question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
the end of the cold war also ended conflict in eastern europe | Cold War - wikipedia
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) and powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others). Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine, a U.S. foreign policy pledging to aid nations threatened by Soviet expansionism, was announced, and 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. The term "cold '' is used because there was no large - scale fighting directly between the two sides, but they each supported major regional wars known as proxy wars.
The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union and the United States as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences. The USSR was a Marxist -- Leninist state led by its Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which in turn was dominated by a leader with different titles over time, and a small committee called the Politburo. The Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and many organizations. It also controlled the other states in the Eastern Bloc, and funded Communist parties around the world, sometimes in competition with Communist China, particularly following the Sino - Soviet split of the 1960s. In opposition stood the capitalist West, led by the United States, a federal republic with a two - party presidential system. The First World nations of the Western Bloc were generally democratic with a free press and independent organizations, but were economically and politically entwined with a network of banana republics and other authoritarian regimes throughout the Third World, most of which were the Western Bloc 's former colonies. Some major Cold War frontlines such as Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Congo were still Western colonies in 1947.
A small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement; it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full - scale armed combat, but they were heavily armed in preparation for a possible all - out nuclear world war. Each side had a nuclear strategy that discouraged an attack by the other side, on the basis that such an attack would lead to the total destruction of the attacker -- the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). Aside from the development of the two sides ' nuclear arsenals, and their deployment of conventional military forces, the struggle for dominance was expressed via proxy wars around the globe, psychological warfare, massive propaganda campaigns and espionage, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race.
The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945. The USSR consolidated its control over the states of the Eastern Bloc, while the United States began a strategy of global containment to challenge Soviet power, extending military and financial aid to the countries of Western Europe (for example, supporting the anti-communist side in the Greek Civil War) and creating the NATO alliance. The Berlin Blockade (1948 -- 49) was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War (1950 -- 53), the conflict expanded. The USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets. The expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis (1956), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, a new phase began that saw the Sino - Soviet split complicate relations within the communist sphere, while US allies, particularly France, demonstrated greater independence of action. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War (1955 -- 75) ended with the defeat of the US - backed Republic of Vietnam, prompting further adjustments.
By the 1970s, both sides had become interested in making allowances in order to create a more stable and predictable international system, ushering in a period of détente that saw Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and the US opening relations with the People 's Republic of China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union. Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet -- Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (1983), and the "Able Archer '' NATO military exercises (1983). The United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of perestroika ("reorganization '', 1987) and glasnost ("openness '', c. 1985) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland. Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully (with the exception of the Romanian Revolution) overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central and Eastern Europe. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse of communist regimes in other countries such as Mongolia, Cambodia and South Yemen. The United States remained as the world 's only superpower.
The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy. It is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage (e.g., the internationally successful James Bond movie franchise) and the threat of nuclear warfare.
Part of a series on the History of the Cold War
At the end of World War II, English writer George Orwell used cold war, as a general term, in his essay "You and the Atomic Bomb '', published 19 October 1945 in the British newspaper Tribune. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of nuclear warfare, Orwell looked at James Burnham 's predictions of a polarized world, writing:
In The Observer of 10 March 1946, Orwell wrote, "after the Moscow conference last December, Russia began to make a ' cold war ' on Britain and the British Empire. ''
The first use of the term to describe the specific post-war geopolitical confrontation between the USSR and the United States came in a speech by Bernard Baruch, an influential advisor to Democratic presidents, on 16 April 1947. The speech, written by journalist Herbert Bayard Swope, proclaimed, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war. '' Newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann gave the term wide currency with his book The Cold War; when asked in 1947 about the source of the term, Lippmann traced it to a French term from the 1930s, la guerre froide.
There is disagreement among historians regarding the starting point of the Cold War. While most historians trace its origins to the period immediately following World War II, others argue that it began with the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 when the Bolsheviks took power. Vladimir Lenin stated that the new Soviet Union was surrounded by a "hostile capitalist encirclement '', and he viewed diplomacy as a weapon that should be used in order to keep the Soviet Union 's enemies divided, beginning with the establishment of the Communist International, which called for revolutionary upheavals abroad. His successor Joseph Stalin viewed the USSR as a "socialist island '', stating that it must see that "the present capitalist encirclement is replaced by a socialist encirclement. ''
Various events before the Second World War demonstrated the mutual distrust and suspicion between the Western powers and the Soviet Union, apart from the general philosophical challenge that communism posed towards capitalism: The Western military intervention in support of the anti-Bolshevik White movement in the Russian Civil War, the Soviet funding of the 1926 United Kingdom general strike causing Britain to break relations with the Soviet Union, Stalin 's 1927 declaration of peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries "receding into the past, '' conspiratorial allegations during the 1928 Shakhty show trial of a planned British - and French - led coup d'état, the American refusal to recognize the Soviet Union until 1933 and the Stalinist Moscow Trials of the Great Purge, with allegations of British, French, Japanese and Nazi German espionage. However, both the US and the USSR were generally isolationist between the two world wars.
The Soviet Union initially signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in August 1939. But after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Soviet Union and the Allied powers formed an alliance of convenience. Britain signed a formal alliance and the United States made an informal agreement. In wartime, the United States supplied both Britain and the Soviets through its Lend - Lease Program. However, Stalin remained highly suspicious and he believed that the British and the Americans had conspired to ensure that the Soviets bore the brunt of the fighting against Nazi Germany. According to this view, the Western Allies had deliberately delayed opening a second anti-German front in order to step in at the last minute and shape the peace settlement. Thus, Soviet perceptions of the West left a strong undercurrent of tension and hostility between the Allied powers.
The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be drawn, following the war. Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and maintenance of post-war security. The western Allies desired a security system in which democratic governments were established as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences through international organizations.
The Soviet Union sought to dominate the internal affairs of countries that bordered it. During the war, Stalin had created special training centers for communists from different countries so that they could set up secret police forces loyal to Moscow as soon as the Red Army took control. Soviet agents took control of the media, especially radio; they quickly harassed and then banned all independent civic institutions, from youth groups to schools, churches and rival political parties. Stalin also sought continued peace with Britain and the United States, hoping to focus on internal reconstruction and economic growth.
The Western Allies were divided in their vision of the new post-war world. Roosevelt 's goals -- military victory in both Europe and Asia, the achievement of global American economic supremacy over the British Empire, and the creation of a world peace organization -- were more global than Churchill 's, which were mainly centered on securing control over the Mediterranean, ensuring the survival of the British Empire, and the independence of Central and Eastern European countries as a buffer between the Soviets and the United Kingdom.
In the American view, Stalin seemed a potential ally in accomplishing their goals, whereas in the British approach Stalin appeared as the greatest threat to the fulfillment of their agenda. With the Soviets already occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe, Stalin was at an advantage and the two western leaders vied for his favors. The differences between Roosevelt and Churchill led to several separate deals with the Soviets. In October 1944, Churchill traveled to Moscow and proposed the "percentages agreement '' to divide the Balkans into respective spheres of influence, and at Yalta Roosevelt signed a separate deal with Stalin in regard of Asia and refused to support Churchill on the issues of Poland and the Reparations.
Further Allied negotiations concerning the post-war balance took place at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, albeit this conference also failed to reach a firm consensus on the framework for a post-war settlement in Europe. In April 1945, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman, who distrusted Stalin and turned for advice to an elite group of foreign policy intellectuals. Both Churchill and Truman opposed, among other things, the Soviets ' decision to prop up the Lublin government, the Soviet - controlled rival to the Polish government - in - exile in London, whose relations with the Soviets had been severed.
Following the Allies ' May 1945 victory, the Soviets effectively occupied Central and Eastern Europe, while strong US and Western allied forces remained in Western Europe. In Germany and Austria, France, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States established zones of occupation and a loose framework for parceled four - power control.
The 1945 Allied conference in San Francisco established the multi-national United Nations (UN) for the maintenance of world peace, but the enforcement capacity of its Security Council was effectively paralyzed by individual members ' ability to use veto power. Accordingly, the UN was essentially converted into an inactive forum for exchanging polemical rhetoric, and the Soviets regarded it almost exclusively as a propaganda tribune.
At the Potsdam Conference, which started in late July after Germany 's surrender, serious differences emerged over the future development of Germany and the rest of Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, the participants ' mounting antipathy and bellicose language served to confirm their suspicions about each other 's hostile intentions and entrench their positions. At this conference Truman informed Stalin that the United States possessed a powerful new weapon.
Stalin was aware that the Americans were working on the atomic bomb and, given that the Soviets ' own rival program was in place, he reacted to the news calmly. The Soviet leader said he was pleased by the news and expressed the hope that the weapon would be used against Japan. One week after the end of the Potsdam Conference, the US bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Shortly after the attacks, Stalin protested to US officials when Truman offered the Soviets little real influence in occupied Japan.
During the opening stages of World War II, the Soviet Union laid the foundation for the Eastern Bloc by invading and then annexing several countries as Soviet Socialist Republics, by agreement with Nazi Germany in the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact. These included eastern Poland (incorporated into two different SSRs), Latvia (which became the Latvian SSR), Estonia (which became the Estonian SSR), Lithuania (which became the Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (which became the Karelo - Finnish SSR) and eastern Romania (which became the Moldavian SSR).
The Central and Eastern European territories liberated from the Nazis and occupied by the Soviet armed forces were added to the Eastern Bloc by converting them into satellite states, such as:
The Soviet - style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet command economies, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet secret police in order to suppress both real and potential opposition. In Asia, the Red Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war, and it went on to occupy the large swathe of Korean territory located north of the 38th parallel.
As part of consolidating Stalin 's control over the Eastern Bloc, the People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD), led by Lavrentiy Beriya, supervised the establishment of Soviet - style secret police systems in the Bloc that were supposed to crush anti-communist resistance. When the slightest stirrings of independence emerged in the Bloc, Stalin 's strategy matched that of dealing with domestic pre-war rivals: they were removed from power, put on trial, imprisoned, and in several instances, executed.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was concerned that, given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe.
In February 1946, George F. Kennan 's "Long Telegram '' from Moscow helped to articulate the US government 's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, and became the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War. That September, the Soviet side produced the Novikov telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to the US but commissioned and "co-authored '' by Vyacheslav Molotov; it portrayed the US as being in the grip of monopoly capitalists who were building up military capability "to prepare the conditions for winning world supremacy in a new war ''.
On 6 September 1946, James F. Byrnes delivered a speech in Germany repudiating the Morgenthau Plan (a proposal to partition and de-industrialize post-war Germany) and warning the Soviets that the US intended to maintain a military presence in Europe indefinitely. As Byrnes admitted a month later, "The nub of our program was to win the German people... it was a battle between us and Russia over minds... ''
A few weeks after the release of this "Long Telegram '', former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous "Iron Curtain '' speech in Fulton, Missouri. The speech called for an Anglo - American alliance against the Soviets, whom he accused of establishing an "iron curtain '' from "Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic ''. Only a week later, on 13 March Stalin responded vigorously to the speech, saying that Churchill could be compared to Hitler insofar as he advocated the racial superiority of English - speaking nations so that they could satisfy their hunger for world domination, and that such a declaration was "a call for war on the U.S.S.R. The Soviet leader also dismissed the accusation that the USSR was exerting increasing control over the countries lying in its sphere. He argued that there was nothing surprising in "the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, (was) trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries ''.
By 1947, US president Harry S. Truman was outraged by the Soviet Union 's perceived resistance to American demands in Iran, Turkey and Greece, as well as their rejection of the Baruch Plan on nuclear weapons. In February 1947, the British government announced that it could no longer afford to finance the Greek monarchical military regime in its civil war against communist - led insurgents.
The US government 's response to this announcement was the adoption of containment, the goal of which was to stop the spread of communism. Truman delivered a speech that called for the allocation of $400 million to intervene in the war and unveiled the Truman Doctrine, which framed the conflict as a contest between free peoples and totalitarian regimes. Even though the insurgents were helped by Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslavia, American policymakers accused the Soviet Union of conspiring against the Greek royalists in an effort to expand Soviet influence.
Enunciation of the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of a US bipartisan defense and foreign policy consensus between Republicans and Democrats focused on containment and deterrence that weakened during and after the Vietnam War, but ultimately persisted thereafter. Moderate and conservative parties in Europe, as well as social democrats, gave virtually unconditional support to the Western alliance, while European and American communists, paid by the KGB and involved in its intelligence operations, adhered to Moscow 's line, although dissent began to appear after 1956. Other critiques of consensus politics came from anti-Vietnam War activists, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the anti-nuclear movement.
In early 1947, France, Britain and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically self - sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets. In June 1947, in accordance with the Truman Doctrine, the United States enacted the Marshall Plan, a pledge of economic assistance for all European countries willing to participate, including the Soviet Union. Under the plan, which President Harry S. Truman signed on 3 April 1948, the US government gave to Western European countries over $13 billion (equivalent to $189.39 billion in 2016) to rebuild the economy of Europe. Later, the program led to the creation of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation.
The plan 's aim was to rebuild the democratic and economic systems of Europe and to counter perceived threats to Europe 's balance of power, such as communist parties seizing control through revolutions or elections. The plan also stated that European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery. One month later, Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947, creating a unified Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council (NSC). These would become the main bureaucracies for US policy in the Cold War.
Stalin believed that economic integration with the West would allow Eastern Bloc countries to escape Soviet control, and that the US was trying to buy a pro-US re-alignment of Europe. Stalin therefore prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan aid. The Soviet Union 's alternative to the Marshall Plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with central and eastern Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan (later institutionalized in January 1949 as the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). Stalin was also fearful of a reconstituted Germany; his vision of a post-war Germany did not include the ability to rearm or pose any kind of threat to the Soviet Union.
In early 1948, following reports of strengthening "reactionary elements '', Soviet operatives executed a coup d'état in Czechoslovakia, the only Eastern Bloc state that the Soviets had permitted to retain democratic structures. The public brutality of the coup shocked Western powers more than any event up to that point, set in a motion a brief scare that war would occur and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.
The twin policies of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan led to billions in economic and military aid for Western Europe, Greece, and Turkey. With the US assistance, the Greek military won its civil war. Under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi the Italian Christian Democrats defeated the powerful Communist - Socialist alliance in the elections of 1948. At the same time there was increased intelligence and espionage activity, Eastern Bloc defections and diplomatic expulsions.
In September 1947, the Soviets created Cominform, the purpose of which was to enforce orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet satellites through coordination of communist parties in the Eastern Bloc. Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the Tito -- Stalin Split obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained communist but adopted a non-aligned position.
The United States and Britain merged their western German occupation zones into "Bizonia '' (1 January 1947, later "Trizonia '' with the addition of France 's zone, April 1949). As part of the economic rebuilding of Germany, in early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and the United States announced an agreement for a merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system. In addition, in accordance with the Marshall Plan, they began to re-industrialize and rebuild the German economy, including the introduction of a new Deutsche Mark currency to replace the old Reichsmark currency that the Soviets had debased.
Shortly thereafter, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 -- 12 May 1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift '', supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions.
The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the policy change. Once again the East Berlin communists attempted to disrupt the Berlin municipal elections (as they had done in the 1946 elections), which were held on 5 December 1948 and produced a turnout of 86.3 % and an overwhelming victory for the non-communist parties. The results effectively divided the city into East and West versions of its former self. 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue, and US Air Force pilot Gail Halvorsen created "Operation Vittles '', which supplied candy to German children. In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.
In 1952, Stalin repeatedly proposed a plan to unify East and West Germany under a single government chosen in elections supervised by the United Nations if the new Germany were to stay out of Western military alliances, but this proposal was turned down by the Western powers. Some sources dispute the sincerity of the proposal.
Britain, France, the United States, Canada and other eight western European countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). That August, the first Soviet atomic device was detonated in Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR. Following Soviet refusals to participate in a German rebuilding effort set forth by western European countries in 1948, the US, Britain and France spearheaded the establishment of West Germany from the three Western zones of occupation in April 1949. The Soviet Union proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany the German Democratic Republic that October.
Media in the Eastern Bloc was an organ of the state, completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party, with radio and television organizations being state - owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party. Soviet propaganda used Marxist philosophy to attack capitalism, claiming labor exploitation and war - mongering imperialism were inherent in the system.
Along with the broadcasts of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and the Voice of America to Central and Eastern Europe, a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the communist system in the Eastern Bloc. Radio Free Europe attempted to achieve these goals by serving as a surrogate home radio station, an alternative to the controlled and party - dominated domestic press. Radio Free Europe was a product of some of the most prominent architects of America 's early Cold War strategy, especially those who believed that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means, such as George F. Kennan.
American policymakers, including Kennan and John Foster Dulles, acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas. The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world. The CIA also covertly sponsored a domestic propaganda campaign called Crusade for Freedom.
In the early 1950s, the US worked for the rearmament of West Germany and, in 1955, secured its full membership of NATO. In May 1953, Beria, by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany 's incorporation into NATO.
In 1949, Mao Zedong 's People 's Liberation Army defeated Chiang Kai - shek 's United States - backed Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalist Government in China, and the Soviet Union promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People 's Republic of China. According to Norwegian historian Odd Arne Westad, the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai - Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Moreover, his party was weakened during the war against Japan. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of Chinese nationalism.
Chiang and his KMT government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Confronted with the communist revolution in China and the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949, the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand its containment policy. In NSC - 68, a secret 1950 document, the National Security Council proposed to reinforce pro-Western alliance systems and quadruple spending on defense.
United States officials moved thereafter to expand containment into Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by communist parties financed by the USSR, fighting against the restoration of Europe 's colonial empires in South - East Asia and elsewhere. In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "Pactomania ''), the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS in 1951 and SEATO in 1954), thereby guaranteeing the United States a number of long - term military bases.
One of the more significant impacts of containment was the outbreak of the Korean War. In June 1950, Kim Il - sung 's North Korean People 's Army invaded South Korea. Stalin approved and sent advisers to plan the North Korean invasion. To Stalin 's surprise, the UN Security Council backed the defense of South Korea, though the Soviets were then boycotting meetings in protest that Taiwan and not Communist China held a permanent seat on the Council. A UN force of personnel from South Korea, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Canada, Colombia, Australia, France, South Africa, the Philippines, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand and other countries joined to stop the invasion.
Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised NATO to develop a military structure. Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war. Many feared an escalation into a general war with Communist China, and even nuclear war. The strong opposition to the war often strained Anglo - American relations. For these reasons British officials sought a speedy end to the conflict, hoping to unite Korea under United Nations auspices and withdrawal of all foreign forces.
Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by the war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted that they continue fighting, and the Armistice was approved only in July 1953, after Stalin 's death. North Korean leader Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized, totalitarian dictatorship -- which continues to date -- according himself unlimited power and generating a formidable cult of personality. In the South, the American - backed strongman Syngman Rhee ran a significantly less brutal but deeply corrupt and authoritarian regime. After Rhee was overthrown in 1960, South Korea fell within a year under a period of military rule that lasted until the re-establishment of a multi-party system in the late 1980s.
In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War. Dwight D. Eisenhower was inaugurated president that January. During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the American defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.
After the death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leader following the deposition and execution of Lavrentiy Beria and the pushing aside of rivals Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. On 25 February 1956, Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party by cataloguing and denouncing Stalin 's crimes. As part of a campaign of de-Stalinization, he declared that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin 's policies would be to acknowledge errors made in the past.
On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western ambassadors at a reception at the Polish embassy in Moscow, Khrushchev used his famous "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you '' expression, shocking everyone present. He later claimed that he had not been talking about nuclear war, but rather about the historically determined victory of communism over capitalism. In 1961, Khrushchev declared that even if the USSR was behind the West, within a decade its housing shortage would disappear, consumer goods would be abundant, and within two decades, the "construction of a communist society '' in the USSR would be completed "in the main ''.
Eisenhower 's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "New Look '' for the containment strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime. Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of "massive retaliation '', threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 Suez Crisis. US plans for nuclear war in the late 1950s included the "systematic destruction '' of 1200 major urban centers in the Eastern Bloc and China, including Moscow, East Berlin and Beijing, with their civilian populations among the primary targets.
While Stalin 's death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce. The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949, established a formal alliance therein, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary 's Stalinist leader Mátyás Rákosi. In response to a popular uprising, the new regime formally disbanded the secret police, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The Soviet Army invaded. Thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos. Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and others were executed following secret trials. From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, capable of wiping out any American or European city. However, Khrushchev rejected Stalin 's belief in the inevitability of war, and declared his new goal was to be "peaceful coexistence ''. This formulation modified the Stalin - era Soviet stance, where international class conflict meant the two opposing camps were on an inevitable collision course where communism would triumph through global war; now, peace would allow capitalism to collapse on its own, as well as giving the Soviets time to boost their military capabilities, which remained for decades until Gorbachev 's later "new thinking '' envisioning peaceful coexistence as an end in itself rather than a form of class struggle.
The events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the communist parties of the world, particularly in Western Europe, with great decline in membership as many in both western and communist countries felt disillusioned by the brutal Soviet response. The communist parties in the West would never recover from the effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their membership, a fact that was immediately recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian politician Milovan Đilas who shortly after the revolution was crushed said that "The wound which the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism can never be completely healed ''.
America 's pronouncements concentrated on American strength abroad and the success of liberal capitalism. However, by the late 1960s, the "battle for men 's minds '' between two systems of social organization that Kennedy spoke of in 1961 was largely over, with tensions henceforth based primarily on clashing geopolitical objectives rather than ideology.
During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city '', giving the United States, Great Britain, and France a six - month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin. '' NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.
More broadly, one hallmark of the 1950s was the beginning of European integration -- a fundamental by - product of the Cold War that Truman and Eisenhower promoted politically, economically, and militarily, but which later administrations viewed ambivalently, fearful that an independent Europe would forge a separate détente with the Soviet Union, which would use this to exacerbate Western disunity.
Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina were often allied with communist groups, or perceived in the West to be allied with communists. In this context, the United States and the Soviet Union increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s; additionally, the Soviets saw continuing losses by imperial powers as presaging the eventual victory of their ideology. Both sides were selling armaments to gain influence.
The United States made use of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to do away with a string of unfriendly Third World governments and to support allied ones. In 1953, President Eisenhower 's CIA implemented Operation Ajax, a covert operation aimed at the overthrow of the Iranian prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh. The popularly elected and non-aligned Mosaddegh had been a Middle Eastern nemesis of Britain since nationalizing the British - owned Anglo - Iranian Oil Company in 1951. Winston Churchill told the United States that Mosaddegh was "increasingly turning towards communism. '' The pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, assumed control as an autocratic monarch. The shah 's policies included the banning of the communist Tudeh Party of Iran and general suppression of political dissent by SAVAK, the shah 's domestic security and intelligence agency.
In Guatemala, a CIA - backed military coup ousted the left - wing President Jacobo Árbenz in 1954. The post-Arbenz government -- a military junta headed by Carlos Castillo Armas -- repealed a progressive land reform law, returned nationalized property belonging to the United Fruit Company, set up a National Committee of Defense Against Communism, and decreed a Preventive Penal Law Against Communism at the request of the United States.
The non-aligned Indonesian government of Sukarno was faced with a major threat to its legitimacy beginning in 1956, when several regional commanders began to demand autonomy from Jakarta. After mediation failed, Sukarno took action to remove the dissident commanders. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatera (Colonel Ahmad Hussein) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia - Permesta Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the Masyumi Party, such as Sjafruddin Prawiranegara, who were opposed to the growing influence of the communist Partai Komunis Indonesia party. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received arms, funding, and other covert aid from the CIA until Allen Lawrence Pope, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government - held Ambon in April 1958. The central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions of rebel strongholds Padang and Manado. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961.
In the Republic of the Congo, newly independent from Belgium since June 1960, the CIA - cultivated President Joseph Kasa - Vubu ordered the dismissal of the democratically elected Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and the Lumumba cabinet in September; Lumumba called for Kasa - Vubu 's dismissal instead. In the ensuing Congo Crisis, the CIA - backed Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko quickly mobilized his forces to seize power through a military coup d'état.
In British Guiana, the leftist People 's Progressive Party (PPP) candidate Cheddi Jagan won the position of chief minister in a colonially administered election in 1953, but was quickly forced to resign from power after Britain 's suspension of the still - dependent nation 's constitution. Embarrassed by the landslide electoral victory of Jagan 's allegedly Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP 's leadership and maneuvered the organization into a divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues. Jagan again won the colonial elections in 1957 and 1961; despite Britain 's shift to a reconsideration of its view of the left - wing Jagan as a Soviet - style communist at this time, the United States pressured the British to withhold Guyana 's independence until an alternative to Jagan could be identified, supported, and brought into office.
Worn down by the communist guerrilla war for Vietnamese independence and handed a watershed defeat by communist Viet Minh rebels at the 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the French accepted a negotiated abandonment of their colonial stake in Vietnam. In the Geneva Conference, peace accords were signed, leaving Vietnam divided between a pro-Soviet administration in North Vietnam and a pro-Western administration in South Vietnam at the 17th parallel north. Between 1954 and 1961, Eisenhower 's United States sent economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam 's pro-Western regime against communist efforts to destabilize it.
Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East - West competition. In 1955, at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War. The consensus reached at Bandung culminated with the creation of the Belgrade - headquartered Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened Moscow 's policy to establish ties with India and other key neutral states. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America.
The period after 1956 was marked by serious setbacks for the Soviet Union, most notably the breakdown of the Sino - Soviet alliance, beginning the Sino - Soviet split. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev attacked him after his death in 1956, and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge. For his part, Khrushchev, disturbed by Mao 's glib attitude toward nuclear war, referred to the Chinese leader as a "lunatic on a throne ''.
After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino - Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal. The Chinese - Soviet animosity spilled out in an intra-communist propaganda war. Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao 's China for leadership of the global communist movement.
Historian Lorenz M. Lüthi argues:
On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long - range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world 's first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1. The launch of Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This culminated in the Apollo Moon landings, which astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the Cold War. ''
In Cuba, the 26th of July Movement seized power in January 1959, toppling President Fulgencio Batista, whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration.
Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States continued for some time after Batista 's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Cuba 's young revolutionary leader Fidel Castro during the latter 's trip to Washington in April, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to conduct the meeting in his place. Cuba began negotiating arms purchases from the Eastern Bloc in March 1960.
In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. In April 1961, the administration of newly elected American President John F. Kennedy mounted an unsuccessful CIA - organized ship - borne invasion of the island at Playa Girón and Playa Larga in Santa Clara Province -- a failure that publicly humiliated the United States. Castro responded by publicly embracing Marxism -- Leninism, and the Soviet Union pledged to provide further support.
The Berlin Crisis of 1961 was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and post -- World War II Germany. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. However, hundreds of thousands of East Germans annually emigrated to West Germany through a "loophole '' in the system that existed between East and West Berlin, where the four occupying World War II powers governed movement.
The emigration resulted in a massive "brain drain '' from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20 % of East Germany 's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961. That June, the Soviet Union issued a new ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Allied forces from West Berlin. The request was rebuffed, and on 13 August, East Germany erected a barbed - wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the Berlin Wall, effectively closing the loophole.
Continuing to seek ways to oust Castro following the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Kennedy and his administration experimented with various ways of covertly facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government. Significant hopes were pinned on a covert program named the Cuban Project, devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961.
In February 1962, Khrushchev learned of the American plans regarding Cuba: a "Cuban project '' -- approved by the CIA and stipulating the overthrow of the Cuban government in October, possibly involving the American military -- and yet one more Kennedy - ordered operation to assassinate Castro. Preparations to install Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba were undertaken in response.
Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions, and ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a naval blockade and presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for an American pledge not to invade Cuba again. Castro later admitted that "I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear. ''
The Cuban Missile Crisis (October -- November 1962) brought the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. The aftermath of the crisis led to the first efforts in the nuclear arms race at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the Cold War 's first arms control agreement, the Antarctic Treaty, had come into force in 1961.
In 1964, Khrushchev 's Kremlin colleagues managed to oust him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement. Accused of rudeness and incompetence, he was also credited with ruining Soviet agriculture and bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war. Khrushchev had become an international embarrassment when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall, a public humiliation for Marxism -- Leninism.
In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs. From the beginning of the post-war period, Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while Eastern Bloc economies stagnated.
As a result of the 1973 oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the Non-Aligned Movement, less - powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower. Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union 's deep - seated domestic economic problems. During this period, Soviet leaders such as Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin embraced the notion of détente.
The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle 's presidency of France from 1958 onwards. De Gaulle protested at the United States ' strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and the United Kingdom, and also for the expansion of NATO 's coverage to include geographical areas of interest to France, most notably French Algeria, where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance.
Considering the response given to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began the development of an independent French nuclear deterrent and in 1966 withdrew from NATO 's military structures and expelled NATO troops from French soil.
In 1968, a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring took place that included "Action Program '' of liberalizations, which described increasing freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with an economic emphasis on consumer goods, the possibility of a multiparty government, limiting the power of the secret police and potentially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact.
In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia. The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000. The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European communist parties.
In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers ' Party one month after the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Brezhnev outlined the Brezhnev Doctrine, in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism -- Leninism with capitalism. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:
When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.
The doctrine found its origins in the failures of Marxism -- Leninism in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe.
Under the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration, which gained power after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the U.S. took a more hardline stance on Latin America -- sometimes called the "Mann Doctrine ''. In 1964, the Brazilian military overthrew the government of president João Goulart with U.S. backing. In late April 1965, the U.S. sent some 22,000 troops to the Dominican Republic for a one - year occupation in an invasion codenamed Operation Power Pack, citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban - style revolution in Latin America. Héctor García - Godoy acted as provisional president, until conservative former president Joaquín Balaguer won the 1966 presidential election against non-campaigning former President Juan Bosch. Activists for Bosch 's Dominican Revolutionary Party were violently harassed by the Dominican police and armed forces.
In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist General Suharto wrested control of the state from his predecessor Sukarno in an attempt to establish a "New Order ''. From 1965 to 1966, with the aid of the United States and other Western governments, the military led the mass killing of an estimated half - million members and sympathizers of the Indonesian Communist Party and other leftist organizations. A top - secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s. '' These killings served U.S. strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War.
Escalating the scale of American intervention in the ongoing conflict between Ngô Đình Diệm 's South Vietnamese government and the communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, it ultimately culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the world 's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world 's poorest nations.
In Chile, the Socialist Party candidate Salvador Allende won the presidential election of 1970, becoming the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a country in the Americas. The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to a period of unrest culminating in General Augusto Pinochet 's coup d'état on 11 September 1973. Pinochet consolidated power as a military dictator, Allende 's reforms of the economy were rolled back, and leftist opponents were killed or detained in internment camps under the Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional (DINA). The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terrorism organized by right - wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America that was covertly supported by the US government.
The Middle East remained a source of contention. Egypt, which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 Six - Day War (with advisers and technicians) and the War of Attrition (with pilots and aircraft) against pro-Western Israel. Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972 (under Egypt 's new leader Anwar Sadat), rumors of imminent Soviet intervention on the Egyptians ' behalf during the 1973 Yom Kippur War brought about a massive American mobilization that threatened to wreck détente. Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were also successful in establishing close relations with communist South Yemen, as well as the nationalist governments of Algeria and Iraq. Iraq signed a 15 - year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. According to historian Charles R.H. Tripp, the treaty upset "the U.S. - sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States. '' In response, the U.S. covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi -- Kurdish War; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Indirect Soviet assistance to the Palestinian side of the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict included support for Yasser Arafat 's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
In Africa, Somali army officers led by Siad Barre carried out a bloodless coup in 1969, creating the socialist Somali Democratic Republic. The Soviet Union vowed to support Somalia. Four years later, the pro-American Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown in a 1974 coup by the Derg, a radical group of Ethiopian army officers led by the pro-Soviet Mengistu Haile Mariam, who built up relations with the Cubans and the Soviets. When fighting between the Somalis and Ethiopians broke out in the 1977 -- 1978 Somali - Ethiopian Ogaden War, Barre lost his Soviet support and turned to the Safari Club -- a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including Iran, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia -- for support and weapons. The Ethiopian military was supported by Cuban soldiers along with Soviet military advisors and armaments.
The 1974 Portuguese Carnation Revolution against the authoritarian Estado Novo returned Portugal to a multi-party system and facilitated the independence of the Portuguese colonies Angola and East Timor. In Africa, where Angolan rebels had waged a multi-faction independence war against Portuguese rule since 1961, a two - decade civil war replaced the anti-colonial struggle as fighting erupted between the communist People 's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), backed by the Cubans and the Soviets, and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), backed by the United States, the People 's Republic of China, and Mobutu 's government in Zaire. The United States, the apartheid government of South Africa, and several other African governments also supported a third faction, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Without bothering to consult the Soviets in advance, the Cuban government sent a number of combat troops to fight alongside the MPLA. Foreign mercenaries and a South African armoured column were deployed to support UNITA, but the MPLA, bolstered by Cuban personnel and Soviet assistance, eventually gained the upper hand.
During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam invaded and occupied parts of Cambodia to use as military bases, which contributed to the violence of the Cambodian Civil War between the pro-American government of Lon Nol and communist Khmer Rouge insurgents. Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives reveal that the North Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the request of the Khmer Rouge after negotiations with Nuon Chea. US and South Vietnamese forces responded to these actions with a bombing campaign and ground incursion, the effects of which are disputed by historians. Under the leadership of Pol Pot, the Khmer Rouge would eventually kill 1 -- 3 million Cambodians in the killing fields, out of a 1975 population of roughly 8 million. Martin Shaw described these atrocities as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era. '' Backed by the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation, an organization of Khmer pro-Soviet Communists and Khmer Rouge defectors led by Heng Samrin, Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. The invasion succeeded in deposing Pol Pot, but the new state would struggle to gain international recognition beyond the Soviet Bloc sphere -- despite the previous international outcry at Pol Pot 's DK regime 's gross human rights violations, and it would be bogged down in a guerrilla war led from refugee camps located in the border with Thailand. Following Khmer Rouge 's destruction, Cambodia 's national reconstruction would be severely hampered and Vietnam would suffer a punitive Chinese attack.
As a result of the Sino - Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese -- Soviet border reached their peak in 1969, and United States President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War. The Chinese had sought improved relations with the Americans in order to gain advantage over the Soviets as well.
In February 1972, Nixon announced a stunning rapprochement with Mao 's China by traveling to Beijing and meeting with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. At this time, the USSR achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States; meanwhile, the Vietnam War both weakened America 's influence in the Third World and cooled relations with Western Europe. Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease.
Following his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow. These Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.
Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence '' and established the groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties, including agreements for increased trade. As a result of their meetings, détente would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually.
Meanwhile, these developments coincided with the "Ostpolitik '' of West German Chancellor Willy Brandt. Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the Helsinki Accords signed at the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.
In the 1970s, the KGB, led by Yuri Andropov, continued to persecute distinguished Soviet personalities such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov, who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms. Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, particularly during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia, and Angola.
Although President Jimmy Carter tried to place another limit on the arms race with a SALT II agreement in 1979, his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the Iranian Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US regimes, and his retaliation against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in December.
The term second Cold War refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militaristic. Diggins says, "Reagan went all out to fight the second cold war, by supporting counterinsurgencies in the third world. '' Cox says, "The intensity of this ' second ' Cold War was as great as its duration was short. ''
In April 1978, the communist People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide. The Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen insurgents received military training and weapons in neighboring Pakistan and China, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government. Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA -- the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham -- resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-1979, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.
In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December 1979. A Soviet - organized government, led by Parcham 's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.
Carter responded to the Soviet intervention by withdrawing the SALT II treaty from the Senate, imposing embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, and demanding a significant increase in military spending, and further announced that the United States would boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. He described the Soviet incursion as "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War ''.
