differently from stimuli that involve localization. During task performance tests, a person 's body position (whether he or she is sitting or laying face up) affects how the extrastriate body area is activated. The temporoparietal junction, however, is not affected by a person 's particular body position. The temporoparietal junction deals with disembodied rather than embodied self - location, explaining why a person 's physical position does not affect its activation. Self - location as related to a person 's sense of embodiment is related to his or her actual location in space.
The information people remember as autobiographical memory is essential to their perception of self. These memories form the way people feel about themselves. The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex are involved in the memory of autobiographical information.
Morality is an extremely important defining factor for humans. It often defines or contributes to people 's choices or actions, defining who a person is. Making moral decisions, much like other neural processes has a clear biological basis. The anterior and medial prefrontal cortex and the superior temporal sulcus are activated when people feel guilt, compassion, or embarrassment. Guilt and passion activate the mesolimbic pathway, and indignation and disgust are activated by the amygdala. There is clearly a network involved with the ideas of morality.
In order to explain how a human views him or herself, two different conceptual views of self - perception exist: the individualist and collectivistic views of self. The individualistic view of self involves people 's perception of themselves as a stand - alone individual. This is thought of as a somewhat permanent perception of oneself that is unaffected by environmental and temporary cues and influences. People who view themselves in an individualistic sense describe themselves with personality traits that are permanent descriptions unrelated to particular situations. The collectivistic view of self, however, involves people 's perception of themselves as members of a group or in a particular situation. The view people have of themselves in a collectivistic sense is entirely dependent on the situation they are in and the group with which they are interacting. These two ideas of self are also called self - construal styles. There is neurobiological evidence supporting these two definitions of self - construal styles. fMRI data has been used to understand the biology of both the individualistic and collectivistic view of self. Certain people tend to view themselves in almost exclusively a collectivistic sense or an individualistic sense. When people have to describe themselves in a collectivistic way (as a part of a group), those who tend to view themselves collectivistically show greater fMRI activation in the medial prefrontal cortex than those who view themselves individualistically. The reverse is true when people describe themselves individualistically.
The study of the human mind in diseased states provides valuable insight into how the mind works in healthy individuals. A multitude of diseases are studied to understand altered perceptions of self and what causes these impairments.
Autism is a disorder in which those affected experience impaired social interactions, communication, and behaviors. A new approach to studying autism is to focus on individuals ' perception of self rather than understanding the individual 's social interactions. A common thought is that understanding of the differences between the self and others are impaired. However, the exact biological mechanism of self - understanding in autistic children is currently unknown. It has been found that there are significant differences in brain activation in self and other situations in autistic children when compared to children who do not have autism. In adults who do not have autism, during self - recognition tasks, the inferior frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobule in the right hemisphere are activated. Children who do not have autism show activation in these areas when performing face processing tasks for their own faces and those of others. Children with autism, however, only show activation in these areas when recognizing their own faces. The activation in the inferior frontal gyrus is less in children with autism than in those who do not have autism.
The cortical midline structure is extremely important in the understanding of the self, especially during the task of self - reflection. Many researchers believe that self - reference plays a role in the expression of psychoses. The disturbance of the individual 's self may be underlying the manifestation of these psychoses. Occurrences such as hallucinations and delusions may originate with disruptions of a person 's perception of the self. Understanding the differences in those who have psychoses and those who do not can aid in diagnoses and treatment of those diseases. Those who are prone to psychoses such as schizophrenia, when describing positive traits about themselves show increased activation in the left insula, right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and left ventromedial prefrontal cortex. When they use negative traits to describe themselves, those who are prone to psychoses show higher activation in the bilateral insula, anterior cingulate cortex, and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex.
Sometimes after strokes patients ' perception of self changes. Often after a stroke, patients report their perception of self in more negative terms than before their stroke.
It has been found that humans ' ideas of themselves are established early in life but that the perception can change as others ideas are combined with their own. There are differences in the areas activated during self - knowledge retrieval between adults and children. This suggests a difference in self - knowledge neurobiologically due to normal aging. The prefrontal cortex and the medial posterior parietal cortex have been found to be activated when adults perform self - knowledge retrieval processes. Tests consist of presenting subjects with self - description phrases and allowing the subject to respond yes or no depending on whether or not the phrase describes him or herself. During this task, patients brains are fMRI scanned. These results can then be compared to fMRI data of the same patients when they are asked if the same phrases describe another individual, such as a well - known fictional character. The medial prefrontal cortex is activated more strongly for subjects when they are describing themselves than when they are describing others. However, children show greater medial prefrontal cortex activation than adults when performing self - knowledge retrieval tasks. Additionally, children and adults activate different specific regions in the medial prefrontal cortex. Adults activate the posterior precuneus more while children activate the anterior precuneus and the posterior cingulate. The understanding of the areas of the brain most frequently activated in children and adults can also provide information about how children, adolescents, and adults view themselves differently. Older children more significantly activate the medial prefrontal cortex because they deal with introspection much less frequently than adults and adolescents. Children have decreased specificity in skills than adults, so they show greater activation during spatial tasks. This is explained by the idea that with increased expertise in a task, decreased interest in wide spatial parameters occurs. When a person is an expert, he or she is able to be more focused in his or her performance. The difference in performance between adults and children is thought to be attributable to different perceptions of the self whether it is more introspective or more concerned with the surroundings and environment.
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what term means talk a bill to death | Filibuster - wikipedia
A filibuster is a political procedure where one or more members of parliament or congress debate over a proposed piece of legislation so as to delay or entirely prevent a decision being made on the proposal. It is sometimes referred to as "talking a bill to death '' or "talking out a bill '' and is characterized as a form of obstruction in a legislature or other decision - making body. This form of political obstruction reaches as far back as Ancient Roman times and could also be referred to synonymously with political stonewalling.
The term "filibuster '' ultimately derives from the Dutch vrijbuiter ("freebooter '', a pillaging and plundering adventurer), though the precise history of its borrowing into English is obscure. The Oxford English Dictionary finds its only known use in early modern English in a 1587 book describing "flibutors '' who robbed supply convoys. In the late 18th century, the term was re-borrowed into English from its French form flibustier, a form that was used until the mid-19th century.
The modern form "filibuster '' was borrowed in the early 1850s from the Spanish form filibustero, and was applied to private military adventurers like William Walker who were then attacking and pillaging Spanish colonies in Central America. Over the course of the mid to late 19th century, the term "filibustering '' became common in American English in the sense of "obstructing progress in a legislative assembly ''.
One of the first known practitioners of the filibuster was the Roman senator Cato the Younger. In debates over legislation he especially opposed, Cato would often obstruct the measure by speaking continuously until nightfall. As the Roman Senate had a rule requiring all business to conclude by dusk, Cato 's purposefully long - winded speeches were an effective device to forestall a vote.
Cato attempted to use the filibuster at least twice to frustrate the political objectives of Julius Caesar. The first incident occurred during the summer of 60 BC, when Caesar was returning home from his propraetorship in Hispania Ulterior. Caesar, by virtue of his military victories over the raiders and bandits in Hispania, had been awarded a triumph by the Senate. Having recently turned forty, Caesar had also become eligible to stand for consul. This posed a dilemma. Roman generals honored with a triumph were not allowed to enter the city prior to the ceremony, but candidates for the consulship were required, by law, to appear in person at the Forum. The date of the election, which had already been set, made it impossible for Caesar to stand unless he crossed the pomerium and gave up the right to his triumph. Caesar petitioned the Senate to stand in absentia, but Cato employed a filibuster to block the proposal. Faced with a choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship and entered the city.
Cato made use of the filibuster again in 59 BC in response to a land reform bill sponsored by Caesar, who was then consul. When it was Cato 's time to speak during the debate, he began one of his characteristically long - winded speeches. Caesar, who needed to pass the bill before his co-consul, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, took possession of the fasces at the end of the month, immediately recognized Cato 's intent and ordered the lictors to jail him for the rest of the day. The move was unpopular with many senators and Caesar, realizing his mistake, soon ordered Cato 's release. The day was wasted without the Senate ever getting to vote on a motion supporting the bill, but Caesar eventually circumvented Cato 's opposition by taking the measure to the Tribal Assembly, where it passed.
In the Parliament of the United Kingdom, a bill defeated by a filibustering manoeuvre may be said to have been "talked out ''. The procedures of the House of Commons require that members cover only points germane to the topic under consideration or the debate underway whilst speaking. Example filibusters in the Commons and Lords include:
The all - time Commons record for non-stop speaking, six hours, was set by Henry Brougham in 1828, though this was not a filibuster. The 21st century record was set on December 2, 2005 by Andrew Dismore, Labour MP for Hendon. Dismore spoke for three hours and 17 minutes to block a Conservative Private Member 's Bill, the Criminal Law (Amendment) (Protection of Property) Bill, which he claimed amounted to "vigilante law. '' Although Dismore is credited with speaking for 197 minutes, he regularly accepted interventions from other MPs who wished to comment on points made in his speech. Taking multiple interventions artificially inflates the duration of a speech and thus may be used as a tactic to prolong a speech.
In local unitary authorities of England a motion may be carried into closure by filibustering. This results in any additional motions receiving less time for debate by Councillors instead forcing a vote by the Council under closure rules.
A notable filibuster took place in the Northern Ireland House of Commons in 1936 when Tommy Henderson (Independent Unionist MP for Shankill) spoke for nine and a half hours (ending just before 4 am) on the Appropriation Bill. As this Bill applied government spending to all departments, almost any topic was relevant to the debate, and Henderson used the opportunity to list all of his many criticisms of the Unionist government.
Both houses of the Australian parliament have strictly enforced rules on how long members may speak, so filibusters are generally not possible.
In opposition, Tony Abbott 's Liberal National coalition used suspension of standing orders in 2012 for the purposes of filibustering, most commonly during question time against the Labor government.
In August 2000, New Zealand opposition parties National and ACT delayed the voting for the Employment Relations Bill by voting slowly, and in some cases in Māori (which required translation into English).
In 2009, several parties staged a filibuster of the Local Government (Auckland Reorganisation) Bill in opposition to the government setting up a new Auckland Council under urgency and without debate or review by select committee, by proposing thousands of wrecking amendments and voting in Māori as each amendment had to be voted on and votes in Māori translated into English. Amendments included renaming the council to "Auckland Katchafire Council '' or "Rodney Hide Memorial Council '' and replacing the phrase "powers of a regional council '' with "power and muscle ''.
The Rajya Sabha (Council of states) -- which is the upper house in the Indian bicameral legislature -- allows for a debate to be brought to a close with a simple majority decision of the house, on a closure motion so introduced by any member. On the other hand, the Lok Sabha (Council of the people) -- the lower house -- leaves the closure of the debate to the discretion of the speaker, once a motion to end the debate is moved by a member.
In 2014, Irish Justice Minister Alan Shatter performed a filibuster; he was perceived to "drone on and on '' and hence this was termed a "Drone Attack ''.
A dramatic example of filibustering in the House of Commons of Canada took place between Thursday June 23, 2011 and Saturday June 25, 2011. In an attempt to prevent the passing of Bill C - 6, which would have legislated the imposing of a four - year contract and pay conditions on the locked out Canada Post workers, the New Democratic Party (NDP) led a filibustering session which lasted for fifty - eight hours. The NDP argued that the legislation in its then form undermined collective bargaining. Specifically, the NDP opposed the salary provisions and the form of binding arbitration outlined in the bill.
The House was supposed to break for the summer Thursday June 23, but remained open in an extended session due to the filibuster. The 103 NDP MPs had been taking it in turn to deliver 20 minute speeches -- plus 10 minutes of questions and comments -- in order to delay the passing of the bill. MPs are allowed to give such speeches each time a vote takes place, and many votes were needed before the bill could be passed. As the Conservative Party of Canada held a majority in the House, the bill passed. This was the longest filibuster since the 1999 Reform Party of Canada filibuster, on native treaty issues in British Columbia.
Conservative Member of Parliament Tom Lukiwski is known for his ability to stall Parliamentary Committee business by filibustering. One such example occurred October 26, 2006, when he spoke for almost 120 minutes to prevent the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Environment and Sustainable Development from studying a private member 's bill to implement the Kyoto Accord. He also spoke for about 6 hours during the February 5, 2008 and February 7, 2008 at the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Procedure and House Affairs meetings to block inquiry into allegations that the Conservative Party spent over the maximum allowable campaign limits during the 2006 election.
Another example of filibuster in Canada federally came in early 2014 when NDP MP and Deputy Leader David Christopherson filibustered the government 's bill C - 23, the Fair Elections Act at the Procedure and House Affairs Committee. His filibuster lasted several meetings the last of which he spoke for over 8 hours and was done to support his own motion to hold cross country hearings on the bill so MPs could hear what the Canadian public thought of the bill. In the end, given that the Conservative government had a majority at committee, his motion was defeated and the bill passed although with some significant amendments.
The Legislature of the Province of Ontario has witnessed several significant filibusters, although two are notable for the unusual manner by which they were undertaken. The first was an effort on May 6, 1991, by Mike Harris, later premier but then leader of the opposition Progressive Conservatives, to derail the implementation of the budget tabled by the NDP government under premier Bob Rae. The tactic involved the introduction of Bill 95, the title of which contained the names of every lake, river and stream in the province. Between the reading of the title by the proposing MPP, and the subsequent obligatory reading of the title by the clerk of the chamber, this filibuster occupied the entirety of the day 's session until adjournment. To prevent this particular tactic to be used again, changes were eventually made to the Standing Orders to limit the time allocated each day to the introduction of bills to 30 minutes.
A second high - profile and uniquely implemented filibuster in the Ontario Legislature occurred in April, 1997, where the Ontario New Democratic Party, then in opposition, tried to prevent the governing Progressive Conservatives ' Bill 103 from taking effect. To protest the Tory government 's legislation that would amalgamate the municipalities of Metro Toronto into the "megacity '' of Toronto, the small NDP caucus introduced 11,500 amendments to the megacity bill, created on computers with mail merge functionality. Each amendment would name a street in the proposed city, and provide that public hearings be held into the megacity with residents of the street invited to participate. The Ontario Liberal Party also joined the filibuster with a smaller series of amendments; a typical Liberal amendment would give a historical designation to a named street. The NDP then added another series of over 700 amendments, each proposing a different date for the bill to come into force.
The filibuster began on April 2 with the Abbeywood Trail amendment and occupied the legislature day and night, the members alternating in shifts. On April 4, exhausted and often sleepy government members inadvertently let one of the NDP amendments pass, and the handful of residents of Cafon Court in Etobicoke were granted the right to a public consultation on the bill, although the government subsequently nullified this with an amendment of its own. On April 6, with the alphabetical list of streets barely into the Es, Speaker Chris Stockwell ruled that there was no need for the 220 words identical in each amendment to be read aloud each time, only the street name. With a vote still needed on each amendment, Zorra Street was not reached until April 8. The Liberal amendments were then voted down one by one, eventually using a similar abbreviated process, and the filibuster finally ended on April 11.
An ironic example of filibustering occurred when the Liberal Party of Newfoundland and Labrador reportedly had "nothing else to do in the House of Assembly '' and debated between only themselves about their own budget after both the Conservative and NDP party indicated either their support for the bill or intent to vote.
On 28 October 1897, Dr. Otto Lecher, Delegate for Brunn, spoke continuously for twelve hours before the Abgeordnetenhaus ("House of Delegates '') of the Reichsrat ("Imperial Council '') of Austria, to block action on the "Ausgleich '' with Hungary, which was due for renewal. Mark Twain was present, and described the speech and the political context in his essay "Stirring Times in Austria ''.
In the Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly, Independent member Dr Ahrn Palley staged a similar filibuster against the Law and Order Maintenance Bill on 22 November 1960, although this took the form of moving a long series of amendments to the Bill, and therefore consisted of multiple individual speeches interspersed with comments from other Members. Palley kept the Assembly sitting from 8 PM to 12: 30 PM the following day.
In the Senate of the Philippines, Roseller Lim of the Nacionalista Party held out the longest filibuster in Philippine Senate history. On the election for the President of the Senate of the Philippines in April 1963, he stood on the podium for more than 18 hours to wait for party - mate Alejandro Almendras who was to arrive from the United States. The Nacionalistas, who comprised exactly half of the Senate, wanted to prevent the election of Ferdinand Marcos to the Senate Presidency. Prohibited from even going to the comfort room, he had to relieve in his pants until Almendras ' arrival. He voted for party - mate Eulogio Rodriguez just as Almendras arrived, and had to be carried off via stretcher out of the session hall due to exhaustion. However, Almendras voted for Marcos, and the latter wrested the Senate Presidency from the Nacionalistas after more than a decade of control.
On December 16, 2010, Werner Kogler of the Austrian Green Party gave his speech before the budget committee, criticizing the failings of the budget and the governing parties (Social Democratic Party and Austrian People 's Party) in the last years. The filibuster lasted for 12 hours and 42 minutes (starting at 13: 18, and speaking until 2: 00 in the morning), thus breaking the previous record held by his party - colleague Madeleine Petrovic (10 hours and 35 minutes on March 11, 1993), after which the standing orders had been changed, so speaking time was limited to 20 minutes. However, it did n't keep Kogler from giving his speech.
The filibuster is a powerful legislative device in the United States Senate. Senate rules permit a senator or senators to speak for as long as they wish and on any topic they choose, unless "three - fifths of the Senators duly chosen and sworn '' (usually 60 out of 100 senators) bring debate to a close by invoking cloture under Senate Rule XXII. Even if a filibuster attempt is unsuccessful, the process takes floor time. Defenders call the filibuster "The Soul of the Senate. ''
It is not part of the US Constitution, becoming theoretically possible with a change of Senate rules only in 1806, and never being used until 1837. Rarely used for much of the Senate 's first two centuries, it was strengthened in the 1970s and in recent years, the majority has preferred to avoid filibusters by moving to other business when a filibuster is threatened and attempts to achieve cloture have failed. As a result, in recent decades this has come to mean that all major legislation (apart from budgets) now requires a 60 % majority to pass.
Under current Senate rules, any modification or limitation of the filibuster would be a rule change that itself could be filibustered, with two - thirds of those senators present and voting (as opposed to the normal three - fifths of those sworn) needing to vote to break the filibuster. However, under Senate precedents, a simple majority can (and has) acted to limit the practice by overruling decisions of the chair. The removal or substantial limitation of the filibuster by a simple majority, rather than a rule change, is called the constitutional option by proponents, and the nuclear option by opponents.
On November 21, 2013, the Democratic controlled Senate voted 52 to 48 to require only a majority vote to end a filibuster of all executive and judicial nominees, excluding Supreme Court nominees, rather than the 3 / 5 of votes previously required. On April 6, 2017, the Republican controlled Senate voted 52 to 48 to require only a majority vote to end a filibuster of Supreme Court nominees. A 3 / 5 supermajority is still required to end filibusters on legislation.
Only 13 state legislatures have a filibuster:
In the United States House of Representatives, the filibuster (the right to unlimited debate) was used until 1842, when a permanent rule limiting the duration of debate was created. The disappearing quorum was a tactic used by the minority until Speaker Thomas Brackett Reed eliminated it in 1890. As the membership of the House grew much larger than the Senate, the House had acted earlier to control floor debate and the delay and blocking of floor votes.
In France, in August 2006, the left - wing opposition submitted 137,449 amendments to the proposed law bringing the share in Gaz de France owned by the French state from 80 % to 34 % in order to allow for the merger between Gaz de France and Suez. Normal parliamentary procedure would require 10 years to vote on all the amendments.
The French constitution gives the government two options to defeat such a filibuster. The first one was originally the use of the article 49 paragraph 3 procedure, according to which the law was adopted except if a majority is reached on a non-confidence motion (a reform of July 2008 resulted in this power being restricted to budgetary measures only, plus one time each ordinary session -- i.e. from October to June -- on any bill. Before this reform, article 49, 3 was frequently used, especially when the government was short a majority in the Assemblée nationale to support the text but still enough to avoid a non-confidence vote). The second one is the article 44 paragraph 3 through which the government can force a global vote on all amendments it did not approve or submit itself.
In the end, the government did not have to use either of those procedures. As the parliamentary debate started, the left - wing opposition chose to withdraw all the amendments to allow for the vote to proceed. The "filibuster '' was aborted because the opposition to the privatisation of Gaz de France appeared to lack support amongst the general population. It also appeared that this privatisation law could be used by the left - wing in the presidential election of 2007 as a political argument. Indeed, Nicolas Sarkozy, president of the Union pour un Mouvement Populaire (UMP -- the right wing party), Interior Minister, former Finance Minister and former President, had previously promised that the share owned by the French government in Gaz de France would never go below 70 %.
The first incidence of filibuster in the Legislative Council (LegCo) after the Handover occurred during the second reading of the Provision of Municipal Services (Reorganization) Bill in 1999, which aimed at dissolving the partially elected Urban Council and Regional Council. As the absence of some pro-Establishment legislators would mean an inadequate support for the passing of the bill, the Pro-establishment Camp filibustered along with Michael Suen, the then - Secretary for Constitutional Affairs, the voting of the bill was delayed to the next day and that the absentees could cast their votes. Though the filibuster was criticised by the pro-democracy camp, Lau Kong - wah of the Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong (DAB) defended their actions, saying "it (a filibuster) is totally acceptable in a parliamentary assembly. ''
Legislators of the Pro-democracy Camp filibustered during a debate about financing the construction of the Guangzhou - Shenzhen - Hong Kong Express Rail Link by raising many questions on very minor issues, delaying the passing of the bill from 18 December 2009 to 16 January 2010. The Legislative Council Building was surrounded by thousands of anti-high - speed rail protesters during the course of the meetings.
In 2012, Albert Chan and Wong Yuk - man of People Power submitted a total of 1306 amendments to the Legislative Council (Amendment) Bill, by which the government attempted to forbid lawmakers from participating in by - elections after their resignation. The bill was a response to the so - called ' Five Constituencies Referendum, in which 5 lawmakers from the pro-democracy camp resigned and then joined the by - election, claiming that it would affirm the public 's support to push forward the electoral reform. The pro-democracy camp strongly opposed the bill, saying it was seen a deprivation of the citizens ' political rights. As a result of the filibuster, the LegCo carried on multiple overnight debates on the amendments. In the morning of 17 May 2012, the President of the LegCo (Jasper Tsang) terminated the debate, citing Article 92 of the Rules of Procedure of LegCo: In any matter not provided for in these Rules of Procedure, the practice and procedure to be followed in the Council shall be such as may be decided by the President who may, if he thinks fit, be guided by the practice and procedure of other legislatures. In the end, all motions to amend the bill were defeated and the Bill was passed.
To ban filibuster, Ip Kwok - him of the DAB sought to limit each member to move only one motion, by amending the procedures of the Finance Committee and its two subcommittees in 2013. All 27 members from pan-democracy camp submitted 1.9 million amendments. The Secretariat estimated that 408 man - months (each containing 156 working hours) were needed to vet the facts and accuracy of the motions, and, if all amendments were admitted by the Chairman, the voting time would take 23,868 two - hour meetings.
As of 2017, filibustering is still an ongoing practice in Hong Kong by the pan-democratic party, but at the same time, the pan-democratic party are undergoing huge amounts of fire for making filibustering a norm in the Legislative Council
In Italy, filibustering has ancient traditions and is expressed overall with the proposition of legal texts on which interventions take place.
In Iranian oil nationalisation, the filibustering speech of Hossain Makki, the National Front deputy took four days that made the pro-British and pro-royalists in Majlis (Iran) inactive. To forestall a vote, the opposition, headed by Hossein Makki, conducted a filibuster. For four days Makki talked about the country 's tortuous experience with AIOC and the shortcomings of the bill. Four days later when the term ended the debate had reached no conclusion. The fate of the bill remained to be decided by the next Majlis.
South Korean opposition lawmakers started a filibuster on February 23, 2016 to stall the Anti-Terrorism bill, which they claim will give too much power to the National Intelligence Service and result in invasions of citizens ' privacy. As of March 2, the filibuster completed with a total of 193 hours, and the passing of the bill. South Korea 's 20th legislative elections were held 2 months after the filibuster, and the opposite party the Minjoo Party of Korea won more seats than the ruling party the Saenuri Party.
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you dont think i'm worth a dollar but i feel like a millionaire | Songs for the Deaf - wikipedia
Songs for the Deaf is the third studio album by American rock band Queens of the Stone Age. It was released on August 27, 2002 through Interscope Records. The album features Foo Fighters and former Nirvana member Dave Grohl on drums. It was also the last studio album to feature Nick Oliveri on bass. Like their other albums, it has a large number of guest musicians, a signature of the band 's releases.
Songs for the Deaf is loosely considered a concept album, taking the listener on a drive through the California desert from Los Angeles to Joshua Tree while tuning into radio stations from towns along the way, such as Banning and Chino Hills. The album garnered critical acclaim, and the band earned its first gold record certification in the United States. One million copies of the album were sold in Europe, earning the band a platinum certification from the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) in 2008.
Songs for the Deaf was the first Queens of the Stone Age album that featured Dave Grohl of Nirvana and Foo Fighters on drums, who also toured with the band. He replaced the previous drummer, Gene Trautmann, who started working on other projects. Grohl had been a keen admirer of Queens of the Stone Age since the band opened for Foo Fighters on tour and originally wanted to appear on Rated R. He joined Queens of the Stone Age in October 2001 when he received a phone call from Josh Homme with whom he had been friends since 1992, while Homme was the guitarist for Kyuss. Grohl admitted that he had not drummed for a long time and added that fronting a band was "tiring ''. Grohl put Foo Fighters on temporary hiatus, delaying their upcoming album One by One to October 22, 2002 because of touring duties in support of the album. Grohl 's first performance with the band occurred at March 7, 2002 at The Troubadour, Los Angeles, and his last performance was at the Fuji Rock Festival on July 28, 2002. He returned to Foo Fighters soon after, with Danzig drummer Joey Castillo eventually announced as his long - term replacement in August 2002.
Songs for the Deaf marks the last appearances on a Queens of the Stone Age record of former members Brendon McNichol (lap steel), Gene Trautmann (drums), and core member, bassist / vocalist Nick Oliveri, who was fired following the album 's touring cycle. The album also included the first musical contribution to a Queens of the Stone Age album by multi-instrumentalists Natasha Shneider and Alain Johannes. Shneider and Johannes, alongside Songs for the Deaf touring recruits Castillo and Troy Van Leeuwen of Failure and A Perfect Circle would subsequently become full - time Queens of the Stone Age members and contribute to the follow - up album Lullabies to Paralyze, released in 2005.
Another change in personnel came with the arrival of producer Eric Valentine, who had previously worked on a pair of Dwarves albums with Oliveri. Valentine was a requirement by Interscope and did not do his job according to Homme, who commented that "(Valentine) just recorded it actually, it says production, he was only there to record the beginning of it. '' Valentine did sessions with the band during the initial recording period in October and November 2001, but they were unhappy with his work and later re-recorded the album with Chris Goss assisting in spring 2002.
Rounding out the core recording lineup of Homme, Oliveri, and Grohl, was singer / songwriter Mark Lanegan, formerly of Screaming Trees, a band that Homme had toured with previously. Lanegan joined the band as a full - time member in 2001 after having guested on the band 's previous album, Rated R, and provided additional songwriting and lyrics to the group, in addition to lead vocals on several songs.
In September 2002, Josh Homme explained the band 's goals with the release of the album:
In the same month, Nick Oliveri explained the band 's aims in an interview with retail company HMV:
Between them, Homme and Oliveri had different opinions on the usage of fake radio excerpts between tracks on the album, the former believing it gave the album "fluidity ''. According to Oliveri, they are a jibe at "how a lot of stations play the same thing over and over. We do n't get played on the radio, so I figure we should talk shit about them. ''
Several songs that appeared on the album were re-worked forms of tracks previously recorded and released in The Desert Sessions, a side project of Josh Homme with various guest collaborators. "You Think I Ai n't Worth a Dollar, But I Feel Like a Millionaire '' was the opening track of Volume 5: Poetry for the Masses (Sea Shed Shit Head by the She Sore), with vocals originally performed by Mario Lalli instead of Oliveri. "Hangin ' Tree '' first appeared on Volume 7: Gypsy Marches. Also, both "A Song for the Deaf '' and "Go with the Flow '' were previously performed as early as 2001 with the former having very different lyrics and vocals completely by Mark Lanegan. The main riff for "No One Knows '' comes from another Desert Sessions track, "Cold Sore Superstars ''.
The album was initially planned for release on August 13, 2002, but was eventually postponed for two weeks.
The cover art for the U.S. double LP version of the album is different from the CD version, featuring a red Q (with a sperm cell as the line in the Q and an egg cell as the circle) on a black background with no other text. It was released on red vinyl. The UK vinyl version cover is the same as the CD cover. The dashboard / interior with superimposed logos is that of a Fiat 124 Sport Spider, a 1960s -- 1980s mass market Italian sports car. The person on the album disc is musician Dave Catching, who performs on the album.
Both the CD and LP cover have a Parental Advisory seal on most copies, due to the word "fuck '' appearing in the title track "A Song for the Deaf '' and "Six Shooter '', as well as for the violent lyrics of the latter track.
There were also three different album covers that were made for the CD version of Songs for the Deaf. All of the interior artwork for each of the three versions is the same, but there were covers printed in red, magenta, and orange. The most common copy of the album sleeve is the red cover.
Songs for the Deaf was Queens of the Stone Age 's breakout album and garnered the band international recognition. Upon its worldwide release in late August 2002, the album peaked at number 17 on the Billboard 200 album chart.
Songs for the Deaf received critical acclaim and is often cited as one of the band 's greatest albums to date. On Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 from aggregated critic reviews, Songs for the Deaf is assigned a score of 89, indicating "universal acclaim '', making the album the third highest - rated on the site from 2002. Josh Tyrangiel of Entertainment Weekly called it "the year 's best hard - rock album '', giving it an A. Splendid said "the bottom line is that QOTSA turns in another genre - demolishing, hard - as - titanium album in Songs for the Deaf. This is not your father 's metal. It 's better. '' Mojo listed the album as the year 's third best. Kludge ranked it at number six on their list of best albums of 2002. NME placed the album as the sixth best, with the three singles each making the magazine 's "Tracks of the Year '' list over the course of 2002 / 2003. Kerrang! rated the album at number 1 on its "Best albums of 2002 '' list. Music critic Steven Hyden called the album the greatest hard - rock record of the 21st century.
The album met with great success earning the band 's first gold certification in the US on January 27, 2003, shifting over 500,000 copies, as well as platinum certification in the UK on September 20, 2002, with sales exceeding 100,000 of units sold. and platinum status in Canada. As of June 2007 the total amount of sold copies in the US is estimated at 1,186,000 according to Nielsen Soundscan.
The album received two Best Hard Rock Performance Grammy nominations for singles "No One Knows '' (2002), and "Go with the Flow '' (2003).
To celebrate the twentieth anniversary of its "Hottest 100 '' poll, Australian radio station Triple J ran a "Hottest 100 of the last 20 years '' poll in June 2013. Songs that were released between 1994 and 2013 were eligible for the poll and "No One Knows '' was voted into eleventh position.
The information regarding accolades attributed to Songs for the Deaf is adapted from Acclaimed Music.
All tracks written by Joshua Homme and Nick Oliveri, except where noted. Lead vocals by Joshua Homme except where noted.
The following people contributed to Songs for the Deaf:
The songs on Songs for the Deaf are interluded by staged bits of radio chatter with guest DJs. In order of appearance:
shipments figures based on certification alone
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in what country other than china and taiwan is chinese the most commonly-spoken language | List of territorial entities where Chinese is an official language - wikipedia
The following is a list of territorial entities where Chinese is an official language. While those countries or territories that designate Chinese as an official language use the term "Chinese '', as Chinese is a group of related language varieties, of which many are not mutually intelligible, in the context of the spoken language such designations are usually understood as designations of specific varieties of Chinese, namely Cantonese, Taiwanese Hakka and Standard Mandarin. In the context of the written language, written modern standard Chinese is usually understood to be the official standard, though different territories use different standard scripts, namely Traditional Chinese characters and Simplified Chinese characters.