In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, Ronald Reagan bluntly stated, in a conversation with Richard V. Allen, his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic, '' he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. What do you think of that? '' In 1980, Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election, vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere. Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology. Reagan labeled the Soviet Union an "evil empire '' and predicted that Communism would be left on the "ash heap of history, '' while Thatcher inculpated the Soviets as "bent on world dominance. ''
By early 1985, Reagan 's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new Reagan Doctrine -- which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments. Besides continuing Carter 's policy of supporting the Islamic opponents of the Soviet Union and the Soviet - backed PDPA government in Afghanistan, the CIA also sought to weaken the Soviet Union itself by promoting Islamism in the majority - Muslim Central Asian Soviet Union. Additionally, the CIA encouraged anti-communist Pakistan 's ISI to train Muslims from around the world to participate in the jihad against the Soviet Union.
Pope John Paul II provided a moral focus for anti-communism; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the Solidarity movement that galvanized opposition and may have led to his attempted assassination two years later. In December 1981, Poland 's Wojciech Jaruzelski reacted to the crisis by imposing a period of martial law. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response. Mikhail Suslov, the Kremlin 's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead to heavy economic sanctions, representing a catastrophe for the Soviet economy.
Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of the Soviet Union 's gross national product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. Soviet spending on the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep - seated structural problems in the Soviet system, which saw at least a decade of economic stagnation during the late Brezhnev years.
Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity, but in large part by the interests of massive party and state bureaucracies dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges. The Soviet Armed Forces became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their military -- industrial base. However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West. For example, the Persian Gulf War demonstrated how the armor, fire control systems and firing range of the Soviet 's most common main battle tank, the T - 72, were drastically inferior to the American M1 Abrams, yet the USSR fielded almost three times as many T - 72 's as the US deployed M1 's.
By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, president Carter began massively building up the United States military. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986, the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history.
Tensions continued intensifying in the early 1980s when Reagan revived the B - 1 Lancer program that was canceled by the Carter administration, produced LGM - 118 Peacekeepers, installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced his experimental Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars '' by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight.
With the background of a buildup in tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, and the deployment of Soviet RSD - 10 Pioneer ballistic missiles targeting Western Europe, NATO decided, under the impetus of the Carter presidency, to deploy MGM - 31 Pershing and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany. This deployment would have placed missiles just 10 minutes ' striking distance from Moscow.
After Reagan 's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient planned manufacturing and collectivized agriculture, were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil production, even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production. These developments contributed to the 1980s oil glut, which affected the Soviet Union, as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues. Issues with command economics, oil price decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.
On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down the Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman Larry McDonald, when it violated Soviet airspace just past the west coast of Sakhalin Island near Moneron Island -- an act which Reagan characterized as a "massacre ''. This act increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev. The Able Archer 83 exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent.
American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War. The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low - cost counter-insurgency tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts. In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided Lebanese Civil War, invaded Grenada, bombed Libya and backed the Central American Contras, anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet - aligned Sandinista government in Nicaragua. While Reagan 's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the United States, his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy. The Reagan administration 's backing of the military government of Guatemala during the Guatemalan Civil War, in particular the regime of Efraín Ríos Montt, was also controversial.
Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the Soviet war in Afghanistan would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, waged a fierce resistance against the invasion. The Kremlin sent nearly 100,000 troops to support its puppet regime in Afghanistan, leading many outside observers to dub the war "the Soviets ' Vietnam ''. However, Moscow 's quagmire in Afghanistan was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans because the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis in the Soviet system.
A senior US State Department official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a "domestic crisis within the Soviet system... It may be that the thermodynamic law of entropy has... caught up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay ''.
By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.
An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country 's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.
Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union 's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee. Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating détente between the two nations.
In response to the Kremlin 's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling - back of the arms race. The first summit was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland. At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country 's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second summit, was held in October 1986, Reykjavík, Iceland. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan 's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, which Gorbachev wanted eliminated. Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear - armed, ground - launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.
East -- West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to - late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H.W. Bush signed the START I arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Central and Eastern Europe.
In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented to German reunification, the only alternative being a Tiananmen Square scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev 's "Common European Home '' concept began to take shape.
On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan 's successor, George H.W. Bush, declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War against Iraq.
By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland 's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising. Attitudes had changed enough that US Secretary of State James Baker suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed. The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The 1989 revolutionary wave swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet - style communist states: East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria; Romania was the only Eastern - bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.
In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party was forced to surrender its 73 - year - old monopoly on state power. At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering "nationalities question '' increasingly led the Union 's component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states withdrawing from the Union entirely.
Gorbachev 's permissive attitude toward Central and Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia and Lithuania, privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States, created on 21 December 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the Soviet Union but, according to Russia 's leaders, its purpose was to "allow a civilized divorce '' between the Soviet Republics and is comparable to a loose confederation. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on 26 December 1991.
US President at that time, George H.W. Bush, expressed his emotions: "The biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War. ''
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia drastically cut military spending, and restructuring the economy left millions unemployed. The capitalist reforms culminated in a recession in the early 1990s more severe than the Great Depression as experienced by the United States and Germany.
The Cold War continues to influence world affairs. The post-Cold War world is considered to be unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role of the United States after World War II -- by 1989 the United States had military alliances with 50 countries, with 526,000 troops stationed abroad, with 326,000 in Europe (two - thirds of which in west Germany) and 130,000 in Asia (mainly Japan and South Korea). The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime military -- industrial complexes, especially in the United States, and large - scale military funding of science. These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, snowballed considerably during the Cold War.
Cumulative U.S. military expenditures throughout the entire Cold War amounted to an estimated $8 trillion. Further nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Although Soviet casualties are difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was much higher than that incurred by the United States.
In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers ' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises have declined sharply in the post-Cold War years. Left over from the Cold War are numbers stations, which are shortwave radio stations thought to be used to broadcast covert messages, some of which can still be heard today.
However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by communist governments produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Central and Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and an increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure.
During the Cold War itself, with the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence the hearts and minds of people around the world, especially using motion pictures.
The Cold War endures as a popular topic reflected extensively in entertainment media, and continuing to the present with numerous post-1991 Cold War - themed feature films, novels, television, and other media. In 2013, a KGB - sleeper - agents - living - next - door action drama series, The Americans, set in the early 1980s, was ranked # 6 on the Metacritic annual Best New TV Shows list and is in its second season. At the same time, movies like Crimson Tide (1995) are shown in their entirety to educate college students about the Cold War.
As soon as the term "Cold War '' was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists. In particular, historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet -- US relations after the Second World War; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable, or could have been avoided. Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was, what the sources of the conflict were, and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides.
Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three differing approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox '' accounts, "revisionism '', and "post-revisionism ''.
"Orthodox '' accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe. "Revisionist '' writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of World War II. "Post-revisionists '' see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced, and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War. Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories.
|
an artist of the floating world kazuo ishiguro | An artist of the Floating world - wikipedia
An Artist of the Floating World (1986) is a novel by Nobel Prize - winning British author Kazuo Ishiguro. It is set in post-World War II Japan and is narrated by Masuji Ono, an aging painter, who looks back on his life and how he has lived it. He notices how his once great reputation has faltered since the war and how attitudes towards him and his paintings have changed. The chief conflict deals with Ono 's need to accept responsibility for his past actions. The novel also deals with the role of people in a rapidly changing environment.
In the buildup to World War II, Ono, a promising artist, had broken away from the teaching of his master, whose artistic aim was to reach an aesthetic ideal, and had gotten involved in far - right politics, making propagandistic art. As a member of the Cultural Committee of the Interior Department and official adviser to the Committee of Unpatriotic Activities, Ono had become a police informer, taking an active part in an ideological witch hunt. After the 1945 defeat and the collapse of jingoistic Imperial Japan, Ono has become a discredited figure, one of the "traitors '' who "led the country astray ''; meanwhile, the victims of state repression, including people Ono himself had denounced, are reinstated and allowed to lead a normal life. Over the course of the first three sections, spanning October 1948 -- November 1949, Ono seems to show a growing acknowledgement of his past "errors '', although this acknowledgement is never explicitly stated. However, in the short fourth and last section (June 1950), Ono appears to have returned to his earlier inability to change his viewpoint.
The book is written in the first person and hinges on the exclusive use of a single, unreliable narrator, expressing a viewpoint which the reader identifies as limited and fallible, without any other voice or point of view acting as a test. Ono often makes it clear that he is not sure of the accuracy of his narrative, but this may either make the reader cautious or, on the contrary, suggest that Ono is very honest and, therefore, trustworthy.
The self - image Ono expresses in his narrative is vastly different from the image of him the reader builds from reading the same narrative. Ono often quotes others as expressing admiration and indebtedness to him. Ono 's narrative is characterised by denial, so that his interests and his hierarchy of values are at odds with the reader 's. Readers, therefore, find that what they are interested in is not the focus of Ono 's narrative but at its fringes, presented in an oblique rather than direct fashion. For example, Ono 's descriptions of his pictures focus on pictorial technique, mentioning the subjects as if they were unimportant, although they reveal the propagandistic nature of his work. It is not entirely clear whether this focus on style rather than substance should be ascribed to Ono as narrator (showing his retrospective, unconscious embarrassment), or if it was already present in him at the time he was making the pictures (showing that totalitarianism exploits people 's capacity to restrain their awareness to limited aspects of their actions). Similarly, when Ono narrates an episode in which he was confronted with the results of his activities as a police informer, it is debatable whether his attempt to mitigate the brutality of the police is a retrospective fabrication devised to avoid his own responsibility, or whether he actually did disapprove of the treatment of the person he had denounced, distancing himself from his actions and refusing to recognise the abusive treatment as a direct and foreseeable consequence of those actions.
Among the themes explored in this novel are arranged marriage, the changing roles of women, and the declining status of "elders '' in Japanese society since 1945. The novel is narrated by a man who, besides being an artist, is also a father, a grandfather, and a widower. It tells, with a strong voice, much about the "pleasure era '' of Japanese society, elaborating on the life of a successful and devoted young artist in a decadent era. We learn how attitudes toward Japanese art and society became less tolerant of such extravagance, and what it was like to live with the guilt of such pleasure. The pace is slow and lingers over details, reflecting the central theme.
The novel was shortlisted for the 1986 Booker Prize and won the Whitbread Book of the Year Award for the same year.
The novel 's title is based on the literal translation of Ukiyo - e, a word referring to the Japanese art of prints. Therefore, it can be read as "a printmaker '' or "an artist living in a changing world, '' given both Ono 's limited understanding and the dramatic changes his world, Japan in the first half of the twentieth century, has undergone in his lifetime.
The title also refers to an artistic genre. Ono 's master was especially interested in depicting scenes from the pleasure district adjacent to the villa in which he and his students lived. Ono mentions the ephemeral nature of the floating world that could be experienced during each night. His master experimented with innovative softer Western - style painting techniques. Ono became estranged from him and forged his own career. He could not help but feel gleeful when his master 's paintings fell into disfavour during a return to the use of more traditional bold lines in the paintings used for nationalistic posters.
In 2014, the French composer Karol Beffa paid Kazuo Ishiguro a tribute in his second violin concerto, A Floating World, premiered by Akiko Suwanai and The Deutsche Kammerphilharmonie Bremen.
|
what is the product of a multiplication problem | Product (mathematics) - wikipedia
In mathematics, a product is the result of multiplying, or an expression that identifies factors to be multiplied. Thus, for instance, 6 is the product of 2 and 3 (the result of multiplication), and x ⋅ (2 + x) (\ displaystyle x \ cdot (2 + x)) is the product of x (\ displaystyle x) and (2 + x) (\ displaystyle (2 + x)) (indicating that the two factors should be multiplied together).
The order in which real or complex numbers are multiplied has no bearing on the product; this is known as the commutative law of multiplication. When matrices or members of various other associative algebras are multiplied, the product usually depends on the order of the factors. Matrix multiplication, for example, and multiplication in other algebras is in general non-commutative.
There are many different kinds of products in mathematics: besides being able to multiply just numbers, polynomials or matrices, one can also define products on many different algebraic structures. An overview of these different kinds of products is given here.
Placing several stones into a rectangular pattern with r (\ displaystyle r) rows and s (\ displaystyle s) columns gives
stones.
Integers allow positive and negative numbers. The two numbers are multiplied just like natural numbers, except we need an additional rule for the signs:
In words, we have:
Two fractions can be multiplied by multiplying their numerators and denominators:
For a rigorous definition of the product of two real numbers see Construction of the real numbers.
Two complex numbers can be multiplied by the distributive law and the fact that i 2 = − 1 (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (i) ^ (2) = - 1), as follows:
Complex numbers can be written in polar coordinates:
Furthermore,
The geometric meaning is that we multiply the magnitudes and add the angles.
The product of two quaternions can be found in the article on quaternions. However, in this case, a ⋅ b (\ displaystyle a \ cdot b) and b ⋅ a (\ displaystyle b \ cdot a) are in general different.
The product operator for the product of a sequence is denoted by the capital Greek letter pi ∏ (in analogy to the use of the capital Sigma ∑ as summation symbol). The product of a sequence consisting of only one number is just that number itself. The product of no factors at all is known as the empty product, and is equal to 1.
Commutative rings have a product operation.
Residue classes in the rings Z / N Z (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (Z) / N \ mathbb (Z)) can be added:
and multiplied:
Two functions from the reals to itself can be multiplied in another way, called the convolution.
If
then the integral
is well defined and is called the convolution.
Under the Fourier transform, convolution becomes point-wise function multiplication.
The product of two polynomials is given by the following:
with
There are many different kinds of products in linear algebra; some of these have confusingly similar names (outer product, exterior product) but have very different meanings. Others have very different names (outer product, tensor product, Kronecker product) but convey essentially the same idea. A brief overview of these is given here.
By the very definition of a vector space, one can form the product of any scalar with any vector, giving a map R × V → V (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) \ times V \ rightarrow V).
A scalar product is a bilinear map:
with the following conditions, that v ⋅ v > 0 (\ displaystyle v \ cdot v > 0) for all 0 ≠ v ∈ V (\ displaystyle 0 \ not = v \ in V).
From the scalar product, one can define a norm by letting ‖ v ‖: = v ⋅ v (\ displaystyle \ v \: = (\ sqrt (v \ cdot v))).
The scalar product also allows one to define an angle between two vectors:
In n (\ displaystyle n) - dimensional Euclidean space, the standard scalar product (called the dot product) is given by:
The cross product of two vectors in 3 - dimensions is a vector perpendicular to the two factors, with length equal to the area of the parallelogram spanned by the two factors.
The cross product can also be expressed as the formal determinant:
A linear mapping can be defined as a function f between two vector spaces V and W with underlying field F, satisfying
If one only considers finite dimensional vector spaces, then
in which b andb denote the bases of V and W, and v denotes the component of v on b, and Einstein summation convention is applied.
Now we consider the composition of two linear mappings between finite dimensional vector spaces. Let the linear mapping f map V to W, and let the linear mapping g map W to U. Then one can get
Or in matrix form:
in which the i - row, j - column element of F, denoted by F, is f, and G = g.
The composition of more than two linear mappings can be similarly represented by a chain of matrix multiplication.
Given two matrices
their product is given by
There is a relationship between the composition of linear functions and the product of two matrices. To see this, let r = dim (U), s = dim (V) and t = dim (W) be the (finite) dimensions of vector spaces U, V and W. Let U = (u 1,... u r) (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (U)) = \ (u_ (1), \ ldots u_ (r) \)) be a basis of U, V = (v 1,... v s) (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (V)) = \ (v_ (1), \ ldots v_ (s) \)) be a basis of V and W = (w 1,... w t) (\ displaystyle (\ mathcal (W)) = \ (w_ (1), \ ldots w_ (t) \)) be a basis of W. In terms of this basis, let A = M V U (f) ∈ R s × r (\ displaystyle A = M_ (\ mathcal (V)) ^ (\ mathcal (U)) (f) \ in \ mathbb (R) ^ (s \ times r)) be the matrix representing f: U → V and B = M W V (g) ∈ R r × t (\ displaystyle B = M_ (\ mathcal (W)) ^ (\ mathcal (V)) (g) \ in \ mathbb (R) ^ (r \ times t)) be the matrix representing g: V → W. Then
is the matrix representing g ∘ f: U → W (\ displaystyle g \ circ f: U \ rightarrow W).
In other words: the matrix product is the description in coordinates of the composition of linear functions.
Given two finite dimensional vector spaces V and W, the tensor product of them can be defined as a (2, 0) - tensor satisfying:
where V and W denote the dual spaces of V and W.
For infinite - dimensional vector spaces, one also has the:
The tensor product, outer product and Kronecker product all convey the same general idea. The differences between these are that the Kronecker product is just a tensor product of matrices, with respect to a previously - fixed basis, whereas the tensor product is usually given in its intrinsic definition. The outer product is simply the Kronecker product, limited to vectors (instead of matrices).
In general, whenever one has two mathematical objects that can be combined in a way that behaves like a linear algebra tensor product, then this can be most generally understood as the internal product of a monoidal category. That is, the monoidal category captures precisely the meaning of a tensor product; it captures exactly the notion of why it is that tensor products behave the way they do. More precisely, a monoidal category is the class of all things (of a given type) that have a tensor product.
Other kinds of products in linear algebra include:
In set theory, a Cartesian product is a mathematical operation which returns a set (or product set) from multiple sets. That is, for sets A and B, the Cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
The class of all things (of a given type) that have Cartesian products is called a Cartesian category. Many of these are Cartesian closed categories. Sets are an example of such objects.
The empty product on numbers and most algebraic structures has the value of 1 (the identity element of multiplication) just like the empty sum has the value of 0 (the identity element of addition). However, the concept of the empty product is more general, and requires special treatment in logic, set theory, computer programming and category theory.
Products over other kinds of algebraic structures include:
A few of the above products are examples of the general notion of an internal product in a monoidal category; the rest are describable by the general notion of a product in category theory.
All of the previous examples are special cases or examples of the general notion of a product. For the general treatment of the concept of a product, see product (category theory), which describes how to combine two objects of some kind to create an object, possibly of a different kind. But also, in category theory, one has:
|
when was the last mini cooper s made | Mini - wikipedia
The Mini is a small economy car produced by the English - based British Motor Corporation (BMC) and its successors from 1959 until 2000. The original is considered an icon of 1960s British popular culture. Its space - saving transverse engine front - wheel drive layout -- allowing 80 percent of the area of the car 's floorpan to be used for passengers and luggage -- influenced a generation of car makers. In 1999 the Mini was voted the second most influential car of the 20th century, behind the Ford Model T, and ahead of the Citroën DS and Volkswagen Beetle.