Today, Chinese has an official language status in five countries / regions or territories. In China it is the sole official language as Mandarin, while in Singapore (as Mandarin) it is one of the four official languages, while in Taiwan (as Mandarin) it is a co-official language alongside with Taiwanese Hakka and Formosan languages. In Hong Kong and Macau it is a co-official language as Cantonese, alongside English and Portuguese respectively. Chinese is also an official language in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and also one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Chinese was added as an official language in the United Nations in 1973, when the General Assembly made Chinese a working language.
Nearly every historic Chinese dynasty and state has had some form of Chinese as an official language. The spoken language of bureaucrats and officials, also known as Mandarin has usually been based on the local speech of capital city. Historical states associated with Korea, Japan, and Vietnam have also used Classical Chinese as an official written language, but for inter-personal communication used their respective native languages. Other states and countries that have used written or spoken Chinese in an official capacity include, Manchukuo, Ryukyu Kingdom and Lanfang Republic.
As special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau list the ambiguous "Chinese '' as their official language, although in practice, the regionally spoken Cantonese dialect is used by the government as the official variant of Chinese rather than Mandarin as on the mainland.
Cantonese is also highly influential in the southern Chinese province of Guangdong, where the language originated. Despite Mandarin 's status as the official language of China, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television (SARFT) has allowed local television and other media in Guangdong Province to be broadcast in Cantonese since 1988 in order to countermeasure against Hong Kong influence. Meanwhile, usage of the country 's other dialects in media is rigorously restricted by the SARFT, with permission from national or local authorities being required for a dialect to be the primary programming language at radio and television stations. Despite its unique standing relative to other Chinese dialects, Cantonese has also recently been targeted by the SARFT in attempts to curb its usage on local television in Guangdong. This created mass demonstrations in 2010 that resulted in the eventual rejection of the plans.
Language within Hakka dialect group that are spoken in Taiwan was made co-official languages in December 29, 2017.
While the Mandarin dialect group consists of closely related varieties of Chinese spoken natively across most of northern and southwestern China, a form based on the Beijing dialect has been established as the national standard and is official in the mainland China, Singapore and Taiwan. However, in the latter two jurisdictions, local languages have influenced the spoken vernacular form of Mandarin.
In China, the public usage of varieties other than Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is officially discouraged by the government and nearly all education and media is conducted in the standard variant, with a notable exception being Cantonese in Guangdong media and public transportation. As a result, younger populations are increasingly losing knowledge of their local dialects. However, in recent years, there has been limited activity in reintroducing local dialects at schools through cultural programs and broadcasting restrictions on dialects have been somewhat slightly uplifted.
Although Mandarin and Hakka are the official variants of Chinese in Taiwan, Taiwanese Hokkien is widely spoken and used in media. Additionally, they are also taught at the primary school level and are used in public transportation announcements. There is also a thriving literary scene for both Taiwanese and Hakka alongside Mandarin. In 2002 the Taiwan Solidarity Union proposed making Taiwanese an co-official language, but this was criticized by both Blue and Green politicians as promoting Hoklo chauvinism at the expense of Hakka and the Aboriginal language.
In Singapore, the public usage of varieties other than Standard Mandarin is discouraged as in China. The Singaporean government has actively promoted the Speak Mandarin Campaign (SMC) since the 1980s and forbids non-cable broadcasting and Chinese language medium of instruction in non-Mandarin varieties. However, since the mid-1990s, there has been a relaxation in allowing non-Mandarin broadcasting via cable networks and a massive following of Hong Kong television dramas and pop culture, which are in Cantonese.
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what book is field of dreams based on | Shoeless Joe (novel) - wikipedia
Shoeless Joe is a magic realist novel by Canadian author W.P. Kinsella. It became much better known due to its film adaptation, Field of Dreams. The book was written as Kinsella attended a writers workshop in Iowa, and decided to incorporate the stories he told about the Black Sox Scandal, imagining if Shoeless Joe Jackson came back to the same city Kinsella was living in, Iowa City.
Ray Kinsella lives and farms in Iowa where he grows corn with his wife Annie and their five - year - old daughter Karin. Kinsella is obsessed with the beauty and history of American baseball, specifically the plight of his hero, Shoeless Joe Jackson, and the Black Sox Scandal of the 1919 World Series. When he hears a voice telling him to build a baseball field in the midst of his corn crop in order to give his hero a chance at redemption, he blindly follows instructions. The field becomes a conduit to the spirits of baseball legends. Soon, Kinsella is off on a cross-country trip to ease the pain of another hero, the reclusive writer J.D. Salinger, as part of a journey the Philadelphia Inquirer called "not so much about baseball as it 's about dreams, magic, life, and what is quintessentially American. ''
Shoeless Joe was the winner of the 1982 Books in Canada First Novel Award and a Houghton Mifflin Literary Fellowship. In 2011, the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame awarded Kinsella the Jack Graney Award for a significant contribution to the game of baseball in Canada through a life 's work or a singular outstanding achievement.
Shoeless Joe was later adapted into the 1989 film Field of Dreams by Phil Alden Robinson. The original working title of the film was Shoeless Joe, like the book. The original title of the book was Dream Field, but the publisher renamed it Shoeless Joe.
W.P. Kinsella, who had never met Salinger, created a wholly imagined character (aside from his being a recluse) based on the author of The Catcher in the Rye, a book that had great meaning to him when he was a young man. To get a feel for Salinger, he re-read his body of work.
"I made sure to make him a nice character so that he could n't sue me. ''
In addition to having a character named "Ray Kinsella '' in the short story "A Young Girl in 1941 with No Waist at All, '' Salinger had also used the surname in The Catcher in the Rye (Holden Caulfield 's friend Richard Kinsella).
Known for his litigiousness, Salinger contacted Kinsella 's publisher via his attorneys to express outrage over having been portrayed in Shoeless Joe and intimated he would sue should the character "J.D. Salinger '' appear in any other medium, should Shoeless Joe be adapted.
In the novel Shoeless Joe, Ray Kinsella seeks out J.D. Salinger, although in the film this character was renamed Terence Mann (and was changed to a black man by the casting of James Earl Jones) as the movie producers were worried over being sued by Salinger. The producers believed that it was not significant to jettison Salinger, as they figured only 15 % of the potential audience would know who the author was. Kinsella told Macleans Magazine in a 2010 interview on the death of Salinger that many of the book 's readers believe that Salinger is a wholly fictional character.
Kinsella denied that Salinger, as a writer, had any real influence on his own writing.
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when do homologous chromosomes cross over in meiosis | Chromosomal crossover - wikipedia
Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between 2 homologous chromosomes non-sister chromatids that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis during a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins before the synaptonemal complex develops and is not completed until near the end of prophase I. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other chromosome.
Crossing over was described, in theory, by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He relied on the discovery of Frans Alfons Janssens who described the phenomenon in 1909 and had called it "chiasmatypie ''. The term chiasma is linked, if not identical, to chromosomal crossover. Morgan immediately saw the great importance of Janssens ' cytological interpretation of chiasmata to the experimental results of his research on the heredity of Drosophila. The physical basis of crossing over was first demonstrated by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.
The linked frequency of crossing over between two gene loci (markers) is the crossing - over value. For fixed set of genetic and environmental conditions, recombination in a particular region of a linkage structure (chromosome) tends to be constant and the same is then true for the crossing - over value which is used in the production of genetic maps.
There are two popular and overlapping theories that explain the origins of crossing - over, coming from the different theories on the origin of meiosis. The first theory rests upon the idea that meiosis evolved as another method of DNA repair, and thus crossing - over is a novel way to replace possibly damaged sections of DNA. The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating diversity. In 1931, Barbara McClintock discovered a triploid maize plant. She made key findings regarding corn 's karyotype, including the size and shape of the chromosomes. McClintock used the prophase and metaphase stages of mitosis to describe the morphology of corn 's chromosomes, and later showed the first ever cytological demonstration of crossing over in meiosis. Working with student Harriet Creighton, McClintock also made significant contributions to the early understanding of codependency of linked genes.
Crossing over and DNA repair are very similar processes, which utilize many of the same protein complexes. In her report, "The Significance of Responses of the Genome to Challenge '', McClintock studied corn to show how corn 's genome would change itself to overcome threats to its survival. She used 450 self - pollinated plants that received from each parent a chromosome with a ruptured end. She used modified patterns of gene expression on different sectors of leaves of her corn plants show that transposable elements ("controlling elements '') hide in the genome, and their mobility allows them to alter the action of genes at different loci. These elements can also restructure the genome, anywhere from a few nucleotides to whole segments of chromosome. Recombinases and primases lay a foundation of nucleotides along the DNA sequence. One such particular protein complex that is conserved between processes is RAD51, a well conserved recombinase protein that has been shown to be crucial in DNA repair as well as cross over. Several other genes in D. melanogaster have been linked as well to both processes, by showing that mutants at these specific loci can not undergo DNA repair or crossing over. Such genes include mei - 41, mei - 9, hdm, spnA, and brca2. This large group of conserved genes between processes supports the theory of a close evolutionary relationship. Furthermore, DNA repair and crossover have been found to favor similar regions on chromosomes. In an experiment using radiation hybrid mapping on wheat 's (Triticum aestivum L.) 3B chromosome, crossing over and DNA repair were found to occur predominantly in the same regions. Furthermore, crossing over has been correlated to occur in response to stressful, and likely DNA damaging, conditions
The process of bacterial transformation also shares many similarities with chromosomal cross over, particularly in the formation of overhangs on the sides of the broken DNA strand, allowing for the annealing of a new strand. Bacterial transformation itself has been linked to DNA repair many times. The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating genetic diversity.. Thus, this evidence suggests that it is a question of whether cross over is linked to DNA repair or bacterial transformation, as the two do not appear to be mutually exclusive. It is likely that crossing over may have evolved from bacterial transformation, which in turn developed from DNA repair, thus explaining the links between all three processes.
Meiotic recombination may be initiated by double - stranded breaks that are introduced into the DNA by exposure to DNA damaging agents or the Spo11 protein. One or more exonucleases then digest the 5 ' ends generated by the double - stranded breaks to produce 3 ' single - stranded DNA tails (see diagram). The meiosis - specific recombinase Dmc1 and the general recombinase Rad51 coat the single - stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments. The recombinases catalyze invasion of the opposite chromatid by the single - stranded DNA from one end of the break. Next, the 3 ' end of the invading DNA primes DNA synthesis, causing displacement of the complementary strand, which subsequently anneals to the single - stranded DNA generated from the other end of the initial double - stranded break. The structure that results is a cross-strand exchange, also known as a Holliday junction. The contact between two chromatids that will soon undergo crossing - over is known as a chiasma. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral structure which can be ' pulled ' by other recombinases, moving it along the four - stranded structure.
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero - oligomeric structure (heterodimer) in yeast and humans. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The MSH4 / MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products. An MSH4 hypomorphic (partially functional) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30 % genome wide reduction in crossover numbers, and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes. Nevertheless, this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non-exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently. Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs.
The grasshopper Melanoplus femur - rubrum was exposed to an acute dose of X-rays during each individual stage of meiosis, and chiasma frequency was measured. Irradiation during the leptotene - zygotene stages of meiosis (that is, prior to the pachytene period in which crossover recombination occurs) was found to increase subsequent chiasma frequency. Similarly, in the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus, exposure to X-irradiation during the zygotene - early pachytene stages caused a significant increase in mean cell chiasma frequency. Chiasma frequency was scored at the later diplotene - diakinesis stages of meiosis. These results suggest that X-rays induce DNA damages that are repaired by a crossover pathway leading to chiasma formation.
In most eukaryotes, a cell carries two versions of each gene, each referred to as an allele. Each parent passes on one allele to each offspring. An individual gamete inherits a complete haploid complement of alleles on chromosomes that are independently selected from each pair of chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate. Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes.
Recombination results in a new arrangement of maternal and paternal alleles on the same chromosome. Although the same genes appear in the same order, some alleles are different. In this way, it is theoretically possible to have any combination of parental alleles in an offspring, and the fact that two alleles appear together in one offspring does not have any influence on the statistical probability that another offspring will have the same combination. This principle of "independent assortment '' of genes is fundamental to genetic inheritance. However, the frequency of recombination is actually not the same for all gene combinations. This leads to the notion of "genetic distance '', which is a measure of recombination frequency averaged over a (suitably large) sample of pedigrees. Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart. This concept is applied when searching for a gene that may cause a particular disease. This is done by comparing the occurrence of a specific DNA sequence with the appearance of a disease. When a high correlation between the two is found, it is likely that the appropriate gene sequence is really closer.
Crossovers typically occur between homologous regions of matching chromosomes, but similarities in sequence and other factors can result in mismatched alignments. Most DNA is composed of base pair sequences repeated very large numbers of times. These repetitious segments, often referred to as satellites, are fairly homogenous among a species. During DNA replication, each strand of DNA is used as a template for the creation of new strands using a partially - conserved mechanism; proper functioning of this process results in two identical, paired chromosomes, often called sisters. Sister chromatid crossover events are known to occur at a rate of several crossover events per cell per division in eukaryotes. Most of these events involve an exchange of equal amounts of genetic information, but unequal exchanges may occur due to sequence mismatch. These are referred to by a variety of names, including non-homologous crossover, unequal crossover, and unbalanced recombination, and result in an insertion or deletion of genetic information into the chromosome. While rare compared to homologous crossover events, these mutations are drastic, affecting many loci at the same time. They are considered the main driver behind the generation of gene duplications and are a general source of mutation within the genome.
The specific causes of non-homologous crossover events are unknown, but several influential factors are known to increase the likelihood of an unequal crossover. One common vector leading to unbalanced recombination is the repair of double - strand breaks (DSBs). DSBs are often repaired using non-homologous end joining, a process which involves invasion of a template strand by the DSB strand (see figure below). Nearby homologous regions of the template strand are often used for repair, which can give rise to either insertions or deletions in the genome if a non-homologous but complementary part of the template strand is used. Sequence similarity is a major player in crossover -- crossover events are more likely to occur in long regions of close identity on a gene. This means that any section of the genome with long sections of repetitive DNA is prone to crossover events.
The presence of transposable elements is another influential element of non-homologous crossover. Repetitive regions of code characterize transposable elements; complementary but non-homologous regions are ubiquitous within transposons. Because chromosomal regions composed of transposons have large quantities of identical, repetitious code in a condensed space, it is thought that transposon regions undergoing a crossover event are more prone to erroneous complementary match - up; that is to say, a section of a chromosome containing a lot of identical sequences, should it undergo a crossover event, is less certain to match up with a perfectly homologous section of complementary code and more prone to binding with a section of code on a slightly different part of the chromosome. This results in unbalanced recombination, as genetic information may be either inserted or deleted into the new chromosome, depending on where the recombination occurred.
While the motivating factors behind unequal recombination remain obscure, elements of the physical mechanism have been elucidated. Mismatch repair (MMR) proteins, for instance, are a well - known regulatory family of proteins, responsible for regulating mismatched sequences of DNA during replication and escape regulation. The operative goal of MMRs is the restoration of the parental genotype. One class of MMR in particular, MutSβ, is known to initiate the correction of insertion - deletion mismatches of up to 16 nucleotides. Little is known about the excision process in eukaryotes, but E. coli excisions involve the cleaving of a nick on either the 5 ' or 3 ' strand, after which DNA helicase and DNA polymerase III bind and generate single - stranded proteins, which are digested by exonucleases and attached to the strand by ligase. Multiple MMR pathways have been implicated in the maintenance of complex organism genome stability, and any of many possible malfunctions in the MMR pathway result in DNA editing and correction errors. Therefore, while it is not certain precisely what mechanisms lead to errors of non-homologous crossover, it is extremely likely that the MMR pathway is involved.
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what happen if we do not use default gateway | Default gateway - wikipedia
A default gateway is the node in a computer network using the Internet Protocol Suite that serves as the forwarding host (router) to other networks when no other route specification matches the destination IP address of a packet.
A gateway is a network node that serves as an access point to another network, often involving not only a change of addressing, but also a different networking technology. More narrowly defined, a router merely forwards packets between networks with different network prefixes. The networking software stack of each computer contains a routing table that specifies which interface is used for transmission and which router on the network is responsible for forwarding to a specific set of addresses. If none of these forwarding rules is appropriate for a given destination address, the default gateway is chosen as the router of last resort. The default gateway is specified by the configuration setting often called default route.
In a home or small office environment, the device, such as a DSL router or cable router that connects the local network to the Internet serves as the default gateway for all network devices.
Enterprise network systems may require many internal network segments. A device wishing to communicate with a host on the public Internet, for example, forwards the packet to the default gateway for its network segment. This router also has a default route configured to a device on an adjacent network, one hop closer to the public Network.
The following are IP addresses that might be used with an office network that consists of six hosts plus a router. The six hosts addresses are:
The router 's inside address is:
The network has a subnet mask of:
The address range assignable to hosts is from 192.168. 4.1 to 192.168. 4.254. TCP / IP defines the addresses 192.168. 4.0 and 192.168. 4.255 for special functions.
The office 's hosts send packets to addresses within this range directly, by resolving the destination IP address into a MAC address with the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) sequence and then encapsulates the IP packet into a MAC frame addressed to the destination host.
A packet addressed outside of this range, for this example, addressed to 192.168. 12.3, can not travel directly to the destination. Instead it must be sent to the default gateway for further routing to their ultimate destination. In this example, the default gateway uses the IP address 192.168. 4.1, which is resolved into a MAC address with ARP in the usual way. The destination IP address remains 192.168. 12.3, but the next - hop MAC address is that of the gateway, rather than of the ultimate destination.
In another example, a network with three routers and three hosts is connected to the Internet through Router1. The hosts ' addresses are:
Router1:
Router2:
Router3:
Network mask in all networks: 255.255. 255.0 (/ 24 in CIDR notation). If the routers do not use a routing protocol to discover which network each router is connected to, then the routing table of each router must be set up.
Router1
Router2
Router3
Router2 manages its attached networks and default gateway; router 3 does the same; router 1 manages all routes within the internal networks.
Accessing internal resources If PC2 (172.16. 1.100) needs to access PC3 (192.168. 1.100), since PC2 has no route to 192.168. 1.100 it will send packets for PC3 to its default gateway (router2). Router2 also has no route to PC3, and it will forward the packets to its default gateway (router1). Router1 has a route for this network (192.168. 1.0 / 24) so router1 will forward the packets to router3, which will deliver the packets to PC3; reply packets will follow the same route to PC2.
Accessing external resources If any of the computers try to access a webpage on the Internet, like http://en.wikipedia.org/, the destination will first be resolved to an IP address by using DNS - resolving. The IP - address could be 91.198. 174.2. In this example, none of the internal routers know the route to that host, so they will forward the packet through router1 's gateway or default route. Every router on the packet 's way to the destination will check whether the packet 's destination IP - address matches any known network routes. If a router finds a match, it will forward the packet through that route; if not, it will send the packet to its own default gateway. Each router encountered on the way will store the packet ID and where it came from so that it can pass the response packet back to the sender. The packet contains source and destination, not all router hops. At last the packet will arrive back to router1, which will check for matching packet ID and route it accordingly through router2 or router3 or directly to PC1 (which was connected in the same network segment as router1).
The packet does n't return If router1 routing table does not have any route to 192.168. 1.0 / 24, and PC3 tries to access a resource outside its own network, then the outgoing routing will work until the reply is fed back to router1. Since the route is unknown to router1, it will go to router1 's default gateway, and never reach router3. In the logs of the resource they will trace the request, but the requestor will never get any information. The packet will die because the TTL - value decreased to less than 1 when it was travelling through the routers, or the router will see that it has a private IP and discard it. This could be discovered by using the Microsoft Windows utility Pathping or MTR on Unix - like operating systems, since the ping will stop at the router which has no route or a wrong route. (Note that some routers will not reply to pinging.)
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how many pro golfers have hit a hole in one | Hole in one - Wikipedia
In golf, a hole in one or hole - in - one (also known as an ace, mostly in American English) is when a ball hit from a tee shot finishes in the cup. This awards the player a score of one for the hole. Holes in one most commonly occur on par 3 holes, the shortest distance holes on a standard size golf course. Longer hitters have also accomplished this feat on longer holes, though nearly all par 4 and par 5 holes are too long for golfers to reach in a single shot. While well known outside of golf and often requiring a well hit shot and significant power, holes in one are considered to also contain an element of luck. As such, they are more common and considered less impressive than other hole accomplishments such as completing a par 5 in two shots (an albatross). As of October 2008, a condor (four under par) hole - in - one on a par 5 hole had been recorded on four occasions, aided by thin air at high altitude, or by cutting the corner on a doglegged or horseshoe - shaped hole.
Holes - in - one ("aces '') are also recorded in disc golf. The current world record for disc golf 's longest hole in one is held by Brent Bell, who set the record at the 2002 Big Sky State Games at Diamond X Disc Golf Course, revered as one of the most difficult and unique courses in the world, located in Billings, Montana.
Holes in one are rare, and, although skill definitely increases the probability, there is a great element of luck involved. It is traditional for a player who has scored a hole in one to buy a round of drinks for everyone at the clubhouse bar.
Among the memorable holes in one, one occurred in the 1973 British Open when at age 71, Gene Sarazen made a hole in one. Earl Dietering of Memphis, Tennessee, 78 years old at the time, is believed to hold the record for the oldest person to make a hole - in - one twice during one round.
During the second round of the 1971 Martini International tournament, held at the Royal Norwich Golf Club in England, John Hudson had two consecutive holes in one. Teeing off, using a 4 - iron, at the par - three, 195 - yard 11th hole, Hudson holed his tee shot for a hole - in - one. At the next hole, the downhill 311 - yard, par - four 12th, and this time using a driver, he once again holed his tee shot, for another ace. This is believed to be the only time a player has scored holes - in - one at consecutive holes in a major professional tournament.
Despite the relative rarity of holes in one, there have been a total of six in Ryder Cup matches. Peter Butler scored the first in 1973 at Muirfield followed by a 20 - year gap before Nick Faldo scored a hole in one in 1993. Two years later, Costantino Rocca and Howard Clark both scored holes in one before an 11 - year gap to 2006 saw Paul Casey and Scott Verplank both hole out in one on the 14th hole.
On August 11, 2016, Justin Rose shot a hole in one during the first round of the golf tournament of the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, which is considered to be the first one in the Olympic history. For the 189 yards 3 - par hole, he used a 7 - iron.
Occasionally special events host a hole in one contest, where prizes as expensive as a new car, or cash awards sometimes reaching $4 million are offered if a contestant records a hole in one. Usually such expensive prizes are backed by an insurance company who offers prize indemnification services. Actuaries at such companies have calculated the chance of an average golfer making a hole in one at approximately 12,500 to 1, and the odds of a tour professional at 2,500 to 1.
As of October 2008, a condor (four under par) hole - in - one on a par 5 hole had been recorded on four occasions, aided by thin air at high altitude, or by cutting the corner on a doglegged or horseshoe - shaped hole. A horseshoe - shaped par 5 hole once enabled a condor hole in one to be achieved with a 3 - iron club, and in theory a hole - in - one could be scored on a horseshoe - shaped par 6 hole, but par 6 holes are exceptionally rare, and so far (as of October 2008) there has not even been a hole - in - two recorded on a par 6. Similar comments apply to par 7 holes. The longest recorded straight drive hole - in - one is believed to be 517 yards or 473 metres, by Mike Crean at the par 5 No. 9 hole at Green Valley Ranch Golf Club in Denver in 2002, aided by the thin air due to the high altitude. None of these four par 5 holes - in - one were achieved during a professional tournament. A condor is also known as a double albatross, or a triple eagle.
Over a period of several years, many U.S. and European media outlets -- including ESPN and the New York Times -- reported that former North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong - il was claimed to have shot five holes in one during his first attempt at playing golf (an alternate version of the story claims North Korean media once reported Kim had shot 18 holes in one). This is explained as a case of the North Korean government assigning supernatural feats of heroism to its leaders as part of an effort to perpetuate a cult of personality. This myth was originally told as fact by a Pyongyang Golf Club professional to Eric Ellis, a reporter for the Australian Financial Review who visited the club in 1994. NK News reports that "informal surveys of North Koreans themselves revealed that no one in Pyongyang was aware of this legendary feat, unless told it by a tourist. '' Richard Seers, a British journalist who played at the Pyongyang Golf Club asked officials there, who revealed it was nothing more than an urban myth.
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what culture served as the inspiration for the renaissance | Renaissance - wikipedia
The Renaissance (UK: / rɪˈneɪsəns /, US: / rɛnəˈsɑːns /) was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of the Modern age.
The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism, derived from the concept of Roman Humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of Protagoras, who said that "Man is the measure of all things. '' This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science and literature. Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of metal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe.
As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th - century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man ''.
The Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time: its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici; and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. Other major centres were northern Italian city - states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, and finally Rome during the Renaissance Papacy.
The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and, in line with general scepticism of discrete periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th - century glorification of the "Renaissance '' and individual culture heroes as "Renaissance men '', questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation. The art historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept of "Renaissance '':
It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the Italian Renaissance has been most vigorously questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization -- historians of economic and social developments, political and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science -- but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art.
Some observers have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance '' from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for classical antiquity, while social and economic historians, especially of the longue durée, have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras, which are linked, as Panofsky observed, "by a thousand ties ''.
The word Renaissance, literally meaning "Rebirth '' in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelet 's 1855 work, Histoire de France. The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.
Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought out in Europe 's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of Antiquity, while the Fall of Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of émigré Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts.
In the revival of neo-Platonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance 's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.
Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been exemplified in the sculpture of Nicola Pisano, Florentine painters led by Masaccio strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspective and light more naturally. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text "De hominis dignitate '' (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible.
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark, play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city - states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution that preceded and financed the Renaissance.
Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th - century Florence, in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265 -- 1321) and Petrarch (1304 -- 1374), as well as the paintings of Giotto di Bondone (1267 -- 1337). Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won). Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins.
During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.
Jules Michelet defined the 16th - century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe 's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.
In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331 -- 1406), Niccolò de ' Niccoli (1364 -- 1437) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380 -- 1459) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero, Lucretius, Livy and Seneca. By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.
Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to Medieval Latin were established in Iberia. Most notably the Toledo School of Translators. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1355 -- 1415) to teach Greek in Florence. This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from Basilios Bessarion to Leo Allatius.
The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth - century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe. Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire 's heartland.
Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114 -- 1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338 -- 1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as the Matteo Palmieri (1406 -- 1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time ''.
Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty. The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement. Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe 's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.
One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th - century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife. It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art. However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance 's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.
The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence 's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically.
The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40 % in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400. Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives.
The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as typhus and syphilis, target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.
The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence 's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.
It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de ' Medici (1449 -- 1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti. Works by Neri di Bicci, Botticelli, da Vinci and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned additionally by the convent di San Donato agli Scopeti of the Augustinians order in Florence.
The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo de ' Medici came to power -- indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men '' were born there by chance: Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men '' were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.
In some ways humanism was not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of ' Studia Humanitatis ', the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome ''. Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind ''.
Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico della Mirandola wrote the "manifesto '' of the Renaissance, the Oration on the Dignity of Man, a vibrant defence of thinking. Matteo Palmieri (1406 -- 1475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile ("On Civic Life ''; printed 1528), which advocated civic humanism, and for his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. Palmieri drew on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La città di vita, but an earlier work, Della vita civile (On Civic Life), is more wide - ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest.
The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation. This ideology was referred to as the uomo universale, an ancient Greco - Roman ideal. Education during the Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior.
Renaissance art marks a cultural rebirth at the close of the Middle Ages and rise of the Modern world. One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267 -- 1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 -- 1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404 -- 1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.
The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. Painters developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists. Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello, another Florentine, and Titian in Venice, among others.
In the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed. The work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan van Eyck was particularly influential on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation (see Renaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.
In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings. With rediscovered knowledge from the 1st - century writer Vitruvius and the flourishing discipline of mathematics, Brunelleschi formulated the Renaissance style that emulated and improved on classical forms. His major feat of engineering was building the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Another building demonstrating this style is the church of St. Andrew in Mantua, built by Alberti. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter 's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.
During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421 -- 1440) by Brunelleschi. Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs; they are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault, which is frequently rectangular.
Renaissance artists were not pagans, although they admired antiquity and kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220 -- c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. His Annunciation, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary movement
The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of more widely distributed ideas. In the first period of the Italian Renaissance, humanists favoured the study of humanities over natural philosophy or applied mathematics, and their reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Writing around 1450, Nicholas Cusanus anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Copernicus, but in a philosophical fashion.
Science and art were intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymath artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Da Vinci set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led Fritjof Capra to classify him as the "father of modern science ''. Other examples of Da Vinci 's contribution during this period include machines designed to saw marbles and lift monoliths and new discoveries in acoustics, botany, geology, anatomy and mechanics.
A suitable environment had developed to question scientific doctrine. The discovery in 1492 of the New World by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical worldview. The works of Ptolemy (in geography) and Galen (in medicine) were found to not always match everyday observations. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements.
Some view this as a "scientific revolution '', heralding the beginning of the modern age, others as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day. Significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Copernicus, in De Revolutionibus, posited that the Earth moved around the Sun. De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body), by Andreas Vesalius, gave a new confidence to the role of dissection, observation, and the mechanistic view of anatomy.
Another important development was in the process for discovery, the scientific method, focusing on empirical evidence and the importance of mathematics, while discarding Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, and Francis Bacon. The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.
Applied innovation extended to commerce. At the end of the 15th century Luca Pacioli published the first work on bookkeeping, making him the founder of accounting.
From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco - Flemish school. The development of printing made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and masses throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria and William Byrd.
The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. Many of the period 's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.
The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome. While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism sought to limit the power of the pope. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four children (most of whom were married off, presumably for the consolidation of power) while a cardinal.
Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament. In October 1517 Luther published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.
Pope Paul III came to the papal throne (1534 -- 1549) after the sack of Rome in 1527, with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) to Paul III, who became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal), who had paintings by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as an important collection of drawings, and who commissioned the masterpiece of Giulio Clovio, arguably the last major illuminated manuscript, the Farnese Hours.
By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases such as modi antichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (ancient) and to the Christian period as nova (new). From Petrarch 's Italian perspective, this new period (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse. Leonardo Bruni was the first to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). Bruni 's first two periods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state of decline. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439 -- 1453).
Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named for the first time the "Middle Ages ''. The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle times). The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568). Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.
In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press by German printer Johannes Gutenberg allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.
The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance ''. While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music. The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century. The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.
The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer. Later, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries. A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin. The spread of the printing press technology boosted the Renaissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice becoming a world center of printing.
In England, the sixteenth century marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sidney, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.
The word "Renaissance '' is borrowed from the French language, where it means "re-birth ''. It was first used in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French historian Jules Michelet (1798 -- 1874) in his 1855 work, Histoire de France (History of France).
In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the inability of the Church to offer assistance against the Black Death. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as François Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne, painters such as Jean Clouet, and musicians such as Jean Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance.
In 1533, a fourteen - year - old Caterina de ' Medici (1519 -- 1589), born in Florence to Lorenzo II de ' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married Henry II of France, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in France 's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.
In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance spirit spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists such as the painters Jan van Eyck (1395 -- 1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450 -- 1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410 -- 1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457 -- 1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455 -- 1521) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute. However, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (ruling 1493 -- 1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire.
Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via Bruges, which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe. In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way; in cartography, Gerardus Mercator 's map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting ranged from the strange work of Hieronymus Bosch to the everyday life depictions of Pieter Brueghel the Elder.
The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the city of Valencia. Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell. In the Kingdom of Castile, the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such as the Marquis of Santillana, who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as Jorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes 's masterpiece Don Quixote is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives, grammarian Antonio de Nebrija and natural historian Pedro de Mexía.
Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de León, Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, and treated issues related to the exploration of the New World, with chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and Bartolomé de las Casas, giving rise to a body of work, now known as Spanish Renaissance literature. The late Renaissance in Spain produced artists such as El Greco and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Antonio de Cabezón.
Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening the European worldview, stimulating humanist inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, Lisbon flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology, including Pedro Nunes, João de Castro, Abraham Zacuto and Martin Behaim. Cartographers Pedro Reinel, Lopo Homem, Estêvão Gomes and Diogo Ribeiro made crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist Carolus Clusius.