This distinctive two - door car was designed for BMC by Sir Alec Issigonis. It was manufactured at the Longbridge and Cowley plants in England, the Victoria Park / Zetland British Motor Corporation (Australia) factory in Sydney, Australia, and later also in Spain (Authi), Belgium, Chile, Italy (Innocenti), Malta, Portugal, South Africa, Uruguay, Venezuela and Yugoslavia. The Mini Mark I had three major UK updates -- the Mark II, the Clubman and the Mark III. Within these was a series of variations, including an estate car, a pick - up truck, a van and the Mini Moke, a jeep - like buggy.
The performance versions, the Mini Cooper and Cooper "S '', were successful as both race and rally cars, winning the Monte Carlo Rally in 1964, 1965 and 1967. In 1966, the first - placed Mini (along with nine other cars) was disqualified after the finish, under a controversial decision that the car 's headlights were against the rules.
On its introduction in August 1959 the Mini was marketed under the Austin and Morris names, as the Austin Seven and Morris Mini-Minor. The Austin Seven was renamed Austin Mini in January 1962 and Mini became a marque in its own right in 1969. In 1980 it once again became the Austin Mini and in 1988 just "Mini '' (although the "Rover '' badge was applied on some models exported to Japan).
BMW acquired the Rover Group (formerly British Leyland) in 1994, and sold the greater part of it in 2000, but retained the rights to build cars using the MINI name.
The Mini came about because of a fuel shortage caused by the 1956 Suez Crisis. Petrol was once again rationed in the UK, sales of large cars slumped, and the market for German bubble cars boomed, even in countries like Britain where imported cars were still a rarity. The Fiat 500, launched in 1957, was also hugely successful - especially in its native Italy.
Leonard Lord, the somewhat autocratic head of BMC, reportedly detested these cars so much that he vowed to rid the streets of them and design a ' proper miniature car '. He laid down some basic design requirements: the car should be contained within a box that measured 10 × 4 × 4 feet (3.0 × 1.2 × 1.2 m); and the passenger accommodation should occupy 6 feet (1.8 m) of the 10 - foot (3.0 m) length; and the engine, for reasons of cost, should be an existing unit.
Alec Issigonis, who had been working for Alvis, had been recruited back to BMC in 1955 with a brief from Lord to design a range of technically advanced family cars in the same innovative spirit as his earlier Morris Minor to complement BMC 's existing conventional models. Issigonis had set out design projects for three cars -- large and small family cars and a very small economy car. His initial work was on the largest car, designated XC9001, with the smallest car, XC9003, having the lowest priority despite it being Issigonis ' greatest personal interest. With Lord 's dictum to produce a bubble car competitor and his revised design requirements being laid down in October 1956, work on XC9001 stopped and XC9003 became the priority. The team that designed the Mini was remarkably small: as well as Issigonis, there was Jack Daniels (who had worked with him on the Morris Minor), Chris Kingham (who had been with him at Alvis), two engineering students and four draughtsmen. Together, by July 1957, they had designed and built the original XC9003 prototype, which was affectionately named "The Orange Box '' because of its colour. Leonard Lord approved the car for production on 19 July and XC9003 became project ADO15.
The ADO15 used a conventional BMC A-Series four - cylinder, water - cooled engine, but departed from tradition by mounting it transversely, with the engine - oil - lubricated, four - speed transmission in the sump, and by employing front - wheel drive. Almost all small front - wheel - drive cars developed since have used a similar configuration, except with the transmission usually separately enclosed rather than using the engine oil. The radiator was mounted at the left side of the car so that the engine - mounted fan could be retained, but with reversed pitch so that it blew air into the natural low pressure area under the front wing. This location saved vehicle length, but had the disadvantage of feeding the radiator with air that had been heated by passing over the engine. It also exposed the entire ignition system to the direct ingress of rainwater through the grille. Early prototypes used the existing 948 cc A-Series unit but this provided the ADO15 with performance far greater than its price and purpose required -- a top speed of over 90mph. The engine was reduced to a new 848cc capacity with a shorter stroke. This reduced power from 37 to 33 bhp and caused a significant drop in torque and so provided more realistic performance, especially when the ADO15 body was widened by 2 inches (5.08 cm) (5 cm) over the XC9003 prototype which blunted the car 's top speed while improving its stability and roadholding. Even so, the ADO15 had a top speed of 75 mph, which was better than many other economy cars of the time.
The suspension system, designed by Issigonis 's friend Dr. Alex Moulton at Moulton Developments Limited, used compact rubber cones instead of conventional springs. This space - saving design also featured rising progressive - rate springing of the cones, and provided some natural damping, in addition to the normal dampers. Built into the subframes, the rubber cone system gave a raw and bumpy ride accentuated by the woven - webbing seats, but the rigidity of the rubber cones, together with the wheels ' positioning at the corners of the car, gave the Mini go kart - like handling.
Initially an interconnected fluid system was planned, similar to the one that Alec Issigonis and Alex Moulton were working on in the mid-1950s at Alvis. They had assessed the mechanically interconnected Citroën 2CV suspension at that time (according to an interview by Moulton with Car Magazine in the late 1990s), which inspired the design of the Hydrolastic suspension system for the Mini and Morris / Austin 1100, to try to keep the benefits of the 2CV system (ride comfort, body levelling, keeping the roadwheel under good control and the tyres in contact with the road), but with added roll stiffness that the 2CV lacked. The short development time of the car meant this was not ready in time for the Mini 's launch. The system intended for the Mini was further developed and the hydrolastic system was first used on the Morris 1100, launched in 1962; the Mini gained the system later in 1964. As launched the Mini had simpler suspension made from conical springs of solid rubber. These were compact, saving on intrusion into the cabin space, and required no maintenance. The fully independent suspension the rubber cones provided was almost unheard of in low - cost cars of the time. The conical shape gave the springs a progressive action, becoming stiffer at greater degrees of compression. This gave the ADO15 a smooth ride over small bumps but minimised roll and pitch on more uneven surfaces. It also allowed the springs to cope with the huge variance in load between an unladen car (approx. 600 kg or 1300 lbs) and a fully laden one (just over 1000 kg or 2240 lbs, or a 70 per cent increase).
Ten - inch (254 mm) wheels were specified, so new tyres had to be developed, the initial contract going to Dunlop. Issigonis went to Dunlop stating that he wanted even smaller, 8 in (203 mm) wheels (even though he had already settled on ten - inch). An agreement was made on the ten - inch size, after Dunlop rejected the eight - inch proposition.
Many features were designed into the ADO15 's interior to maximise its passenger and luggage space on top of the major savings allowed by the transverse engine and 10 - inch wheels. Sliding windows allowed single - skin doors to be fitted, improving elbow room and reducing costs. A bracing bar was fitted across the door frame to brace the single skin and this was later adapted into a large storage bin on each door. Issigonis would later say that he had sized the bins to carry the ingredients of his favourite drink, a dry martini in the correct proportions (one bottle of vermouth and 27 of Gordon 's Gin. Similar bins were provided outboard of the rear seats, also serving a dual function of bracing the single - skin body panel. Small items could also be stowed under the rear seats, and early Minis would be sold with optional wicker baskets specially shaped to slot under the seats. The fixed rear parcel shelf contributed to the rigidity of the body shell, although it did preclude fitting the ADO15 with a hatchback. The boot lid was hinged at the bottom so that the car could be driven with it open to increase luggage space. On early cars the number plate was hinged at the top so that it could swing down to remain visible when the boot lid was open. This feature was later discontinued after it was discovered that exhaust gases could leak into the cockpit when the boot was open.
The Mini was designed as a monocoque shell with welded seams visible on the outside of the car running down the A and C pillars, and between the body and the floor pan. Those that ran from the base of the A-pillar to the wheel well were described as ' everted ' (lit., ' turned outward ') to provide more room for the front seat occupants. To further simplify construction, the hinges for the doors and boot lid were mounted externally. This also saved a small amount of cabin space. It also made the ADO15 very easy to assemble from Complete Knock Down kits in overseas markets with only basic industry. Cars could be assembled with minimal use of jigs as the external seams made the panels largely ' self - aligning '. They also allowed panels to be stacked flat on top of one other for easy shipping. As originally built all the structural body panels were welded to the top of the single floor pressing but this caused major problems with water ingress to the cabin and was quickly changed in the first months of production.
Early prototypes were fully unitary in construction but the cars broke apart under the high loads from the large lever ratios used with the rubber cone suspension. The design was changed to use steel subframes to carry the drivetrain and suspension for the front and rear. This also simplified production as both subframes could be built up independently and then mated to the already - completed bodyshell. It also opened up the possibility of easily producing variants on the ADO15 as a body of any shape or design could be used provided it could accommodate the subframes.
In 1959, BMC and Alec Issigonis won the Dewar Trophy, for the design and production of the Mini.
The Mini shape had become so well known that by the 1990s, Rover Group -- the heirs to BMC -- were able to register its design as a trademark in its own right.
The production version of the Mini was demonstrated to the press in April 1959, and by August several thousand cars had been produced ready for the first sales. The Mini was officially announced to the public on 26 August 1959. Some 2,000 cars had already been sent abroad and were displayed that day in almost 100 countries.
The first example, a Morris Mini-Minor with the registration 621 AOK, is on display at the Heritage Motor Centre in Warwickshire. Another early example from 1959 is on display at the National Motor Museum in Hampshire.
The Mini was marketed under BMC 's two main brand names, Austin and Morris, until 1969, when it became a marque in its own right. The Morris version was known to all as "the Mini '' or the "Morris Mini-Minor ''. This seems to have been a play on words: the Morris Minor was a larger, well known and successful car that continued in production, and minor is Latin for "lesser '', so an abbreviation of the Latin word for "least '' -- minimus -- was used for the new even smaller car. One name proposed for the almost identical Austin version was Austin Newmarket, but it was sold as the Austin Seven (sometimes written as SE7EN in early publicity material -- with the ' 7 ' using the letter V rotated anti-clockwise so it approximated the number 7), which recalled the popular small Austin 7 of the 1920s and 1930s.
Until 1962, the cars appeared in North America and France as the Austin 850 and Morris 850, and in Denmark as the Austin Partner (until 1964) and Morris Mascot (until 1981). It was introduced in Australia as Morris 850 only (not "Austin ''), and then later as Morris Cooper and Morris Cooper S versions as well. The Morris name Mini (Mini-Minor) was first used for Austin 's version by BMC in 1961 when the Austin Seven was rebranded as the Austin Mini, somewhat to the surprise of the Sharp 's Commercials car company (later known as Bond Cars), who had been using the name Minicar for their three - wheeled vehicles since 1949. However, legal action was somehow averted, and BMC used the name "Mini '' thereafter.
In 1964, the suspension of the cars was replaced by another Moulton design, the hydrolastic system. The new suspension gave a softer ride, but it also increased weight and production cost. In 1971, the original rubber suspension reappeared and was retained for the remaining life of the Mini.
From October 1965 the option of the unique Automotive Products (AP) designed four - speed automatic transmission became available. Cars fitted with this became the Mini-Matic.
Slow at the outset, Mark I sales strengthened across most of the model lines in the 1960s, and production totalled 1,190,000. Ford purchased a Mini and dismantled it to see if they could offer an alternative. Ford determined that the BMC must have been losing around £ 30 per car, and so decided to produce a larger car -- the Cortina, launched in 1962 -- as its competitor in the budget market. BMC insisted that the way company overheads were shared out, the Mini always made money. Larger profits came from the popular De Luxe models and from optional extras such as seat belts, door mirrors, a heater and a radio, which would be considered necessities on modern cars, as well as the various Cooper and Cooper S models.
The Mini entered into popular culture in the 1960s with well - publicised purchases by film and music stars.
The Cooper S version was also used by some British police departments as a plainclothes car.
The first Morris Mini-Minor sold in Texas being delivered to a family in Arlington, Texas, in 1959
1963 Austin Mini
The Mark II Mini was launched at the 1967 British Motor Show, and featured a redesigned grille, a larger rear window and numerous cosmetic changes. A total of 429,000 Mk II Minis were produced.
A variety of Mini types were made in Pamplona, Spain, by the Authi company from 1968 onwards, mostly under the Morris name. In 1969, a fibreglass version of the Mini Mark II was developed for British Leyland 's Chilean subsidiary (British Leyland Automotores de Chile, S.A., originally the independent assembler EMSSA). The bodyshell mould was created by the Peel Engineering Company. Production began in 1970 and continued for a few years; these fibreglass Minis can be recognised by the missing body seams and by larger panel gaps. The Chilean market was never very large and the hyperinflation and political and social collapse led to the 1973 coup The Arica plant was closed in 1974. The reason for the fibreglass body was to enable Leyland to meet very strict requirements for local sourcing, increasing to 70.22 % in 1971.
The Mark III Mini had a modified bodyshell with enough alterations to see the factory code change from ADO15 to ADO20 (which it shared with the Clubman). The most obvious changes were larger doors with concealed hinges. Customer demand led to the sliding windows being replaced with winding windows -- although some Australian - manufactured Mark I Minis had adopted this feature in 1965 (with opening quarterlight windows). The suspension reverted from Hydrolastic to rubber cones as a cost - saving measure. (The 1275 GT and Clubman would retain the hydrolastic system until June 1971 when they, too, switched to the rubber cone suspension of the original Minis.)
Production at the Cowley plant was ended, and the simple name Mini completely replaced the separate Austin and Morris brands. In April 1974 a heater became standard equipment on the entry level Mini 850 as well, having by then already been included in the standard specification of the other models for some time.
In the late 1970s, Innocenti introduced the Innocenti 90 and 120, Bertone - designed hatchbacks based on the Mini platform. Bertone also created a Mini Cooper equivalent, christened the Innocenti De Tomaso, that sported a 1275 cc engine similar to the MG Metro engine, but with an 11 - stud head, a special inlet manifold, and used the "A '' clutch instead of the "Verto '' type. It also used homokinetic shafts instead of rubber couplings.
The Mini was still popular in Britain, but appeared increasingly outdated in the face of newer and more practical rivals. Since the late 1960s, plans had been in place for a newer and more practical supermini to replace it, though the Mini was still the only car of this size built by British Leyland for the home market.
The Mark IV was introduced in 1976, even though by this stage British Leyland was working on a new small car which was widely expected to replace the Mini before much longer. It had a front rubber mounted subframe with single tower bolts and the rear frame had some larger bushings introduced. Twin stalk indicators were introduced with larger foot pedals. From 1977 onwards, the rear indicator lamps had the reverse lights incorporated in them. In 1980, the engine was upgraded to the improved A-Plus unit from the new Metro. This was then followed by a number of later incremental developments:
In 1978, the Mini was one of the key cars made available to disabled motorists under the new Motability scheme.
Reports of the Mini 's imminent demise surfaced again in 1980 with the launch of the Austin Mini-Metro (badging with the word mini in all lowercase). Faced with competition from a new wave of modern superminis like the Ford Fiesta, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Polo, the Mini was beginning to fall out of favour in many export markets, with the South African, Australian, and New Zealand markets all stopping production around this time. Buyers of small cars now wanted modern and practical designs, usually with a hatchback.
Although the Mini continued to be produced after the Metro 's launch, production volumes were reduced as British Leyland and successor combine Rover Group concentrated on the Metro as its key supermini. 1981 was the original Mini 's last year in the top ten of Britain 's top selling cars, as it came ninth and the Metro was fifth. The arrival of the Metro also saw production of the larger Allegro pruned back before it was finally discontinued in 1982. In 1982 BL made 56,297 Minis and over 175,000 Metros. During the early 1980s the Mini received many mechanical upgrades which were shared with the Metro, such as the A-Plus engine, 12 - inch wheels with front disc brakes, improved soundproofing and quieter, stronger transmissions. This not only modernised the Mini but, because many of its major sub-assemblies were now shared with the Metro, made it very cost - effective to produce despite falling sales volumes. The Mini 's 25th anniversary fell in 1984 and British Leyland produced a ' Mini 25 ' limited edition model, both to mark the occasion and to publicise the recent upgrades to the model. This marked the start of a turnaround in the Mini 's fortunes. Basic models such as the City and the City E (using the economy - tuned drivetrain from the Metro HLE) filled in the bottom of the Austin - Rover range and still found buyers who wanted a compact city car that was easy to park and cheap to run. Low purchase and running costs also made the Mini continually popular as a first car for younger drivers, and Austin - Rover introduced a steady stream of limited editions with bright paint colours, body graphics and trim to appeal to this market. The Mini was also becoming prized as a characterful and nostalgic car in its own right, and the London Collection of limited edition models were more upmarket and luxurious and named after affluent or fashionable parts of London. These marketing strategies proved very successful - Mini production actually saw modest increases through the mid-1980s, from 34,974 in 1985 to 35,280 in 1985 and 39,800 in 1986. By 1990, with the reintroduction of the very popular Cooper model, Mini production would pass 40,000. In 1988 Austin Rover decided to keep the Mini in production for as long as it was viable to do so, putting an end to reports that it would be discontinued by 1991 -- by which time the original Metro would also be replaced.
The fibreglass Mini built in Chile from 1970 until 1974 was not the only fibreglass version: in the summer of 1991, a fibreglass bodied Mini again entered production, this time in Venezuela. The producer, Facorca, intended to sell the car in the Caribbean and Central America, and also had plans for Brazilian assembly.
The popularity of the original Mini spawned many models that targeted different markets.