In architecture, the huge profits of the spice trade financed a sumptuous composite style in the first decades of the 16th century, the Manueline, incorporating maritime elements. The primary painters were Nuno Gonçalves, Gregório Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. In music, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo produced four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. In literature, Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse. Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance, plays by Gil Vicente fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times, and Luís de Camões inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusíadas. Travel literature especially flourished: João de Barros, Castanheda, António Galvão, Gaspar Correia, Duarte Barbosa, and Fernão Mendes Pinto, among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press. After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the term New World, in his letters to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici.
The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including Francisco de Holanda, André de Resende and Damião de Góis, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I. Diogo and André de Gouveia made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted the interest of Thomas More and Dürer to the wider world. There, profits and know - how helped nurture the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age, especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal.
After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance appeared. The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian - Italian relationships -- not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations -- growing in strength from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason -- exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Large - scale building schemes provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda, the castles of Visegrád, Tata and Várpalota. In Sigismund 's court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale to Hungary.
The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János, archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism. During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458 -- 1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it.
After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps. The most important humanists living in Matthias ' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius. András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus 's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe 's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)
In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de ' Medici founded his own Greek - Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus 's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage. Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance include Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist), and Master MS (fresco painter).
An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was Filippo Buonaccorsi. Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Sigismund I the Old in 1518. This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities. The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and was the Golden Age of Polish culture. Ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty, the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. The multi-national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thanks in part to a century without major wars -- aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty. The Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of development.
The greatest monument of this style in the territory of the former Duchy of Pomerania is the Ducal Castle in Szczecin.
Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways. Their influence was rather limited, however, due to the large distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy.
Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin, which had been damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th - century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and he produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.
In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of the royal residence, Terem Palace, within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano as the architect of the first three floors. He and other Italian architects also contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small banquet hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery, another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served as an inspiration for the so - called octagon - on - tetragon architectural form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.
Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, an original tradition of stone tented roof architecture developed in Russia. It was quite unique and different from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some research terms the style ' Russian Gothic ' and compares it with the European Gothic architecture of the earlier period. The Italians, with their advanced technology, may have influenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye, one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof churches.
By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while still following most of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait painting appeared, called parsúna (from "persona '' -- person), which was transitional style between abstract iconographics and real paintings.
In the mid 16th - century Russians adopted printing from Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. That led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well into the 19th century.
A number of technologies from the European Renaissance period were adopted by Russia rather early and subsequently perfected to become a part of a strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted by at least the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the world 's largest bombard by caliber, is a masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov and is notable for its rich, decorative relief. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe by the Italians, resulted in the development of vodka, the national beverage of Russia. As early as 1386 Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("water of life '') to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely developed this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provence, who used an Arab - invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this technology to produce the first original Russian vodka c. 1430.
The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511 -- 1574) first used the term rinascita retrospectively in his book The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts (he held) had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (1240 -- 1301) and Giotto (1267 -- 1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. Vasari saw antique art as central to the rebirth of Italian art.
However, only in the 19th century did the French word Renaissance achieve popularity in describing the self - conscious cultural movement based on revival of Roman models that began in the late - 13th century. French historian Jules Michelet (1798 -- 1874) defined "The Renaissance '' in his 1855 work Histoire de France as an entire historical period, whereas previously it had been used in a more limited sense. For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century. Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous '' quality of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal Republican, chose to see in its character. A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.
The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818 -- 1897) in his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which the Middle Ages had stifled. His book was widely read and became influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.
More recently, some historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph Starn, of the University of California Berkeley, stated in 1998:
"Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time - bound culture ''.
There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern age. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man 's eyes, allowing him to see clearly.
In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness -- that which was turned within as that which was turned without -- lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.
On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period -- poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example -- seem to have worsened in this era, which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch - hunts of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "golden age '' imagined by certain 19th - century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies. Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages. Some Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend from feudalism towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts.
Johan Huizinga (1872 -- 1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that was important. The Latin language, for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession. Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed. Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.
Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages '', the Middle Ages. Most historians now prefer to use the term "early modern '' for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era. Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation.
The term Renaissance has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870 -- 1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century. Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century. Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances '', such as the Bengal Renaissance, Tamil Renaissance, Nepal Bhasa renaissance, al - Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance.
Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years. (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world).
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bauhaus press the eject and give me the tape full album | Press the Eject and Give Me the Tape - Wikipedia
Press the Eject and Give Me the Tape is a live album by the British gothic rock band Bauhaus, released in 1982 on Beggars Banquet Records, and recorded in London and Liverpool in 1981 and 1982.
The album cover is a photograph by Eugene Merinov.
The album was originally a bonus disc with the initial limited edition of the 1982 studio album The Sky 's Gone Out. Later in the year it was released as a separate album, with initial copies receiving a free single and poster pack. The "Satori in Paris '' single features live versions of "Double Dare '' and "Hair of the Dog '' not recorded at the same gigs from the album, the poster being a montage of the band 's history on stage and beyond.
The album was reissued in 1988 with six bonus tracks, including the previously unissued "Of Lillies and Remains '' and a cover of the Velvet Underground 's "Waiting for the Man '' recorded live at Fagins, Manchester, 22 October 1981, featuring Nico on vocals (this track was also a track on the "Ziggy Stardust '' single).
All tracks written by Bauhaus unless otherwise noted.
The "Satori in Paris '' single was a free insert in the first UK press release of the Press the Eject and Give Me the Tape LP, and on the New Rose label in France. Both tracks are live versions recorded at Le Rose Bon Bon, Paris, France on 3 December 1981. Both tracks are included as bonus tracks on CD reissues of the LP.
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where is the bahamas located on a map | The Bahamas - wikipedia
Coordinates: 24 ° 15 ′ N 76 ° 00 ′ W / 24.250 ° N 76.000 ° W / 24.250; - 76.000
The Bahamas (/ bəˈhɑːməz / (listen)), known officially as the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. It consists of more than 700 islands, cays, and islets in the Atlantic Ocean, and is located north of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands, southeast of the United States state of Florida, and east of the Florida Keys. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence. The designation of "the Bahamas '' can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate / manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas territory encompasses 470,000 km (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space.
The Bahamas is the site of Columbus ' first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, a branch of the Arawakan - speaking Taino people. Although the Spanish never colonised The Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera.
The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas; they brought their slaves with them and established plantations on land grants. Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. The slave trade was abolished by the British in 1807; slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834. The Bahamas became a haven for freed African slaves; the Royal Navy resettled Africans here liberated from illegal slave ships, American slaves and Seminoles escaped here from Florida, and the government freed American slaves carried on United States domestic ships that had reached the Bahamas due to weather. Today, Afro - Bahamians make up nearly 90 % of the population.
The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining the British monarch, then and currently Queen Elizabeth II, as its head of state. In terms of gross domestic product per capita, The Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas (following the United States and Canada), with an economy based on tourism and finance.
The name Bahamas is mostly likely derived from either the Taíno ba ha ma ("big upper middle land ''), which was a term for the region used by the indigenous Native Americans, or possibly from the Spanish baja mar ("shallow water or sea '' or "low tide '') reflecting the shallow waters of the area. Alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning.
A peculiarity of the name is that the word The is a formal part of the abbreviated name and is, therefore, capitalised. So in contrast to "the Congo '' and "the United Kingdom '', it is proper to write "The Bahamas ''.
Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century, having migrated there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in 1492.
Columbus 's first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador (known to the Lucayan as Guanahani). Some researchers believe this site to be present - day San Salvador Island (formerly known as Watling 's Island), situated in the southeastern Bahamas. An alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbus 's log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive. On the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them.
The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour. The slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity; half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished.
In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera -- the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence, naming it Sayle 's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks.
In 1670, King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America. They rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors, and administering the country. In 1684 Spanish corsair Juan de Alcon raided the capital, Charles Town (later renamed Nassau). In 1703, a joint Franco - Spanish expedition briefly occupied the Bahamian capital during the War of the Spanish Succession.
During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates, including the infamous Blackbeard (circa 1680 -- 1718). To put an end to the ' Pirates ' republic ' and restore orderly government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers. After a difficult struggle, he succeeded in suppressing piracy. In 1720, Rogers led local militia to drive off a Spanish attack.
During the American War of Independence in the late 18th century, the islands became a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins. US Marines occupied the capital of Nassau for a fortnight.
In 1782, following the British defeat at Yorktown, a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau. The city surrendered without a fight. Spain returned possession of the Bahamas to Britain the following year, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Before the news was received, however, the islands were recaptured by a small British force led by Andrew Deveaux.
After American independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists with their slaves in the Bahamas, and granted land to the planters to help compensate for losses on the continent. These Loyalists, who included Deveaux, established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. European Americans were outnumbered by the African - American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory.
In 1807, the British abolished the slave trade, followed by the United States the next year. During the following decades, the Royal Navy intercepted the trade; they resettled in the Bahamas thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships.
In the 1820s during the period of the Seminole Wars in Florida, hundreds of American slaves and African Seminoles escaped from Cape Florida to the Bahamas. They settled mostly on northwest Andros Island, where they developed the village of Red Bays. From eyewitness accounts, 300 escaped in a mass flight in 1823, aided by Bahamians in 27 sloops, with others using canoes for the journey. This was commemorated in 2004 by a large sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park. Some of their descendants in Red Bays continue African Seminole traditions in basket making and grave marking.
The United States ' National Park Service, which administers the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom, is working with the African Bahamian Museum and Research Center (ABAC) in Nassau on development to identify Red Bays as a site related to American slaves ' search for freedom. The museum has researched and documented the African Seminoles ' escape from southern Florida. It plans to develop interpretive programs at historical sites in Red Bay associated with the period of their settlement in the Bahamas.
In 1818, the Home Office in London had ruled that "any slave brought to the Bahamas from outside the British West Indies would be manumitted. '' This led to a total of nearly 300 slaves owned by US nationals being freed from 1830 to 1835. The American slave ships Comet and Encomium used in the United States domestic coastwise slave trade, were wrecked off Abaco Island in December 1830 and February 1834, respectively. When wreckers took the masters, passengers and slaves into Nassau, customs officers seized the slaves and British colonial officials freed them, over the protests of the Americans. There were 165 slaves on the Comet and 48 on the Encomium. Britain finally paid an indemnity to the United States in those two cases in 1855, under the Treaty of Claims of 1853, which settled several compensation cases between the two nations.
Slavery was abolished in the British Empire on 1 August 1834. After that British colonial officials freed 78 American slaves from the Enterprise, which went into Bermuda in 1835; and 38 from the Hermosa, which wrecked off Abaco Island in 1840. The most notable case was that of the Creole in 1841: as a result of a slave revolt on board, the leaders ordered the American brig to Nassau. It was carrying 135 slaves from Virginia destined for sale in New Orleans. The Bahamian officials freed the 128 slaves who chose to stay in the islands. The Creole case has been described as the "most successful slave revolt in U.S. history ''.
These incidents, in which a total of 447 slaves belonging to US nationals were freed from 1830 to 1842, increased tension between the United States and Great Britain. They had been co-operating in patrols to suppress the international slave trade. But, worried about the stability of its large domestic slave trade and its value, the United States argued that Britain should not treat its domestic ships that came to its colonial ports under duress, as part of the international trade. The United States worried that the success of the Creole slaves in gaining freedom would encourage more slave revolts on merchant ships.
In August 1940, the Duke of Windsor was appointed Governor of the Bahamas. He arrived in the colony with his wife, the Duchess. Although disheartened at the condition of Government House, they "tried to make the best of a bad situation ''. He did not enjoy the position, and referred to the islands as "a third - class British colony ''.
He opened the small local parliament on 29 October 1940. The couple visited the "Out Islands '' that November, on Axel Wenner - Gren 's yacht, which caused controversy; the British Foreign Office strenuously objected because they had been advised (mistakenly) by United States intelligence that Wenner - Gren was a close friend of the Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring of Nazi Germany.
The Duke was praised at the time for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands. A 1991 biography by Philip Ziegler, however, described him as contemptuous of the Bahamians and other non-European peoples of the Empire. He was praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a "full - scale riot ''. Ziegler said that the Duke blamed the trouble on "mischief makers -- communists '' and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft ''.
The Duke resigned the post on 16 March 1945.
Modern political development began after the Second World War. The first political parties were formed in the 1950s. The British Parliament authorised the islands as internally self - governing in 1964, with Sir Roland Symonette, of the United Bahamian Party, as the first Premier.
A new constitution granting the Bahamas internal autonomy went into effect on 7 January 1964. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party, became the first native born Premier of the majority native Bahamian colony; in 1968 the title of the position was changed to Prime Minister. In 1968, Pindling announced that the Bahamas would seek full independence. A new constitution giving the Bahamas increased control over its own affairs was adopted in 1968.
The British House of Lords voted to give the Bahamas its independence on 22 June 1973. Prince Charles delivered the official documents to Prime Minister Lynden Pindling, officially declaring the Bahamas a fully independent nation on 10 July 1973. It joined the Commonwealth of Nations on the same day. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first Governor - General of the Bahamas (the official representative of Queen Elizabeth II) shortly after independence. The Bahamas joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 22 August 1973, and it joined the United Nations on 18 September 1973.
Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance, the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. Significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, housing, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti continue to be issues.
The University of The Bahamas (UB) is the national higher education / tertiary system. Offering baccalaureate, masters and associate degrees, UB has three campuses, and teaching and research centres throughout the Bahamas. The University of the Bahamas was chartered on November 10, 2016.
The country lies between latitudes 20 ° and 28 ° N, and longitudes 72 ° and 80 ° W.
In 1864, the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony.
The closest island to the United States is Bimini, which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama. The southeasternmost island is Inagua. The largest island is Andros Island. Other inhabited islands include Eleuthera, Cat Island, Rum Cay, Long Island, San Salvador Island, Ragged Island, Acklins, Crooked Island, Exuma, Berry Islands and Mayaguana. Nassau, capital city of the Bahamas, lies on the island of New Providence.
All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft). The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia (formerly Como Hill) on Cat Island. It has an elevation of 63 metres (207 ft).
To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank, Silver Bank and Navidad Bank, are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas.
Disney has its own private island in the Bahamas called Castaway Cay. It is located near Great Abaco Island and was formerly known as Gorda Cay. In 1997, The Walt Disney Company purchased a 99 - year land lease for the cay from the Bahamian government, set to expire in 2096.
The climate of the Bahamas is tropical savannah climate or Aw according to Köppen climate classification. The low latitude, warm tropical Gulf Stream, and low elevation give the Bahamas a warm and winterless climate. As such, there has never been a frost or freeze reported in the Bahamas, although every few decades low temperatures can fall below 10 ° C (50 ° F) for a few hours when a severe cold outbreak comes off the North American mainland. There is only an 8 ° C difference between the warmest month and coolest month in most of the Bahama islands. As with most tropical climates, seasonal rainfall follows the sun, and summer is the wettest season. The Bahamas are often sunny and dry for long periods of time, and average more than 3,000 hours or 340 days of sunlight annually.
Tropical storms and hurricanes can on occasion impact the Bahamas. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew passed over the northern portions of the islands, and Hurricane Floyd passed near the eastern portions of the islands in 1999.
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The Bahamas is part of the Lucayan Archipelago, which continues into the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Mouchoir Bank, the Silver Bank, and the Navidad Bank.
The Bahamas Platform, which includes the Bahamas, Southern Florida, Northern Cuba, the Turks and Caicos, and the Blake Plateau, formed about 150 Ma, not long after the formation of the North Atlantic. The 6.4 km thick limestones, which predominately make up The Bahamas, date back to the Cretaceous. These limestones would have been deposited in shallow seas, assumed to be a stretched and thinned portion of the North American continental crust. Sediments were forming at about the same rate as the crust below was sinking due to the added weight. Thus, the entire area consisted of a large marine plain with some islands. Then, at about 80 Ma, the area became flooded by the Gulf Stream. This resulted in the drowning of the Blake Plateau, the separation of The Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the separation of the southeastern Bahamas into separate banks, the creation of the Cay Sal Bank, plus the Little and Great Bahama Banks. Sedimentation from the "carbonate factory '' of each bank, or atoll, continues today at the rate of about 2 cm per kyr. Coral reefs form the "retaining walls '' of these atolls, within which oolites and pellets form.
Coral growth was greater through the Tertiary, until the start of the Ice Ages, and hence those deposits are more abundant below a depth of 36 m. In fact, an ancient extinct reef exists half a km seaward of the present one, 30 m below sea level. Oolites form when oceanic water penetrate the shallow banks, increasing the temperature about 3 ° C and the salinity by 0.5 per cent. Cemented ooids are referred to as grapestone. Additionally, giant stromatolites are found off the Exuma Cays.
Sea level changes resulted in a drop in sea level, causing wind blown oolite to form sand dunes with distinct cross-bedding. Overlapping dunes form oolitic ridges, which become rapidly lithified through the action of rainwater, called eolianite. Most islands have ridges ranging from 30 to 45 m, though Cat Island has a ridge 60 m in height. The land between ridges is conducive to the formation of lakes and swamps.
Solution weathering of the limestone results in a "Bahamian Karst '' topography. This includes potholes, Blue holes such as Dean 's Blue Hole, sinkholes, beachrock such as the Bimini Road ("pavements of Atlantis ''), limestone crust, caves due to the lack of rivers, and sea caves. Several blue holes are aligned along the South Andros Fault line. Tidal flats and tidal creeks are common, but the more impressive drainage patterns are formed by troughs and canyons such as Great Bahama Canyon with the evidence of turbidity currents and turbidite deposition.
The stratigraphy of the islands consists of the Middle Pleistocene Owl 's Hole Formation, overlain by the Late Pleistocene Grotto Beach Formation, and then the Holocene Rice Bay Formation. However, these units are not necessarily stacked on top of each other but can be located laterally. The oldest formation, Owl 's Hole, is capped by a terra rosa paleosoil, as is the Grotto Beach, unless eroded. The Grotto Beach Formation is the most widespread.
The Bahamas is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy headed by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as Queen of the Bahamas. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system. The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm, retaining the Queen as head of state (represented by a Governor - General).
Legislative power is vested In a bicameral parliament, which consists of a 38 - member House of Assembly (the lower house), with members elected from single - member districts, and a 16 - member Senate, with members appointed by the Governor - General, including nine on the advice of the Prime Minister, four on the advice of the Leader of Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition, and three on the advice of the Prime Minister after consultation with the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call a general election at any time within a five - year term.
The Prime Minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the Cabinet, selected by the Prime Minister and drawn from his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current Governor - General is Dame Marguerite Pindling, and the current Prime Minister is The Rt. Hon. Hubert Minnis M.P..
Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement and association. The Judiciary of the Bahamas is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law.
The Bahamas has a two - party system dominated by the centre - left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre - right Free National Movement. A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement, the Coalition for Democratic Reform, Bahamian Nationalist Party and the Democratic National Alliance.
The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the United States and the United Kingdom, represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London. The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).
Its military is the Royal Bahamas Defence Force (the RBDF), the navy of the Bahamas which includes a land unit called Commando Squadron (Regiment) and an Air Wing (Air Force). Under the Defence Act, the RBDF has been mandated, in the name of the Queen, to defend the Bahamas, protect its territorial integrity, patrol its waters, provide assistance and relief in times of disaster, maintain order in conjunction with the law enforcement agencies of the Bahamas, and carry out any such duties as determined by the National Security Council. The Defence Force is also a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) 's Regional Security Task Force.
The RBDF came into existence on 31 March 1980. Their duties include defending the Bahamas, stopping drug smuggling, illegal immigration and poaching, and providing assistance to mariners. The Defence Force has a fleet of 26 coastal and inshore patrol craft along with 3 aircraft and over 1,100 personnel including 65 officers and 74 women.
The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere except New Providence (which holds 70 % of the national population), whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. In 1996, the Bahamian Parliament passed the "Local Government Act '' to facilitate the establishment of Family Island Administrators, Local Government Districts, Local District Councillors and Local Town Committees for the various island communities. The overall goal of this act is to allow the various elected leaders to govern and oversee the affairs of their respective districts without the interference of Central Government. In total, there are 32 districts, with elections being held every five years. There are 110 Councillors and 281 Town Committee members are elected to represent the various districts.
Each Councillor or Town Committee member is responsible for the proper use of public funds for the maintenance and development of their constituency.
The Bahamas uses drive - on - the - Left traffic rules throughout the Commonwealth.
The districts other than New Providence are:
The colours embodied in the design of the Bahamian flag symbolise the strength of the Bahamian people; the design reflects aspects of the natural environment (sun and sea) and the economic and social development. The flag is a black equilateral triangle against the mast, superimposed on a horizontal background made up of two colours on three equal stripes of aquamarine, gold and aquamarine.
The coat of arms of the Bahamas contains a shield with the national symbols as its focal point. The shield is supported by a marlin and a flamingo, which are the national animals of the Bahamas. The flamingo is located on the land, and the marlin on the sea, indicating the geography of the islands.
On top of the shield is a conch shell, which represents the varied marine life of the island chain. The conch shell rests on a helmet. Below this is the actual shield, the main symbol of which is a ship representing the Santa María of Christopher Columbus, shown sailing beneath the sun. Along the bottom, below the shield appears a banner upon which is the national motto:
"Forward, Upward, Onward Together. ''
The yellow elder was chosen as the national flower of the Bahamas because it is native to the Bahama islands, and it blooms throughout the year.
Selection of the yellow elder over many other flowers was made through the combined popular vote of members of all four of New Providence 's garden clubs of the 1970s -- the Nassau Garden Club, the Carver Garden Club, the International Garden Club and the Y.W.C.A. Garden Club.
They reasoned that other flowers grown there -- such as the bougainvillea, hibiscus and poinciana -- had already been chosen as the national flowers of other countries. The yellow elder, on the other hand, was unclaimed by other countries (although it is now also the national flower of the United States Virgin Islands) and also the yellow elder is native to the family islands.
By the terms of GDP per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas. It was revealed in the Panama Papers that The Bahamas is the jurisdiction with the most offshore entities or companies.
The Bahamas relies on tourism to generate most of its economic activity. Tourism as an industry not only accounts for over 60 % of the Bahamian GDP, but provides jobs for more than half the country 's workforce. The Bahamas attracted 5.8 million visitors in 2012, more than 70 % of whom were cruise visitors.
After tourism, the next most important economic sector is banking and international financial services, accounting for some 15 % of GDP.
The government has adopted incentives to encourage foreign financial business, and further banking and finance reforms are in progress. The government plans to merge the regulatory functions of key financial institutions, including the Central Bank of the Bahamas (CBB) and the Securities and Exchange Commission. The Central Bank administers restrictions and controls on capital and money market instruments. The Bahamas International Securities Exchange consists of 19 listed public companies. Reflecting the relative soundness of the banking system (mostly populated by Canadian banks), the impact of the global financial crisis on the financial sector has been limited.
The economy has a very competitive tax regime. The government derives its revenue from import tariffs, VAT, licence fees, property and stamp taxes, but there is no income tax, corporate tax, capital gains tax, or wealth tax. Payroll taxes fund social insurance benefits and amount to 3.9 % paid by the employee and 5.9 % paid by the employer. In 2010, overall tax revenue as a percentage of GDP was 17.2 %.
Agriculture is the third largest sector of the Bahamian economy, representing 5 -- 7 % of total GDP. An estimated 80 % of the Bahamian food supply is imported. Major crops include onions, okra, tomatoes, oranges, grapefruit, cucumbers, sugar cane, lemons, limes, and sweet potatoes.
The Bahamas has an estimated population of 391,232, of which 25.9 % are under 14, 67.2 % 15 to 64 and 6.9 % over 65. It has a population growth rate of 0.925 % (2010), with a birth rate of 17.81 / 1,000 population, death rate of 9.35 / 1,000, and net migration rate of − 2.13 migrant (s) / 1,000 population. The infant mortality rate is 23.21 deaths / 1,000 live births. Residents have a life expectancy at birth of 69.87 years: 73.49 years for females, 66.32 years for males. The total fertility rate is 2.0 children born / woman (2010).
The most populous islands are New Providence, where Nassau, the capital and largest city, is located; and Grand Bahama, home to the second largest city of Freeport.
According to the 99 % response rate obtained from the race question on the 2010 Census questionnaire, 90.6 % of the population identified themselves as being Black, 4.7 % White and 2.1 % of a mixed race (Black and White), according to the CIA Handbook. Three centuries prior, in 1722 when the first official census of the Bahamas was taken, 74 % of the population was White and 26 % Black.
Since the colonial era of plantations, Africans or Afro - Bahamians have been the largest ethnic group in the Bahamas, whose primary ancestry was based in West Africa. The first Africans to arrive to the Bahamas were freed slaves from Bermuda; they arrived with the Eleutheran Adventurers looking for new lives.
The Haitian community in the Bahamas is also largely of African descent and numbers about 80,000. Due to an extremely high immigration of Haitians to the Bahamas, the Bahamian government started deporting illegal Haitian immigrants to their homeland in late 2014.
The White Bahamian population are mainly the descendants of the English Puritans looking to flee religious persecution in England and American Loyalists escaping the American Revolution who arrived in 1649 and 1783, respectively. Many Southern Loyalists went to the Abaco Islands, half of whose population was of European descent as of 1985. The term white is usually used to identify Bahamians with Anglo ancestry, as well as "light - skinned '' Afro - Bahamians. Sometimes Bahamians use the term Conchy Joe to describe people of Anglo descent.
A small portion of the Euro - Bahamian population is descended from Greek labourers who came to help develop the sponging industry in the 1900s. They make up less than 1 % of the nation 's population, but have still preserved their distinct Greek Bahamian culture.
Bahamians typically identify themselves simply as either black or white.
The official language of the Bahamas is English. Many people speak an English - based creole language called Bahamian dialect (known simply as "dialect '') or "Bahamianese. '' Laurente Gibbs, a Bahamian writer and actor was the first to coin the latter name in a poem and has since promoted its usage. Both are used as autoglossonyms. Haitian Creole, a French - based creole language is spoken by Haitians and their descendants, who make up of about 25 % of the total population. It is known simply as Creole to differentiate languages. Also note that the Bahamas was once under British rule and therefore the English taught in the Bahamian schools is still "British - based ''.
Religion in the Bahamas (2010)
According to International Religious Freedom Report 2008 prepared by United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, the islands ' population is predominantly Christian. Protestant denominations are widespread and collectively account for more than 70 % of the population, with Baptists representing 35 % of the population, Anglicans 15 %, Pentecostals 8 %, Church of God 5 %, Seventh - day Adventists 5 % and Methodists 4 %. There is also a significant Roman Catholic community accounting for about 14 %. There are also smaller communities of Jews, Muslims, Baha'is, Hindus, Rastafarians and practitioners of Obeah.
In the less developed outer islands (or Family Islands), handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw '', is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so - called "Voodoo dolls '', even though such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact.
A form of folk magic (obeah) is practiced by some Bahamians, mainly in the Family Islands (out - islands) of the Bahamas. The practice of obeah is illegal in the Bahamas and punishable by law.
Junkanoo is a traditional Afro - Bahamian street parade of ' rushing ', music, dance and art held in Nassau (and a few other settlements) every Boxing Day and New Year 's Day. Junkanoo is also used to celebrate other holidays and events such as Emancipation Day.
Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old - fashioned work boats, as well as an onshore festival.
Many dishes are associated with Bahamian cuisine, which reflects Caribbean, African and European influences. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest '' in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest '' on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling.
Bahamians have created a rich literature of poetry, short stories, plays and short fictional works. Common themes in these works are (1) an awareness of change, (2) a striving for sophistication, (3) a search for identity, (4) nostalgia for the old ways and (5) an appreciation of beauty. Some contributing writers are Susan Wallace, Percival Miller, Robert Johnson, Raymond Brown, O.M. Smith, William Johnson, Eddie Minnis and Winston Saunders.
Bahamas culture is rich with beliefs, traditions, folklore and legend. The most well - known folklore and legends in the Bahamas includes Lusca in Andros Bahamas, Pretty Molly on Exuma Bahamas, the Chickcharnies of Andro Bahamas, and the Lost City of Atlantis on Bimini Bahamas.
Sport is a significant part of Bahamian culture. The national sport is Cricket. Cricket has been played in the Bahamas from 1846. It is the oldest sport being played in the country today. The Bahamas Cricket Association was formed in 1936 as an organised body. From the 1940s to the 1970s, cricket was played amongst many Bahamians. Bahamas is not a part of the West Indies Cricket Board, so players are not eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team. The late 1970s saw the game begin to decline in the country as teachers, who had previously come from the United Kingdom with a passion for cricket were replaced by teachers who had been trained in the United States. The Bahamian Physical education teachers had no knowledge of the game and instead taught track & field, basketball, baseball, softball, volleyball and football where primary and high schools compete against each other. Today cricket is still enjoyed by a few locals and immigrants in the country usually from Jamaica, Guyana, Haiti and Barbados. Cricket is played on Saturdays and Sundays at Windsor Park and Haynes Oval.
The only other sporting event that began before cricket was horse racing, which started in 1796. The most popular spectator sports are those imported from United States, such as basketball, American football and baseball rather than Great Britain due to the country 's close proximity to the United States. Unlike their other Caribbean counterparts, cricket, rugby, and netball have proven to be more popular.
Dexter Cambridge, Rick Fox, Ian Lockhart and Buddy Hield are a few Bahamians who joined Bahamian Mychal Thompson of the Los Angeles Lakers in the NBA ranks, Over the years American football has become much more popular than association football, though not implemented in the high school system yet. Leagues for teens and adults have been developed by the Bahamas American Football Federation. However association football, commonly known as ' soccer ' in the country, is still a very popular sport amongst high school pupils. Leagues are governed by the Bahamas Football Association. Recently the Bahamian government has been working closely with Tottenham Hotspur of London to promote the sport in the country as well as promoting the Bahamas in the European market. In 2013 ' Spurs ' became the first Premier League club to play an exhibition match in the Bahamas to face the Jamaica national football team. Joe Lewis, the owner of the Tottenham Hotspur club, is based in the Bahamas.
Other popular sports are swimming, tennis and boxing where Bahamians have enjoyed some degree of success at the international level. Other sports such as golf, rugby league, rugby union beach soccer and netball are considered growing sports. Athletics commonly known as track and field in the country is the most successful sport by far amongst Bahamians. Bahamians have a strong tradition in the sprints and jumps. Track and field is probably the most popular spectator sport in the country next to basketball due to their success over the years. Triathlons are gaining popularity in Nassau and the Family Islands.
Bahamians have gone on to win numerous track and field medals at the Olympic Games, IAAF World Championships in Athletics, Commonwealth Games and Pan American Games. Frank Rutherford is the first athletics olympic medalist for the country. He won a bronze medal for triple jump during the 1992 Summer Olympics. Pauline Davis - Thompson, Debbie Ferguson, Chandra Sturrup, Savatheda Fynes and Eldece Clarke - Lewis teamed up for the first athletics Olympic Gold medal for the country when they won the 4 × 100 m relay at the 2000 Summer Olympics. They are affectionately known as the "Golden Girls ''. Tonique Williams - Darling became the first athletics individual Olympic gold medalist when she won the 400m sprint in 2004 Summer Olympics. In 2007, with the disqualification of Marion Jones, Pauline Davis - Thompson was advanced to the gold medal position in the 200 metres at the 2000 Olympics, predating William - Darling.
The Bahamas were hosts of the first men 's senior FIFA tournament to be staged in the Caribbean, the 2017 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup.
According to 1995 estimates 98.2 % of the adult population is literate.
Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region
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which country had the biggest oil related success leading up to world war ii | Oil campaign of World War II - wikipedia
The Allied oil campaign of World War II was directed by the RAF and USAAF against facilities supplying Nazi Germany with petroleum, oil, and lubrication (POL) products. Part of the immense Allied strategic bombing effort during the war, the targets in Germany and "Axis Europe '' included refineries for natural oil, factories producing synthetic fuel, storage depots, and other POL infrastructure resources.
The reliance of Germany on oil and oil products for its war machine was identified before the war and the strategic bombing started with RAF attacks on Germany in 1940. After the US entered the war, it carried out daytime "precision bombing '' attacks such as Operation Tidal Wave against refineries in Romania in 1943. The last major strategic raid of the European theater of the war was on a refinery in Norway in April 1945. During the war the effort expended against POL targets varied with the relative priority given to other objectives such as defeating the German V - weapon attacks or preparations for the invasion of western Europe in 1944.
The British had identified the importance of Germany 's fuel supplies before the war in their "Western Air Plan 5 (c) ''. The focus of British bombing during 1940 changed repeatedly in response to directives from the Air Ministry. At the start of June, oil targets were made a priority of night bombing with attacks on other war industry to be made on dark nights (when the oil targets could not be located) but with the proviso that "indiscriminate action '' should be avoided. On 20 June oil targets were made third priority below the German aircraft industry and lines of communication between Germany and the armies at the front. Following a brief period when German shipping was given priority, oil targets were made secondary priority in mid July under a policy of concentrated attack with five oil refineries listed for attention. Sir Charles Portal was sceptical of the likelihood of success, saying that only a few targets could be located by average crews under moonlit conditions.
The RAF viewed Axis oil as a "vital centre '', and in February 1941, the British Air Staff expected that RAF Bomber Command would, by destruction of half of a list of 17 targets, reduce Axis oil production capacity by 80 %.
Although the Butt Report of August 1941 identified the poor accuracy and performance of RAF bombing, Air Chief Marshal Arthur Harris maintained at the subsequent Casablanca Conference the great importance of oil targets in Axis territory. The first US bombing of a European target was of the Ploieşti refineries on June 12, 1942 and the oil campaign continued at a lower priority until 1944. Priority fell with the need for attacks on German V - weapon targets ("Operation Crossbow '') in France and then the attacks on lines of communication in preparation for the invasion of France (described as the "Transportation Plan '').
In March 1944 the "Plan for Completion of Combined Bomber Offensive '' was put forward which found favour with the British Ministry of Economic Warfare. The plan proposed attacking "fourteen synthetic plants and thirteen refineries '' of Nazi Germany. The plan estimated Axis oil production could be reduced by 50 % by bombing -- 33 % below the amount Nazi Germany needed -- but also included 4 additional priorities: first oil, then fighter and ball bearing production, rubber production, and bomber output. The damage caused by the May 12 and 28 trial bombings of oil targets, as well as the confirmation of the oil facilities ' importance and vulnerability from Ultra intercepts and other intelligence reports, would result in the oil targets becoming the highest priority on September 3, 1944.
In June 1944, in response to Air Ministry query on resources, Bomber Command staff estimated it would take 32,000 tons of bombs to destroy 10 oil targets in the Ruhr. Harris agreed to divert spare effort to oil targets. They were deemed to be of such importance that one raid was staged that consisted only of bomb carrying fighters, to rest the bomber crews and surprise the defenders.
In late summer 1944 the Allies began using reconnaissance photo information to time bombing with the resumption of production at a facility. Even with the weather limitations: "This was the big breakthrough... a plant would be wounded... by successive attacks on its electrical grid -- its nervous system -- and on its gas and water mains. '' (author Donald Miller). However, due to bad fall and winter weather, a "far greater tonnage '' was expended on Transportation Plan targets than oil targets. The benzol (oil) plant at Linz in Austria was bombed on 16 October 1944.
In January 1945, the priority of oil targets was lowered.
To prevent oil supplies from Romania reaching Germany, the RAF had extended its aerial mining activities to the Danube.
Despite the RAF and Harris claims regarding the great importance of oil targets, Harris had opposed assigning the highest priority to oil targets but acknowledged post-war that the campaign was "a complete success '' with the qualifier: "I still do not think that it was reasonable, at that time, to expect that the (oil) campaign would succeed; what the Allied strategists did was to bet on an outsider, and it happened to win the race. ''
Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive 1067 prohibited German post-war production of oil through July 1947, and the United States Army made post-war provisions to rehabilitate and use petroleum installations where needed, as well as to dispose of unneeded captured equipment. After inspections of various plants by the "European technology mission '' (Plan for Examination of Oil Industry of Axis Europe) and a report in March 1946, the United States Bureau of Mines employed seven Operation Paperclip synthetic fuel scientists in a Fischer - Tropsch chemical plant in Louisiana, Missouri. In October 1975, Texas A&M University began the German Document Retrieval Project and completed a report on April 28, 1977. The report identified final investigations of the German plants and interrogations of German scientists by the British Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee, the US Field Information Agency (Technical), and the Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee.
Despite its successes, by the spring of 1944 the Combined Bomber Offensive had failed to severely damage the German economy or significantly interrupt production of a vital item. The oil campaign was the first to accomplish these goals. The US strategic bombing survey identified "catastrophic '' damage. Of itself, German industry was not significantly affected by attacks on oil targets as coal was its primary source of energy. And in its analysis of strategic bombing as a whole the USSBS identified the consequences of the breakdown of transportation resulting from attacks against transportation targets as "probably greater than any other single factor '' in the final collapse of the German economy.
Several prominent Germans, however, described the oil campaign as critical to the defeat of Nazi Germany. Adolf Galland, Inspector of Fighters of the Luftwaffe until relieved of command in January 1945, wrote in his book "the most important of the combined factors which brought about the collapse of Germany '', and the Luftwaffe 's wartime leader, Hermann Göring, described it as "the utmost in deadliness ''. Albert Speer, writing in his memoir, said that "It meant the end of German armaments production. '' It has been stated to have been "effective immediately, and decisive within less than a year ''. Luftwaffe Field Marshal Erhard Milch, referring to the consequences of the oil campaign, claimed that "The British left us with deep and bleeding wounds, but the Americans stabbed us in the heart. ''
The following statistics are from the British Bombing Survey Unit. Figures are for the oil campaign in the last year of the war.
Number of attacks by the RAF and USAAF against oil targets:
Short tons dropped on oil targets:
The efficiency of the bombing was lacking. Working from German records for certain sites, the USSBS determined that on average 87 % of Allied bombs fell outside the factory perimeter and that only a few percent struck plant or equipment inside the boundary. The USAAF could put 26 % of their bombing within the factories in good bombing conditions, 12 % when using a mix of visual and instruments but only 5 % when it had to use instrument - only bombing techniques; and 80 % of their tonnage was delivered under partly or fully instrument conditions. The RAF averaged 16 % inside the factory. Bomber Command 's efforts against oil were more efficient in some regards -- although delivering a smaller total tonnage it did so from ⁄ base area. The USSBS believed that Bomber Command 's heavy bombs -- 4,000 lb "cookies '' -- were more effective than an equivalent weight of smaller bombs. Both RAF and USAAF dropped a large number of bombs on oil targets that failed to explode: 19 % and 12 % respectively.
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what is the most popular english football team | Forbes ' list of The Most Valuable football clubs - wikipedia
uni This is a list of the richest association football clubs in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine on their worth in U.S. dollars.
As of 12 June 2018
In millions
As of 1 June 2017
In millions
As of 1 May 2016
As of 6 May 2015
As of 15 July 2014
As of 17 April 2013
As of 19 April 2012
As of 20 April 2011
As of April 2010
As of April 2009
As of April 2008
This is the list released in March 2007.
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what is the song take me home tonight about | Take Me Home Tonight (song) - wikipedia
"Take Me Home Tonight '' is a song by American rock singer Eddie Money. It was released in August 1986 as the lead single from his album Ca n't Hold Back. The song 's chorus interpolates the Ronettes ' 1963 hit "Be My Baby '', with original vocalist Ronnie Spector reprising her role.
The song reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 on November 15, 1986, and number one on the Album Rock Tracks chart; outside the U.S., it was a top 15 hit in Canada. It received a Grammy nomination for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance. Alongside its album, "Take Me Home Tonight '' helped revive Money 's career after a period of declining sales. It also allowed Spector to resume her touring / recording career after several years of retirement.
By the mid-1980s, Eddie Money had reached a low - point in his recording career after several years of drug abuse. Columbia Records still wanted to keep Money on its roster, but restricted his creative control regarding his output. Record producer Richie Zito brought Money the song "Take Me Home Tonight '', and Money would recall: "I did n't care for the demo (but) it did have a good catch line. When I heard (a snippet of) ' Be My Baby ' in it I said: ' Why ca n't we get Ronnie Spector to sing it? ' (and was told) ' That 's impossible. ' '' Money invited his friend Martha Davis, lead vocalist of the Motels, to sing the lines from "Be My Baby '' on "Take Me Home Tonight '': Davis encouraged him to try to recruit Spector herself and Money was eventually able to speak on the phone to Spector at her home in northern California: Money - "I could hear clinking and clanking in the background... She said: ' I 'm doing the dishes, and I got ta change the kids ' bedding. I 'm not really in the business anymore, Eddie. Phil Spector and all that, it was a nightmare '... I said ' Ronnie, I got this song that 's truly amazing and it 's a tribute to you. It would be so great if you... did it with me. ' '' The success of "Take Me Home Tonight '' encouraged Spector to resume her singing career. In 1987 Money would say of "Take Me Home Tonight '': "I did n't like the song, but... it helped Ronnie out and it helped me get some of my other material on the album across, so now I 'm happy I did it. ''
The song starts with a synth playing and is then joined by a guitar playing the same notes. This song was recorded in a duet with Ronnie Spector. The song has Spector singing the chorus from the Ronettes ' hit, "Be My Baby '' (on which Spector sang lead vocals) after Money sings "just like Ronnie sang. ''
The song is performed in the key of D ♭ major with a tempo of 133 beats per minute.
The video, shot entirely in black and white, opens with Money alone with a metal ladder and a folding chair on an otherwise empty stage (at Lawlor Events Center in Reno, Nevada). He performs to an absent audience, and Ronnie Spector is seen in a make - up room during cutaways. Spector 's face is n't completely revealed until about three - quarters of the way through the video, when she joins Money on the stage.
The Los Angeles Times 's Steve Hochman, in a review of Ca n't Hold Back, felt that Money did Spector a disservice, particularly with the song 's "characterless production, '' commenting, "where Phil Spector built his wall with style and grace, Money has erected a monolithic barrier. ''
The song was nominated for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance at the 29th Annual Grammy Awards on February 24, 1987, but lost to Robert Palmer 's "Addicted to Love ''.
The song has been covered by several artists. Rock band Hinder recorded a cover of the song; it is available exclusively as a bonus track on the Wal - Mart re-release of their album Extreme Behavior. There is a cover by Jamestown Story featuring Breanne Duren on his album Love vs. Life. Every Avenue and Juliet Simms covered the song for the compilation Punk Goes Classic Rock in 2010. Additionally, Adam Goren of Atom And His Package used the chorus of the song during the bridge of his song, "Punk Rock Academy ''. In 2014, the Glee Cast offered a new cover of the song in the episode "Old Dog New Tricks ''.
In Canada, it first debuted on RPM 's Top Singles chart at number 95 in the issue dated October 4, 1986, and peaked at number 15 during the week of November 29, 1986.
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where is portsmouth new hampshire on a map | Portsmouth, New Hampshire - wikipedia
Portsmouth is a city in Rockingham County, New Hampshire, in the United States. It is the only city in the county, but only the fourth - largest community, with a population of 21,233 at the 2010 census. As of 2016 the estimated population was 21,485. A historic seaport and popular summer tourist destination, Portsmouth was the home of the Strategic Air Command 's Pease Air Force Base, later converted to Portsmouth International Airport at Pease with limited commercial air service.
Native Americans of the Abenaki and other Algonquian languages - speaking nations, and their predecessors, inhabited the territory of coastal New Hampshire for thousands of years before European contact.
The first known European to explore and write about the area was Martin Pring in 1603. The Piscataqua River is a tidal estuary with a swift current, but forms a good natural harbor. The west bank of the harbor was settled by English colonists in 1630 and named Strawbery Banke, after the many wild strawberries growing there. The village was fortified by Fort William and Mary. Strategically located for trade between upstream industries and mercantile interests abroad, the port prospered. Fishing, lumber and shipbuilding were principal businesses of the region. Enslaved Africans were imported as laborers as early as 1645 and were integral to building the city 's prosperity. Portsmouth was part of the Triangle Trade, which made significant profits from slavery.
At the town 's incorporation in 1653, it was named Portsmouth in honor of the colony 's founder, John Mason. He had been captain of the port of Portsmouth, England, in the county of Hampshire, for which New Hampshire is named.
When Queen Anne 's War ended in 1712, the town was selected by Governor Joseph Dudley to host negotiations for the 1713 Treaty of Portsmouth, which temporarily ended hostilities between the Abenaki Indians and English settlements of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and New Hampshire.
In 1774, in the lead - up to the Revolution, Paul Revere rode to Portsmouth warning that the British were coming, with warships to subdue the port. Although the harbor was protected by Fort William and Mary, the rebel government moved the capital inland to Exeter, safe from the Royal Navy. The Navy bombarded Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) on October 18, 1775. African Americans helped defend Portsmouth and New England during the war. In 1779, 19 slaves from Portsmouth wrote a petition to the state legislature and asked that it abolish slavery, in recognition of their war contributions and in keeping with the principles of the Revolution. Their petition was not answered then, but New Hampshire later ended slavery.
Thomas Jefferson 's 1807 embargo against trade with Britain withered New England 's trade with Canada, and a number of local fortunes were lost. Others were gained by men who acted as privateers during the War of 1812. In 1849, Portsmouth was incorporated as a city.
Once one of the nation 's busiest ports and shipbuilding cities, Portsmouth expressed its wealth in fine architecture. It contains significant examples of Colonial, Georgian, and Federal style houses, a selection of which are now museums. Portsmouth 's heart contains stately brick Federalist stores and townhouses, built all - of - a-piece after devastating early 19th - century fires. The worst was in 1813 when 244 buildings burned. A fire district was created that required all new buildings within its boundaries to be built of brick with slate roofs; this created the downtown 's distinctive appearance. The city was also noted for the production of boldly wood - veneered Federalist furniture, particularly by the master cabinet maker Langley Boardman.
The Industrial Revolution spurred economic growth in New Hampshire mill towns such as Dover, Keene, Laconia, Manchester, Nashua and Rochester, where rivers provided water power for the mills. It shifted growth to the new mill towns. The port of Portsmouth declined, but the city survived through Victorian - era doldrums, a time described in the works of Thomas Bailey Aldrich, particularly in his 1869 novel The Story of a Bad Boy.
In the 20th century, the city founded a Historic District Commission, which has worked to protect much of the city 's irreplaceable architectural legacy. In 2008, Portsmouth was named one of the "Dozen Distinctive Destinations '' by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The compact and walkable downtown on the waterfront draws tourists and artists, who each summer throng the cafes, restaurants and shops around Market Square. Portsmouth annually celebrates the revitalization of its downtown (in particular Market Square) with Market Square Day, a celebration dating back to 1977, produced by the non-profit Pro Portsmouth, Inc.
Portsmouth shipbuilding history has had a long symbiotic relationship with Kittery, Maine, across the Piscataqua River. In 1781 - 1782, the naval hero John Paul Jones lived in Portsmouth while supervising construction of his ship Ranger, which was built on nearby Badger 's Island in Kittery. During that time, he boarded at the Captain Gregory Purcell house, which now bears Jones ' name, as it is the only surviving property in the United States associated with him. Built by the master housewright Hopestill Cheswell, an African American, it has been designated as a National Historic Landmark. It now serves as the Portsmouth Historical Society Museum.
The Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, established in 1800 as the first federal navy yard, is located on Seavey 's Island in Kittery, Maine. The base is famous for being the site of the 1905 signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth which ended the Russo - Japanese War. Though US President Theodore Roosevelt orchestrated the peace conference that brought Russian and Japanese diplomats to Portsmouth and the Shipyard, he never came to Portsmouth, relying on the Navy and people of New Hampshire as the hosts. Roosevelt won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for his diplomacy in bringing about an end to the War.
In 2006, Portsmouth became an Eco-municipality.
The city announced construction of a 600 - space garage, the city 's second downtown parking garage, to begin in April or May 2017. The $1.9 million project is being built on a new street called Deer Street Extension and is expected to be completed by September 2018.
Jackson House (built 1664) as it appeared in 1909
Warner House (built 1716) as it appeared in 1902
Wentworth - Coolidge Mansion (built 1750) as it appeared in 1902
Moffatt - Ladd House (built 1763), home of William Whipple, as it appeared in 1905
Governor Langdon House (1784)
Governor Goodwin Mansion (c. 1811), Strawbery Banke Museum
Old Custom House & Post Office (1860), designed by Ammi B. Young
First Wentworth House (c. 1907)
Portsmouth Bridge, ca. 1910
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 16.8 square miles (43.6 km), of which 15.6 square miles (40.5 km) is land and 1.2 square miles (3.1 km), or 7.21 %, is water. Portsmouth is drained by Sagamore Creek and the Piscataqua River. The highest point in the city is 110 feet (34 m) above sea level, within Pease International Airport.
The city is crossed by Interstate 95, U.S. Route 1, U.S. Route 4, New Hampshire Route 1A, New Hampshire Route 16, and New Hampshire Route 33. Boston is 55 miles (89 km) to the south, Portland, Maine, is 53 miles (85 km) to the northeast, and Dover, New Hampshire, is 13 miles (21 km) to the northwest.
Portsmouth has a humid continental climate in spite of its maritime position, due to prevailing inland winds. Summers are moderately warm with winter days averaging around the freezing point, but with cold nights bringing it below the required − 3 ° C (27 ° F) isotherm to have a humid continental climate. With high year - round precipitation, the cold winters can often be very snowy and summers wet.
As of the census of 2010, there were 21,233 people, 10,014 households, and 4,736 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,361.1 people per square mile (524.4 / km2). There were 10,625 housing units at an average density of 681.1 per square mile (262.3 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91.5 % White, 1.7 % African American, 0.2 % Native American, 3.5 % Asian, 0.01 % Pacific Islander, 0.7 % some other race, and 2.3 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.8 % of the population.
There were 10,014 households, out of which 20.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.5 % were headed by married couples living together, 8.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 52.7 % were non-families. 39.2 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8 % were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.03, and the average family size was 2.75.
In the city, the population was spread out with 16.6 % under the age of 18, 7.7 % from 18 to 24, 32.2 % from 25 to 44, 27.6 % from 45 to 64, and 15.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.3 years. For every 100 females there were 94.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.6 males.
For the period 2010 - 14, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $67,679, and the median income for a family was $90,208. Male full - time workers had a median income of $58,441 versus $45,683 for females. The per capita income for the city was $42,724. About 4.0 % of families and 7.6 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.9 % of those under age 18 and 7.1 % of those age 65 or over.
The city of Portsmouth operates under a council - manager system of government. Portsmouth elects a nine - member at - large City Council to serve as the city 's primary legislative body. The candidate who receives the highest number of votes is designated the Mayor (currently Jack Blalock), while the candidate receiving the second - highest vote total is designated the Assistant Mayor (currently James R. Splaine). While the mayor and council convene to establish municipal policy, the day - to - day operations of the city government are overseen by the City Manager (currently John Bohenko).
Portsmouth is part of New Hampshire 's 1st congressional district, currently represented by Democrat Carol Shea - Porter. Portsmouth is part of the Executive Council 's 3rd district, currently represented by Republican Russell Prescott. In the State Senate, Portsmouth is represented by Democrat Martha Fuller Clark. In the State House of Representatives, Portsmouth is divided among the 25th through 31st districts.
Politically, Portsmouth is a center of liberal politics and stronghold for the Democratic Party. In 2016, Portsmouth voted 67.70 % for Hillary Clinton in the presidential election, 62.53 % for Colin Van Ostern in the gubernatorial election, 64.48 % for Maggie Hassan in the senatorial election, and 62.16 % for Carol Shea - Porter in the congressional election. In 2014, Portsmouth voted 70.05 % for Maggie Hassan in the gubernatorial election, 67.34 % for Jeanne Shaheen in the senatorial election, and 68.34 % for Carol Shea - Porter in the congressional election. In 2012, Portsmouth voted 67.56 % for Barack Obama in the presidential election, 70.16 % for Maggie Hassan in the gubernatorial election, and 68.50 % for Carol Shea - Porter in the congressional election.
In March 2014, Portsmouth became the first municipality in New Hampshire to implement protections for city employees from discrimination on the basis of gender identity, by a 9 - 0 vote of the city council.
Heinemann USA is based in Portsmouth. Before its dissolution, Boston - Maine Airways (Pan Am Clipper Connection), a regional airline, was also headquartered in Portsmouth. Companies with headquarters in Portsmouth include packaged software producer Bottomline Technologies and frozen yogurt maker Sweet Scoops.
According to the city 's 2012 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top ten employers in the city are:
The Seacoast United Phantoms are a soccer team based in Portsmouth. Founded in 1996, the team plays in the USL Premier Development League (PDL), the fourth tier of the American Soccer Pyramid, in the Northeast Division of the Eastern Conference.
Portsmouth has six Sister Cities and one Friendship City as designated by Sister Cities International
Friendship city:
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who sings dont you worry bout a thing in the movie sing | Do n't You Worry ' bout a Thing - wikipedia
"Do n't You Worry ' bout a Thing '' is a single by Stevie Wonder, taken from his 1973 album Innervisions. It reached number 16 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart, number 10 on the Cash Box chart, and number 2 on the R&B chart. The song 's lyrics convey a positive message, focusing on taking things in one 's stride and accentuating the positive.
The tune is in E ♭ minor, starting with a Latin piano intro. The opening melody is reminiscent of Horace Silver 's "Song For My Father. '' The song 's second chorus begins with Stevie taking the vocals up an octave with two vocal overdubs singing the same line. He also sings two other background overdub vocals, mimicking a horn line with the Spanish phrase "Todo ' stá bien chévere '', which, loosely translated, means "Everything 's really great. ''
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what document granted englishmen certain rights and started england | Bill of Rights 1689 - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights, also known as the English Bill of Rights, is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the right of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England.
These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they quickly became popular in England. It also sets out -- or, in the view of its drafters, restates -- certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people, as represented in Parliament.
In the United Kingdom, the Bill of Rights is further accompanied by Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights.
Along with the Act of Settlement 1701, the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending both of them came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015.
During the 17th century, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta. The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642 -- 1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653 -- 1659) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence.
Objecting to the policies of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland), a group of English Parliamentarians invited the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange - Nassau (William of Orange) to overthrow the King. William 's successful invasion with a Dutch fleet and army led to James fleeing to France. In December 1688, William took over the provisional government by appointment of the peers of the realm, as was the legal right of the latter in circumstances when the King was incapacitated, and summoned an assembly of certain members of parliament. This assembly called for an English Convention Parliament to be elected, which convened on 22 January 1689.
The proposal to draw up a statement of rights and liberties and James 's violation of them was first made on 29 January 1689 in the House of Commons, with members arguing that the House "can not answer it to the nation or Prince of Orange till we declare what are the rights invaded '' and that William "can not take it ill if we make conditions to secure ourselves for the future '' in order to "do justice to those who sent us hither ''. On 2 February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23 Heads of Grievances, which the Commons approved and added some of their own. However, on 4 February the Commons decided to instruct the committee to differentiate between "such of the general heads, as are introductory of new laws, from those that are declaratory of ancient rights ''. On 7 February the Commons approved this revised Declaration of Right, and on 8 February instructed the committee to put into a single text the Declaration (with the heads which were "introductory of new laws '' removed), the resolution of 28 January and the Lords ' proposal for a revised oath of allegiance. It passed the Commons without division.
On 13 February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right, and the Marquess of Halifax, in the name of all the estates of the realm, asked William and Mary to accept the throne. William replied for his wife and himself: "We thankfully accept what you have offered us ''. They then went in procession to the great gate at Whitehall. The Garter King at Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England, France, and Ireland, whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal, with the Bishop of London preaching the sermon. They were crowned on 11 April, swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament. The Coronation Oath Act 1688 had provided a new coronation oath, whereby the monarchs were to "solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same ''. They were also to maintain the laws of God, the true profession of the Gospel, and the Protestant Reformed faith established by law. This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch. The previous oath required the monarch to rule based on "the laws and customs... granted by the Kings of England ''.
The Declaration of Right was enacted in an Act of Parliament, the Bill of Rights 1689, which received the Royal Assent in December 1689. The Act asserted "certain ancient rights and liberties '' by declaring that:
The Act declared James ' flight from England following the Glorious Revolution to be an abdication of the throne. It listed twelve of James 's policies by which James designed to "endeavour to subvert and extirpate the protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom ''. These were:
In a prelude to the Act of Settlement to come twelve years later, the Bill of Rights barred Roman Catholics from the throne of England as "it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince ''; thus William III and Mary II were named as the successors of James II and that the throne would pass from them first to Mary 's heirs, then to her sister, Princess Anne of Denmark and her heirs (and, thereafter, to any heirs of William by a later marriage).
The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688. This convention arises from the legal fiction (prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed. The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 (New Style), or, under the Old Style calendar in use at the time, 13 February 1688. Under the Short Titles Act 1896, the Bill was given the official short title of "The Bill of Rights '', without a calendar year suffix.
The Bill of Rights was later supplemented by the Act of Settlement 1701 (which was agreed to by the Parliament of Scotland as part of the Treaty of Union). The Act of Settlement altered the line of succession to the throne laid out in the Bill of Rights. However, both the Bill of Rights and the Claim of Right contributed a great deal to the establishment of the concept of parliamentary sovereignty and the curtailment of the powers of the monarch. Leading, ultimately, to the establishment of constitutional monarchy, while also (along with the penal laws) settling the political and religious turmoil that had convulsed Scotland, England and Ireland in the 17th century.
The Bill of Rights (1689) reinforced the Petition of Right (1628) and the Habeas Corpus Act (1679) by codifying certain rights and liberties. Described by William Blackstone as Fundamental Laws of England, the rights expressed in these Acts became associated with the idea of the rights of Englishmen.. The Bill of Rights directly influenced the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which in turn influenced the Declaration of Independence.
Although not a comprehensive statement of civil and political liberties, the Bill of Rights stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in the United Kingdom and a model for later, more general, statements of rights; these include the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. For example, as with the Bill of Rights 1689, the US Constitution prohibits excessive bail and "cruel and unusual punishment ''. Similarly, "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment '' is banned under Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
The Bill of Rights remains in statute and continues to be cited in legal proceedings in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, particularly Article 9 on parliamentary freedom of speech. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement 1701 came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 which changed the laws of succession to the British throne.
Part of the Bill of Rights remains in statute in the Republic of Ireland.
The Bill of Rights applies in England and Wales; it was enacted in the Kingdom of England which at the time included Wales. Scotland has its own legislation, the Claim of Right Act 1689, passed before the Act of Union between England and Scotland. There are doubts as to whether, or to what extent, the Bill of Rights applies in Northern Ireland.
On 21 July 1995 a libel case brought by Neil Hamilton (then a member of parliament) against The Guardian was stopped after Justice May ruled that the Bill of Rights ' prohibition on the courts ' ability to question parliamentary proceedings would prevent The Guardian from obtaining a fair hearing. Section 13 of the Defamation Act 1996, was subsequently enacted to permit MPs to waive their parliamentary privilege and thus cite their own speeches if relevant to litigation.
Following the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum in 2016, the Bill of Rights was quoted in a court ruling on a legal challenge seeking a judicial declaration that triggering EU exit must first be authorised by an act of Parliament.
The ninth article, regarding parliamentary freedom of speech, is actively used in Australia.
The article on parliamentary freedom of speech is in active use in Canada.
The Bill of Rights was invoked in New Zealand in the 1976 case of Fitzgerald v Muldoon and Others, which centred on the purporting of newly appointed Prime Minister Robert Muldoon that he would advise the Governor - General to abolish a superannuation scheme established by the New Zealand Superannuation Act, 1974, without new legislation. Muldoon felt that the dissolution would be immediate and he would later introduce a bill in parliament to retroactively make the abolition legal. This claim was challenged in court and the Chief Justice declared that Muldoon 's actions were illegal as they had violated Article 1 of the Bill of Rights, which provides "that the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority... is illegal. ''
The Act was retained in the Republic of Ireland although sections were repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 2007 section 2 (2) (a), and Part 2 of Schedule 1. Section 2 (3) of that Act repealed:
Two special designs of commemorative two pound coins were issued in the United Kingdom in 1989 to celebrate the tercentenary of the Glorious Revolution. One referred to the Bill of Rights and the other to the Claim of Right. Both depict the Royal Cypher of William and Mary and the mace of the House of Commons, one also shows a representation of the St Edward 's Crown and the other the Crown of Scotland.
In May 2011, the Bill of Rights was inscribed in UNESCO 's UK Memory of the World Register recognizing that:
All the main principles of the Bill of Rights are still in force today, and the Bill of Rights continues to be cited in legal cases in the UK and in Commonwealth countries. It has a primary place in a wider national historical narrative of documents which established the rights of Parliament and set out universal civil liberties, starting with Magna Carta in 1215. It also has international significance, as it was a model for the US Bill of Rights 1789, and its influence can be seen in other documents which establish rights of human beings, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights.
As part of the Parliament in the Making programme, the Bill of Rights was on display at the Houses of Parliament in February 2015 and at the British Library from March through September 2015.
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what the difference between san kun and chan | Japanese honorifics - wikipedia
The Japanese language makes use of honorific suffixes when referring to others in a conversation. These suffixes are attached to the end of names, and are often gender - neutral. Honorific suffixes also indicate the level of the speaker and referred individual 's relationship and are often used alongside other components of Japanese honorific speech, called keigo (敬語).
Although honorifics are not part of the basic grammar of the Japanese language, they are a fundamental part of the sociolinguistics of Japanese, and proper use is essential to proficient and appropriate speech. Referring to oneself using an honorific, or dropping an honorific when it is required, is a serious faux pas, in either case coming across as clumsy or arrogant.
They can be applied to either the first or last name depending on which is given. In situations where both the first and last names are spoken, the suffix is attached to whichever comes last in the word order.
An honorific is generally used when referring to the person one is talking to (one 's interlocutor), or when referring to an unrelated third party in speech. It is dropped, however, by some superiors, when referring to one 's in - group, or in formal writing, and is never used to refer to oneself, except for dramatic effect, or some exceptional cases.
Dropping the honorific suffix when referring to one 's interlocutor, which is known as to yobisute (呼び捨て), implies a high degree of intimacy and is generally reserved for one 's spouse, younger family members, social inferiors (as in a teacher addressing students in traditional arts), and very close friends. Within sports teams or among classmates, where the interlocutors approximately have the same age or seniority, it can be acceptable to use family names without honorifics. Some people of the younger generation, roughly born since 1970, prefer to be referred to without an honorific. However, dropping honorifics is a sign of informality even with casual acquaintances.
When referring to a third person, honorifics are used except when referring to one 's family members while talking to a non-family member, or when referring to a member of one 's company while talking to a customer or someone from another company -- this is the uchi -- soto (in - group / out group) distinction. Honorifics are not used to refer to oneself, except when trying to be arrogant (ore - sama), to be cute (- chan), or sometimes when talking to young children to teach them how to address the speaker.
Use of honorifics is correlated with other forms of honorific speech in Japanese, such as use of the polite form (- masu, desu) versus the plain form -- using the plain form with a polite honorific (- san, - sama) can be jarring, for instance.
While these honorifics are solely used on proper nouns, these suffixes can turn common nouns into proper nouns when attached to the end of them. This can be seen on words such as 猫 ちゃん ("neko - chan '') which turns the common noun neko (cat) into a proper noun which would refer solely to that particular cat, while adding the honorific - chan can also mean cute or small.
When translating honorific suffixes into English, separate pronouns or adjectives must be used in order to convey characteristics to the person they are referencing as well. While some honorifics such as "- san '' are very frequently used due to their gender neutrality and very simple definition of polite unfamiliarity, other honorifics such as "- chan '' or "- kun '' are more specific as to the context in which they must be used as well as the implications they give off when attached to a person 's name. These implications can only be translated into English using either adjectives or adjective word phrases.
San (さん) (sometimes pronounced han (は ん) in Kansai dialect) is the most commonplace honorific and is a title of respect typically used between equals of any age. Although the closest analog in English are the honorifics "Mr. '', "Miss '', "Ms. '', or "Mrs. '', - san is almost universally added to a person 's name; "- san '' can be used in formal and informal contexts and for any gender. Because it is the most common honorific, it is also the most often used to convert common nouns into proper ones, as seen below.
San may be used in combination with workplace nouns, so a bookseller might be addressed or referred to as honya - san ("bookstore '' + san) and a butcher as nikuya - san ("butcher 's shop '' + san).