Released in 1961 as more luxurious versions of the Mini, both the Wolseley Hornet and the Riley Elf had longer, slightly finned rear wings and larger boots that gave the cars a more traditional three - box design. Wheelbase of the Elf and Hornet remained at 2.036 m (6.68 ft), whereas the overall length was increased to 3.27 m (10.7 ft). This resulted in a dry weight of 638 kg (1,407 lb) / 642.3 kg (1,416 lb) (rubber / hydrolastic suspension) for the Elf and 618 kg (1,362 lb) / 636.4 kg (1,403 lb) for the Hornet. Front - end treatment, which incorporated each marque 's traditional upright grille design (the Hornet 's grille with a lit "Wolseley '' badge), also contributed to a less utilitarian appearance. The cars had larger - diameter chrome hubcaps than the Austin and Morris Minis, and additional chrome accents, bumper overriders and wood - veneer dashboards. The Riley was the more expensive of the two cars. The name "Wolseley Hornet '' was first used on 1930s saloon, coupé, sports and racing cars, while the name "Elf '' recalled the Riley Sprite and Imp sports cars, also of the 1930s (Riley 's first choice of name "Imp '' could not be used as Hillman had registered it). The full - width dashboard was a differentiator between the Elf and Hornet. This dashboard was the idea of Christopher Milner the Sales Manager for Riley. Both the Riley Elf 's and Wolseley Hornet 's bodies were built at Fisher & Ludlow under their "Fisholow '' brandname. Plates in the engine compartment on the right side fitch plate bear evidence of this speciality. Very early Mark I versions of both cars (e.g. press photo of 445MWL) had no overriders on the bumpers and a single piece front wing (A-panel and wing in one piece, no outside seam below scuttle panel) that was soon given up again, allegedly due to cost. The Elf 's and Hornet 's special bumper overriders first appeared in 1962. Early production Mark I 's also had a combination of leather and cloth seats (Elf R - A2S1 - 101 to FR2333, Hornet W - A2S1 - 101 to FW2105) whereas all later models had full leather seats. Mark I models were equipped with single leading shoe brakes on the front.
Both the Elf and the Hornet went through three engine versions. Initially, they used the 848 cc (51.7 cu in) 34 bhp (25 kW) engine (engine type 8WR) with a single HS2 carburettor, changing to a single HS2 carburettor 38 bhp (28 kW) version of the Cooper 's 998 cc (60.9 cu in) power unit (engine type 9WR) in the Mark II in 1963. This increased the car 's top speed from 71 to 77 mph (114 to 124 km / h). Therefore, Mark II cars also came with increased braking power in the form of front drum brakes with twin leading shoes to cope with the increased power output. Both Mark I and Mark II featured four - speed gearboxes (three synchromesh gears) with rod gear change, a.k.a. "magic wand '' type. Automatic gearboxes became available on the Mark II in 1965 as an option. The Mark III facelift of 1966 brought wind - up windows and fresh - air fascia vents. Concealed door hinges were introduced two years before these were seen on the mainstream Mini. The gear selecting mechanism was updated to the rod type, as seen on all later Mini type cars. Automatic gearboxes were available to the Mark III in 1967 again. Full - four synchromesh gearing was eventually introduced during 1968. 30,912 Riley Elfs and 28,455 Wolseley Hornets were built. Production of both models ceased in late 1969.
Vehicle Identification -- Serial Number Prefix Letter Code:
Code example: R - A2S1 - 154321 (Riley, A type engine, 2 door saloon, 1st series, serial number "154321 '')
These models were two - door estate cars with double "barn '' - style rear doors. Both were built on a slightly longer chassis of 84 inches (2.1 m) compared to 80.25 inches (2.038 m) for the saloon.
The early Morris Mini Traveller and Austin Mini Countryman cars had an internal fuel tank located on the left hand side of the rear load area. This is identifiable by the fuel filler cap being on the left hand side of the car just below the rear window. In October 1961 the fuel tank was relocated to the underneath of the car and the filler cap was moved to low down on the right hand side of the car -- the same configuration that was already in use on the Mini Van.
From the start of production both models had a decorative, non-structural, ash wood trim on the rear body, in the style of a pre-war shooting - brake. This gave the car a similar appearance to the larger Morris Minor Traveller and gave rise to these cars simply being called a woodie. It is a popular misconception that the difference between the Traveller and the Countryman is the wood trim. An all steel version of both the Traveller and the Countryman without the wood trim was launched for export markets in April 1961 and for the home market in October 1962, but the woodie version remained more popular.
In October 1967 the Mk2 version was launched with the same changes as the saloon.
Approximately 108,000 Austin Mini Countrymans and 99,000 Morris Mini Travellers were built. Variations of this model were also built in South Africa, by Innocenti in Italy and by Industria de Montagem de Automoveis in Portugal.
The Mini Traveller and Countryman Register was created in 2009 to help locate and preserve the remaining Mini Traveller and Countryman cars.
The Mini Van was a commercial panel van (in US English, a sedan delivery) rated at 1⁄4 - ton load capacity. Built on the longer Traveller chassis but without side windows, it proved popular in 1960s Britain as a cheaper alternative to the car: it was classed as a commercial vehicle and as such carried no sales tax. A set of simple stamped steel slots served in place of a more costly chrome grille. The Mini Van was renamed as the Mini 95 in 1978, the number representing the gross vehicle weight of 0.95 tons. 521,494 were built.
A utility vehicle intended for the British Army was built with a twin - engined 4 - wheel - drive. Although the 4WD Moke could climb a 1: 2 gradient, it lacked enough ground clearance for military use. The single - engined front - wheel - drive Moke enjoyed some popularity in civilian production. About 50,000 were made in total, from 1964 to 1968 in the UK, 1966 to 1982 in Australia and 1983 to 1989 in Portugal. The Moke was marketed in holiday locations such as Barbados and Macau, where they were also used as police cars. "Moke '' is archaic British slang for a donkey.
A pick - up truck (technically a coupé utility by definition), 11 ft (3.4 m) in total length was built on the longer Mini Van platform, with an open - top rear cargo area and a tailgate. The factory specified the weight of the Pick - up as less than 1,500 lb (680 kg) with a full 6 imperial gallons (27 l; 7.2 US gal) tank of fuel.
As with the Van, the Pick - up had stamped metal slots for airflow into the engine compartment. The Pickup was basic, although the factory brochure described a "fully equipped Mini Pick - up is also available which includes a recirculatory heater. '' Passenger - side sun visor, seat belts, laminated windscreen, tilt tubes and cover were also available at extra cost. Like the van, the Pick - up was renamed as the Mini 95 in 1978.
A total of 58,179 Mini Pick - up models were built.
Built in the Australian British Motor Corporation factory at Zetland, New South Wales, using 80 % local content, the Morris Mini K was advertised as the "great leap forward ''. The Mini K (' K ' standing for Kangaroo) had a 1098 cc engine and was the last round - nosed model to be produced in Australia, originally priced at A $ 1780. The Mini K was offered in 2 - door saloon and 2 - door van body styles. It was distinctive in having wind - up windows and a swivelling quarterlight in Mk. I - style externally hinged doors. A small round sticker with a kangaroo logo was placed on the triangular panel between the door and the front body seam. The "Kangaroo '' name was supposedly coined because it is claimed that a kangaroo can go all day without drinking which the advertisers used to emphasise the frugal fuel consumption and, possibly, larger fuel tank.
Issigonis ' friend John Cooper, owner of the Cooper Car Company and designer and builder of Formula One and rally cars, saw the potential of the Mini for competition. Issigonis was initially reluctant to see the Mini in the role of a performance car, but after John Cooper appealed to BMC management, the two men collaborated to create the Mini Cooper. The Austin Mini Cooper and Morris Mini Cooper debuted in September 1961.
The 848 cc (51.7 cu in) engine from the Morris Mini-Minor was given a longer stroke to increase capacity to 997 cc (60.8 cu in) increasing power from 34 to 55 bhp (25 to 41 kW). The car featured a race - tuned engine, twin SU carburettors, a closer - ratio gearbox and front disc brakes, uncommon at the time in a small car. One thousand units of this version were commissioned by management, intended for and designed to meet the homologation rules of Group 2 rally racing. The 997 cc engine was replaced by a shorter stroke 998 cc unit in 1964. In 1962, Rhodesian John Love became the first non-British racing driver to win the British Saloon Car Championship driving a Mini Cooper.
A more powerful Mini Cooper, dubbed the "S '', was developed in tandem and released in 1963. Featuring a 1071 cc engine with a 70.61 mm bore and nitrided steel crankshaft and strengthened bottom end to allow further tuning; and larger servo - assisted disc brakes, 4,030 Cooper S cars were produced and sold until the model was updated in August 1964. Cooper also produced two S models specifically for circuit racing in the under 1,000 cc and under 1,300 cc classes respectively, rated at 970 cc (59 cu in) and a 1,275 cc (77.8 cu in), both had a 70.61 mm (2.780 in) bore and both were also offered to the public. The smaller - engine model was not well received, and only 963 had been built when the model was discontinued in 1965. The 1,275 cc Cooper S models continued in production until 1971.
Sales of the Mini Cooper were as follows: 64,000 Mark I Coopers with 997 cc or 998 cc engines; 19,000 Mark I Cooper S with 970 cc, 1,071 cc or 1,275 cc engines; 16,000 Mark II Coopers with 998 cc engines; 6,300 Mark II Cooper S with 1,275 cc engines. There were no Mark III Coopers and just 1,570 Mark III Cooper S.
In 1971, the Mini Cooper design was licensed in Italy by Innocenti and in 1973 to Spain by Authi (Automoviles de Turismo Hispano - Ingleses), which began to produce the Innocenti Mini Cooper 1300 and the Authi Mini Cooper 1300, respectively. The Cooper name was discontinued from the UK Mini range at this time.
A new Mini Cooper named the RSP (Rover Special Products) was briefly relaunched in 1990 -- 91, with slightly lower performance than the 1960s Cooper. It proved popular and a new Cooper - marked Mini went into full production in late 1991. To meet emission standards, Coopers from 1992 on were fitted with a fuel - injected version of the 1,275 cc engine, and in 1997 a multi-point fuel injected engine was introduced, along with a front - mounted radiator and various safety improvements. "I love my Mini Cooper, '' remarked Madonna in 2003. "I was too scared to drive a big car in London. ''
In 1969, under the ownership of British Leyland, the Mini was given a facelift by stylist Roy Haynes, who had previously worked for Ford. The restyled version was called the Mini Clubman, and has a squarer frontal look, using the same indicator / sidelight assembly as the Austin Maxi. The Mini Clubman was intended to replace the upmarket Riley and Wolseley versions. A new model, dubbed the 1275 GT, was slated as the replacement for the 998 cc Mini Cooper (the 1,275 cc Mini Cooper S continued alongside the 1275 GT for two years until 1971). The Clubman Estate replaced the Countryman and Traveller. The original "round - front '' design remained in production alongside the Clubman and 1275 GT.
Production of the Clubman and 1275 GT got off to a slow start because the cars incorporated "lots of production changes '' including the relocation of tooling from the manufacturer 's Cowley plant to the Longbridge plant: very few cars were handed over to customers before the early months of 1970.
Early domestic market Clubmans were still delivered on cross-ply tyres despite the fact that by 1970 radials had become the norm for the car 's mainstream competitors. By 1973 new Minis were, by default, being shipped with radial tyres, though cross-plies could be specified by special order, giving British buyers a price saving of £ 8.
The 1275 GT is often incorrectly described as the "Mini Clubman 1275 GT ''. The official name was always just the "Mini 1275 GT '', and it was a separate, distinct model from the Clubman (although it shared the same frontal treatment as the Mini Clubman, and was launched at the same time).
In 1971, the 1,275 cc Mini Cooper S was discontinued in the UK, leaving the Mini 1275 GT as the only sporting Mini on sale for the rest of the decade. Innocenti in Italy, however, continued making their own version of the Mini Cooper for some time. While the UK built 1275 GT was not nearly as quick as a 1275 Mini Cooper S, it was cheaper to buy, run, and insure. It was the first Mini to be equipped with a tachometer. It also featured a standard - fit close - ratio gearbox, and initially had 10 inch (25.4 cm) Rostyle wheels covering the 7.5 inch (19.05 cm) Cooper S type disc brakes, and a boot board, both were dropped in 1974. Performance of the 1275GT was lively for the time, achieving 0 -- 60 mph (97 km / h) in 12.9 seconds, and the excellent midrange torque offered a 30 -- 50 mph (48 -- 80 km / h) time in top gear of only nine seconds. The bluff front, however, meant that the model struggled to reach 90 mph (140 km / h).
Throughout the 1970s, British Leyland continued to produce the classic 1959 "round - front '' design, alongside the newer Clubman and 1275 GT models. The long - nose Clubman and 1275 GT offered better crash safety, were better equipped, and had better under - bonnet access, but they were more expensive and aerodynamically inferior to the original 1959 design. The Mini Clubman and 1275 GT were replaced in 1980 by the new hatchback Austin Metro, while production of the original "round - front '' Mini design continued for another 20 years. At the end of Clubman and 1275 GT production, 275,583 Clubman saloons, 197,606 Clubman Estates and 110,673 1275 GTs had been made.
For the Australian market, all Minis including the Van gained the Clubman front in 1971 although the car was still basically a Mk I behind the A-Pillar. The Australian van thus became the only Clubman Van produced anywhere in the world. From mid-1971 to the end of 1972, a Clubman GT version of the saloon was produced. This was essentially a Cooper S in Clubman body, equipped with the same 7.5 - inch (190 mm) disc brakes, twin fuel tanks, and twin - carburettor Cooper S 1,275 cc engine. Australian Clubman saloons were marketed under the Morris Mini Clubman name when introduced in August 1971, and as the Leyland Mini, without the Clubman name, from February 1973.
To end Mini production in Australia, a limited edition runout model was produced − the 1275LS. Fitted with a pollution control 1,275 cc engine sourced from Europe, the LS had a single 1.5 - inch (38 mm) carburettor and 8.4 - inch (210 mm) disc brakes. Production of this model commenced in July 1978 and concluded in October 1978 with an approximate total of 810 vehicles produced.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s the British market received numerous "special editions '' of the Mini, which shifted the car from a mass - market item into a fashionable icon. It was this image that perhaps helped the Mini become such an asset for BMW, which later bought the remnants of BMC as the Rover Group. It was even more popular in Japan, which took the lion 's share of the circa 40,000 Minis produced annually in the early 1990s. It was seen there as a retro - cool icon, and inspired many imitators. The ERA Mini Turbo was particularly popular with Japanese buyers.
In 1994, under Bernd Pischetsrieder, a first cousin once removed of Issigonis, BMW took control of the Rover Group, which included the Mini, fitting an airbag to comply with European legislation.
By March 2000, Rover was still suffering massive losses, and BMW decided to dispose of most of the companies. The sell - off was completed in May that year. MG and Rover went to Phoenix, a new British consortium; and Land Rover was sold to Ford Motor Company. BMW retained the Mini name and the planned new model, granting Rover temporary rights to the brand and allowing it to manufacture and sell the run - out model of the old Mini. By April 2000, the range consisted of four versions: the Mini Classic Seven, the Mini Classic Cooper, the Mini Classic Cooper Sport and -- for overseas European markets -- the Mini Knightsbridge. The last Mini (a red Cooper Sport) was built on 4 October 2000 and presented to the British Motor Industry Heritage Trust in December of that year. A total of 5,387,862 cars had been manufactured, nearly 1.6 million of which were sold in Britain, although the majority of these were sold at least 20 years before the Mini 's demise, meaning that the majority of those sold had been scrapped before the end of the original Mini 's production life.
After the last of the Mini production had been sold, the ' Mini ' name passed to BMW ownership. Mini Hatch, the new model made by BMW, is technically unrelated to the old car but retains the classic transverse four - cylinder, front - wheel - drive configuration and "bulldog '' stance of the original.
The last Mini to leave the Longbridge plant did so in 2012, when a 1970s 1275GT which was used by staff to travel around the car plant was recovered from the disused tunnels under the plant. The car was damaged by a storage container falling on it and had been left without an engine or gearbox for around 30 years before being recovered during work to infill the tunnels. This car was sold at auction in July 2013 for £ 1400.
From the Mark IV onward, many special limited - production editions of the Mini were offered. These included models that were created to commemorate racing victories or to celebrate an anniversary of the Mini marque. Limited editions generally came equipped with a unique combination of interior and exterior trim and special decals. Examples include Mini 1100 Special, Mini 1000 Special HL (only available in silver colour with black vinyl roof, black cloth upholstery seats with head restraints and walnut interior trim, for Portugal market only), Mini Rio, Mini Mayfair, Mini Park Lane, Mini Cooper RSP, Mini Flame, Mini Red Hot, Mini Jet Black, Mini Racing, Mini Thirty (30) which 3000 examples were produced, 2000 in Red and 1000 in Black and the Mini Monza. There was also a version inspired by The Italian Job, a 1969 film famous for having a trio of Minis in its epic closing car chase.
From 1967 to 1979, Issigonis had been designing a replacement for the Mini in the form of an experimental model called the 9X. It was longer and more powerful than the Mini, but due to politicking inside British Leyland (which had now been formed by the merger of BMC 's parent company British Motor Holdings and the Leyland Motor Corporation), the car did not reach production.
A number of prototypes produced for vehicles based on the Mini but which never saw production are held and sometimes displayed at the British Heritage Motor Centre museum at Gaydon, Warwickshire. These included the Twini, a re-engineered four - wheel - drive Moke with two engines -- one at the front and another at the back; the Austin Ant, a second attempt to produce a four - wheel - drive vehicle, this time using a transfer case; and a two - seater convertible MG edition of the Mini, cancelled due to it being perceived as competition for the MG Midget.
In 1992, a project considering possible improvements to the Mini was started. Codenamed Minki ("Mini '' plus K - Series engine), it included a redesigned dashboard, a two - piece rear door or tailgate instead of a boot, fold down rear seats, Hydragas suspension and a 3 - cylinder version of the K - Series engine with a 5 - speed gearbox. However, the project was cancelled by management within Rover, who decided that the cost of engineering the changes, and achieving compliance with modern crash testing standards, was too great for the production volumes that could be expected of an updated Mini.
In 1995 the idea to update the Mini again surfaced but this time with BMW management. As part of the process of deciding how to replace the Mini, a vehicle representing what the current Mini could have become, if it had been developed further over its production history, was commissioned. This resulted in the Minki - II, designed to house the 1.4 L MPI K - Series engine with an extensive redesign inside, but without the original Minki 's tailgate. The car had to be widened by 50mm and lengthened by 50mm to accommodate the new engine and gearbox, with Hydragas suspension and dashboard from a Rover 100. The Minki - II was used for Hydragas development work, this suspension being considered at the time for the R59 project, later to become the Mini Hatch.
The cheapness and availability of used Minis make it a candidate for body replacement. There are over 120 Mini-based kit cars from various small companies and individual enthusiasts.
BMC operated a Competition Department at Abingdon, Oxfordshire, under the control of Stuart Turner, which built specially prepared Minis (mostly based on Cooper and Cooper S versions) to compete in international rallies and other motorsport. This department played a key role in ensuring the Mini 's huge success in motorsport throughout the 1960s, in particular, winning the Monte Carlo Rally in 1964, 1965 and 1967, the 1000 Lakes Rally in 1965, 1966 and 1967, and dominating all of the first 9 positions in the 1966 Gallaher 500 at Bathurst.
The car also won the 1961, 1962, 1969, 1978 and 1979 British Saloon Car Championship season, as well as the British Rally Championship in 1962, 1963 and 1970, the European Rally Championship in 1965 and 1966, and won the Finnish Rally Championship in 1965 and 1966. Minis also won the 1965 Lowood 4 Hour endurance race, and the final Finnish Grand Prix in 1963. The Cooper S also had some success in the European Touring Car Championship, winning in 1964 and 1968, the Guia Race of Macau (a 1 - 2 - 3 finish in 1965, a 1 -- 2 finish in 1970 and a win in 1972), and the Australian Touring Car Championship, winning its class in 1962, 1963, 1964, 1966, 1967 and 1968. A further title was the 1971 Sun - 7 Chesterfield Series. The Mini also enjoyed class wins at the 1963 Armstrong 500, repeating this feat every year until 1969, and having class wins at the 1964, 1965 and 1971 Sandown 250, and Six Hour Le Mans in 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970 and 1972, as well as the 1971 Phillip Island 500K. The car also won the Welsh Sports and Saloon Car Championship in 1998. Mini Leyland came 4th place in the under - 2 - litre category in the 1966, 1967 and 1969 Trans - Am seasons, improving to 3rd in 1970.
The Mini Cooper S won the Monte Carlo Rally in 1964, 1965 and 1967. Minis initially placed first, second and third in the 1966 rally as well, but were disqualified after a controversial decision by the judges. The disqualification related to the use of a variable resistance headlamp dimming circuit in place of a dual - filament lamp. Fourth placed Roger Clark 's Ford Cortina was disqualified for the same reason, along with six other cars. The fifth car past the finishing line, a Citroën DS, a model that had won the race previously, was awarded first place -- the DS had similar headlamps, but these were standard production equipment on the car -- in line with the letter of the rules. The driver of the Citroën, Pauli Toivonen, felt that he had n't really "won '' the rally. BMC probably received more publicity from the disqualification than they would have gained from a victory.
In rallycross, the Mini finished on the podium in the first ever race, at Lydden Hill Race Circuit in February 1967, winning races in the FIA European Rallycross Championship in 1974 and 1975. The car competed as late as the 1979 Australian Rallycross Championship.
The Se7ens is the UK 's longest running one make motor racing championship, having been introduced in 1966. As of 2014, classic Minis are still raced, with other one make races in the UK, Europe and Asia, and in classic events such as the Goodwood Members Meeting. In 2012 a Mini broke the land speed record. A Mini was used to set a record at the Chateau Impney Hill Climb.
The Mini has won many awards over the years, including second place in 1999 's ' ' Global ' ' Car of the Century award, behind only the Model T Ford. In the same competition, run by the prestigious Global Automotive Elections Foundation, the Mini was selected "European Car of the Century. '' Grassroots Motorsports awarded Mini with the Editors ' Choice award in 2002. The Mini also received awards for "Car of the Century '' (Autocar magazine 1995) and "Number One Classic Car of All Time '' (Classic & Sports Car magazine 1996).
In the end 5.3 million Minis were sold, making it the most popular British car ever made.
At its peak, the Mini was a strong seller in most of the countries where it was sold, with the United Kingdom inevitably receiving the highest volumes. The 1,000,000 th Mini came off the production line in 1965, with the 2,000,000 th in 1969. The 3,000,000 th Mini came off the production line in 1972, with the 4,000,000 th in 1976.
It dominated the mini-car market until the arrival of the Hillman Imp in 1963. It outsold the Imp. Competition arrived with the more modern and practical Vauxhall Chevette of 1975, but the Mini continued to sell well until its "replacement '' -- the Metro -- arrived in 1980. By this time, the Mini 's design had been overtaken by numerous more modern and practical vehicles.
Although the Metro did not replace the Mini, production figures for the Mini dipped during the 1980s, and interest in the design was not revived until the re-introduction of the Mini Cooper in 1989. This helped sales of the Mini through the 1990s, to the end of production on 4 October 2000.
A total of 1,581,887 Minis were sold in Britain after its launch in 1959. The last new one to be registered was sold in 2004, some four years after the end of production.
The highest price ever paid for a Mini was at a Bonhams auction in 2007, when a works rally - prepared Mini (DJB 93B) sold for £ 100,500 ($196,980).
Between 1960 and 1967, BMC exported approximately 10,000 left - hand drive BMC Minis to the United States. Sales were discontinued when stricter federal safety standards were imposed in 1968 and the arrival of the larger and more profitable Austin America. Mini sales fell in the 1967 calendar year and the US importer was expecting the forthcoming Austin America to find a larger market. The America was also withdrawn in 1972 due to slow sales and the introduction of bumper - height standards.
Today the U.S. Government exempts cars older than 25 years from all import laws, so older Minis can be freely imported. The Canadian government applies a similar rule after 15 years.
Issigonis designed the Mini with an emphasis on active safety. Asked about the crashworthiness of the Mini he said "I make my cars with such good brakes, such good steering, that if people get into a crash it 's their own fault ''. and "I do n't design my cars to have accidents ''.
In July 1965 BMC announced that following "comments by safety experts '' about the Mini 's external doorhandles, these would be modified on new cars so that the gap between the handle and the door panel would be effectively closed.
Nicholas Faith states in his book that Murray Mackay, one of the UK 's leading motor vehicle crash and safety researchers, was critical of the pre-1967 Mini 's passive safety features, including the protruding filler cap, the door latch, and the vulnerability of the passenger space to engine intrusion.
The Mini was withdrawn from the American market because it could not meet the 1968 U.S. safety regulations and emission standards, and although often updated, not sufficiently to comply with U.S. regulations. It continued to be sold in Canada until 1979.
The Mini was modified during its production to improve its safety. In 1974 a prototype Mini experimental safety vehicle was built, the Mini Clubman SRV4. It featured a longer crumple zone, a "pedestrian friendly '' front - end, run - flat tyres, strengthened door sills, extra internal padding and recessed door handles, the latter having been used earlier on Australian - built Minis owing to local laws. Jack Daniels, one of the original Issigonis team, is stated to have been working on further safety improvements for the Mini when he retired in 1977. Several times it was thought that safety regulations would stop Mini production Safety improved in 1996, with the introduction of airbags and side - impact bars. The Mini, challenged by increasingly demanding European safety and pollution standards, was planned by British Aerospace to be taken out of production in 1996, but BMW chose to invest to keep the Mini legal until the launch of a new model.
In January 2007 Which? magazine listed the Mini City in its "Ten worst cars for safety (since 1983) '' list, alongside other economical, lightweight, fuel - efficient cars like the Hyundai Pony 1.2 L, Fiat Panda 900 Super, Suzuki Alto GL, Daihatsu Domino, Citroën AX 11 RE, Yugo 45 and 55, Peugeot 205 GL, and the Citroën 2CV 6.
A UK Department for Transport statistics publication, presenting estimates of the risk of driver injury in two - car injury collisions, based on reported road accident data, estimated that the 1990 -- 2000 Mini was one of two small cars (the other being the Hyundai Atoz), which, with an estimated 84 per cent of drivers likely to be injured, presented the greatest risk of driver injury; the average risk for the small car category was 76 per cent.
Several key events marked the 50th anniversary of the Mini in 2009. On 13 January 2009, The Royal Mail released a limited edition of stamps entitled "British Design Classics '', featuring an original, Egg - Shell Blue, MK1 Mini, registration XAA 274. On 17 May, a world record parade of 1,450 Minis congregated at Crystal Palace as part of a London to Brighton run. The following week, 10,000 Minis and 25,000 people attended an anniversary party at Silverstone Circuit on the border of Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire.
Between 7 -- 10 August 2009 approximately 4000 minis from around the world congregated at Longbridge Birmingham to celebrate the 50th anniversary. On 26 August 2009, smallcarBIGCITY launched in London to provide sightseeing tours of the capital in a fleet of restored Mini Coopers.
|
meaning of idiom set the cat among the pigeons | Throw the cat among the pigeons - wikipedia
Throwing (also putting and setting) the cat among the pigeons is a British idiom used to describe a disturbance caused by an undesirable person from the perspective of a group.
Another use of the term is to "cause an enormous fight or flap, usually by revealing a controversial fact or secret '', or in other words: to do something suddenly or unexpectedly which leaves the people worried or angry.
The phrase originally referred to the disturbance likely to be created by putting a cat inside a dovecote (or dove house). This disturbance is caused by the cat 's tendency to hunt and kill the birds, only made easier by their close proximity.
Whilst being similar to other idioms such as the German - language phrase das fünfte Rad am Wagen (the fifth wheel on the car), in this case there is an element of aggression, and a power differential becomes the key element in the undesirability. The Spanish - language version of the phrase is alborotar a todo el palomar. In Russian, there is a proverb similar in meaning "пустить козла в огород '' (let a goat into the garden).
In colonial India, a popular pastime was to put a wild cat in a pen with pigeons. Bets would be made on how many birds the cat would bring down with one paw - swipe. The period of the British colonisation of India may have introduced this concept, and hence the phrase to the English language.
Cat Among the Pigeons (1959) is the title of a detective - fiction novel by English writer Agatha Christie.
|
where is murtala muhammed airport located in lagos | Murtala Muhammed International airport - wikipedia
Murtala Muhammed International Airport (MMIA) (IATA: LOS, ICAO: DNMM) is an international airport located in Ikeja, Lagos State, Nigeria, and is the major airport serving the entire state. The airport was initially built during World War II and is named after Murtala Muhammed, the 4th military ruler of Nigeria.
The airport at Ikeja near Lagos was built during World War II. West African Airways Corporation was formed in 1947 and had its main base at Ikeja. De Havilland Doves were initially operated on WAACs Nigerian internal routes and then West African services. Larger Douglas Dakotas were added to the Ikeja - based fleet from 1957.
Originally known as Lagos International Airport, it was renamed in the mid 1970s, during construction of the new international terminal, after a former Nigerian military head of state Murtala Muhammed. The international terminal was modelled after Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The new terminal opened officially on 15 March 1979. It is the main base for Nigeria 's largest airline, Arik Air.
Murtala Muhammed International Airport consists of an international and a domestic terminal, located about one kilometre from each other. Both terminals share the same runways. This domestic terminal used to be the old Ikeja Airport. International operations moved to the new international airport when it was ready while domestic operations moved to the Ikeja Airport, which became the domestic airport. The domestic operations were relocated to the old Lagos domestic terminal in 2000 after a fire. A new domestic privately funded terminal known as MMA2 has been constructed and was commissioned on 7 April 2007.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, the international terminal had a reputation of being a dangerous airport. From 1992 through 2000, the US Federal Aviation Administration posted warning signs in all US international airports advising travelers that security conditions at Lagos Airport did not meet ICAO minimum standards. In 1993, the FAA suspended air service between Lagos and the United States. During this period, security at LOS continued to be a serious problem. Travelers arriving in Lagos were harassed both inside and outside of the airport terminal by criminals. Airport staff contributed to its reputation. Immigration officers required bribes before stamping passports, while customs agents demanded payment for nonexistent fees. In addition, several jet airplanes were attacked by criminals who stopped planes taxiing to and from the terminal and robbed their cargo holds.
Following Olusegun Obasanjo 's democratic election in 1999, the security situation at Lagos began to improve. Airport police instituted a "shoot on sight '' policy for anyone found in the secure areas around runways and taxiways, stopping further airplane robberies. Police secured the inside of the terminal and the arrival areas outside. The FAA ended its suspension of direct flights to Nigeria in 2001 in recognition of these security improvements. By 2010, the FAA had granted the airport its highest safety rating.
In 2010, the airport served 6,273,545 passengers.
Recent years have seen substantial improvements at Murtala Muhammed International Airport. Malfunctioning and non-operational infrastructures such as air conditioning and luggage belts have been repaired. The entire airport has been cleaned, and many new restaurants and duty - free stores have opened. Bilateral Air Services Agreements signed between Nigeria and other countries are being revived and new ones signed. These agreements have seen the likes of Emirates, Ocean Air, Delta and China Southern Airlines express interest and receive landing rights to Nigeria 's largest international airport.
^ a: Air Namibia has been granted 5th freedom rights and will service traffic between Windhoek and Accra.
^ 2: Meridiana 's flight from Milan - Malpensa to Lagos continues to Accra, but the initial outbound flight from MXP to Lagos is nonstop. Meridiana does not have local traffic rights on the LOS -- ACC sector.
The airport includes the headquarters of the Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria. It also houses the head office of the Accident Investigation Bureau. The Lagos office of the Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority is located in Aviation House on the grounds of the airport.
Arik Air 's head office is in the Arik Air Aviation Center on the grounds of the airport. Aero Contractors has its head office in the Private Terminal of the Domestic Wing at Murtala Muhammed International Airport.
At one time Nigeria Airways had its head office in Airways House on the airport property. Prior to its disestablishment Afrijet Airlines had its head office in the NAHCO Building on the grounds of the airport.
These data show number of passengers movements into the airport, according to the Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria 's Aviation Sector Summary Reports.
Media related to Murtala Muhammed International Airport at Wikimedia Commons
|
who did lucy in the sky with diamonds | Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds - wikipedia
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' is a song credited to Lennon -- McCartney that appears on the Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. John Lennon started production of the song, and then Paul McCartney contributed to it in a songwriting session. Lennon 's son Julian inspired the song with a nursery school drawing he called "Lucy -- in the sky with diamonds ''. Shortly after the song 's release, speculation arose that the first letter of each of the title nouns intentionally spelled "LSD ''. Lennon consistently denied this, insisting the song 's fantastical imagery was inspired by Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland books, a claim repeatedly confirmed by Paul McCartney.
Most of the song is in simple triple metre (time), but the chorus is in time. The song modulates between musical keys, using the key of A major for verses, B ♭ major for the pre-chorus, and G major for the chorus. It is sung by Lennon over an increasingly complicated underlying arrangement which features a tamboura, played by George Harrison, lead electric guitar put through a Leslie speaker, played by Harrison, and a counter melody on Lowrey organ played by McCartney and taped with a special organ stop sounding "not unlike a celeste ''. Session tapes from the initial 1 March 1967 recording of this song reveal Lennon originally sang the line "Cellophane flowers of yellow and green '' as a broken phrase, but McCartney suggested that he sing it more fluidly to improve the song.
The recording of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' began with rehearsals in Studio 2 at Abbey Road on 28 February 1967. The instrumental backing was finished the following evening. On the first take, track one of the four - track tape contained acoustic guitar and piano, track two McCartney 's Lowrey organ, track three Starr 's drums, and track four a guide vocal by Lennon during the verses. Take eight replaced the guide vocal with Harrison 's tamboura. The four tracks of this take were then mixed together and recorded on the first track of a second four - track tape. On 2 March, Lennon 's double - tracked vocals, accompanied by McCartney on the choruses, were recorded to tracks two and three. McCartney 's bass and Harrison 's lead guitar occupied track four. Eleven mono mixes of the song were made at the 2 March session, but they were rejected in favour of the final mono mix created on 3 March. A stereo mix was made on 7 April.
Outtakes from the recording sessions have been officially released. The Beatles ' Anthology 2, released in 1996, contained a composite remix, with ingredients from takes six, seven, and eight, while the first take of the song was featured on the two - disc and six - disc versions of the 50th - anniversary edition of Sgt. Pepper in 2017. The six - disc collection also included take five and the last of the eleven mono mixes made on 2 March 1967.
Lennon 's inspiration for the song came when his son, Julian, showed him a nursery school drawing he called "Lucy -- in the Sky with Diamonds '', depicting his classmate Lucy O'Donnell (later Lucy Vodden). Julian Lennon said, "I do n't know why I called it that or why it stood out from all my other drawings, but I obviously had an affection for Lucy at that age. I used to show Dad everything I 'd built or painted at school, and this one sparked off the idea... ''
According to both Lennon and Ringo Starr, who witnessed the moment, Julian first uttered the song 's title upon returning home from nursery school. Lennon later recalled of the painting and the phrase, "I thought that (it was) beautiful. I immediately wrote a song about it. ''
Rumours of the connection between the title of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '' and the initialism "LSD '' began circulating shortly after the release of the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band LP in June 1967. Paul McCartney gave two interviews that same month admitting to having taken the drug. Lennon later said he was surprised at the idea the song title was a hidden reference to LSD, countering the song "was n't about that at all '', and it "was purely unconscious that it came out to be LSD. Until someone pointed it out, I never even thought of it. I mean, who would ever bother to look at initials of a title?... It 's not an acid song. ''
Paul McCartney confirmed Lennon 's claim on several occasions, the earliest in 1968:
When you write a song and you mean it one way, and someone comes up and says something about it that you did n't think of -- you ca n't deny it. Like "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds, '' people came up and said, cunningly, "Right, I get it. L-S-D, '' and it was when (news) papers were talking about LSD, but we never thought about it.