San is sometimes used with company names. For example, the offices or shop of a company called Kojima Denki might be referred to as "Kojima Denki - san '' by another nearby company. This may be seen on small maps often used in phone books and business cards in Japan, where the names of surrounding companies are written using san.
San can be attached to the names of animals or even inanimate objects. For example, a pet rabbit might be called usagi - san, and fish used for cooking can be referred to as sakana - san, but both would be considered childish (akin to "Mr. Fish '' or "Mr. Fishy '' to equivalate in English) and would be avoided in formal speech. Married people often refer to their spouse with san.
Due to - san being gender neutral and commonly used, it can be used to refer to people who are not close or whom one does not know. However, it may not be appropriate when using it on someone who is close or when it is clear that other honorifics should be used.
Online, Japanese gamers often append a numeral 3 to another player 's name to denote san (e.g., Taro3 conveys Taro - san), since the number three is also pronounced san.
Sama (様 (さま)) is a more respectful version for people of a higher rank than oneself, toward one 's guests or customers (such as a sports venue announcer addressing members of the audience), and sometimes toward people one greatly admires. It is seemingly said to be the origin word for "- san '' but there is no major evidence otherwise. Deities such as the native Shinto kami and the Christian God, are referred to as kami - sama, meaning "Revered spirit - sama ''. When used to refer to oneself, sama expresses extreme arrogance (or self - effacing irony), as in praising one 's self to be of a higher rank, as with ore - sama (俺 様, "my esteemed self '').
Sama customarily follows the addressee 's name on postal packages and letters and in business email.
Sama also appears in such set phrases as omachidō sama ("thank you for waiting '') or otsukare sama ("thank you for a good job '').
With the exception of the Emperor of Japan, sama can be used to informally address the Empress and other members of the Imperial Family. The Emperor is, however, always addressed as Heika (Your Majesty). (See "Royal and official titles '' below).
Kun (君 (くん)) is generally used by people of senior status addressing or referring to those of junior status, by anyone addressing or it can be used when referring to men in general, male children or male teenagers, or among male friends. It can be used by males or females when addressing a male whom they are emotionally attached to or have known for a long time. Although it may seem rude in workplaces, the suffix is also used by juniors when referring to seniors in both academic situations and workplaces, more typically when the two people are associated.
Although kun is generally used for boys, it is not a hard rule. For example, kun can be used to name a close personal friend or family member of any gender. In business settings, young female employees are addressed as kun by older males of senior status. It can be used by male teachers addressing their female students.
' Kun ' can mean different things depending on the gender. "Kun '' for females is a more respectful name than calling them cute. Kun is not only used to address females formally; it can also be used for a very close friend or family member. Calling a female ' Kun ' is not insulting, and can also mean that the person is respected, although that is not the normal implication. Sisters with the same name, such as ' Miku, ' may be differentiated by calling one ' Miku ~ Chan ' and the other ' Miku ~ San ' or ' Sama, ' and on some occasions ' Kun. ' ' Chan ' and ' Kun ' sometimes mean similar things. General use of ' Kun ' means "sweet and kind. ''
In the National Diet (Legislature), the Speaker of the House uses kun when addressing Diet members and ministers. An exception was when Takako Doi was the Speaker of the lower house, where she used the title san.
Chan (ちゃん) is a diminutive suffix; it expresses that the speaker finds a person endearing. It is seemingly said to have come from a "cute '' pronouncing of - san (in Japanese, replacing s sounds with ch sounds is seen as cute), although there is no evidence otherwise as this suffix has been used since the early days of ancient Japan. In general, chan is used for babies, young children, friends, grandparents and adolescents. It may also be used towards cute animals, lovers, close friends, any youthful woman, or between friends. Using chan with a superior 's name is considered to be condescending and rude.
Although traditionally, honorifics are not applied to oneself, some people adopt the childish affectation of referring to themselves in the third person using chan (childish because it suggests that one has not learned to distinguish between names used for oneself and names used by others). For example, a young woman named Kanako might call herself Kanako - chan rather than using a first person pronoun. "Chan '' is only used between people who have known each other for a long time or who are of the same gender. Otherwise, using this for someone, especially adults, only known for a short period of time, can be seen as offensive.
Tan (たん) is an even more cute or affectionate variant of "chan ''. It evokes a small child 's mispronunciation of that form of address, or baby talk -- similar to how, for example, a speaker of English might use "widdle '' instead of "little '' when speaking to a baby. Moe anthropomorphisms are often labeled as "- tan '', e.g., the commercial mascot Habanero - tan, the manga figure Afghanis - tan or the OS - tans representing operating systems.
Bō (坊 (ぼう)) is another diminutive that expresses endearment. Like "chan '', it is used for babies or young children, but is exclusively used for boys instead of girls.
Senpai (先輩 (せん ぱい)) is used to address or refer to one 's elder colleagues in a school, dojo, or sports club. So at school, the students in higher grades than oneself are senpai. Teachers are not senpai, but rather they are "Sensei. '' Neither are students of the same or lower grade: they are referred to as kōhai. In a business environment, those with more experience are senpai.
Sensei (先生 (せんせい)) (literally meaning "former - born '') is used to refer to or address teachers, doctors, politicians, lawyers, and other authority figures. It is used to show respect to someone who has achieved a certain level of mastery in an art form or some other skill, such as accomplished novelists, musicians, artists and martial artists. In Japanese martial arts, sensei typically refers to someone who is the head of a dojo. As with senpai, sensei can be used not only as a suffix, but also as a stand - alone title. The term is not generally used when addressing a person with very high academic expertise; the one used instead is hakase (博士 (はかせ)) (lit. "Doctor '' or "PhD '').
Sensei can be used fawningly, and it can also be employed sarcastically to ridicule such fawning. The Japanese media invoke it (rendered in katakana, akin to scare quotes or italics in English) to highlight the megalomania of those who allow themselves to be sycophantically addressed with the term.
Shi (氏 (し)) is used in formal writing, and sometimes in very formal speech, for referring to a person who is unfamiliar to the speaker, typically a person known through publications whom the speaker has never actually met. For example, the shi title is common in the speech of newsreaders. It is preferred in legal documents, academic journals, and certain other formal written styles. Once a person 's name has been used with shi, the person can be referred to with shi alone, without the name, as long as there is only one person being referred to.
It is common to use a job title after someone 's name, instead of using a general honorific. For example, an athlete (選手, senshu) named Ichiro might be referred to as "Ichiro - senshu '' rather than "Ichiro - san '', and a master carpenter (棟梁, tōryō) named Suzuki might be referred to as "Suzuki - tōryō '' rather than "Suzuki - san ''.
In a business setting, it is common to refer to people using their rank, especially for positions of authority, such as department chief (部長, buchō) or company president (社長, shachō). Within one 's own company or when speaking of another company, title + san is used, so a president is shachō - san. When speaking of one 's own company to a customer or another company, the title is used by itself or attached to a name, so a department chief named Suzuki is referred to as Buchō or Suzuki - buchō.
However, when referring to oneself, the title is used indirectly, as using it directly is perceived as arrogant. Thus, a department chief named Suzuki will introduce themselves as 部長 の 鈴木 Buchō - no - Suzuki, rather than × 鈴木 部長 * Suzuki - buchō.
Convicted and suspected criminals were once referred to without any title, but now an effort is made to distinguish between suspects (容疑 者, yōgisha), defendants (被告, hikoku), and convicts (受刑 者, jukeisha), so as not to presume guilt before anything has been proven. These titles can be used by themselves or attached to names.
However, although "suspect '' and "defendant '' began as neutral descriptions, they have become derogatory over time. When actor and musician Gorō Inagaki was arrested for a traffic accident in 2001, some media referred him with the newly made title menbā (メンバー), originating from the English word member, to avoid use of yōgisha (容疑 者, suspect). But in addition to being criticized as an unnatural term, this title also became derogatory almost instantly -- an example of euphemism treadmill.
There are several different words for "our company '' and "your company ''. "Our company '' can be expressed with the humble heisha (弊社, "clumsy / poor company '') or the neutral jisha (自社, "our own company ''), and "your company '' can be expressed with the honorific kisha (貴社, "noble company '', used in writing) or onsha (御社, "honorable company '', used in speech). Additionally, the neutral tōsha (当社, "this company '') can refer to either the speaker 's or the listener 's company. All of these titles are used by themselves, not attached to names.
When mentioning a company 's name, it is considered important to include its status depending on whether it is incorporated (株式 会社, kabushikigaisha) or limited (有限 会社, yūgen gaisha). These are often abbreviated as 株 and 有 respectively.
Tono (殿 (と の)), pronounced dono (どの) when attached to a name, roughly means "lord '' or "master ''. It does not equate noble status; rather it is a term akin to "milord '' or French "monseigneur '', and lies below sama in level of respect. This title is not commonly used in daily conversation, but it is still used in some types of written business correspondence, as well as on certificates and awards, and in written correspondence in tea ceremonies. It is / was also used to indicate that the person referred to has the same (high) rank as the referrer, yet commands respect from the speaker.
No kimi (の 君) is another suffix coming from Japanese history. It was used to denominate Lords and Ladies in the Court, especially during the Heian period. The most famous example is the Prince Hikaru Genji, protagonist of The Tale of Genji who was called "Hikaru no Kimi "(光 の 君). Nowadays, this suffix can be used as a metaphor for someone who behaves like a prince or princess from ancient times, but its use is very rare. Its main usage remains in historical dramas.
This suffix also appears when addressing lovers in letters from a man to a woman, as in, "Murasaki no kimi '' or "My beloved Ms. Murasaki ''.
Ue (上) literally means "above '', and denotes a high level of respect. While its use is no longer common, it is still seen in constructions like chichi - ue (父上), haha - ue (母上) and ane - ue (姉 上), reverent terms for "father '', "mother '' and "sister '' respectively. Receipts that do not require specification of the payer 's name are often filled in with ue - sama.
Martial artists often address their teachers as sensei. Junior and senior students are organized via a senpai / kōhai system. Also in some systems of karate, O - Sensei is the title of the (deceased) head of the style. This is how the founder of Aikido, Morihei Ueshiba is often referred to by practitioners of that art. The ' O ' prefix itself, translating roughly as "great (er) '' or "major, '' is also an honorific.
Various titles are also employed to refer to senior instructors. Which titles are used depends on the particular licensing organization.
Shōgō (称号, "title '', "name '', "degree '') are martial arts titles developed by the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, the Kokusai Budoin and the International Martial Arts Federation Europe. Many organizations in Japan award such titles upon a sincere study and dedication of Japanese martial arts. The below mentioned titles are awarded after observing a person 's martial arts skills, his / her ability of teaching and understanding of martial arts and the most importantly as a role model and the perfection of one 's character.
Levels of black belts sometimes used as martial arts titles
In informal speech, some Japanese people may use contrived suffixes in place of normal honorifics. This is essentially a form of wordplay, with suffixes being chosen for their sound, or for friendly or scornful connotations. Although the range of such suffixes that might be coined is limitless, some have gained such widespread usage that the boundary between established honorifics and wordplay has become a little blurred. Examples of such suffixes include variations on chan (see below), bee (scornful), and rin (friendly). Note that unlike a proper honorific, use of such suffixes is governed largely by how they sound in conjunction with a particular name, and on the effect the speaker is trying to achieve.
Some honorifics have baby talk versions -- mispronunciations stereotypically associated with small children and cuteness, and more frequently used in popular entertainment than in everyday speech. The baby talk version of sama is chama (ちゃ ま).
There are even baby talk versions of baby talk versions. Chan can be changed to tan (たん), and less often, chama (ちゃ ま) to tama (たま).
Words for family members have two different forms in Japanese. When referring to one 's own family members while speaking to a non-family - member, neutral, descriptive nouns are used, such as haha (母) for "mother '' and ani (兄) for "older brother ''. When addressing one 's own family members or addressing or referring to someone else 's family members, honorific forms are used. Using the suffix - san, as is most common, "mother '' becomes okāsan (お母さん) and "older brother '' becomes oniisan (お 兄さん). The honorifics - chan and - sama may also be used instead of - san, to express a higher level of closeness or reverence, respectively.
The general rule is that a younger family member (e.g., a young brother) addresses an older family member (e.g., a big brother) using an honorific form, while the older family member calls the younger one only by name.
The honorific forms are:
The initial o - (お) in these nouns is itself an honorific prefix. In more casual situations the speaker may omit this prefix but will keep the suffix.
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who sings the theme to ncis new orleans | Boom Boom (John Lee Hooker song) - wikipedia
"Boom Boom '' is a song written by American blues singer / guitarist John Lee Hooker and recorded in 1961. Although a blues song, music critic Charles Shaar Murray calls it "the greatest pop song he ever wrote ''. "Boom Boom '' was both an American R&B and pop chart success in 1962 as well as placing in the UK Singles Chart in 1992.
The song is one of Hooker 's most identifiable and enduring and "among the tunes that every band on the (early 1960s UK) R&B circuit simply had to play ''. It has been recorded by numerous blues and other artists, including a 1965 North American hit by the Animals.
Prior to recording for Vee - Jay Records, John Lee Hooker was primarily a solo performer or accompanied by a second guitarist, such as early collaborators Eddie Burns or Eddie Kirkland. However, with Vee - Jay, he usually recorded with a small backing band, as heard on the singles "Dimples '', "I Love You Honey '', and "No Shoes ''. Detroit pianist Joe Hunter, who had previously worked with Hooker, was again enlisted for the recording session. Hunter brought with him "the cream of the Motown label 's session men, later known as the Funk Brothers '': bassist James Jamerson, drummer Benny Benjamin, plus guitarist Larry Veeder, tenor saxophonist Hank Cosby, and baritone saxophonist Andrew "Mike '' Terry. They have been described as "just the right band '' for "Boom Boom ''. Hooker had a unique sense of timing, which demanded "big - eared sidemen ''. The original "Boom Boom '' is an uptempo (168 beats per minute) blues song, which has been notated in time in the key of F. It has been described as "about the tightest musical structure of any Hooker composition: its verses sedulously adhere to the twelve - bar format over which Hooker generally rides so roughshod ''. The song uses "a stop - time hook that opens up for one of the genre 's most memorable guitar riffs '' and incorporates a middle instrumental section Hooker - style boogie.
According to Hooker, he wrote the song during an extended engagement at the Apex Bar in Detroit.
I would never be on time (for the gig); I always would be late comin ' in. And she (the bartender Willa) kept saying, ' Boom boom -- you late again '. Every night: ' Boom, boom -- you late again '. I said ' Hmm, that 's a song! '... I got it together, the lyrics, rehearsed it, and I played it at the place, and the people went wild ".
Hooker 's lyrics include
Boom, boom, boom, boom I 'm gon na shoot you right down Right off your feet Take you home with me Put you in my house Boom, boom, boom, boom
Also included are several wordless phrases, "how - how - how - how '' and "hmm - hmm - hmm - hmm ''. "Boom Boom '' became the Hooker song that is "the most memorable, the most instantly appealing, and the one which has proved the most adaptable to the needs of other performers ''.
When "Boom Boom '' was released as a single in May 1962, the song became a hit. It entered the Billboard R&B chart on June 16, 1962, where it spent eight weeks and reached number 16. The song also entered the Billboard Hot 100, where it reached number 60, making it one of only two Hooker singles to enter the pop chart. It was included on the 1962 Vee - Jay album Burnin ' (SR 1043) as well as many Hooker compilations, including John Lee Hooker: The Ultimate Collection.
Thirty years later in the UK, after being featured in a Lee Jeans commercial in 1992, the song reached number 16 in the UK Singles Chart. Hooker recorded several later versions. Following the success of the Animals ' version, Hooker re-recorded the song in 1968 for Stateside Records as the B - side of "Cry Before I Go '' under the longer title "Boom Boom Boom ''. He reworked the song as "Bang Bang Bang Bang '' for his Live at Soledad Prison album, as a South Side Chicago street musician in the film The Blues Brothers (but the song itself is not included in the film soundtrack), and as the title track for his 1992 album Boom Boom with Jimmie Vaughan.
English rock band the Animals recorded "Boom Boom '' for their 1964 UK debut album The Animals. Their blues - rock rendition generally follows John Lee Hooker 's original, although they add "shake it baby '' as a response to the "come on and shake '' refrain in the middle section, taken from Hooker 's "Shake It Baby '' (recorded during the 1962 American Folk Blues Festival tour in Europe, where it became a hit in 1963).
The Animals ' version was released as a single in North America in November 1964. It reached number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 14 on the RPM Top 40&5 singles chart. The song was also released in Australia and India and is included on the Animals ' second American album The Animals on Tour as well as various compilation albums (sometimes with the twelve - bar guitar solo edited out).
Over the years, several versions of "Boom Boom '' have been recorded by various Animals reunion lineups as well as by former members Eric Burdon and Alan Price. In 2012, the original 1964 version was used in the film Skyfall.
In 1995, John Lee Hooker 's "Boom Boom '' was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's list of "The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll ''. It was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in 2009 in the "Classics of Blues Recording '' category. A Detroit Free Press poll in 2016 ranked the song at number 37 in "Detroit 's 100 Greatest Songs ''.
A variety of artists have recorded the song, including: Rufus Thomas, Mae West, Shadows of Knight, CCS, Dr. Feelgood, Tony Joe White, Disco Tex and the Sex - O - Lettes, Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, Big Head Todd and the Monsters (whose version was chosen in 2014 as the theme song for NCIS: New Orleans, and is played at Carolina Panthers home games when a touchdown is scored) and the Oak Ridge Boys. "Boom Boom '' was the first studio recording by Eric Clapton, who recorded it as a demo with the Yardbirds in 1963, and which was released as a single in the Netherlands and Germany in 1966. ZZ Top later used similar lines ("how - how - how - how '') to those found in "Boom Boom '', on "La Grange ''.
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list of weapons made on forged in fire | Forged in Fire (TV series) - wikipedia
Forged in Fire is an American competition series that airs on the History channel, and is produced by Outpost Entertainment, a Leftfield Entertainment company. In each episode, four bladesmiths compete in a three - round elimination contest to forge bladed weapons, with the overall winner receiving $10,000 and the day 's championship title. The series is hosted by Wil Willis, with a three - judge panel consisting of J. Neilson (Jason Knight during portions of season 3 and 4), David Baker, and Doug Marcaida, experts in weapon history and use. History ordered an initial eight episodes of the series. with the first program premiering on Monday, June 22, 2015, at 10pm ET. Season two premiered on February 16, 2016. The third season premiered with a "champion of champions '' match on August 23, 2016, and was announced as having 16 episodes. The fourth season premiered on April 11, 2017, with a "Judges ' Pick '' episode in which the four judges (Neilson, Knight, Baker, Marcaida) each selected one smith from past seasons to compete again.
The series is filmed in Brooklyn, New York. The set, referred to as "The Forge, '' is stocked with a wide range of metalworking equipment, including propane forges, coal forges, grinders, power hammers and hydraulic presses. At the end of each round, the smith whose weapon is judged to be the least satisfactory must surrender it and leave the competition. Medical personnel are present to treat any injuries or other health problems and may, at their discretion, disqualify smiths who are unable to continue safely.
In the first round, the four smiths are presented with a starting material that they must use to forge a blade. In some episodes, they all begin with the same material; in others, they may choose from an assortment of metal objects or must salvage their material from a source such as a junked car or lawnmower. Willis states one set of criteria concerning blade or blade / tang length, and often a second set for a feature that must be incorporated, such as serrations or a fuller groove; not all competitions require a special feature. The smiths are typically given 10 minutes to sketch out their designs, but this time is occasionally extended or omitted altogether. Following the design period, they are given a set length of time to forge their blades. Once time expires, the judges evaluate the blades based on Willis ' criteria and inspect their workmanship, quality, and design.
For the second round, the three remaining smiths are given an additional length of time to turn their blades into fully operational weapons. They must attach a handle, choosing from a range of provided materials and incorporating any special feature stated by Willis, and grind, sharpen, and polish the blades. They may also address any flaws or issues pointed out by the judges in the first round, if they choose to do so. After the time expires, the judges put each weapon through a series of tests to gauge properties such as sharpness, durability, and ease of use. For these tests, the weapons are used to chop / slash / slice / stab various objects that include ice blocks, animal carcasses, sandbags, and car doors. If a weapon suffers catastrophic failure, defined as damage that renders it unsafe or ineffective for further testing, its maker is immediately disqualified. The judges may, at their discretion, choose not to subject a weapon to a particular test if it is sufficiently cracked or flawed.
The working time in each of the first two rounds is typically three hours, but may be extended to four hours if an added feature poses a sufficient challenge, such as being required to forge a billet with modern damascus steel methods and use it for the blade.
In the third round, the two remaining smiths are shown a historically significant weapon and are given five days to create a version of it. They return to their home forges to do the work and comply with any specifications set by Willis. Afterwards, they return to the Forge and submit their weapons for testing against objects and environments similar to the historical scenarios in which they were typically used. Based on the test results, the judges select one smith to receive the $10,000 prize.
The "Master & Apprentice '' episode in Season 4 featured four master / apprentice pairs of smiths. Only one member of each pair was allowed to work at any time, trading off every 30 minutes in the first two rounds, and every day in the third. The non-working member was allowed to offer advice. For this episode, the forging time in the first round was extended to three and a half hours.
For the "Ultimate Champions Edition '' episode in season 4, five champions from previous episodes were invited to compete again. The smiths were required to forge competition choppers at their homes and bring them to the studio for a log chop. One smith was eliminated based on the results of this test, after which the competition proceeded through the normal three rounds.
Willis is a former Army Ranger and decorated Air Force para-rescue specialist. Willis ' previous television experience includes Special Ops Mission and Triggers, two series that aired on the former Military Channel.
J. Neilson, a knife and sword expert, holds the rank of Master Smith within the American Bladesmith Society. He has over 20 years ' experience in making knives and edged weapons. He examines the weapons ' technical qualities and tests their durability. In Season 3, Neilson took a leave of absence in order to have surgery on his hand; Jason Knight, another ABS Master Smith, filled his seat on the judges ' panel during that time. Neilson appeared alongside Knight for the Season 4 premiere, then resumed his seat in the eighth episode. Starting with the 21st episode of the season, he was replaced by two - time Forged in Fire champion Ben Abbott.
David Baker, a Hollywood prop maker who has appeared on the Spike series Deadliest Warrior, is an authority on weapons history and an expert on replicating period - accurate weapons for both museums and films. He judges the weapons ' historical accuracy and aesthetic beauty.
Doug Marcaida, an edged - weapons specialist, is a U.S. military contractor, martial arts instructor and knife designer for FOX Knives Italy. Specializing in the Southeast Asian fighting style of Kali, he has taught classes in weapon awareness and use for military, law enforcement, and security organizations. Marcaida evaluates the smiths ' weapons to determine their effectiveness in combat. When he can not test the smiths ' weapons himself due to injury, he has a co-worker or family member perform this task in his place.
Tim Healy and Steve Ascher are executive producers for History. Jodi Flynn, Brent Montgomery, David George, Shawn Witt and Simon Thomas are executive producers for Outpost Entertainment. Healy observed the demonstration, and later the filming, from the sidelines. Healy says that the inspiration for Forged in Fire came from his and other developers ' love of food competition shows such as Chopped and Iron Chef. However, in order to appeal to the History channel 's audience, they decided to have the competition focus on historical weaponry.
In the city of Cohoes, New York near Albany, a man, inspired by the series, tried to forge a piece of metal over a fire in a barrel near his home. He caused a fire that destroyed three residential buildings and damaged 28 others.
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role of public private partnership in india's economic growth | Public -- private partnerships in India - wikipedia
The public -- private partnership (PPP or 3P) is a commercial legal relationship defined by the Government of India in 2011 as "an arrangement between a government / statutory entity / government owned entity on one side and a private sector entity on the other, for the provision of public assets and / or public services, through investments being made and / or management being undertaken by the private sector entity, for a specified period of time, where there is well defined allocation of risk between the private sector and the public entity and the private entity receives performance linked payments that conform (or are benchmarked) to specified and pre-determined performance standards, measurable by the public entity or its representative ''.
The Government of India recognizes several types of PPPs, including: User - fee based BOT model, Performance based management / maintenance contracts and Modified design - build (turnkey) contracts. Today, there are hundreds of PPP projects in various stages of implementation throughout the country.
As outlined in its XII Five Year Plan (2012 -- 2017), India has an ambitious target of infrastructure investment (estimated at US $1 trillion). In the face of such an enormous investment requirement, the Government of India is actively promoting PPPs in many sectors of the economy. According to the World Bank, about 824 PPP projects have reached financial closure since 1990 in India.
The Ministry of Finance centralizes the coordination of PPPs, through its Department of Economic Affairs ' (DEA) PPP Cell. I n 2011, the DEA published guidelines for the formulation and approval of PPP projects. This was part of an endeavor to streamline PPP procedures and strengthen the regulatory framework at the national level to expedite PPP projects approval, reassure private parties and encourage them to enter into PPPs in India. This was one of the main roles of the Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee (PPPAC) which is responsible for PPP project appraisal at the central level.
The Government also created a Viability Gap Funding Scheme for PPP projects to help promote the sustainability of the infrastructure projects. This scheme provides financial support (grants) to infrastructure projects, normally in the form of a capital grant at the stage of project construction (up to 20 percent of the total project).
The Government has also set up India Infrastructure Finance Company Limited (IIFCL) which provides long - term debt for financing infrastructure projects. Set up in 2006, IIFCL provides financial assistance in the following sectors: transportation, energy, water, sanitation, communication, social and commercial infrastructure.
To help finance the cost incurred towards development of PPP projects (which can be significant, and particularly the costs of transaction advisors), the Government of India has launched in 2007 the ' India Infrastructure Project Development Fund ' (IIPDF) which supports up to 75 % of the project development expenses.
Finally, the PPP Cell has produced a series of guidance papers and a ' PPP Toolkit ' to support project preparation and decision - making processes. The objective is to help improve decision - making for infrastructure PPPs in India and to improve the quality of the PPPs that are developed. The tookit has been designed with a focus on helping decision - making at the Central, State and Municipal levels.
Infrastructure in India is poor when compared to similarly developed nations. The Government of India identified public -- private partnerships (PPP) as a way of developing the country 's infrastructure. In the 1990s, during India 's first liberalization wave, there were various attempts to promote PPPs. However, in some sectors -- such as water and sanitation -- it failed. India was perceived as too risky and there was significant opposition to private sector involvement. It is only in the first half of the 2000s that the first PPPs were signed and implemented. Construction of infrastructure in India requires large capital outlays and there is a deficit in supply. Over fifty percent of major infrastructure development projects in Maharashtra state are based on 3P. Projects using the 3P model have also proceeded in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu state.
In August 2012, the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh, lifted the ban on the transfer of government - owned land, relaxed land transfer policy and did away with the need for Cabinet approval for 3P projects in order to accelerate the building of infrastructure.
Sixty percent of 3P projects are for road building and they represent forty - five percent of 3P monetary value. They are a part of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP). Examples of 3P road building projects are the Golden Quadrilateral and the North -- South and East -- West Corridor. About 14,000 km (8,700 mi) of India 's national highways are being converted to four - lane highways.
Port building projects account for ten percent of projects and thirty percent of the value of 3P. As of 2011, India had twelve major seaports and 185 minor seaports along its coast line of 7,517 km (4,671 mi). Seaports constructed via the 3P model increased the handling of cargo in India by ten percent between 2008 and 2011. Examples of port building projects include the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT) in Mumbai and Chennai port in association with P&O. The Indian government expects the National Maritime Development Programme (NMDP) to be a 3P stakeholder.
In India, no city yet offers continuous (24 / 7) water supply. The quality of the water supply service is low, with non-revenue water being as high as 40 percent in most cities. The poor are particularly affected by this situation and end up paying more for a liter of water than their wealthier counterparts. With the objective of widening access to water services and making water services more sustainable, the Government of India promoted PPPs in the water sector in the 1990s. However, this attempt failed as the Government did not manage to create a good enabling environment for private investment and poor project preparation. Furthermore, there was important opposition to private sector involvement in water delivery.
However, after this failed first attempt, a decade later some cities tried different types of PPP arrangements, such as management contracts. The allocation of risks between the public and the private sectors was more balanced. The public sector provided part of the initial funding and focused on efficiency gains. The mindsets of policymakers and politicians also started to evolve, with a better understanding of the role of private sector companies and less opposition to their involvement in the water space. Both the 2002 and 2012 National Water Policy recognized the importance of PPPs to solve water issues in urban areas. Between 2005 and 2011, 15 water public -- private partnerships were signed.
There have been a number of critics associated with Public Private Partnerships in India, in particular related to the risks that come with such partnerships.
It has been argued that PPP involve greater costs that traditional government procurement processes (because of the development, bidding and ongoing costs in PPP projects). Some have questioned the value - for - money relevance of PPP projects in India.
The private sector does not provide a service that is not specifically outlined in the PPP contract. It is thus critical that key performance indicators are precisely laid out in the contract and that the government monitors closely the work of its private partner.
Furthermore, there is a cost attached to debt and while private sector can help access to finance, it the customers or the government may end up bearing much of this cost.
Another critic of PPP projects is related to their social and political consequences, which can be significant. For example, a PPP project may result in the transfer of civil servants to the private sector, important tariff increases or resettlement issues to name a few.
Finally, PPPs often end up being renegotiated. This is due to the long - term nature of the PPP projects (some run for up to 30 years) and their complexity. It is difficult to identify all possible contingencies during project development and events and issues may arise that were not anticipated in the documents or by the parties at the time of the contract.
Other major drawbacks encountered in 3P projects in India include poorly drafted contracts and lack of understanding of contracts, inadequate resources, lack of managerial experience, breaches of contract, failures in team building, lack of performance measures, corruption and political interference.
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who won the junior division in world of dance | World of Dance (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of American reality competition television series World of Dance premiered May 29, 2018, on NBC. Jennifer Lopez, Ne - Yo, and Derek Hough returned as the judges, with Jenna Dewan also returning as the host.
Season 2 was taped between January and March 2018 at Universal Studios Hollywood; about two months before first airing.
While the format for season 2 remained relatively unchanged, there were a few slight alterations. Season 2 received a 16 - episode order., six more than the ten - episode first season. Additionally, this season, a fourth category, Junior Team, was added for acts under 18 with 5 or more members. The qualifier rounds are cut down from a two minutes to an one - minute routine. The Duels are cut down from two minutes to a _́ 75 seconds _́ - routine. The top three highest - scoring acts in The Cut from each division will move on to The Divisional Final, in last season it was just the top two. The Cut, Divisional and World Final rounds are cut down from a two minutes to a ' 90 seconds ' - routine. In The Cut and Divisional Final guess celebrities are assigned as mentors to each division. On World Final there are intermezzo shows. This season by Les Twins, Keone & Mari (actually Mariel) Madrid, Kinjaz and Derek Hough.
In preparation for season two, handpicked competitors, being talented in any styles of dancing, from qualifying events around the nation and thousands of online submissions, are divided into four divisions: Junior (groups of 1 - 4, under 18), Upper (groups of 1 - 4, 18 and older), Junior Team (groups of 5 +, under 18) and Upper Team (groups of 5 +, 18 and older). In some cases dancers who did n't apply were directly contacted by the producers or their agents.
The elimination process of the contestants are in four rounds:
In the World Final all four division champions will compete for the $1,000,000 USD grand prize. The concept of last season is copied; every contestant will perform twice in two separate rounds. The average score of both rounds by each contestant will make their final score. The contestant (s) with the highest final score will be crowned World of Dance champion 2018 and will win the $1,000,000 USD grand prize.
The judges are scoring in 5 categories. Each category is worth 20 points, with a perfect score of 100:
Jennifer Lopez, Ne - Yo, and Derek Hough returned as the series judges, with Jenna Dewan returning as host. Misty Copeland, who judged in season 1, is announced coming back as guest judge for the Divisional Final, with Julianne Hough, Mel B, Savion Glover and Paula Abdul also joining as guest mentors for The Cut.
Tony Award winner Savion Glover will collaborate with judge Jennifer Lopez with the Junior Team division. Actress, dancer, singer and Emmy Award - winning choreographer Julianne Hough, who will be working with her brother, judge Derek Hough, in the Upper division. "America 's Got Talent '' judge Mel B will join forces with judge Ne - Yo in mentoring the Junior division. World - renowned dancer / choreographer Paula Abdul will team with host / mentor Jenna Dewan in the Upper Team division Grammy Award - winning and multi-platinum selling artist Ciara joining as guest mentor during the Divisional Final as well (airing Wednesday, Sept. 5 at 9 p.m. ET / PT).
Three weeks after the season finale host Jenna Dewan publicly announced that she would not return as host for season 3. "It has been an absolute thrill to be a part of this incredible, groundbreaking show from the very beginning, and I am forever grateful ". While she may not return for season 3 as a host she confirmed she would be returning briefly as a mentor.
The acts competing in season 2 were released by People on May 1, 2018 and Bustle. The list of contestants who made it to The Duels is published by NewsWeek, except Elektro Elite and ThaMOST (s. below). The ages for each dance act were made available on the World of Dance website.
^ 1 This dance act competed on Season 1 of World of Dance
The qualifier round took place between May 29, 2018 and July 24. In each round of the Qualifiers, the dance acts performed a 1 - minute routine in front of the judges and a live studio audience. For a dance act to move to the next round, they had to receive an average score of 80 or higher. Karen y Ricardo was the first dance act of the season (and the second in the show 's history) to receive a score of 100 from one or more of the judges, setting up an all - time show high score of 99.7 points, until Charity & Andres became the first act in the show 's history to receive a perfect score of 100 in The Duels.
Some average scores are taken from a summary clip from the TV broadcast of part 8. Elektro Elite has qualified with 80 points and ThaMOST with 84 points, but neither performance was posted as a Digital Exclusive, nor are the acts listed on NBC World of Dance website.
In each round of The Duels, two acts in the same division compete for a spot in the next round. In each division, the acts with the top qualifying scores choose their opponents, then both acts perform back - to - back, receiving feedback from the judges. The act with the highest average at the end of the duel moves on to the next round; the other faces immediate elimination. Charity & Andres earned the first perfect score in the show 's run during The Duels.
Opponent selection proceeded according to rank within each division, but performances have been arranged to spread the favorites among the episodes, in an effort to keep ratings up across all episodes.
Some average scores are taken from a summary clip from the TV broadcast of part 4.
In The Cut, the 30 remaining acts compete for three spots in each of their divisions. As each dance act competes, their final score is displayed on a leaderboard for their division. Once a dance act 's score falls out of the top 3, they face immediate elimination. For this round, each of the judges and the host, Jenna Dewan, became mentors for one of the four divisions; They were also joined by four guest mentors: Savion Glover, Julianne Hough, Paula Abdul, and Mel B. Jennifer & Savion worked with the Junior Teams, Derek & Julianne worked with the Upper acts, Jenna & Paula worked with the Upper Teams, and Ne - Yo & Mel B worked with the Junior acts.
In the Divisional Final, the 3 remaining acts in each division square off, with only one act going to the World Final to represent their division. Same as The Cut, each of the judges and the host, Jenna Dewan, became mentors for one of the four divisions. Jennifer mentored the Upper acts, Derek worked with the Junior Teams, Ne - Yo worked with the Upper Teams, and Jenna worked with the Junior acts. Guest mentor Ciara helped each division in their practice as well. Guest judge Misty Copeland joined the panel for this segment.
In the World Final, the final 4 division champions competed head to head to win the one million dollar prize. As with the previous 2 rounds, the judges and the host, Jenna, became mentors for each of the finalists. Derek worked with Charity & Andres, Jennifer worked with S - Rank, Jenna worked with Michael Dameski, and Ne - Yo worked with The Lab. Each of the 4 finalists performed twice. The first performance 's music was chosen by their judge, or Jenna, and the second was chosen by the finalist. After each performance, the final scores were displayed on a leaderboard. The winner of the World Finals was determined by the judges combined average scores from both performances. After the first four performances, Season 1 's Divisional Finalists Kinjaz and Keone & Mari performed with Derek Hough. Season 1 's winner Les Twins also performed before the crowning. After the final performances, The Lab were announced as the winners of World of Dance; their final combined score of 97.5 beat out Michael Dameski by 1.5 points.
4th S - Rank (93.5)
3rd Charity & Andres (94.3)
2nd Michael Dameski (96)
WINNER The Lab (97.5)
^ 1 Misty Copeland joined the Judges panel for Division Final round
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what are the two main groups of animal kingdom | Animal - wikipedia
Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms that form the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals are motile (able to move), heterotrophic (consume organic material), reproduce sexually, and their embryonic development includes a blastula stage. The body plan of the animal derives from this blastula, differentiating specialized tissues and organs as it develops; this plan eventually becomes fixed, although some undergo metamorphosis at some stage in their lives.
Zoology is the study of animals. Currently there are over 66 thousand (less than 5 % of all animals) vertebrate species, and over 1.3 million (over 95 % of all animals) invertebrate species in existence. Classification of animals into groups (taxonomy) is accomplished using either the hierarchical Linnaean system; or cladistics, which displays diagrams (phylogenetic trees) called cladograms to show relationships based on the evolutionary principle of the most recent common ancestor. Some recent classifications based on modern cladistics have explicitly abandoned the term "kingdom '', noting that the traditional kingdoms are not monophyletic, i.e., do not consist of all the descendants of a common ancestor.
Animals are divided by body plan into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates -- fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals -- have a vertebral column (spine); invertebrates do not. All vertebrates and most invertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical (Bilateria). These invertebrates include arthropods, molluscs, roundworms, ringed worms, flatworms, and other phyla in Ecdysozoa and Spiralia. Echinoderm larvae are initially bilaterally symmetrical, but later as adults develop radial symmetry; Cnidarians are radially symmetrical; ctenophores are biradially symmetrical; and sponges have no symmetry.
Animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the sister group to the choanoflagellates.
The word "animal '' comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, having soul or living being. The biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. In everyday non-scientific usage, the word often implies exclusion of humans -- that is, "animal '' is used to refer only to non-human members of the kingdom Animalia; sometimes, only closer relatives of humans such as mammals and other vertebrates, are meant.
Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and most protists, which are prokaryotic and unicellular. They are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae, which are autotrophs. They lack rigid cell walls, which separates them from plants, algae, and fungi, all of which do have rigid cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at certain life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals, and which allows for differentiation into specialized tissues and organs.
All animals are composed of eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules. During development, it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms, like plants and fungi, have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.
With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera) and Placozoa, animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals. Typically, there is also an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general.
Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes by meiosis (see Origin and function of meiosis). The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova. These fuse to form zygotes, which develop via multiple successive mitoses and differentiation into new individuals (see Allogamy).
Some animals are also capable of asexual reproduction. This may take place through parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, budding, or fragmentation.
During sexual reproduction, mating with a close relative (inbreeding) generally leads to inbreeding depression. For instance, inbreeding was found to increase juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species. Inbreeding depression is considered to be largely due to expression of deleterious recessive mutations. Mating with unrelated or distantly related members of the same species is generally thought to provide the advantage of masking deleterious recessive mutations in progeny. (see Heterosis). Animals have evolved numerous diverse mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding and promoting outcrossing (see Inbreeding avoidance).
Chimpanzees have adopted dispersal as a way to separate close relatives and prevent inbreeding. Their spersal route is known as natal dispersal, whereby individuals move away from the area of birth.
In various species, such as the splendid fairywren, females benefit by mating with multiple males, thus producing more offspring of higher genetic quality. Females that are pair bonded to a male of poor genetic quality, as is the case in inbreeding, are more likely to engage in extra-pair copulations in order to improve their reproductive success and the survivability of their offspring.
A zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a blastula, which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate germ layers -- an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.
All animals are heterotrophs, meaning that they feed directly or indirectly on other living things. They are often further subdivided into groups such as carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, and parasites.
Predation is a biological interaction where a predator (a heterotroph that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked). Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation almost always results in the death of the prey. The other main category of consumption is detritivory, the consumption of dead organic matter. It can at times be difficult to separate the two feeding behaviours, for example, where parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on its decaying corpse. Selective pressures imposed on one another has led to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations.
Most animals indirectly use the energy of sunlight by eating plants or plant - eating animals. Most plants use light to convert inorganic molecules in their environment into carbohydrates, fats, proteins and other biomolecules, characteristically containing reduced carbon in the form of carbon - hydrogen bonds. Starting with carbon dioxide (CO) and water (H O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of simple sugars (e.g., glucose), with the release of molecular oxygen. These sugars are then used as the building blocks for plant growth, including the production of other biomolecules. When an animal eats plants (or eats other animals which have eaten plants), the reduced carbon compounds in the food become a source of energy and building materials for the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion.
Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight. Instead chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria form the base of the food chain.
Taxonomy classifies organisms into groups. There are two taxonomic approaches: the Linnaean system classifies life according to an eight level hierarchy based on features other than phylogenomics (cladistics).
The three - domain system is an addition to the Linnaean system biological classification introduced by Carl Woese et al. in 1977 that divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains. In particular, it emphasizes the separation of prokaryotes into two groups, originally called Eubacteria (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea). Woese argued that, on the basis of differences in 16S rRNA genes, these two groups and the eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with poorly developed genetic machinery, often called a progenote. To reflect these primary lines of descent, he treated each as a domain, divided into several different kingdoms. The term "domain '' was adopted in 1990.
Animals are thus classified under the domain Eukaryota. The Linnaean hierarchy below the kingdom Animalia consists of these groups: phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species. All the groups, from domain to species, are called taxa. There are occasional intermediate levels, such as superphyla and subphyla, in special situations. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) determines what names are valid for any taxon in the family, genus, and species group. It has additional but more limited provisions on names in higher ranks.
Animals are generally considered to have emerged within flagellated eukaryota. Their closest known living relatives are the choanoflagellates, collared flagellates that have a morphology similar to the choanocytes of certain sponges. Molecular studies place animals in a supergroup called the opisthokonts, which also include the choanoflagellates, fungi and a few small parasitic protists. The name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal spermatozoa, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.
The first fossils that might represent animals appear in the Trezona Formation at Trezona Bore, West Central Flinders, South Australia. These fossils are interpreted as being early sponges. They were found in 665 - million - year - old rock.
The next oldest possible animal fossils are found towards the end of the Precambrian, around 610 million years ago, and are known as the Ediacaran or Vendian biota. These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however. Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all.
Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the Cambrian period, about 542 million years ago. It is still disputed whether this event, called the Cambrian explosion, is due to a rapid divergence between different groups or due to a change in conditions that made fossilization possible.
Some palaeontologists suggest that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago. Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in the Tonian period indicate the presence of triploblastic worms, like metazoans, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms. During the beginning of the Tonian period around 1 billion years ago, there was a decrease in Stromatolite diversity, which may indicate the appearance of grazing animals, since stromatolite diversity increased when grazing animals became extinct at the End Permian and End Ordovician extinction events, and decreased shortly after the grazer populations recovered. However the discovery that tracks very similar to these early trace fossils are produced today by the giant single - celled protist Gromia sphaerica casts doubt on their interpretation as evidence of early animal evolution.
Animals can be divided into two broad groups: vertebrates (animals with a backbone) and invertebrates (animals without a backbone). Half of all described vertebrate species are fishes and three - quarters of all described invertebrate species are insects. Over 95 % of the described animal species in the world are invertebrates.
The following table lists the number of described living species for each major animal subgroup as estimated for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2014.3.
Cladistics embraces the concept of the "most recent common ancestor '', and assigning similar animals to groups called clades. Animals are thought to be a basal Apoikozoan clade as sister of the Choanoflagellata. The "bilaterian '' animals (Bilateria), whose body display bilateral symmetry, are thought to form a monophyletic group. The Bilaterians are further classified based on a major division between Deuterostomes and Protostomes. More basal animals lack a bilaterally symmetric body plan (Ctenophora, Porifera, Cnidaria and Placozoa), with their relationships still disputed. In 2017, the Ctenophora are found as basalmost animals with "full '' support. However, ever since the first finding in 2008, such proposals are strongly contested, with Porifera as the alternative. Some of the issues are the rapid evolutionary rate within Ctenophora, insufficient sampling, and the recent internal divergence date of Ctenophora. It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades.
Choanoflagellata
Ctenophora
Porifera
Placozoa
Cnidaria
Xenacoelomorpha
Deuterostomes
Ecdysozoa
Spiralia
Several animal phyla are recognized for their lack of bilateral symmetry, and are thought to have diverged from other animals early in evolution. Among these, the sponges (Porifera) were long thought to have diverged first, representing the oldest animal phylum. They lack the complex organization found in most other phyla. Their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organized into distinct tissues. Sponges typically feed by drawing in water through pores. However, a series of phylogenomic studies from 2008 -- 2015 have found support for Ctenophora, or comb jellies, as the basal lineage of animals. This result has been controversial, since it would imply that sponges may not be so primitive, but may instead be secondarily simplified. Other researchers have argued that the placement of Ctenophora as the earliest - diverging animal phylum is a statistical anomaly caused by the high rate of evolution in ctenophore genomes.
The Ctenophora and the sponges are unique among the animals in lacking true hox genes. The presence of a Hox / Parahox gene in the Placozoa suggests that either the Porifera or the Ctenophora are the most basal animal clades. Another DNA based study suggests that the Ctenophora are the earliest branching animals. Another study also suggests that this group are a sister group to other animals.
Among the other phyla, the Ctenophora and the Cnidaria, which includes sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish, are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus. Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into organs. There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them. As such, these animals are sometimes called diploblastic. The tiny placozoans are similar, but they do not have a permanent digestive chamber.
The Myxozoa, microscopic parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have evolved within Cnidaria.
The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the Bilateria. For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs. The body is triploblastic, i.e. all three germ layers are well - developed, and tissues form distinct organs. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom. There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however -- for instance adult echinoderms are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures.
Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to two major lineages: the deuterostomes and the protostomes, the latter of which includes the Ecdysozoa, and Lophotrochozoa. The Chaetognatha or arrow worms have been traditionally classified as deuterostomes, though recent molecular studies have identified this group as a basal protostome lineage.
In addition, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively cryptic morphology whose relationships with other animals are not well - established. For example, recent molecular studies have identified Acoelomorpha and Xenoturbella as forming a monophyletic group, but studies disagree as to whether this group evolved from within deuterostomes, or whether it represents the sister group to all other bilaterian animals (Nephrozoa). Other groups of uncertain affinity include the Rhombozoa and Orthonectida. One phyla, the Monoblastozoa, was described by a scientist in 1892, but so far there have been no evidence of its existence.
Deuterostomes differ from protostomes in several ways. Animals from both groups possess a complete digestive tract. However, in protostomes, the first opening of the gut to appear in embryological development (the archenteron) develops into the mouth, with the anus forming secondarily. In deuterostomes the anus forms first, with the mouth developing secondarily. In most protostomes, cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes, it forms through invagination of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching. Deuterostome embryos undergo radial cleavage during cell division, while protostomes undergo spiral cleavage.
All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages. The main phyla of deuterostomes are the Echinodermata and Chordata. The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers. The latter are dominated by the vertebrates, animals with backbones. These include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the Hemichordata, or acorn worms, which are thought to be closely related to Echinodermata forming a group known as Ambulacraria. Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil graptolites may belong to this group.
The Ecdysozoa are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or ecdysis. The largest animal phylum belongs here, the Arthropoda, including insects, spiders, crabs, and their kin. All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages. Two smaller phyla, the Onychophora and Tardigrada, are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits. The ecdysozoans also include the Nematoda or roundworms, perhaps the second largest animal phylum. Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water. A number are important parasites. Smaller phyla related to them are the Nematomorpha or horsehair worms, and the Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, and Loricifera. These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.
The Lophotrochozoa, evolved within Protostomia, include two of the most successful animal phyla, the Mollusca and Annelida. The former, which is the second - largest animal phylum by number of described species, includes animals such as snails, clams, and squids, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches. These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods because they are both segmented. Now, this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla. Lophotrochozoa also includes the Nemertea or ribbon worms, the Sipuncula, and several phyla that have a ring of ciliated tentacles around the mouth, called a lophophore. These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates. but it now appears that the lophophorate group may be paraphyletic, with some closer to the nemerteans and some to the molluscs and annelids. They include the Brachiopoda or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the Entoprocta, the Phoronida, and possibly the Bryozoa or moss animals.
The Platyzoa include the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the flukes and tapeworms. Flatworms are acoelomates, lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic Gastrotricha. The other platyzoan phyla are mostly microscopic and pseudocoelomate. The most prominent are the Rotifera or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments. They also include the Acanthocephala or spiny - headed worms, the Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, and possibly the Cycliophora. These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the Gnathifera.
A relationship between the Brachiopoda and Nemertea has been suggested by molecular data. A second study has also suggested this relationship. This latter study also suggested that Annelida and Mollusca may be sister clades. Another study has suggested that Annelida and Mollusca are sister clades. This clade has been termed the Neotrochozoa.
Aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeus 's original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the Chordata, whereas the various other forms have been separated out.
In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms: Metazoa (multicellular animals) and Protozoa (single - celled animals). The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa. Thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia.
A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the organism model will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Model organisms are in vivo models and are widely used to research human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical. This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution. Studying model organisms can be informative, but care must be taken when extrapolating from one organism to another.
In researching human disease, model organisms allow for better understanding the disease process without the added risk of harming a human. The species chosen will usually meet a determined taxonomic equivalency to humans, so as to react to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed. Although biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of animal models. There are three main types of disease models: homologous, isomorphic and predictive. Homologous animals have the same causes, symptoms and treatment options as would humans who have the same disease. Isomorphic animals share the same symptoms and treatments. Predictive models are similar to a particular human disease in only a couple of aspects, but are useful in isolating and making predictions about mechanisms of a set of disease features.
Because they are easy to keep and breed, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have long been the most intensively studied metazoan model organisms, and were among the first life - forms to be genetically sequenced. This was facilitated by the severely reduced state of their genomes, but as many genes, introns, and linkages lost, these ecdysozoans can teach us little about the origins of animals in general. The extent of this type of evolution within the superphylum will be revealed by the crustacean, annelid, and molluscan genome projects currently in progress. Analysis of the starlet sea anemone genome has emphasized the importance of sponges, placozoans, and choanoflagellates, also being sequenced, in explaining the arrival of 1500 ancestral genes unique to the Eumetazoa. An analysis of the homoscleromorph sponge Oscarella carmela also suggests that the last common ancestor of sponges and the eumetazoan animals was more complex than previously assumed. Other model organisms belonging to the animal kingdom include the house mouse (Mus musculus), laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio).
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making eye contact is a sign of respect for | Eye contact - wikipedia
Eye contact occurs when two people look at each other 's eyes at the same time. In human beings, eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and is thought to have a large influence on social behavior. Coined in the early to mid-1960s, the term came from the West to often define the act as a meaningful and important sign of confidence, respect, and social communication. The customs and significance of eye contact vary between societies, with religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly.
The study of eye contact is sometimes known as oculesics.
Eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, search other 's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. In some contexts, the meeting of eyes arouses strong emotions.
Eye contact is also an important element in flirting, where it may serve to establish and gauge the other 's interest in some situations.
Mutual eye contact that signals attraction initially begins as a brief glance and progresses into a repeated volleying of eye contact.
In the process of civil inattention, strangers in close proximity, such as a crowd, avoid eye contact in order to help maintain their privacy.
When two or more individuals talk, the person that talks is used to being looked at. Therefore, making eye contact can make other people expect conversation. Discussing eye contact is actually quite difficult because any attempt to categorize the degree (of sustained contact or measure of directness) and the nature of the eye contact is nearly guaranteed to contain a lot of descriptors derived from one 's own cultural predisposition.
A 1985 study suggested that "3 - month - old infants are comparatively insensitive to being the object of another 's visual regard ''. A 1996 Canadian study with 3 to 6 month old infants found that smiling in infants decreased when adult eye contact was removed. A recent British study in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience found that face recognition by infants was facilitated by direct gaze. Other recent research has confirmed that the direct gaze of adults influences the direct gaze of infants. Within their first year, infants learn rapidly that the looking behaviors of others conveys significant information. Infants prefer to look at faces that engage them in mutual gaze and that, from an early age, healthy babies show enhanced neural processing of direct gaze.
Interesting conflict stories from children of Korean immigrants to the United States surround how they manage eye contact with adults. In school, when being reprimanded the teacher might say something to the effect of "Look at me when I 'm talking to you. '' At home, if Mom is doing the reprimanding, making eye contact would make the situation far worse. In such situations, Korean children are taught to look at the floor so the demands are precisely opposite of what is expected in school.
A person 's direction of gaze may indicate to others where their attention lies.
In the 2000s, studies suggest that eye contact has a positive impact on the retention and recall of information and may promote more efficient learning.
In a 2001 study conducted in Germany examining German infants during their first 12 weeks of life, researchers studied the relationship between eye contact, maternal sensitivity and infant crying to attempt to determine if eye contact and maternal sensitivity were stable over time. In this correlational study, they began by categorizing the mother 's sensitivity placing them into one of four behavioral categories: inhibited / intense behavior, distortion of infant signals, over and understimulational, and aggressive behavioral. Next, the observer video - taped the mother and infant 's free - play interactions on a weekly basis for 12 weeks. When watching the videos, they measured the mutual eye contact between the mother and the infant by looking at the overlap in time when the mothers looked at their infant 's face and when the infants looked at their mother 's face. The mothers were also asked to record their infant 's crying in a diary.
The study found that the amount of eye contact between the study 's German mothers and infants increased continuously over the first 12 weeks. The mother who held eye contact with her child early on (week 1 - 4) was described as sensitive to her infant whereas if she did not hold eye contact, her behavior was described as insensitive. They also found a negative relationship between eye contact and the duration of crying of the infants; as eye contact increases, crying decreases. Maternal sensitivity was also shown to be stable over time. According to the study, these findings may potentially be based on the assumption that sensitive mothers are more likely to notice their child 's behavioral problems than non-sensitive mothers.
Some people find eye contact difficult with others. For example, those with autistic disorders or social anxieties may find eye contact to be particularly unsettling.
Strabismus, especially esophoria or exophoria, interferes with normal eye contact: a person whose eyes are not aligned usually makes full eye contact with one eye only, while the orientation of the other eye deviates slightly or more.
In one study conducted by British psychologists from the University of Stirling among 20 British children at the age five, researchers concluded that among the children in the study, the children who avoid eye contact while considering their responses to questions are more likely to answer correctly than children who maintain eye contact. While humans obtain useful information from looking at the face when listening to someone, the process of looking at faces is mentally demanding and takes processing. Therefore, it may be unhelpful to look at faces when trying to concentrate and process something else that 's mentally demanding. Contrary to this, Doherty - Sneddon suggests that a blank stare indicates a lack of understanding.
Another study suggests that eye contact (tested in computer - mediated communication) can increase knowledge sharing with a co-worker. One explanation of this concerns that direct eye gaze increases convincingness. Yet, it also depends on individuals attitude whether eye contact has positive or negative persuasion effects.
Pious Muslims aspire to lower their gaze and look at each other without sexual objectification. Japanese children are taught in school to direct their gaze at the region of their teacher 's Adam 's apple or tie knot. As adults, Japanese lower their eyes when speaking to a superior as a gesture of respect.
In many cultures, such as East Asia and Nigeria, it is respectful not to look the dominant person in the eye, but in Western culture this can be interpreted as being "shifty - eyed '', and the person judged badly because "he would n't look me in the eye ''; references such as "shifty - eyed '' can refer to suspicions regarding an individual 's unrevealed intentions or thoughts. Nevertheless, the seeking of constant unbroken eye contact by the other participant in a conversation can often be considered overbearing or distracting by many even in western cultures, possibly on an instinctive or subconscious level.
Some bodies of parliamentary procedure ban eye contact between members when speaking.
For clinical evaluation purposes in the practice of psychiatry and clinical psychology, as part of a mental status exam, the clinician may describe the initiation, frequency, and quality of eye contact. For example, the doctor may note whether the patient initiates, responds to, sustains, or evades eye contact. The clinician may also note whether eye contact is unusually intense or blank, or whether the patient glares, looks down, or looks aside frequently.
Eye contact can also be a significant factor in interactions between non-human animals, and between humans and non-human animals.
Animals of many species, including dogs, often perceive eye contact as a threat. Many programs to prevent dog bites recommend avoiding direct eye contact with an unknown dog. According to a report in The New Zealand Medical Journal, maintaining eye contact is one reason young children may be more likely to fall victim to dog attacks.
Similarly, hikers are commonly advised to avoid direct eye contact if they have surprised a bear, since the bear may interpret the eye contact as a threat, although some sources suggest maintaining eye contact. Likewise, chimpanzees use eye contact to signal aggression in hostile encounters, and staring at them in a zoo can induce agitated behavior.
On the other hand, extended eye contact between a dog and its owner modulates the secretion of oxytocin, a neuromodulator that is known for its role in maternal - infant bonding.
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who played the main orc in lord of the rings | Lawrence Makoare - Wikipedia
Lawrence Makoare (born 20 November 1968) is a New Zealand Māori actor.
Makoare was a road construction builder who drifted into acting after he accompanied a girlfriend to a drama class and was picked out by the teacher to perform because of his impressive height. He began his career performing as a stuntman. Makoare is probably best known for his roles in The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies. In The Fellowship of the Ring, he portrayed the Uruk - hai leader Lurtz, and in The Return of the King, he portrayed the Witch - king of Angmar as well as Gothmog, the Orc commander at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. In The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, he portrayed the Orc commander Bolg, son of Azog. Due to filming commitments on Marco Polo, Makoare was unavailable during the pick - ups shooting of The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, in which Bolg is portrayed by John Tui instead.
Makoare is also popular among Xena: Warrior Princess fans, having played two memorable characters in the third season: a Barbarian leader in episode "The Quill Is Mightier... ''; and Maecanus (a minion of Aphrodite) in episode "Fins, Femmes and Gems ''. In 2002, he portrayed Mr. Kil in the James Bond film Die Another Day. The director of The Dead Lands, Toa Fraser, was not enthusiastic about using Makoare as the warrior, but was won over by the way he managed, after a few directing hints, to turn in a performance that made him weep.
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who sings bridge of life in happy feet 2 | Bridge of Light (song) - wikipedia
"Bridge of Light '' is a song by American singer - songwriter Pink. It was released on December 2, 2011 by Sony Music. The song was written by Pink and long - time collaborator Billy Mann and serves as the theme song to the 2011 film Happy Feet Two. The song was a moderate success and became a top 10 hit in Austria, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, but failed to chart high in other countries due to minimal promotion.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who is the biggest owner of us debt | National debt of the United States - Wikipedia
The national debt of the United States is the debt, or unpaid borrowed funds, carried by the federal government of the United States, which is measured as the face value of the currently outstanding Treasury securities that have been issued by the Treasury and other federal government agencies. The terms national deficit and national surplus usually refer to the federal government budget balance from year to year, not the cumulative amount of debt. A deficit year increases the debt, while a surplus year decreases the debt as more money is received than spent.
The US national debt can be divided between intragovernmental debt and intergovernmental debt.
There are two components of gross national debt:
In general, government debt increases as a result of government spending, and decreases from tax or other receipts, both of which fluctuate during the course of a fiscal year. In practice, Treasury securities are not issued or redeemed on a day - by - day basis, and may also be issued or redeemed as part of the federal government 's macroeconomic management operations.
Historically, the US public debt as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The ratio of debt to GDP may decrease as a result of a government surplus or due to growth of GDP and inflation. For example, debt held by the public as a share of GDP peaked just after World War II (113 % of GDP in 1945), but then fell over the following 35 years. In recent decades, aging demographics and rising healthcare costs have led to concern about the long - term sustainability of the federal government 's fiscal policies. The aggregate, gross amount that Treasury can borrow is limited by the United States debt ceiling.
As of July 31, 2018, debt held by the public was $15.6 trillion and intragovernmental holdings were $5.7 trillion, for a total or "National Debt '' of $21.3 trillion. Debt held by the public was approximately 77 % of GDP in 2017, ranked 43rd highest out of 207 countries. The Congressional Budget Office forecast in April 2018 that the ratio will rise to nearly 100 % by 2028, perhaps higher if current policies are extended beyond their scheduled expiration date. As of December 2017, $6.3 trillion or approximately 45 % of the debt held by the public was owned by foreign investors, the largest being China (about $1.18 trillion) then Japan (about $1.06 trillion).
The United States government has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since its formation in 1789, except for about a year during 1835 -- 1836, a period in which president Andrew Jackson completely paid the national debt. To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP).
The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1974 under Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the presidencies of Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton.
Public debt rose sharply during the 1980s, as Ronald Reagan cut tax rates and increased military spending. It fell during the 1990s, due to decreased military spending, increased taxes and the 1990s boom. Public debt rose sharply in the wake of the 2007 -- 2008 financial crisis and the resulting significant tax revenue declines and spending increases.
As of July 31, 2018, debt held by the public was $15.6 trillion and intragovernmental holdings were $5.7 trillion, for a total of $21 trillion. Debt held by the public was approximately 77 % of GDP in 2017, ranked 43rd highest out of 207 countries. The Congressional Budget Office forecast in April 2018 that the ratio will rise to nearly 100 % by 2028, perhaps higher if current policies are extended beyond their scheduled expiration date.
The national debt can also be classified into marketable or non-marketable securities. Most of the marketable securities are Treasury notes, bills, and bonds held by investors and governments globally. The non-marketable securities are mainly the "government account series '' owed to certain government trust funds such as the Social Security Trust Fund, which represented $2.74 trillion in 2011.
The non-marketable securities represent amounts owed to program beneficiaries. For example, in the case of the Social Security Trust Fund, the payroll taxes dedicated to Social Security were credited to the Trust Fund upon receipt, but spent for other purposes. If the government continues to run deficits in other parts of the budget, the government will have to issue debt held by the public to fund the Social Security Trust Fund, in effect exchanging one type of debt for the other. Other large intragovernmental holders include the Federal Housing Administration, the Federal Savings and Loan Corporation 's Resolution Fund and the Federal Hospital Insurance Trust Fund (Medicare).
Only debt held by the public is reported as a liability on the consolidated financial statements of the United States government. Debt held by government accounts is an asset to those accounts but a liability to the Treasury; they offset each other in the consolidated financial statements.
Government receipts and expenditures are normally presented on a cash rather than an accrual basis, although the accrual basis may provide more information on the longer - term implications of the government 's annual operations. The United States public debt is often expressed as a ratio of public debt to gross domestic product (GDP). The ratio of debt to GDP may decrease as a result of a government surplus as well as due to growth of GDP and inflation.
Under normal accounting rules, fully owned companies would be consolidated into the books of their owners, but the large size of Fannie and Freddie has made the U.S. government reluctant to incorporate Freddie and Fannie into its own books. When Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae required bail - outs, White House Budget Director Jim Nussle, on September 12, 2008, initially indicated their budget plans would not incorporate the GSE debt into the budget because of the temporary nature of the conservator intervention. As the intervention has dragged out, pundits have started to further question this accounting treatment, noting that changes in August 2012 "makes them even more permanent wards of the state and turns the government 's preferred stock into a permanent, perpetual kind of security ''.
The government controls the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, which would normally criticize inconsistent accounting practices, but it does not oversee its own government 's accounting practices or the standards set by the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board. The on - or off - balance sheet obligations of those two independent GSEs was just over $5 trillion at the time the conservatorship was put in place, consisting mainly of mortgage payment guarantees and agency bonds. The confusing independent but government - controlled status of the GSEs has resulted in investors of the legacy common shares and preferred shares launching various activist campaigns in 2014.
U.S. federal government guarantees are not included in the public debt total, until such time as there is a call on the guarantees. For example, the U.S. federal government in late - 2008 guaranteed large amounts of obligations of mutual funds, banks, and corporations under several programs designed to deal with the problems arising from the late - 2000s financial crisis. The guarantee program lapsed at the end of 2012 when Congress declined to extend the scheme. The funding of direct investments made in response to the crisis, such as those made under the Troubled Assets Relief Program, are included in the debt.