McCartney further rebuffed the claims in a 1997 BBC Radio interview with Michael Parkinson by saying, "It was n't about LSD. Because otherwise it would have been called ' LITSWD. ' Because the initials are n't ' LSD. ' Lucy in the sky with diamonds is more like that. ''
In a 2004 interview with Uncut magazine, McCartney confirmed it was "pretty obvious '' drugs did influence some of the group 's compositions at that time, including "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', though he tempered this analysis by adding, "(I) t 's easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles ' music. ''
In 2017, the first take of the song was issued leading up to the release of the 50th anniversary special edition of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band; the story about Julian 's painting was confirmed as the inspiration of the song, as opposed to the LSD reference.
According to both Lennon and McCartney, the lyrics were largely derived from the literary style of Alice In Wonderland. Lennon had read and admired the works of Lewis Carroll, and the title of Julian 's drawing reminded him of the "Which Dreamed it? '' chapter of Through the Looking Glass in which Alice floats in a "boat beneath a sunny sky '':
It was Alice in the boat. She is buying an egg and it turns into Humpty - Dumpty. The woman serving in the shop turns into a sheep and the next minute they are rowing in a rowing boat somewhere and I was visualizing that.
McCartney remembered of the song 's composition, "We did the whole thing like an Alice In Wonderland idea, being in a boat on the river... Every so often it broke off and you saw Lucy in the sky with diamonds all over the sky. This Lucy was God, the Big Figure, the White Rabbit. '' He later recalled helping Lennon finish the song at Lennon 's Kenwood home, specifically claiming he contributed the "newspaper taxis '' and "cellophane flowers '' lyrics; Lennon 's 1968 interview with Rolling Stone magazine confirmed McCartney 's contribution.
Lennon 's original handwritten lyrics sold at auction in 2011 for $230,000.
Rolling Stone magazine described the song as "Lennon 's lavish daydream '' and music critic Richie Unterberger said "' Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds ' was one of the best songs on the Beatles ' famous Sgt. Pepper album, and one of the classic songs of psychedelia as a whole. There are few other songs that so successfully evoke a dream world, in both the sonic textures and words. '' In a review for the BBC, Chris Jones described the track as "nursery rhyme surrealism '' that contributed to Sgt. Pepper 's "revolutionary... sonic carpet that enveloped the ears and sent the listener spinning into other realms. '' Hilary Saunders of Paste called the song "a perfectly indulgent introduction to psych - rock ''.
In later interviews, Lennon expressed disappointment with the Beatles ' arrangement of the recording, complaining inadequate time was taken to fully develop his initial idea for the song. He also said he had not sung it very well. "I was so nervous I could n't sing, '' he told journalist Ray Connolly, "but I like the lyrics. ''
The song was banned from the BBC for references to drugs in 1967.
According to authors Kevin Ryan and Brian Kehew, and John Winn:
Lennon mentioned "Lucy in the Sky '' in the Beatles ' song "I Am the Walrus ''.
In November 1967 John Fred and his Playboy Band released a parody / tribute song called "Judy in Disguise (With Glasses) '' which topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for two weeks and reached the number one spot in a number of other countries around the world.
Pink Floyd namechecks "Lucy in the sky '' on "Let There Be More Light '', the opening song on A Saucerful of Secrets (1968).
The name of the German band Tangerine Dream was inspired by the line "tangerine trees and marmalade skies ''.
A 3.2 - million - year - old, 40 % complete fossil skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 was named "Lucy '' because the Beatles song was being played loudly and repeatedly on a tape recorder in the camp. The phrase "Lucy in the sky '' became "Lucy in disguise '' to the anthropologists, because they initially did not understand the impact of their discovery.
The song 's title serves as the namesake of the fictional character Lucy Heartfilia from the Fairy Tail manga and anime series created by Hiro Mashima.
In 1974, Elton John released a cover version as a single. Recorded at the Caribou Ranch, it featured backing vocals and guitar by John Lennon under the pseudonym Dr. Winston O'Boogie (Winston being Lennon 's middle name). The single topped the US Billboard pop charts for two weeks in January 1975 as well as the Canadian RPM national singles chart for four weeks spanning January and February, eventually. The B - side of the single was also a John Lennon composition, "One Day (At a Time) '', from Lennon 's 1973 album Mind Games. As with the A-side, Lennon appears on the B - side, playing guitar.
In the US it was certified Gold on 29 January 1975 by the RIAA. During their collaboration, Elton John appeared on John Lennon 's song "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night ''. Lennon promised to appear live with Elton at Madison Square Garden if "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night '' became a # 1 single. It did, and on Thanksgiving Night, 28 November 1974, Lennon kept his promise. They performed "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', "Whatever Gets You thru the Night '', and "I Saw Her Standing There ''.
In introducing "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', Elton John said he believed it to be "one of the best songs ever written. '' The Lennon - sung "I Saw Her Standing There '' (credited to the Elton John Band featuring John Lennon) was originally released in 1975 on the B - side of Elton John 's "Philadelphia Freedom '' single. In 1981, all three live songs were issued on 28th November 1974, an Elton John EP. In 1990, the three songs were made available on the Lennon box set. In 1996, they were also included on the remastered edition of Elton John 's Here and There album. Elton John once stated that "' Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds ' is a song that I never do in a set at a concert simply because it reminds me too much of John Lennon. This is the same with ' Empty Garden '. '' It was a part of his standard repertoire from 1974 until 1976, and sporadically until 1998. It also appeared in the 1976 musical documentary All This and World War II.
A cover version by the Flaming Lips was included on their album With a Little Help from My Fwends, released on Warner Bros. The song, featuring vocals from Miley Cyrus and Moby, was released as official single on 18 May 2014. All proceeds from record sales go to the Bella Foundation, an organisation in Oklahoma City that helps provide veterinary care to needy pet owners.
|
where is the army navy game played in philadelphia | Army -- Navy game - wikipedia
The Army -- Navy Game is an American college football rivalry game between the Army Black Knights of the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York, and the Navy Midshipmen of the United States Naval Academy (USNA) at Annapolis, Maryland. The Black Knights (alternatively, the "Cadets '') and Midshipmen each represent their service 's oldest officer commissioning sources. As such, the game has come to embody the spirit of the interservice rivalry of the United States Armed Forces. The game marks the end of the college football regular season and the third and final game of the season 's Commander - in - Chief 's Trophy series, which also includes the Air Force Falcons of the United States Air Force Academy (USAFA) near Colorado Springs, Colorado.
The Army -- Navy game is one of the most traditional and enduring rivalries in college football. It has been frequently attended by sitting U.S. presidents. The game has been nationally televised each year since 1945 on either ABC, CBS or NBC. CBS has televised the game since 1996 and has the rights to the broadcast through 2028. Instant replay made its American debut in the 1963 Army -- Navy game. Since 2009, the game has been held the Saturday following FBS conference championship weekend.
The game has been held in multiple locations, but outside the 1926 game in Chicago and 1983 game in Pasadena, California, it has been played in the Northeast megalopolis, most frequently in Philadelphia, followed by the New York area and the Baltimore -- Washington area. The series has been marked by several periods of domination by one team or the other, with Navy 's 14 - game winning streak from 2002 through 2015 being the longest for either side. Through the 2017 meeting, Navy leads the series 60 -- 51 -- 7.
Army and Navy first met on the field on November 29, 1890. They played 30 times between that date and November 26, 1927. The series has been renewed annually since 1930. The game has been held at several locations throughout its history, including Baltimore and New York City, but has most frequently been played in Philadelphia, roughly equidistant from the two academies. Historically played on the Saturday after Thanksgiving (a date on which most other major college football teams end their regular seasons), the game is now played on the second Saturday in December and is traditionally the last game of the season for both teams and the last regular - season game played in Division I FBS football. With the permanent expansion of the regular season to 12 games starting in 2006, several conference championship games joined the Army -- Navy Game on its then - current date of the first weekend of December. In 2009, the game was moved from the first Saturday in December to the second Saturday; this means that it no longer conflicts with conference championship games and once again is the last non-bowl contest in college football.
This game has inter-service "bragging rights '' at stake. For much of the first half of the 20th century, both Army and Navy were often national powers, and the game occasionally had national championship implications. However, as the level of play in college football improved nationally, and became fueled by prospects of playing in the National Football League (NFL), the high academic entrance requirements, height and weight limits, and the five - year military commitment required has reduced the overall competitiveness of both academies. Since 1963, only the 1996, 2010, 2016 and 2017 games have seen both teams enter with winning records. Nonetheless, the game is considered a college football institution. It has aired nationally on radio since 1930, and has been nationally televised every year since 1945. The tradition associated with the game assures that it remains nationally broadcast to this day.
Arguably, one of the reasons this game has maintained its appeal is that the players are playing solely for the love of the game. Most players are required to fulfill a post-graduation active duty military commitment and, by the time this ends, many players are deemed too old to consider playing competitively again. Nevertheless, some participants in the Army -- Navy Game have gone on to professional football careers. Quarterback Roger Staubach (Navy, 1965) went on to a Hall of Fame career with the Dallas Cowboys that included starting at quarterback in two Super Bowl victories including being named the Most Valuable Player of Super Bowl VI. Wide receiver and return specialist Phil McConkey (Navy, 1979) was a popular player on the New York Giants squad that won Super Bowl XXI. Running back Napoleon McCallum (Navy, 1985) was able to complete his commitment to the Navy and play for the then - Los Angeles Raiders in 1986. After satisfying his Navy commitment, he joined the Raiders full - time. Running back Kyle Eckel (Navy, 2005) was a two - time Army - Navy Game MVP and played in the Super Bowl twice during a five year career, once with the team who originally signed him, the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLII, and winning the other with the New Orleans Saints in Super Bowl XLIV.
The game is especially emotional for the seniors, called "first classmen '' by both academies, since it is typically the last competitive regular season football game they will ever play (though they sometimes play in a subsequent bowl game). During wartime the game is even more emotional, as some seniors may face combat and perhaps die after they graduate. Recognition of those who share the uniform and are deployed overseas is an important part of the day.
At the end of the game, both teams ' almae matres are played and sung. The winning team stands alongside the losing team and faces the losing academy 's students; then the losing team accompanies the winning team, facing their students. This is done in a show of mutual respect and solidarity. Since the winning team 's alma mater is always played last, the phrase "to sing second '' has become synonymous with winning the rivalry game.
The rivalry between Annapolis and West Point, while friendly, is intense. The cadets live and breathe the phrase "Beat Navy! '' while for midshipmen the opposite phrase, "Beat Army! '' is ingrained. They have become a symbol of competitiveness, not just in the Army -- Navy Game, but in the service of their country, and are often used at the close of (informal) letters by graduates of both academies. A long - standing tradition at the Army - Navy football game is to conduct a formal "prisoner exchange '' as part of the pre-game activities. The prisoners are the cadets and midshipmen currently spending the semester studying at the sister academy. After the exchange, students have a brief reprieve to enjoy the game with their comrades.
The game is the last of three contests in the annual Commander - in - Chief 's Trophy series, awarded to each season 's winner of the triangular series between Army, Navy, and Air Force since 1972. In years when Navy and Army have each beaten Air Force before the Army -- Navy Game (1972, 1977, 1978, 1996, 2005, 2012 and 2017) the Army - Navy game has also determined whether Army or Navy would win this trophy. In years when Air Force has split its two games, the Army - Navy game determines whether the trophy is shared or won outright by the winner of the game.
The rivalries Army and Navy have with Air Force are much less intense than the Army -- Navy rivalry, primarily due to the relative youth of the USAFA, established in 1954, and the physical distance between the USAFA and the other two schools. The Army -- Air Force and Navy -- Air Force games are usually played at the academies ' regular home fields, although on occasion they have been held at a neutral field.
Navy won 14 Army - Navy games in a row from 2002 to 2015, the longest winning streak in the history of the series. On December 10, 2016, Army snapped its 14 - game losing streak against Navy with a 21 -- 17 victory.
Philadelphia has been the traditional home of the Army - Navy game. Eighty - seven of 118 games have been contested in Philadelphia including every game from 1932 - 1982 excepting three that were relocated due to World War II travel restrictions. Philadelphia is typically selected as the site due to the historic nature of the city and the fact that it is approximately halfway between West Point and Annapolis. For decades, the Pennsylvania Railroad and its successors offered game - day service to all Army -- Navy games in Philadelphia using a sprawling temporary station constructed each year near the South Philadelphia Sports Complex on the railroad 's Greenwich freight yard. The service, with 40 - odd trains serving as many as 30,000 attendees, was the single largest concentrated passenger rail movement in the country.
All games contested in Philadelphia through 1935 were played at Franklin Field, the home field of the University of Pennsylvania. From 1936 through 1979, all games contested in Philadelphia were held in Municipal Stadium, renamed John F. Kennedy Stadium in 1964. From 1980 - 2001, all games contested in Philadelphia were hosted by Veterans Stadium. Since 2003, all games contested in Philadelphia have been played in Lincoln Financial Field.
Only six games have ever been held on the campus of either academy, primarily because neither team plays at an on - campus stadium large enough to accommodate the large crowds that attend the game. Army 's Michie Stadium seats only 38,000, while Navy 's Navy -- Marine Corps Memorial Stadium seats only 34,000. The rivalry 's first four games were hosted on the parade grounds of the respective academies and two games were held on campus due to World War II travel restrictions (1942 at Navy 's old Thompson Stadium and 1943 at Michie Stadium).
Outside of Philadelphia, the New York area has been the most frequent Army - Navy site. The Polo Grounds holds the record for most games hosted outside of Philadelphia with nine, hosting all New York City games through 1927. Yankee Stadium hosted the game in 1930 and 1931. New Jersey has hosted five games; 1905 at Osborne Field at Princeton University and four games at Giants Stadium from 1989 - 2002.
Maryland has hosted a number of games throughout the history of the series as well. In Baltimore, Municipal Stadium hosted the 1924 and 1944 games and M&T Bank Stadium has hosted four games since 2000. In Landover, FedExField hosted the game in 2011.
The Rose Bowl is the only site west of the Mississippi River to host the Army -- Navy game; it did so in 1983. The city of Pasadena, California paid for the travel expenses of all the students and supporters of both academies -- 9,437 in all. The game was held at the Rose Bowl that year because there are a large number of military installations and servicemen and women, along with many retired military personnel, on the West Coast. The game has been held one other time in a non-East Coast venue, at Chicago 's Soldier Field, which played host to the 1926 game.
All games through 2020 will be held at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey will host the 2021 game. The game will then return to Lincoln Financial Field for 2022. Games beyond 2022 have yet to be awarded.
Navy Midshipman (and later Admiral) Joseph Mason Reeves wore what is widely regarded as the first football helmet in the 1893 Army -- Navy Game. He had been advised by a Navy doctor that another kick to his head would result in intellectual disability or even death, so he commissioned an Annapolis shoemaker to make him a helmet out of leather.
On November 27, 1926, the Army -- Navy Game was held in Chicago for the National Dedication of Soldier Field as a monument to American servicemen who had fought in World War I. Navy came to the game undefeated, while West Point had only lost to Notre Dame, so the game would decide the National Championship. Played before a crowd of over 100,000, the teams fought to a 21 -- 21 tie, but Navy was awarded the national championship.
In both the 1944 and 1945 contests, Army and Navy entered the game ranked # 1 and # 2 respectively. The 1945 game was labeled the "game of the century '' before it was played. Army defeated a 7 -- 0 -- 1 Navy team 32 -- 13. Navy 's lone tie was against Notre Dame.
In 1963, shortly after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy urged the academies to play after there had been talk of cancellation. Originally scheduled for November 30, 1963, the game was played on December 7, 1963 also coinciding with the 22nd anniversary of Pearl Harbor Day. In front of a crowd of 102,000 people in Philadelphia 's Municipal Stadium, later renamed John F. Kennedy Stadium, junior (second class Midshipman) quarterback Roger Staubach led number two ranked Navy to victory which clinched a Cotton Bowl national championship matchup with Texas played on January 1, 1964. Army was led by junior (second class Cadet) quarterback Rollie Stichweh. Stichweh led off the game with a touchdown drive that featured the first use of instant replayon television. Army nearly won the game after another touchdown and two point conversion, Stichweh recovered the onside kick and drove the ball to the Navy 2 yard line. On 4th down and no timeouts, crowd noise prevented Stichweh from calling a play and time expired with the 21 -- 15 final score. Staubach won the Heisman Trophy that year and was bumped off the scheduled cover of Life magazine due to the coverage of the assassination. Stichweh and Staubach would meet again in 1964 as First Class where Stichweh 's Army would defeat Staubach 's Navy. Staubach went on to serve in the Navy and afterward became a Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterback with the Dallas Cowboys. Stichweh served five years in Vietnam with the 173rd Airborne Brigade. Stichweh was inducted into the Army Sports Hall of Fame in 2012.
On December 10, 2016, Army beat Navy 21 -- 17, snapping Navy 's 14 - year winning streak.
|
who owns the caravan park in home and away | Summer Bay - wikipedia
Summer Bay is the fictional coastal town featured in the Australian soap opera, Home and Away. Palm Beach, the most Northern beach of Sydney, is used for the show 's exterior scenes in order to depict the Bay. Between 2010 and 2014, the Lane Cove River Tourist Park in Macquarie Park was used as the location for filming of scenes involving the Summer Bay Caravan Park.
As with many real life Australian beaches Summer Bay has its own Surf and Lifesaving Centre (SLSC). It was first seen on screen in 1989. Over the years as well as serving its purpose as a centre for sea and land rescues it has been a place for the young people of the Bay to relax and socialise. Town meetings are often held in the Surf Club. It has also been used as a polling station and a private party / formal venue and has housed various food outlets, most notably the ill - fated Bonza Burger in 1998. Several characters have been trained as lifeguards over the years and surf competitions take place occasionally. The Club has undergone renovations in 1992, 1996, 2004 and 2010, respectively.