The U.S. government is obligated under current law to make mandatory payments for programs such as Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) projects that payouts for these programs will significantly exceed tax revenues over the next 75 years. The Medicare Part A (hospital insurance) payouts already exceed program tax revenues, and social security payouts exceeded payroll taxes in fiscal 2010. These deficits require funding from other tax sources or borrowing. The present value of these deficits or unfunded obligations is an estimated $45.8 trillion. This is the amount that would have had to be set aside in 2009 in order to pay for the unfunded obligations which, under current law, will have to be raised by the government in the future. Approximately $7.7 trillion relates to Social Security, while $38.2 trillion relates to Medicare and Medicaid. In other words, health care programs will require nearly five times more funding than Social Security. Adding this to the national debt and other federal obligations would bring total obligations to nearly $62 trillion. However, these unfunded obligations are not counted in the national debt, as shown in monthly Treasury reports of the national debt.
GDP is a measure of the total size and output of the economy. One measure of the debt burden is its size relative to GDP, called the "debt - to - GDP ratio. '' Mathematically, this is the debt divided by the GDP amount. The Congressional Budget Office includes historical budget and debt tables along with its annual "Budget and Economic Outlook. '' Debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP rose from 34.7 % GDP in 2000 to 40.5 % in 2008 and 67.7 % in 2011.
Mathematically, the ratio can decrease even while debt grows if the rate of increase in GDP (which also takes account of inflation) is higher than the rate of increase of debt. Conversely, the debt to GDP ratio can increase even while debt is being reduced, if the decline in GDP is sufficient.
According to the CIA World Factbook, during 2015, the U.S. debt to GDP ratio of 73.6 % was the 39th highest in the world. This was measured using "debt held by the public. '' However, $1 trillion in additional borrowing since the end of FY 2015 has raised the ratio to 76.2 % as of April 2016 (See Appendix # National debt for selected years). Also, this number excludes state and local debt. According to the OECD, general government gross debt (federal, state, and local) in the United States in the fourth quarter of 2015 was $22.5 trillion (125 % of GDP); subtracting out $5.25 trillion for intergovernmental federal debt to count only federal "debt held by the public '' gives 96 % of GDP.
The ratio is higher if the total national debt is used, by adding the "intragovernmental debt '' to the "debt held by the public. '' For example, on April 29, 2016, debt held by the public was approximately $13.84 trillion or about 76 % of GDP. Intra-governmental holdings stood at $5.35 trillion, giving a combined total public debt of $19.19 trillion. U.S. GDP for the previous 12 months was approximately $18.15 trillion, for a total debt to GDP ratio of approximately 106 %.
Conceptually, an annual deficit (or surplus) should represent the change in the national debt, with a deficit adding to the national debt and a surplus reducing it. However, there is complexity in the budgetary computations that can make the deficit figure commonly reported in the media (the "total deficit '') considerably different from the annual increase in the debt. The major categories of differences are the treatment of the Social Security program, Treasury borrowing, and supplemental appropriations outside the budget process.
Social Security payroll taxes and benefit payments, along with the net balance of the U.S. Postal Service, are considered "off - budget '', while most other expenditure and receipt categories are considered "on - budget ''. The total federal deficit is the sum of the on - budget deficit (or surplus) and the off - budget deficit (or surplus). Since FY1960, the federal government has run on - budget deficits except for FY1999 and FY2000, and total federal deficits except in FY1969 and FY1998 -- FY2001.
For example, in January 2009 the CBO reported that for fiscal year 2008 (FY2008) the "on - budget deficit '' was $638 billion, offset by an "off - budget surplus '' (mainly due to Social Security revenue in excess of payouts) of $183 billion, for a "total deficit '' of $455 billion. This latter figure is the one commonly reported in the media. However, an additional $313 billion was required for "the Treasury actions aimed at stabilizing the financial markets, '' an unusually high amount due to the Subprime mortgage crisis. This meant that the "debt held by the public '' increased by $768 billion ($455 B + $313 B = $768 B). The "off - budget surplus '' was borrowed and spent (as is typically the case), increasing the "intra-governmental debt '' by $183 billion. So the total increase in the "National debt '' in FY2008 was $768 B + $183 B = $951 billion. The Treasury Department reported an increase in the National Debt of $1,017 B for FY2008. The $66 billion difference is likely due to "supplemental appropriations '' for the War on Terror, some of which were outside the budget process entirely until President Obama began including most of them in his FY2010 budget.
In other words, spending the "off budget '' Social Security surplus adds to the total national debt (by increasing the intragovernmental debt) while the "off - budget '' surplus reduces the "total '' deficit reported in the media. Certain spending called "supplemental appropriations '' is outside the budget process entirely but adds to the national debt. Funding for the Iraq and Afghanistan wars was accounted for this way prior to the Obama administration. Certain stimulus measures and earmarks were also outside the budget process. The federal government publishes the total debt owed (public and intragovernmental holdings) monthly.
Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining negative real interest rates on government debt, meaning the inflation rate is greater than the interest rate paid on the debt. Such low rates, outpaced by the inflation rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, pensions, or bond, money market, and balanced mutual funds are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk.
Economist Lawrence Summers has stated that at such low interest rates, government borrowing actually saves taxpayer money and improves creditworthiness.
In the late 1940s through the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30 % to 40 % of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay this low. Between 1946 and 1974, the US debt - to - GDP ratio fell from 121 % to 32 % even though there were surpluses in only eight of those years which were much smaller than the deficits.
The two economists, Jaromir Benes and Michael Kumhof, working for the International Monetary Fund, published a working paper called The Chicago Plan Revisited suggesting that the debt could be eliminated by raising bank reserve requirements and converting from fractional reserve banking to full reserve banking. Economists at the Paris School of Economics have commented on the plan, stating that it is already the status quo for coinage currency, and a Norges Bank economist has examined the proposal in the context of considering the finance industry as part of the real economy. A Centre for Economic Policy Research paper agrees with the conclusion that, "no real liability is created by new fiat money creation, and therefore public debt does not rise as a result ''.
The debt ceiling is a legislative mechanism to limit the amount of national debt that can be issued by the Treasury. In effect, it will restrain the Treasury from paying for expenditures after the limit has been reached, even if the expenditures have already been approved (in the budget) and have been appropriated. If this situation were to occur, it is unclear whether Treasury would be able to prioritize payments on debt to avoid a default on its debt obligations, but it would have to default on some of its non-debt obligations.
Because a large variety of people own the notes, bills, and bonds in the "public '' portion of the debt, Treasury also publishes information that groups the types of holders by general categories to portray who owns United States debt. In this data set, some of the public portion is moved and combined with the total government portion, because this amount is owned by the Federal Reserve as part of United States monetary policy. (See Federal Reserve System.)
As is apparent from the chart, a little less than half of the total national debt is owed to the "Federal Reserve and intragovernmental holdings ''. The foreign and international holders of the debt are also put together from the notes, bills, and bonds sections. To the right is a chart for the data as of June 2008:
As of September 2014, foreigners owned $6.06 trillion of U.S. debt, or approximately 47 % of the debt held by the public of $12.8 trillion and 34 % of the total debt of $17.8 trillion. As of 2018, the largest holders were China, Japan, Ireland, and Brazil.
The share held by foreign governments has grown over time, rising from 13 % of the public debt in 1988 to 25 % in 2007.
As of September 2014 the largest single holder of U.S. government debt was China, with 21 % of all foreign - held U.S. Treasury securities (10 % of total U.S. public debt). China 's holdings of government debt, as a percentage of all foreign - held government debt are up significantly since 2000 (when China held just 6 percent of all foreign - held U.S. Treasury securities).
This exposure to potential financial or political risk should foreign banks stop buying Treasury securities or start selling them heavily was addressed in a June 2008 report issued by the Bank of International Settlements, which stated, "Foreign investors in U.S. dollar assets have seen big losses measured in dollars, and still bigger ones measured in their own currency. While unlikely, indeed highly improbable for public sector investors, a sudden rush for the exits can not be ruled out completely. ''
On May 20, 2007, Kuwait discontinued pegging its currency exclusively to the dollar, preferring to use the dollar in a basket of currencies. Syria made a similar announcement on June 4, 2007. In September 2009 China, India and Russia said they were interested in buying International Monetary Fund gold to diversify their dollar - denominated securities. However, in July 2010 China 's State Administration of Foreign Exchange "ruled out the option of dumping its vast holdings of US Treasury securities '' and said gold "can not become a main channel for investing our foreign exchange reserves '' because the market for gold is too small and prices are too volatile.
According to Paul Krugman, "It 's true that foreigners now hold large claims on the United States, including a fair amount of government debt. But every dollar 's worth of foreign claims on America is matched by 89 cents ' worth of U.S. claims on foreigners. And because foreigners tend to put their U.S. investments into safe, low - yield assets, America actually earns more from its assets abroad than it pays to foreign investors. If your image is of a nation that 's already deep in hock to the Chinese, you 've been misinformed. Nor are we heading rapidly in that direction. '' Nonetheless, the country 's net investment position (including both debt to and debt owed by other countries) is a debt of more than $7 trillion and has recently been rising very rapidly.
The CBO estimated the impact of Trump 's tax cuts and separate spending legislation over the 2018 - 2028 period in their annual "Budget & Economic Outlook '', released in April 2018:
The CBO reports its Long - Term Budget Outlook annually, providing at least two scenarios for spending, revenue, deficits, and debt. The 2014 Outlook mainly covers the 25 - year period through 2039. The "extended baseline scenario '' assumes that the laws currently on the books will be implemented, for the most part. The CBO reported in July 2014 that under this scenario:
If current laws remained generally unchanged in the future, federal debt held by the public would decline slightly relative to GDP over the next few years. After that, however, growing budget deficits would push debt back to and above its current high level. Twenty - five years from now, in 2039, federal debt held by the public would exceed 100 percent of GDP. Moreover, debt would be on an upward path relative to the size of the economy, a trend that could not be sustained indefinitely. By 2039, the deficit would equal 6.5 percent of GDP, larger than in any year between 1947 and 2008, and federal debt held by the public would reach 106 percent of GDP, more than in any year except 1946 -- even without factoring in the economic effects of growing debt.
The "extended alternative fiscal scenario '' assumes the continuation of present trends, which result in a more unfavorable debt position and adverse economic consequences relative to the baseline scenario. The CBO reported in July 2014 that under this scenario:
(C) ertain policies that are now in place but are scheduled to change under current law are assumed to continue, and some provisions of current law that might be difficult to sustain for a long period are assumed to be modified. Under that scenario, deficits excluding interest payments would be about $2 trillion larger over the first decade than those under the baseline; subsequently, such deficits would be larger than those under the extended baseline by rapidly increasing amounts, doubling as a percentage of GDP in less than 10 years. CBO projects that real GNP in 2039 would be about 5 percent lower under the extended alternative fiscal scenario than under the extended baseline with economic feedback, and that interest rates would be about three - quarters of a percentage point higher. Reflecting the budgetary effects of those economic developments, federal debt would rise to 183 percent of GDP in 2039.
Over the long - term, the CBO projects that interest expense and mandatory spending categories (e.g., Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security) will continue to grow relative to GDP, while discretionary categories (e.g., Defense and other Cabinet Departments) continue to fall relative to GDP. Debt is projected to continue rising relative to GDP under the above two scenarios, although the CBO did also offer other scenarios that involved austerity measures that would bring the debt to GDP ratio down.
The CBO estimated under the baseline scenario that the U.S. debt held by the public would increase approximately $8.5 trillion between the end of 2014 and 2024. Under a $2 trillion deficit reduction scenario during that first decade, federal debt held by the public in 2039 would stand at 75 percent of GDP, only slightly above the value of 72 percent at the end of 2013. Under a $4 trillion deficit reduction scenario for that decade, federal debt held by the public would fall to 42 percent of GDP in 2039. By comparison, such debt comprised 35 percent of GDP in 2007 and has averaged 39 percent of GDP during the past 40 years.
The CBO reported in September 2011: "The nation can not continue to sustain the spending programs and policies of the past with the tax revenues it has been accustomed to paying. Citizens will either have to pay more for their government, accept less in government services and benefits, or both. ''
The CBO reported several types of risk factors related to rising debt levels in a July 2010 publication:
Many American and other economic analysts have expressed concerns on account of the People 's Republic of China 's "extensive '' holdings of United States government debt, as part of their reserves.
The National Defense Authorization Act of the fiscal year 2012 included a provision requiring the Secretary of Defense to conduct a "national security risk assessment of U.S. federal debt held by China. '' The Department issued its report in July 2012, stating that "attempting to use U.S. Treasury securities as a coercive tool would have limited effect and likely would do more harm to China than to the United States. As the threat is not credible and the effect would be limited even if carried out, it does not offer China deterrence options, whether in the diplomatic, military, or economic realms, and this would remain true both in peacetime and in scenarios of crisis or war. ''
The 112th United States Congress introduced legislation whose aim was the assessment of the implications of China 's ownership of U.S. debt. The 2013 Report claimed that "(a) potentially serious short - term problem would emerge if China decided to suddenly reduce their liquid U.S. financial assets significantly '' (emphasis in the original text), noting, also, that Federal Reserve System Chairman Ben Bernanke had, in 2007, stated that "because foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities represent only a small part of total U.S. credit market debt outstanding, U.S. credit markets should be able to absorb without great difficulty any shift of foreign allocations. ''
A significant number of economists and analysts dismiss any and all concerns over foreign holdings of United States government debt denominated in U.S. dollars, including China 's holdings.
According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO), the United States is on a "fiscally unsustainable '' path because of projected future increases in Medicare and Social Security spending.
Debt levels may affect economic growth rates. In 2010, economists Kenneth Rogoff and Carmen Reinhart reported that among the 20 developed countries studied, average annual GDP growth was 3 -- 4 % when debt was relatively moderate or low (i.e. under 60 % of GDP), but it dips to just 1.6 % when debt was high (i.e., above 90 % of GDP). In April 2013, the conclusions of Rogoff and Reinhart 's study came into question when a coding error in their original paper was discovered by Herndon, Ash and Pollin of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Herndon, Ash and Pollin found that after correcting for errors and unorthodox methods used, there was no evidence that debt above a specific threshold reduces growth. Reinhart and Rogoff maintain that after correcting for errors, a negative relationship between high debt and growth remains. However, other economists, including Paul Krugman, have argued that it is low growth which causes national debt to increase, rather than the other way around.
Commenting on fiscal sustainability, former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke stated in April 2010 that "Neither experience nor economic theory clearly indicates the threshold at which government debt begins to endanger prosperity and economic stability. But given the significant costs and risks associated with a rapidly rising federal debt, our nation should soon put in place a credible plan for reducing deficits to sustainable levels over time. ''
Despite rising debt levels, interest costs have remained at approximately 2008 levels (around $450 billion in total) due to lower than long - term interest rates paid on government debt in recent years. However, interest rates may return to higher historical levels.
The cost of servicing the U.S. national debt can be measured in various ways. The CBO analyzes net interest as a percentage of GDP, with a higher percentage indicating a higher interest payment burden. During 2015, this was 1.3 % GDP, close to the record low 1.2 % of the 1966 -- 1968 era. The average from 1966 to 2015 was 2.0 % of GDP. However, the CBO estimated in 2016 that the interest amounts and % GDP will increase significantly over the following decade as both interest rates and debt levels rise: "Interest payments on that debt represent a large and rapidly growing expense of the federal government. CBO 's baseline shows net interest payments more than tripling under current law, climbing from $231 billion in 2014, or 1.3 percent of GDP, to $799 billion in 2024, or 3.0 percent of GDP -- the highest ratio since 1996. ''
Economists also debate the definition of public debt. Krugman argued in May 2010 that the debt held by the public is the right measure to use, while Reinhart has testified to the President 's Fiscal Reform Commission that gross debt is the appropriate measure. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP) cited research by several economists supporting the use of the lower debt held by the public figure as a more accurate measure of the debt burden, disagreeing with these Commission members.
There is debate regarding the economic nature of the intragovernmental debt, which was approximately $4.6 trillion in February 2011. For example, the CBPP argues: that "large increases in (debt held by the public) can also push up interest rates and increase the amount of future interest payments the federal government must make to lenders outside of the United States, which reduces Americans ' income. By contrast, intragovernmental debt (the other component of the gross debt) has no such effects because it is simply money the federal government owes (and pays interest on) to itself. ''
However, if the U.S. government continues to run "on budget '' deficits as projected by the CBO and OMB for the foreseeable future, it will have to issue marketable Treasury bills and bonds (i.e., debt held by the public) to pay for the projected shortfall in the Social Security program. This will result in "debt held by the public '' replacing "intragovernmental debt ''.
One debate about the national debt relates to intergenerational equity. For example, if one generation is receiving the benefit of government programs or employment enabled by deficit spending and debt accumulation, to what extent does the resulting higher debt impose risks and costs on future generations? There are several factors to consider:
Krugman wrote in March 2013 that by neglecting public investment and failing to create jobs, we are doing far more harm to future generations than merely passing along debt: "Fiscal policy is, indeed, a moral issue, and we should be ashamed of what we 're doing to the next generation 's economic prospects. But our sin involves investing too little, not borrowing too much. '' Young workers face high unemployment and studies have shown their income may lag throughout their careers as a result. Teacher jobs have been cut, which could affect the quality of education and competitiveness of younger Americans.
The US has never fully defaulted.
In April 1979, however, the United States may have technically defaulted on $122 million in Treasury bills, which was less than 1 % of U.S. debt. The Treasury Department characterized it as a delay rather than as a default, but it did have consequences for short - term interest rates, which jumped 0.6 %. Others view it as a temporary, partial default.
On June 25, 2014, the BEA announced: "(On July 30, 2014, i) n addition to the regular revision of estimates for the most recent 3 years and for the first quarter of 2014, GDP and select components will be revised back to the first quarter of 1999.
Fiscal years 1940 -- 2009 GDP figures were derived from February 2011 Office of Management and Budget figures which contained revisions of prior year figures due to significant changes from prior GDP measurements. Fiscal years 1950 -- 2010 GDP measurements were derived from December 2010 Bureau of Economic Analysis figures which also tend to be subject to revision, especially more recent years. Afterwards the OMB figures were revised back to 2004 and the BEA figures (in a revision dated July 31, 2013) were revised back to 1947.
Regarding estimates recorded in the GDP column (the last column) marked with a "~ '' symbol, absolute differences from advance (one month after) BEA reports of GDP percent change to current findings (as of November 2013) found in revisions are stated to be 1.3 % ± 2.0 % or a 95 % probability of being within the range of 0.0 -- 3.3 %, assuming the differences to occur according to standard deviations from the average absolute difference of 1.3 %. E.g. with an advance report of a $400 billion increase of a $10 trillion GDP, for example, one could be 95 % confident that the range in which the exact GDP dollar amount lies would be 0.0 to 3.3 % different than 4.0 % (400 ÷ 10,000) or within the range of $0 to $330 billion different than the hypothetical $400 billion (a range of $70 -- 730 billion). Two months after, with a revised value, the range of potential difference from the stated estimate shrinks, and three months after with another revised value the range shrinks again.
Fiscal years 1940 -- 1970 begin July 1 of the previous year (for example, Fiscal Year 1940 begins July 1, 1939 and ends June 30, 1940); fiscal years 1980 -- 2010 begin October 1 of the previous year. Intragovernmental debts before the Social Security Act are presumed to equal zero.
1909 -- 1930 calendar year GDP estimates are from MeasuringWorth.com Fiscal Year estimates are derived from simple linear interpolation.
(a1) Audited figure was "about $5,659 billion. ''
(a2) Audited figure was "about $5,792 billion. ''
(a3) Audited figure was "about $6,213 billion. ''
(a) Audited figure was said to be "about '' the stated figure.
(a4) Audited figure was "about $7,918 billion. ''
(a5) Audited figure was "about $8,493 billion. ''
(a6) Audited figure was "about $8,993 billion. ''
(a7) Audited figure was "about $10,011 billion. ''
(a8) Audited figure was "about $11,898 billion. ''
(a9) Audited figure was "about $13,551 billion. ''
(a10) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Public debt figure as $14,781 billion.
(a11) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Public debt figure as $16,059 billion.
(a12) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Fiscal Service 's figure as $16,732 billion.
(a13) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Fiscal Service 's figure as $17,810 billion.
(a14) GAO affirmed Bureau of the Fiscal Service 's figure as $18,138 billion.
The following is a list of the top foreign holders of US Treasury securities as listed by the US Treasury (revised by August 2018 survey):
A 1998 Brookings Institution study published by the Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Committee (formed in 1993 by the W. Alton Jones Foundation), calculated that total expenditures for U.S. nuclear weapons from 1940 to 1998 was $5.5 trillion in 1996 Dollars. The total public debt at the end of fiscal year 1998 was $5,478,189,000,000 in 1998 Dollars or $5.3 trillion in 1996 Dollars.
Sources: Eurostat, International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook (emerging market economies); Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Economic Outlook (advanced economies) IMF,
China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand Afghanistan, Armenia, Australia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, People 's Republic of, Fiji, Georgia, Hong Kong SAR, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Korea, Republic of, Kyrgyz Republic, Lao P.D.R., Macao SAR, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Fed. States of, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nauru, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Taiwan Province of China, Tajikistan, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tonga, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam
On July 29, 2016, the BEA released a revision to 2013 -- 2016 GDP figures. The figures for this table were corrected the next week with changes to figures in those fiscal years.
On July 30, 2015, the BEA released a revision to 2012 -- 2015 GDP figures. The figures for this table were corrected on that day with changes to FY 2013 and 2014, but not 2015 as FY 2015 is updated within a week with the release of debt totals for July 31, 2015.
On June 25, 2014, the BEA announced a 15 - year revision of GDP figures would take place on July 31, 2014. The figures for this table were corrected after that date with changes to FY 2000, 2003, 2008, 2012, 2013 and 2014. The more precise FY 1999 -- 2014 debt figures are derived from Treasury audit results. The variations in the 1990s and FY 2015 figures are due to double - sourced or relatively preliminary GDP figures respectively. A comprehensive revision GDP revision dated July 31, 2013 was described on the Bureau of Economic Analysis website. In November 2013 the total debt and yearly debt as a percentage of GDP columns of this table were changed to reflect those revised GDP figures.
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which is the longest bridge in the asia | List of Longest bridges - Wikipedia
This is a list of the world 's longest bridges more than three kilometres long sorted by their full length above land or water. "Span '' refers to the longest spans without any ground support.
Note: There is no standard way to measure the total length of a bridge. Some bridges are measured from the beginning of the entrance ramp to the end of the exit ramp. Some are measured from shoreline to shoreline. Yet others are the length of the total construction involved in building the bridge. Since there is no standard, no ranking of a bridge should be assumed because of its position in the list. Additionally, numbers are merely estimates and measures in U.S. customary units (feet) may be imprecise due to conversion rounding.
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discuss the role of nam during the cold war era | Non-Aligned Movement - wikipedia
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members.
The purpose of the organization has been enumerated as to ensure "the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries '' in their "struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics, '' by Fidel Castro in the Havana Declaration of 1979. The countries of the Non-Aligned Movement represent nearly two - thirds of the United Nations ' members and contain 55 % of the world population. Membership is particularly concentrated in countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World, though the Non-Aligned Movement also has a number of developed nations.
Although many of the Non-Aligned Movement 's members were actually quite closely aligned with one or another of the superpowers, the movement still maintained cohesion throughout the Cold War, even despite several conflicts between members which also threatened the movement. In the years since the Cold War 's end, it has focused on developing multilateral ties and connections as well as unity among the developing nations of the world, especially those within the Global South.
The founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement were Josip Broz Tito of Socialist Yugoslavia, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Their actions were known as ' The Initiative of Five '.
The Non-Aligned Movement as an organization was founded on the Brijuni islands in Yugoslavia in 1956, and was formalized by signing the Declaration of Brijuni on July 19th, 1956. The Declaration was signed by Yugoslavia 's president, Josip Broz Tito, India 's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Egypt 's second president, Gamal Abdel Nasser. One of the quotations within the Declaration is "Peace can not be achieved with separation, but with the aspiration towards collective security in global terms and expansion of freedom, as well as terminating the domination of one country over another ''. According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, an ideologue of the Congress party which ruled India for most part of the Cold War years, the Non-Aligned Movement arose from the desire of Jawaharlal Nehru and other leaders of the newly independent countries of the third world to guard their independence "in face of complex international situation demanding allegiance to either two warring superpowers ''.
The Movement advocates a middle course for states in the developing world between the Western and Eastern Blocs during the Cold War. The phrase itself was first used to represent the doctrine by Indian diplomat V.K. Krishna Menon in 1953, at the United Nations.
But it soon after became the name to refer to the participants of the Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries first held in 1961. The term "non-alignment '' was established in 1953 at the United Nations. Nehru used the phrase in a 1954 speech in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for Sino - Indian relations called Panchsheel (five restraints); these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement. The five principles were:
A significant milestone in the development of the Non-Aligned Movement was the 1955 Bandung Conference, a conference of Asian and African states hosted by Indonesian president Sukarno, who gave a significant contribution to promote this movement. Bringing together Sukarno, U Nu, Nasser, Nehru, Tito, Nkrumah and Menon with the likes of Ho Chi Minh, Zhou Enlai, and Norodom Sihanouk, as well as U Thant and a young Indira Gandhi, the conference adopted a "declaration on promotion of world peace and cooperation '', which included Nehru 's five principles, and a collective pledge to remain neutral in the Cold War. Six years after Bandung, an initiative of Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito led to the first Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries, which was held in September 1961 in Belgrade. The term non-aligned movement appears first in the fifth conference in 1976, where participating countries are denoted as members of the movement.
At the Lusaka Conference in September 1970, the member nations added as aims of the movement the peaceful resolution of disputes and the abstention from the big power military alliances and pacts. Another added aim was opposition to stationing of military bases in foreign countries.
Some members were involved in serious conflicts with other members (e.g. India and Pakistan, Iran and Iraq). The movement fractured from its own internal contradictions when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. Although the Soviet allies supported the invasion, other members of the movement (particularly predominantly Muslim states) condemned it.
Because the Non-Aligned Movement was formed as an attempt to throw out the Cold War, it has struggled to find relevance since the Cold War ended. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, a founding member, its membership was suspended in 1992 at the regular Ministerial Meeting of the Movement, held in New York during the regular yearly session of the General Assembly of the United Nations. The successor states of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have expressed little interest in membership, though Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina have observer status. In 2004, Malta and Cyprus ceased to be members and joined the European Union. Belarus is the only member of the Movement in Europe. Azerbaijan and Fiji are the most recent entrants, joining in 2011. The applications of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Costa Rica were rejected in 1995 and 1998, respectively.
Since the end of the Cold War, the Non-Aligned Movement has been forced to redefine itself and reinvent its purpose in the current world system. A major question has been whether many of its foundational ideologies, principally national independence, territorial integrity, and the struggle against colonialism and imperialism, can be applied to contemporary issues. The movement has emphasised its principles of multilateralism, equality, and mutual non-aggression in attempting to become a stronger voice for the global South, and an instrument that can be utilised to promote the needs of member nations at the international level and strengthen their political leverage when negotiating with developed nations. In its efforts to advance Southern interests, the movement has stressed the importance of cooperation and unity amongst member states, but as in the past, cohesion remains a problem since the size of the organisation and the divergence of agendas and allegiances present the ongoing potential for fragmentation. While agreement on basic principles has been smooth, taking definitive action vis - à - vis particular international issues has been rare, with the movement preferring to assert its criticism or support rather than pass hard - line resolutions.
The movement continues to see a role for itself, as in its view, the world 's poorest nations remain exploited and marginalised, no longer by opposing superpowers, but rather in a uni-polar world, and it is Western hegemony and neo-colonialism that the movement has really re-aligned itself against. It opposes foreign occupation, interference in internal affairs and aggressive unilateral measures, but it has also shifted to focus on the socio - economic challenges facing member states, especially the inequalities manifested by globalization and the implications of neo-liberal policies. The Non-Aligned Movement has identified economic underdevelopment, poverty, and social injustices as growing threats to peace and security.
The 16th NAM summit took place in Tehran, Iran, from 26 to 31 August 2012. According to Mehr News Agency, representatives from over 150 countries were scheduled to attend. Attendance at the highest level includes 27 presidents, 2 kings and emirs, 7 prime ministers, 9 vice presidents, 2 parliament spokesmen and 5 special envoys. At the summit, Iran took over from Egypt as Chair of the Non-Aligned Movement for the period 2012 to 2015.
The movement stems from a desire not to be aligned within a geopolitical / military structure and therefore itself does not have a very strict organizational structure. Some organizational basics were defined at the 1996 Cartagena Document on Methodology The Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned States is "the highest decision making authority ''. The chairmanship rotates between countries and changes at every summit of heads of state or government to the country organizing the summit.
Requirements for membership of the Non-Aligned Movement coincide with the key beliefs of the United Nations. The current requirements are that the candidate country has displayed practices in accordance with the ten "Bandung principles '' of 1955:
Secretaries General of the NAM had included such diverse figures as Suharto, militaristic anti-communist, and Nelson Mandela, a democratic socialist and famous anti-apartheid activist. Consisting of many governments with vastly different ideologies, the Non-Aligned Movement is unified by its declared commitment to world peace and security. At the seventh summit held in New Delhi in March 1983, the movement described itself as "history 's biggest peace movement ''. The movement places equal emphasis on disarmament. NAM 's commitment to peace pre-dates its formal institutionalisation in 1961. The Brioni meeting between heads of governments of India, Egypt and Yugoslavia in 1956 recognized that there exists a vital link between struggle for peace and endeavours for disarmament.
During the 1970s and early 1980s, the NAM also sponsored campaigns for restructuring commercial relations between developed and developing nations, namely the New International Economic Order (NIEO), and its cultural offspring, the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO). The latter, on its own, sparked a Non-Aligned initiative on cooperation for communications, the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool, created in 1975 and later converted into the NAM News Network in 2005.
The Non-Aligned Movement espouses policies and practices of cooperation, especially those that are multilateral and provide mutual benefit to all those involved. Many of the members of the Non-Aligned Movement are also members of the United Nations. Both organisations have a stated policy of peaceful cooperation, yet the successes the NAM has had with multilateral agreements tend to be ignored by the larger, western and developed nation dominated UN. African concerns about apartheid were linked with Arab - Asian concerns about Palestine and multilateral cooperation in these areas has enjoyed moderate success. The Non-Aligned Movement has played a major role in various ideological conflicts throughout its existence, including extreme opposition to apartheid governments and support of guerrilla movements in various locations, including Rhodesia and South Africa.
In recent years the organization has criticized certain aspects of US foreign policy. The 2003 invasion of Iraq and the War on Terrorism, its attempts to stifle Iran and North Korea 's nuclear plans, and its other actions have been denounced by some members of the Non-Aligned Movement as attempts to run roughshod over the sovereignty of smaller nations; at the most recent summit, Kim Yong - nam, the head of North Korea 's parliament, stated that, "The United States is attempting to deprive other countries of even their legitimate right to peaceful nuclear activities. ''
Since 1961, the organization has supported the discussion of the case of Puerto Rico 's self - determination before the United Nations. A resolution on the matter was to be proposed on the XV Summit by the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
Since 1973, the group has supported the discussion of the case of Western Sahara 's self - determination before the United Nations. The movement reaffirmed in its last meeting (Sharm El Sheikh 2009) the support to the Self - determination of the Sahrawi people by choosing between any valid option, welcomed the direct conversations between the parties, and remembered the responsibility of the United Nations on the Sahrawi issue.
The movement is publicly committed to the tenets of sustainable development and the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals, but it believes that the international community has not created conditions conducive to development and has infringed upon the right to sovereign development by each member state. Issues such as globalization, the debt burden, unfair trade practices, the decline in foreign aid, donor conditionality, and the lack of democracy in international financial decision - making are cited as factors inhibiting development.
The movement has been outspoken in its criticism of current UN structures and power dynamics, stating that the organisation has been utilised by powerful states in ways that violate the movement 's principles. It has made a number of recommendations that it says would strengthen the representation and power of "non-aligned '' states. The proposed UN reforms are also aimed at improving the transparency and democracy of UN decision - making. The UN Security Council is the element it considers the most distorted, undemocratic, and in need of reshaping.
The movement has collaborated with other organisations of the developing world -- primarily the Group of 77 -- forming a number of joint committees and releasing statements and documents representing the shared interests of both groups. This dialogue and cooperation can be taken as an effort to increase the global awareness about the organisation and bolster its political clout.
The movement accepts the universality of human rights and social justice, but fiercely resists cultural homogenisation. In line with its views on sovereignty, the organisation appeals for the protection of cultural diversity, and the tolerance of the religious, socio - cultural, and historical particularities that define human rights in a specific region.
The conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Countries, often referred to as Non-Aligned Movement Summit is the main meeting within the movement and are held every few years:
A variety of ministerial meetings are held between the summit meetings. Some are specialist, such as the meeting on "Inter-Faith Dialogue and Co-operation for Peace '', held in Manila, the Philippines, 16 -- 18 March 2010. There is a general Conference of Foreign Ministers every three years. The most recent were in Bali, Indonesia, 23 -- 27 May 2011 and Algiers, Algeria, 26 -- 29 May 2014.
The Non-Aligned Movement celebrated its 50th anniversary in Belgrade on 5 -- 6 September 2011.
Between summits, the Non-Aligned Movement is run by the secretary general elected at the last summit meeting. The Coordinating Bureau, also based at the UN, is the main instrument for directing the work of the movement 's task forces, committees and working groups.
The following countries are members of the NAM, arranged by continent, showing their year of admission:
Currently every African country (except the newly created South Sudan) is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.
The following countries and organizations have observer status (2012):
There is no permanent guest status, but often several non-member countries are represented as guests at conferences. In addition, a large number of organisations, both from within the UN system and from outside, are always invited as guests.
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where was the berlin conference of 1884 held | Berlin Conference - wikipedia
The Berlin Conference of 1884 -- 85, also known as the Congo Conference (German: Kongokonferenz) or West Africa Conference (Westafrika - Konferenz), regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period and coincided with Germany 's sudden emergence as an imperial power. The conference was organized by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany; its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self - governance.
Before the conference, European diplomacy treated African indigenous people in the same manner as the New World natives, forming trading relationships with the indigenous chiefs. In the early 1800s the search for ivory, which was then often used in the production of luxurious products, led many white traders further into the interior of Africa. By 1870, the momentum of European intervention with Africa quickly increased, which can be seen as The Conquest of Africa. With the exception of trading posts along the coasts, the continent was essentially ignored.
In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium, who had previously founded the International African Society that same year, invited Henry Morton Stanley to join him in researching and ' civilising ' the continent. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, with more economic goals, but still closely related to the former society. Léopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the African Society serving primarily as a philanthropic front.
From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo, not as a reporter but as an envoy from Léopold with the secret mission to organize what would become known as the Congo Free State. French intelligence had discovered Leopold 's plans, and France quickly engaged in its own colonial exploration. In 1881, French naval officer Pierre de Brazza was dispatched to central Africa, traveled into the western Congo basin, and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville, in what is currently the Republic of Congo. Finally, Portugal, which already had a long, but essentially abandoned colonial Empire in the area through the mostly defunct proxy state Kongo Empire, also claimed the area. Its claims were based on old treaties with Spain and the Roman Catholic Church. It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its former ally, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, to block off the Congo Society 's access to the Atlantic.
By the early 1880s, due to many factors including diplomatic maneuvers, subsequent colonial exploration, and recognition of Africa 's abundance of valuable resources such as gold, timber, land, and markets, European interest in the continent had increased dramatically. Stanley 's charting of the Congo River Basin (1874 -- 77) removed the last terra incognita from European maps of the continent, and delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French, and Belgian control. The powers raced to push these rough boundaries to their furthest limits and eliminate any potential local minor powers which might prove troublesome to European competitive diplomacy.
France moved to take over Tunisia, one of the last of the Barbary Pirate states, under the pretext of another piracy incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly solidified with French taking control of today 's Republic of the Congo in 1881 and Guinea in 1884. Italy became part of the Triple Alliance, upsetting Bismarck 's carefully laid plans with the state and forcing Germany to become involved in Africa.
In 1882, realizing the geopolitical extent of Portuguese control on the coasts, but seeing penetration by France eastward across Central Africa toward Ethiopia, the Nile, and the Suez Canal, Britain saw its vital trade route through Egypt and its Indian Empire threatened. Under the pretext of the collapsed Egyptian financing and a subsequent riot, in which hundreds of Europeans and British subjects were murdered or injured, the United Kingdom intervened in nominally Ottoman Egypt. Through it, the UK also ruled over the Sudan and what would later become British Somaliland.
Owing to the European race for colonies, Germany started launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe this brewing conflict, King Leopold II convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best interests of all three countries. Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck, German Chancellor, called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out joint policy on the African continent.
The conference was opened on November 15, 1884 and continued till its closure on 26 February 1885. Whilst the number of plenipotentiaries varied per nation, the following 14 countries did send representatives to attend the Berlin Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act:
The conference was convened on Saturday, November 15, 1884, at Bismarck 's official residence on Wilhelmstrasse (site of the Congress of Berlin six years earlier). Bismarck accepted the chairmanship. The British representative was Sir Edward Malet (Ambassador to the German Empire). Henry Morton Stanley attended as a U.S. delegate.
The General Act fixed the following points:
The first reference in an international act to the obligations attaching to "spheres of influence '' is contained in the Berlin Act.
The principle of effective occupation stated that powers could acquire rights over colonial lands only if they possessed them or had "effective occupation '': in other words, if they had treaties with local leaders, if they flew their flag there, and if they established an administration in the territory to govern it with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could also make use of the colony economically. This principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial sovereignty in Africa, but also for determining the limits of their respective overseas possessions, as effective occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling disputes over the boundaries between colonies. But, as the Berlin Act was limited in its scope to the lands that fronted on the African coast, European powers in numerous instances later claimed rights over lands in the interior without demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation, as articulated in Article 35 of the Final Act.
At the Berlin Conference of 1885, the scope of the Principle of Effective Occupation was heavily contested between Germany and France. The Germans, who were new to the continent of Africa, essentially believed that as far as the extension of power in Africa was concerned, no colonial power should have any legal right to a territory, unless the state exercised strong and effective political control, and if so, only for a limited period of time, essentially an occupational force only. However, Britain 's view was that Germany was a latecomer to the continent, and was assumptively unlikely to gain any new possessions, apart from already occupied territories, which were swiftly proving to be more valuable than British - occupied territories. Given that logic, it was generally assumed by Britain and France that Germany had an interest in embarrassing the other European powers on the continent and forcing them to give up their possessions if they could not muster a strong political presence. On the other side, the United Kingdom (UK) had large territorial control on the continent and wanted to keep them while minimising its responsibilities and administrative costs. In the end, the British view prevailed.
The disinclination to rule what the Europeans had conquered is apparent throughout the protocols of the Berlin Conference, but especially in "The Principle of Effective Occupation. '' In line with Germany and Britain 's opposing views, the powers finally agreed that this could be established by a European power establishing some kind of base on the coast, from which it was free to expand into the interior. The Europeans did not believe that the rules of occupation demanded European hegemony on the ground. The Belgians originally wanted to include that "effective occupation '' required provisions that "cause peace to be administered '', but other powers, specifically Britain and France, had that amendment struck out of the final document.
This principle, along with others that were written at the Conference allowed the Europeans to conquer Africa while doing as little as possible to administer or control it. The Principle of Effective Occupation did not apply so much to the hinterlands of Africa at the time of the conference. This gave rise to "hinterland theory, '' which basically gave any colonial power with coastal territory the right to claim political influence over an indefinite amount of inland territory. Since Africa was irregularly shaped, this theory caused problems and was later rejected.
The conference provided an opportunity to channel latent European hostilities towards one another outward, provide new areas for helping the European powers expand in the face of rising American, Russian, and Japanese interests, and form constructive dialogue for limiting future hostilities. For Africans, colonialism was introduced across nearly all the continent. When African independence was regained after World War II, it was in the form of fragmented states.
The Scramble for Africa sped up after the Conference, since even within areas designated as their sphere of influence, the European powers still had to take possession under the Principle of Effectivity. In central Africa in particular, expeditions were dispatched to coerce traditional rulers into signing treaties, using force if necessary, as for example in the case of Msiri, King of Katanga, in 1891. Bedouin and Berber ruled states in the Sahara and Sub-Sahara were overrun by the French in several wars by the beginning of World War I. The British moved up from South Africa and down from Egypt conquering states such as the Mahdist State and the Sultanate of Zanzibar and, having already defeated the Zulu Kingdom in South Africa, in 1879, moving on to subdue and dismantle the independent Boer republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State.
Within a few years, Africa was at least nominally divided up south of the Sahara. By 1895, the only independent states were:
The following states lost their independence to the British Empire roughly a decade after (see below for more information):
By 1902, 90 % of all the land that makes up Africa was under European control. The large part of the Sahara was French, while after the quelling of the Mahdi rebellion and the ending of the Fashoda crisis, the Sudan remained firmly under joint British -- Egyptian rulership with Egypt being under British occupation before becoming a British protectorate in 1914.
The Boer republics were conquered by the United Kingdom in the Boer war from 1899 to 1902. Morocco was divided between the French and Spanish in 1911, and Libya was conquered by Italy in 1912. The official British annexation of Egypt in 1914 ended the colonial division of Africa.
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who played buffalo hump in dead man's walk | Dead Man 's Walk (miniseries) - wikipedia
Dead Man 's Walk is an American epic Western adventure television miniseries starring David Arquette as Augustus McCrae and Jonny Lee Miller as Woodrow F. Call. It was directed by Yves Simoneau. It is a two - part adaptation of the 1995 novel of the same name by Larry McMurtry and is chronologically the third book of the Lonesome Dove series, but regarded as the first events in the Lonesome Dove franchise. In this prequel to Lonesome Dove, it is 1840s Texas, and two young men join the Texas Rangers unit that 's on a mission to annex Santa Fe. The series was originally broadcast by ABC over two nights in May 1996, and was later nominated for several awards.
The series begins in the Republic of Texas in 1842, as Comanche warriors led by Buffalo Hump use the full moon to conduct slave - raids on settlements in northern Mexico. Woodrow Call and Augustus "Gus '' McCrae are junior Texas Rangers of a larger party heading west to scout a road from San Antonio to El Paso. Tasked with night watching the camp, a drunk McCrae wanders off exploring and is chased and wounded by Buffalo Hump. The next morning, the group is ambushed and two of the party are killed and one wounded.
Three months later in Austin, another larger group is being assembled in order to seize Santa Fe from the Mexicans as the Texan Santa Fe Expedition. McCrae encounters Clara Forsythe at the local store and Call meets Maggie at the local whorehouse. News of a Comanche raid takes the Rangers group west over the Brazos River, where they are ambushed while resting. Call manages the only kill of the punishment squad 's raid, whereas McCrae proposes to Clara. Rejoining the expedition, they encounter Buffalo Hump again and learn (after inviting him to parley at their camp) that it was his son who died at the hands of Call.
The expedition begins to break up as it is slowed by heavy rains and many of the civilians opt to return to Austin. The increasingly rocky terrain of Comancheria also proves troublesome for the wagons. They again encounter the natives who harry them by stealing their horses and setting fire to the grasslands. Now on foot, with no horses and limited supplies, the party splits again over gathering food and which way to travel to find water. McCrae, weakened by hunger and thirst, is haunted by a dream of Buffalo Hump riding a buffalo.
Wallace, Call, and McCrae are arrested by Mexican militia after stumbling into a remote Mexican village. En route to San Lazaro, the camp is attacked at night by a grizzly, allowing them to escape with rifles. In the darkness they re-find their companions, and the morning reveals a large Mexican army camp nearby. Now numbering about 30, weakened by hunger, and with limited ammunition, Colonel Cobb enters the camp and surrenders to the Mexicans - but not without resistance from Call who attacks Cobb and receives 100 lashes as punishment.
The army breaks camp and moves with their prisoners through Apache lands, where they soon find the corpses of their general and his retinue - including Cobb who survived blinded and crippled. Many of the group are unfit for the "dead man 's walk '' through the wastelands and across "the big dry '', more so after Cobb decides to die in a blaze of glory, injuring some of his own soldiers in the process. As they travel, the nights become increasingly cold, increasing the suffering of the travellers. Finally they begin the desert crossing, but their horses are soon stolen by this region 's rogue natives, led by an Apache named Gomez. Their numbers dwindle as they are picked off one by one, until they finally reach the Rio Grande having survived the Jornada del Muerto.
Here the prisoners are transferred to a French Major in charge of a troop of lancers, and the disgraced Mexican Captain is told to return across the desert to his post despite the dangers. They soon arrive at San Lazaro, a leper colony, and the seven surviving men are forced to select lots to decide who among them will be executed for treason. Also in the colony is an English prisoner, who asks to travel back to Austin with them and offers to provision the journey. One the way back they again travel back through Comancheria but are able to spook the Comanche with an aria, a snake, and a sword. Back in Austin, McCrae calls again on Clara, and the two kiss while Call looks on awkwardly.
The series teleplay was co-written by author Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana, who had also worked on other parts of the Lonesome Dove series, and later went on to write the screenplay for Brokeback Mountain.
A review by Don Heckman in the May 11, 1996 edition of the L.A. Times stated that "Director Yves Simoneau did the best he could with a script -- by McMurtry and producer Diana Ossana -- that provided little in the way of workable character development. ''
The series and its actors was nominated for several awards:
Videos of the series were first released in August 1998 (see cover art). It was released in Region 1 on DVD on October 23, 2001.
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what is the mad hatters role in alice in wonderland | Hatter (Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland) - wikipedia
The Hatter is a fictional character in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequel Through the Looking - Glass. He is often referred to as the Mad Hatter, though this term was never used by Carroll. The phrase "mad as a hatter '' pre-dates Carroll 's works. The Hatter and the March Hare are referred to as "both mad '' by the Cheshire Cat, in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland in the seventh chapter titled "A Mad Tea - Party ''.
The Hatter character, alongside all the other fictional beings, first appears in Lewis Carroll 's 1865 novel Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. In it, the Hatter explains to Alice that he and the March Hare are always having tea because when he tried to sing for the foul - tempered Queen of Hearts, she sentenced him to death for "murdering the time '', but he escapes decapitation. In retaliation, time (referred to as a "he '' in the novel) halts himself in respect to the Hatter, keeping him and the March Hare stuck at 18: 00 (or 6: 00 pm) forever.
When Alice arrives at the tea party, the Hatter is characterised by switching places on the table at any given time, making short, personal remarks, asking unanswerable riddles and reciting nonsensical poetry, all of which eventually drives Alice away. The Hatter appears again as a witness at the Knave of Hearts ' trial, where the Queen appears to recognise him as the singer she sentenced to death, and the King of Hearts also cautions him not to be nervous or he will have him "executed on the spot ''.
The character also appears briefly in Carroll 's 1871 Through the Looking - Glass, the sequel to Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, under the name "Hatta '' - alongside the March Hare under the name "Haigha '', which is pronounced "hare. '' Sir John Tenniel 's illustration depicts Hatta as sipping from a teacup as he did in the original novel. Alice does not comment on whether Hatta is the Hatter of her earlier dream.
Mercury was used in the manufacturing of felt hats during the 19th century, causing a high rate of mercury poisoning among those working in the hat industry. Mercury poisoning causes neurological damage, including slurred speech, memory loss, and tremors, which led to the phrase "mad as a hatter ''. In the Victorian age, many workers in the textile industry, including hatters, often suffered from starvation and overwork, and were particularly prone to develop illnesses affecting the nervous system, such as central nervous system (CNS) tuberculosis, which is portrayed in novels like Alton Locke by Charles Kingsley and North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell, which Lewis Carroll had read. Many such workers were sent to Pauper Lunatic Asylums, which were supervised by Lunacy Commissioners such as Samuel Gaskell and Robert Wilfred Skeffington Lutwidge, Carroll 's uncle. Carroll was familiar with the conditions at asylums and visited at least one, the Surrey County Asylum, himself, which treated patients with so - called non-restraint methods and occupied them, amongst others, in gardening, farming and hat - making. Besides staging theatre plays, dances and other amusements, such asylums also held tea - parties.
The Hatter introduced in Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland wears a large top hat with a hatband reading "In this style 10 / 6 ''. This is the hat 's price tag, indicative of The Hatter 's trade, and giving the price in pre-decimal British money as ten shillings and six pence (or half a guinea).
The Hatter and his tea party friend, the March Hare, are initially referred to as "both mad '' by the distinctive Cheshire Cat. The first mention of both characters occurs in the sixth chapter of Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, titled "Pig and Pepper '', in a conversation between the child protagonist Alice and the Cheshire Cat, when she asks "what sort of people live about here? '' to which the cat replies "in that direction lives a Hatter, and in that direction, lives a March Hare. Visit either you like: they 're both mad! '' Both then subsequently make their actual debuts in the seventh chapter of the same book, which is titled "A Mad Tea - Party ''.
Hat making was the main trade in Stockport where Carroll grew up, and it was not unusual then for hatters to appear disturbed or confused; many died early as a result of mercury poisoning. However, the Hatter does not exhibit the symptoms of mercury poisoning, which include excessive timidity, diffidence, increasing shyness, loss of self - confidence, anxiety, and a desire to remain unobserved and unobtrusive.
It has often been claimed that the Hatter 's character may have been inspired by Theophilus Carter, an eccentric furniture dealer. Carter was supposedly at one time a servitor at Christ Church, one of the University of Oxford 's colleges. This is not substantiated by university records. He later owned a furniture shop, and became known as the "Mad Hatter '' from his habit of standing in the door of his shop wearing a top hat. Sir John Tenniel is reported to have come to Oxford especially to sketch him for his illustrations. There is no evidence for this claim, however, in either Carroll 's letters or diaries.
In the chapter "A Mad Tea Party '', the Hatter asks a much - noted riddle "why is a raven like a writing desk? '' When Alice gives up trying to figure out why, the Hatter admits "I have n't the slightest idea! ''. Carroll originally intended the riddle to be without an answer, but after many requests from readers, he and others -- including puzzle expert Sam Loyd -- suggested possible answers; in his preface to the 1896 edition of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, Carroll wrote:
Enquiries have been so often addressed to me, as to whether any answer to the Hatter 's riddle can be imagined, that I may as well put on record here what seems to me to be a fairly appropriate answer, "because it can produce a few notes, though they are very flat; and it is nevar put with the wrong end in front! '' This, however, is merely an afterthought; the riddle as originally invented had no answer at all.
Loyd proposed a number of alternative solutions to the riddle, including "because Poe wrote on both '' (alluding to Poe 's 1845 narrative poem The Raven) and "because the notes for which they are noted are not noted for being musical notes ''.
The April 2017 edition of Bandersnatch, the Newsletter of the Lewis Carroll Society (Issue 172, ISSN 0306 - 8404, Apr 2017), published the following solution, proposed by puzzle expert Rick Hosburn: "Why is a Raven like a Writing - desk? '' "Because one is a crow with a bill, while the other is a bureau with a quill! '' The RSPB, in its definition of Raven, states: "The raven (...) is all black with a large bill, and long wings. ''
American author Stephen King provides an alternative answer to the Hatter 's riddle in his 1977 horror novel The Shining. Snowbound and isolated "ten thousand feet high '' in the Rocky Mountains, the five - year - old son "Danny '' hears whispers of the malign "voice of the (Overlook) hotel '' inside his head, including this bit of mockery, "why is a raven like a writing desk? The higher the fewer, of course! Have another cup of tea! ''
The Hatter has been featured in nearly every adaptation of Alice in Wonderland to date; he is usually the male lead. The character has been portrayed in film by Edward Everett Horton, Sir Robert Helpmann, Martin Short, Peter Cook, Anthony Newley, Ed Wynn, Andrew - Lee Potts, and Johnny Depp. In music videos, the Hatter has been portrayed by Tom Petty, Dero Goi, and Steven Tyler. He has also been portrayed on stage by Nikki Snelson and Katherine Shindle, and on television by John Robert Hoffman, Pip Donaghy and Sebastian Stan. In ballet adaptations, Steven McRae also portrayed him as a mad ' Tapper '.
The Mad Hatter (also referred to as "Jervis Tetch '') is a supervillain and enemy of the Batman in DC comic books, making his first appearance in the October 1948 (# 49) release of Batman. He is portrayed as a brilliant neurotechnician with considerable knowledge in how to dominate and control the human mind. He has also appeared in the Batman television series, animated series and various video games.
In the 1951 Walt Disney animated feature Alice in Wonderland, the Hatter appears as a short, hyperactive man with grey hair, a large nose and a comical voice. He was voiced by Ed Wynn in 1951, and by Corey Burton in his later appearances (Bonkers, House of Mouse). Alice stumbles upon the Hatter and the March Hare having an "un-birthday '' party for themselves. The Hatter asks her the infamous riddle "why is a raven like a writing desk? '', but when she tries to answer the Hatter and the March Hare think she is "stark raving mad '' and the Hatter completely forgot that he even asked her the riddle.
Throughout the course of the film, the Hatter pulls numerous items out of his hat, such as cake and smaller hats. His personality is that of a child, angry one second, happy the next.
The Hatter and March Hare make a cameo appearance in a painting in the Tea Party Garden in the Kingdom Hearts video game and the Hatter is also a greetable character at the Disneyland Resort, Walt Disney World Resort, Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland Paris Resort and Hong Kong Disneyland. This version of the character was also a semi-regular on the Disney Afternoon series Bonkers and one of the guests in House of Mouse, where he even made a cameo appearance in one of the featured cartoon shorts.
The Hatter appears in Tim Burton 's 2010 version of Alice in Wonderland portrayed by Johnny Depp and given the name Tarrant Hightopp. In the film, the Hatter takes Alice toward the White Queen 's castle and relates the terror of the Red Queen 's reign while commenting that Alice is not the same as she once was. The Hatter subsequently helps Alice avoid capture by the Red Queen 's guards by allowing himself to be seized instead. He is later saved from execution by the Cheshire Cat and calls for rebellion against the Red Queen. Near the end of the film, the Hatter unsuccessfully suggests to Alice that she could stay in Wonderland and consummate his feelings for her.
Critical reception to Johnny Depp 's portrayal of the Hatter was generally positive. David Edelstein of New York Magazine remarked that while the elements of the character suggested by Depp do n't entirely come together, "Depp brings an infectious summer - stock zest to everything he does. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic said that "Depp is exactly what you 'd expect, which is a good thing. Gap - toothed and leering, at times he looks like Madonna after sticking a fork in a toaster. How he finds his characters is anybody 's guess, a sort of thrift - store warehouse of eccentricities, it seems like. But it works. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly had a more mixed opinion and commented that Depp as the Hatter is "a fantastic image, but once Depp opens his mouth, what comes out is a noisome Scottish brogue that makes everything he says sound more or less the same. The character offers no captivatingly skewed bat - house psychology. There is n't much to him, really -- he 's just a smiling Johnny one - note with a secret hip - hop dance move -- and so we start to react to him the way that Alice does to everything else: by wondering when he 's going to stop making nonsense. '' Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times stated that "there 's no denying Depp 's gifts and abilities, but this performance feels both indulgent and something we 've all seen before. ''
Frank Wildhorn composed the music to and co-wrote the music to Wonderland. In this adaption the Hatter is portrayed as the villain of the story, and Alice 's alter - ego and is a mad woman who longs to be Queen. She was played by Nikki Snelson in the original Tampa, Florida production, and then by Kate Shindle in the Tampa / Houston Tour, and the production on Broadway.
This Hatter is portrayed as a smuggler who starts off working as a double agent for the Queen of Hearts and the Wonderland Resistance in the story; over the course of the story, he begins to side more and more with the Resistance, and ends up falling in love with Alice as he helps her along the way.
In the videogame American McGee 's Alice, The Mad Hatter is portrayed as psychotic, literally gone "mad '' and obsessed with time and clockworks, and considers himself to be a genius. He invents mechanical devices, often evidently using the bodies of living organisms for the base of his inventions, as he plans to do to all of Wonderland 's inhabitants. He appears in Alice: Madness Returns in the same appearance, although this time, he requests Alice 's help in retrieving his lost limbs from his former compatriots the March Hare and Dormouse.
A spin - off of the traditional Alice in Wonderland story, Frank Beddor 's The Looking Glass Wars features a character named Hatter Madigan, a member of an elite group of bodyguards known in Wonderland as the "Millinery '' after the business of selling women 's hats. He acts as the bodyguard of the rightful Queen, and as guide / guardian to the protagonist, Alyss Heart.
The Japanese manga Alice in the Country of Hearts has been translated into English. The Hatter role is played by Blood Dupre, a crime boss and leader of a street gang called The Hatters, which controls one of the four territories of Wonderland.
Sir John Tenniel 's drawing of the Hatter, combined with a montage of other images from Alice in Wonderland, were used as a logo by Charisma Records from 1972 onwards.
The Mad Hatter in Pandora Hearts manga series is a chain (creature from the Abyss) that was contracted by Xerxes Break. The hatter basically looks like a large top hat with flowery decorations (similar to Break 's top hat) and a tattered cape. When summoned, it can destroy all chains and objects from the Abyss within a large area. T
The TV series Futurama has a robot named Mad Hatterbot who is based off the Hatter. Seen only in the HAL Institute (an asylum for criminally insane robots) the Mad Hatterbot only says one line: "Change places! '', which all in the room comply with when spoken. The price tag on his hat reads "5 / 3 '', a simplified form of the fraction 10 / 6. A minor character, he has been in the episodes "Insane in the Mainframe '' and "Follow the Reader '' as well as the film Futurama: Bender 's Game.
In the Netflix episode "Spring Unsprung '', the Mad Hatter makes an appearance as Madeline Hatter 's father. In the 47 - minute special, he runs the Mad Hatter 's Tea Shoppe in the town of Bookend, not far from Maddie 's school Ever After High. He also runs a shop by the same name in Wonderland, but it was abandoned after the Evil Queen (Raven Queen 's mother) cast a curse upon the land.
The Mad Hatter plays a small role as a fairytale creature and has two lines including, "They ridiculed my hat '' and "I smell like sauerkraut ''.
A Burton 's inspired Mad Hatter appears in "The Man who became a Rabbit '' Music Video, an Indian version of Alice in Wonderland by Valérian MacRabbit and Lalkrishnan. Mad Hatter becomes Mac Hatter and gives one riddle to the main character: "Spread blood on the birthday cake ''.
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who was exempted from conscription during the civil war | Twenty Negro law - wikipedia
The "Twenty Negro Law '', also known as the "Twenty Slave Law '' and the "Twenty Nigger Law '', was a piece of legislation enacted by the Confederate Congress during the American Civil War. The law specifically exempted from Confederate military service one white man for every twenty slaves owned on a Confederate plantation, or for two or more plantations within five miles of each other that collectively had twenty or more slaves. Passed as part of the Second Conscription Act in 1862, the law was a reaction to United States President Abraham Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued barely three weeks earlier. The law addressed Confederate fears of a slave rebellion due to so many white men being absent from home, as they were fighting in the Confederate army. The Confederacy enacted the first conscription laws in United States history, and the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were conscripts was nearly double that of United States soldiers.
The law would prove extremely unpopular with poorer white Confederate men, many of whom did not own any slaves at all, and would contribute to the often - repeated adage of the Confederate war effort being "a rich man 's war, but a poor man 's fight. ''
By the spring of 1862, the Confederate army was facing the prospect of a severe manpower shortage, since the twelve - month terms of most initial enlistees were expiring, and far fewer men were re-enlisting than had been hoped for. The First Conscription Act, passed by the Confederate Congress in April 1862, attempted to address this problem by making all white Southern men between 18 and 35 liable for compulsory military service. Though the South exempted several categories of men in occupations related to transportation, communications, the ministry, teaching and medicine, it did not exempt overseers. This left many plantations entirely in the charge of white women, elderly white men, or minors; these were not seen as being particularly able to maintain slave discipline, or to react effectively to prevent or suppress any unrest.
The Conscription Act proved extremely unpopular with many Confederate soldiers. Sam Watkins, a private in Company H, First Tennessee Infantry, wrote about his reaction and those of several of his service mates to this new law, in his book Company Aytch:
Soldiers had enlisted for twelve months only, and had faithfully complied with their volunteer obligations; the terms for which they had enlisted had expired, and they naturally looked upon it that they had a right to go home. They had done their duty faithfully and well. They wanted to see their families; in fact, wanted to go home anyhow. War had become a reality; they were tired of it. A law had been passed by the Confederate States Congress called the conscript act. A soldier had no right to volunteer and to choose the branch of service he preferred. He was conscripted.
From this time on till the end of the war, a soldier was simply a machine, a conscript. It was mighty rough on rebels. We cursed the war, we cursed Bragg, we cursed the Southern Confederacy. All our pride and valor had gone, and we were sick of war and the Southern Confederacy.
When Abraham Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, many in the Confederacy believed that the Union president was specifically trying to foment a slave revolt. Partly to address this concern, and partly to address other issues related to the First Conscription Act, the Confederate congress passed its Second Conscription Act on October 11, 1862, which included a provision that read:
To secure the proper police of the country, one person, either as agent, owner or overseer on each plantation on which one white person is required to be kept by the laws or ordinances of any State, and on which there is no white male adult not liable to do military service, and in States having no such law, one person as agent, owner or overseer, on each plantation of twenty negroes, and on which there is no white male adult not liable to military service; And furthermore, For additional police for every twenty negroes on two or more plantations, within five miles of each other, and each having less than twenty negroes, and of which there is no white male adult not liable to military duty, one person, being the oldest of the owners or overseers on such plantations;... are hereby exempted from military service in the armies of the Confederate States;... Provided, further, That the exemptions herein above enumerated and granted hereby, shall only continue whilst the persons exempted are actually engaged in their respective pursuits or occupations.
While this new provision provoked little criticism in some areas of the Confederacy, such as Virginia, it proved extremely unpopular with much of the rank - and - file soldiery in the Confederate army. Sam Watkins writes of his own feelings toward this particular provision:
A law was made by the Confederate States Congress about this time allowing every person who owned twenty negroes to go home. It gave us the blues; we wanted twenty negroes. Negro property suddenly became very valuable, and there was raised the howl of "rich man 's war, poor man 's fight. '' The glory of the war, the glory of the South, the glory and the pride of our volunteers had no charms for the conscript.
According to historian Eric Foner:
The impression that planters were not bearing their fair share of the war 's burdens spread quickly in the upcountry. Committed to Southern independence, most planters were also devoted to the survival of plantation slavery, and when these goals clashed, the latter often took precedence.
Partly in response to such criticism, the Confederate Congress amended the Second Conscription Act in May 1863, requiring among other things that any person exempted under the so - called "Twenty Negro Law '' had to have been an overseer prior to April 16, 1862, on plantations that had not been divided after October 11, 1862 (as some plantation owners had been dividing their holdings so as to exempt more overseers). Furthermore, only plantations under the control of a minor, a single woman, a person of unsound mind, or a person who was serving in the Confederate military could qualify, and a $500 fee was required to process the application. The Third Conscription Act of February 1864 dropped the number of slaves from 20 to 15, but in turn required the person so exempted to sell to the Confederacy at government - set prices one hundred pounds of bacon and / or beef for each slave, with the surplus to be sold to soldiers ' families, also at government prices.
With the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865, the "Twenty Negro Law '' ceased to exist.
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what is the port number for https protocol | List of TCP and UDP port Numbers - Wikipedia
This is a list of TCP and UDP port numbers used by protocols of the application layer of the Internet protocol suite for the establishment of host - to - host connectivity.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) needed only one port for full - duplex, bidirectional traffic. The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) and the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) also use port numbers. They usually use port numbers that match the services of the corresponding TCP or UDP implementation, if they exist.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for maintaining the official assignments of port numbers for specific uses. However, many unofficial uses of both well - known and registered port numbers occur in practice. Similarly many of the official assignments refer to protocols that were never or are no longer in common use. This article lists port numbers and their associated protocols that have experienced significant uptake.
The port numbers in the range from 0 to 1023 are the well - known ports or system ports. They are used by system processes that provide widely used types of network services. On Unix - like operating systems, a process must execute with superuser privileges to be able to bind a network socket to an IP address using one of the well - known ports.
The range of port numbers from 1024 to 49151 are the registered ports. They are assigned by IANA for specific service upon application by a requesting entity. On most systems, registered ports can be used without superuser privileges.
The range 49152 -- 65535 (2 + 2 to 2 − 1) contains dynamic or private ports that can not be registered with IANA. This range is used for private or customized services, for temporary purposes, and for automatic allocation of ephemeral ports.
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