Salt (previously Angelo 's) is a restaurant located upstairs in the renovated SLSC. It replaces Noah 's Bar as the only licensed premises in Summer Bay. It was initially a business venture by Angelo Rosetta after he was discharged from the Police force and it was always his dream to own his own restaurant after growing up with his parents running a restaurant. Indi Walker worked there, but was fired by Angelo after she sold alcohol to Ruby Buckton without his permission. Darryl Braxton buys into the business and helps turn it into a successful pizza restaurant. Angelo and Darryl employ Xavier Austin and Casey Braxton to deliver pizza. Darryl eventually buys Angelo out after Angelo left the Bay in 2011. Heath briefly works there in 2012, and so does Liam Murphy. Indi returned working there briefly in 2012, but left. Xavier left the job in 2012, Kyle started working there in late 2012. Casey and Heath left their jobs in early 2013, to start working at the Body & Soul gym. Liam was then fired by Brax for stealing money at the restaurant. Tamara Kingsley worked there in 2013, but left in 2014 to return home to her family. Matt works there as a pizza deliverer in 2014. Josh Barrett works there as a pizza deliverer in 2014, but left in 2016 to go to university. Martin Ashford works there in late 2014. Brax left the job in 2015, while on the run. Then, Maddy Osborne started working there in mid 2015. In 2016, Ash left the job to start his own company and Kyle left the job after being sent to jail. Matt left the job in 2016 and Maddy leaves the bay on the same year. After Ricky leaves the Bay, Phoebe is placed in charge and Brody Morgan becomes the new chef. He later buys the restaurant and renames it Salt. Brody 's brother Mason Morgan works there part - time, as does Jeannie Woods and Lena Ascot. Phoebe leaves to go on tour around the United States.
Current employees
Gelato is a small kiosk selling ice cream, juices and smoothies located in the main area downstairs in the new SLSC, it replaces Noah 's Juice Bar as the main hang out area for the local teenagers of Summer Bay. In this area of the Surf Club there is also a small workout area tucked in the corner replacing Summer Bay Super Bods which has been in financial troubles recently and is no longer visible as a separate area in the Surf Club. In this area of the Surf Club there is also a boutique selling magazines and surf, skateboard and fashion items and a pool table in the centre of the area. Gelato is owned and run by Alf Stewart. Alf and John worked there since the beginning. Dallas Phillips works there in 2011, but a year later she is fired by John when she spilt gelato. VJ Patterson is later hired to work there.
Current employees
Summer Bay Body & Soul is a gym located downstairs in the Surf Club. It is initially owned by Romeo Smith and Indigo Walker. Shortly after it opened in March 2013, Romeo departed the Bay, leaving Indi to run the business alone. She left the business to Casey and Heath after she departed in November 2013. Spencer Harrington worked as an employee in 2013, and left to return home in 2015. Andy started to work there in early 2014, so he could pay for his brother Josh Barrett 's school bills. Heath left in 2014 to move to the city with his family. Casey dies in late 2014 and Brax bought the gym after his death. Maddy Osborne works there in mid 2014, but was fired by Brax for stealing the business ' money for buying new clothes and shoes. Billie Ashford works there in early 2015, but left to recover her burns. But she returned to the job in 2016. After Casey 's death in 2014, his brother Darryl Braxton bought the gym in his memory. In 2016, Billie was raped by an Irene Roberts long lost son, Mick Jennings during the end of the night shift. Kyle Braxton sells the gym. Andy leaves to go on the run, and left Billie to run the business alone, until she goes to maternity leave.
Current employees
The third and newest incarnation of the Diner (previously known as the Bayside and Beachside Diner respectively), currently owned by Leah Patterson - Baker and Irene Roberts.
The original diner was the Bayside Diner run by Bobby Simpson and Ailsa Stewart and later Ailsa 's husband Alf. For a while this diner included a Beauty Salon set up in a back room, this was run by Marilyn Fisher. This Diner was given a makeover in 1998 when it was revealed a Bonza Burger outlet was being set up in Summer Bay.
In 2000, the kitchen of the Bayside was badly damaged by fire, due to Colleen Smart mistakenly pouring water onto the flames of a chip - pan fire, making it worse and instead of repairing the building Alf and Ailsa decided to relocate the diner to an existing building in front of the beach, subsequently the diner became known as The Beachside Diner. Prior to the original diner fire Alf and Ailsa 's home had been destroyed by a landslide and fire, as the new diner had a flat attached upstairs this is where Alf and Ailsa lived with their son Duncan, and Mitch McColl. Alf continued to live here following Ailsa 's death. Alf sold his share of the business to Irene Roberts in 2004 but continued to live in the flat until 2006, when he moved back into Summer Bay House and the flat became home to many other Summer Bay residents for the next few years.
In 2008, the structure of The Beachside Diner became unsafe as result of aftershocks from the 1996 earthquake and the building was condemned. The Diner was relocated to its current location as The Pier Diner; originally this Diner was located in a room to the left of the Kitchen which was central to the building with a room to the right being used as a youth centre known as The Den, this was started by Leah as a tribute to her late husband Dan. As The Den struggled to survive financially Leah made a decision to close The Den with The Pier Diner then moving to the location of The Den. The room used for the original Pier Diner was then used only as an additional store room. Belle Taylor and Aden Jefferies previously worked at the Diner before Belle 's death and Aden 's departure. Roman Harris, who owned a third of the business also left the Bay to serve a prison sentence.
On Australia Day 2010 a riot took place outside the Diner, which resulted in the Diner being badly damaged by fire. The Diner was given a major makeover inside with there now being two sets of sliding glass doors leading onto a terraced area overlooking the pier and one set of sliding glass doors on the opposite wall reflecting the real life location of the Pier Diner. The kitchen is now located to the left of the building and toilets on the right with the dining area central to the building, scenes can be filmed facing all walls as it is a 4 - walled set unlike the previous set.
In 2013, Leah decided to back scale her work as she begin employment at Summer Bay High School, she however does casual shifts sometimes and continues to own her half of the diner. Chris Harrington (Johnny Ruffo) unintentionally poisons some diners, as well as Alf and Leah, when he uses Death cap mushrooms in a risotto. Irene considers closing the diner permanently when there are no customers. But the Diner reopens after Phoebe Nicholson announced it. In 2015, Olivia Fraser Richards worked there after she damaged Leah 's car. Skye Peters worked there briefly before leaving the Bay.
Current employees
The local co-ed high school for students aged 12 -- 18. It is also used as a shelter in extreme weather conditions such as cyclones and has been the scene of a hostage situation. During Donald Fisher 's reign as principal, Adult Evening classes were often held. The school was rebuilt in 1996 following a major earthquake that occurred in Summer Bay that year. In 2011, a storm occurred and did a great deal of damage, rendering the building unsafe. The school was rebuilt at the start of the 2012 school year. Most of the younger characters attend the school, and many of the adult characters have worked there including:
The House was originally owned by Alf Stewart, who lived there with his wife Martha and daughter, Roo. In 1985, Martha drowned in a boating accident and Alf and Roo remained in the house until 1988 when Alf sold the property and the Caravan park that came with it to Tom and Pippa Fletcher who had moved from the city with their foster children. The house became a foster home for various kids over the years. Tom died in 1990 and Pippa married Michael Ross a year later and he moved in. Michael drowned in a flood in 1996 and Pippa was widowed again.
Two years later Pippa decided to move with new partner, Ian Routledge to The Carrington Ranges and let Travis and Rebecca Nash take over the tenancy on the house and the care of the remaining foster children who opted to stay behind, Sam Marshall, Tiegan Brook and Justine Welles.
Sally Fletcher, Pippa 's adoptive daughter felt like her home was not hers anymore and moved in with Jesse McGregor and Vinnie Patterson at Travis ' house. Within a year, Travis and Rebecca moved to Canada, Sam had moved in with Donald Fisher and Tiegan had joined Pippa in the Carrington Ranges and the house was now occupied by Travis ' brother, Joel and his wife Natalie and their children Tom and Gypsy. During the Nashes tenure they took in Peta Janossi and Rachel McGregor. They eventually bought the house and caravan park from Pippa along with Alf Stewart and Colleen Smart.
In 2000, The family had ultimately split up and Joel sold the house. The Sutherland Family had purchased it and lived there for four years. The family merged with the Hunters when Rhys Sutherland married local widow Beth Hunter. The marriage did n't last as Rhys went back to his ex-wife Shelley. Beth, not feeling comfortable in Rhys ' home, elected to house swap with Flynn Saunders and Sally Fletcher, selling the adjoining Caravan Park as a separate entity. In 2005, It was revealed Pippa had purchased the Caravan Park from Tasha Andrews for Sally and Flynn and they took in local teenagers, Ric Dalby and Cassie Turner.
In 2006, Belle Taylor arrived in the Bay and secretly camped at the house with Ric, she moved out after she was caught. After Flynn 's death in 2006, Alf moved back in. Sally left the Bay in April 2008 and let her long - lost twin brother, Miles Copeland take over the running of the house and caravan park. Ric 's girlfriend, Matilda Hunter, who had lived there previously with her family also moved back in. Jai Fernandez, an orphaned youth Miles had met in Phuket came to live with them.
After Ric and Matilda moved to Perth together, Kirsty Sutherland, Matilda 's former stepsister and her son moved into the house. Nicole Franklin, moved in with Miles after her father Roman Harris left Summer Bay in June 2009. In September 2009 Jai 's friend from when he lived in a foster home Romeo Smith came to stay and live in the Bay. In October 2009 Jai had left Summer Bay with Annie Campbell to go to Japan on a student exchange programme. A week after Jai had left Kirsty and Ollie left Summer Bay with her mother Shelly after she had a miscarriage with her and Miles ' baby. The recurring character of Rabbit, who was Miles Copeland 's dead daughter briefly stayed in the house in Early 2010, this went unnoticed by the others as Miles could only see her. Marilyn Chambers moved in when she returned to the Bay. Alf 's daughter Roo (Georgie Parker) returned to Summer Bay in October 2010 moving into the house, after twenty years in New York City. Romeo moved out after marrying Indigo Walker and Miles left to join Sally in Phuket in late 2011. Roo and her husband foster Spencer Harrington (Andrew Morley) and Maddy Osborne (Kassandra Clementi). Sally and Pippa briefly stayed in the house in 2013, as did Josh Barrett (Jackson Gallagher). Harvey Ryan moved out of the house after separating from Roo in 2014, Spencer returned to the house after his break - up with Sasha Bezmel. Then left again in May 2014. Marilyn Chambers moved out in October 2014 after marrying John Palmer. Leah, Zac, VJ, Oscar and Evelyn move into the house after Leah 's house was burnt down by Hunter King. Roo moves out of the house to live with her new boyfriend, James Edmunds (Myles Pollard). The following year, Maddy also moves out and Oscar dies. Evie moves out in 2016 to move back into the Farmhouse, and Billie Ashford moves in. Billie gives birth to a daughter Luc Patterson and dies days later. In April 2017, Luc moves out after her uncle Martin Ashford won custody over her. In October, Alf 's grandson Ryder Jackson arrives in Summer Bay and moves in.
Current residents
Past residents:
Scenes for the caravan park have been shot at the Jackaroo Ranch in Kenthurst since the show began airing in 1988. The caravan park and house were severely damaged during a bush fire in 2002, causing production to move. Other filming locations for the caravan park included the Lane Cove River Tourist Park and Waratah Park Earth Sanctuary in Duffys Forest. The caravan park set moved back to the Jackaroo Ranch following a rebuild, and returned to screens in 2015. Sarah Thomas of The Sun - Herald wrote that the caravan park has been "a pillar of the community since Home & Away 's beginnings in 1988. '' Thomas also described the park as "a fictional budget - friendly holiday spot ''.
The Park, like the house, was owned by Alf. Following the death of his wife Martha, Alf let the condition of the park slide and eventually sold it to Tom and Pippa Fletcher who inherited full - time tenants Floss and Neville McPhee who lived in their circus caravan. Bobby Simpson lived in a caravan until moving into the house. Lance Smart also rented a van until he purchased a mobile home further up the park following a lottery win and was joined by Martin Dibble and they lived there for two years. They were joined by Marilyn Chambers for a while, but following their departures, she moved out. The home was rarely seen on screen for the next few years and when it was briefly shown in 1995 when Marilyn returned the steps had been removed. Lance 's mother Colleen returned in 1997 in order to clean out the home for sale but stayed for the next fifteen years. In 2013, Casey Braxton stayed for a while after his break - up with his girlfriend, Tamara Kingsley. In 2014, Denny Miller stayed since she arrived to the Bay, but left in July and moved to the Farmhouse with her family. Matt later moved to the Caravan Park after Hunter King burnt Leah 's house down. In October 2015, Hunter moved in the Caravan Park after he found out his mother 's affair with Matt, but in February 2016, Hunter left the Caravan Park after he confess that he burnt Leah 's house, but returned. In February 2016, Maddy moves in with her new boyfriend, Matt. During the same month, Matt and Maddy move out of the Caravan Park. During episodes broadcast on 5 May 2016, the Caravan Park was the setting for an explosion that killed Oscar MacGuire (Jake Speer) and Hannah Wilson (Cassie Horwath), and injured many other characters.
Current residents
Past residents:
12 James Street (originally 26 Bailey Street, later 6 James Street) was originally owned by Travis Nash, who grew up in the house with his brother Joel, and inherited it after their father, Jack 's death. The house first seen on screen in 1995. Leah Patterson - Baker moved into the house shortly after arriving in the Bay. In August 2015, it was intentionally burnt down by Hunter King (Scott Lee).
Past residents:
Past residents:
Past residents:
This property located on Beach Road was previously owned by Ernie Jacobs, who rented it to Marilyn Chambers, Adam Cameron and Matt Wilson. Marilyn bought the property outright in 1991 and sold it to Greg and Bobby, following her departure. After Bobby 's death, Greg put the house up for sale and Irene Roberts purchased it at auction in 1994 and remains living there. Originally the house had three bedrooms but a fourth was added. Skye Peters moved in temporarily while her foster father John Palmer left to care for his wife overseas. Skye moved out after John returned home. Hunter moves in during 2017.
Past residents:
The Farmhouse address is 17 Ferry Road. The farm is situated within driving distance of the Bay and a local bus service is frequently used. The property was first owned by Bruce Campbell (Chris Haywood), who lives there with his grandchildren Annie Campbell (Charlotte Best) and Geoff Campbell (Lincoln Lewis). Geoff and Annie eventually move to the Beach House and leave Bruce on his own until his death. Two years later, Martha MacKenzie (Jodi Gordon) buys the property. The Walker family purchase the farm in 2010. After they depart in 2013, Zac MacGuire (Charlie Clausen), Hannah Wilson (Cassie Howarth) and their niece and nephew, Evelyn (Philippa Northeast) and Oscar MacGuire (Jake Speer) move in. Denny Miller (Jessica Grace Smith) moves in during the following year. Zac moves out when his relationship with Hannah becomes strained. In 2015, Evelyn and Oscar moved out and Phoebe Nicholson and Katarina Chapman moved in. Phoebe 's boyfriend, Martin Ashford, briefly moves in after Denny leaves. His sister, Billie Ashford later moves in, while Hannah dies from a head injury sustained during the explosion at the Caravan Park. Justin Morgan briefly moves in after his siblings kick him out of their house. Evie moves back in after finding Summer Bay house too crowded, while Billie moves out to live with her fiancé VJ Patterson and his family. After the house is sold, Phoebe moves in with her fiancé Justin Morgan. Evelyn leaves to live and work in Vietnam. The Astoni family, consisting of Ben Astoni (Rohan Nichol), his wife Maggie (Kestie Morassi), and their two daughters, Ziggy (Sophie Dillman) and Coco (Anna Cocquerel), move into the house in 2017.
Past residents:
This property is located above the Pier Diner in Summer Bay. It was first seen in August 2015 when Charlotte King (Erika Heynatz) and her son Hunter (Scott Lee) moved in. Hunter moves out a couple of months later, while Charlotte leaves the flat after the police come to arrest her for murder. The next occupants are Roo Stewart (Georgie Parker), Maddy Osborne (Kassandra Clementi) and Matt Page (Alec Snow). In May 2016, Maddy departs the Bay. Matt 's sister Eloise "Elly '' Page runs away from her aunt and Roo and Matt allow her to live with them. Matt and Elly move to Vietnam with Evelyn MacGuire. Roo moves back to the Summer bay house. Katarina Chapman, Martin Ashford, Patrick Stanwood and Luc Patterson moves in after Ash win temporary custody of Luc. Patrick leaves to seek help for his PTSD. Raffy moves in briefly but moves out after Kat and Ash broke up and Kat moves out. Ash and Luc leave when Ash can not afford to rent out the flat by himself. Kat moves back in with Scarlett Snow (Tania Nolan). In October 2017, Scarlett moves out and leaves Summer Bay with her husband. Robbo goes on the run and Kat dies in a car crash.
13 Healey Road is owned by the Morgan family, who move in during May 2016. Tori Morgan (Penny McNamee) is the first to arrive, and is followed by her three brothers, Justin (James Stewart), Brody (Jackson Heywood) and Mason Morgan (Orpheus Pledger) follow in June. In November, their half - sister, Raffy Morrison (Olivia Deeble) moves in with them, after her cousin, Hope Morrison (Jessica Falkholt), is sent to prison. Justin 's fiancée Phoebe Nicholson (Isabella Giovinazzo) moves in 2017, but moves out that same year to tour the United States. Justin throws Brody out of the house after he learns Brody has been lying to him about his drug addiction. Later on as part of Brody being out on Bail he moves back home. Raffy moves out when Brody 's drug addiction got worse and she moves in with John Palmer (Shane Withington) and Marilyn Chambers (Emily Symons). Raffy moves back in with the Morgan 's when Justin asks her to...
Past residents:
Past residents:
Was owned by Amanda Vale after she inherited her late husband Graham Walters ' estate. The mansion also features an outdoor pool. After Amanda leaves Summer Bay, she rents it out to Jazz Curtis. It is burnt down by fire after Jazz lights a candle which falls down while she is sleeping. The damage is beyond repair and the house has to be demolished.
Past residents:
Past residents:
Past residents:
Past residents:
Mangrove River is a neighbouring suburb to Summer Bay, often mentioned in the earlier years of the programme. Its first mention came in 1989 when Tom Fletcher and Alf Stewart were hospitalised there after being lost at sea. Tug O'Neale lived there and attended school until Year 10 when he transferred to Summer Bay High. Vinnie Patterson originally lived in Mangrove River before coming to the Bay. Throughout the years, Mangrove River began to be mentioned more frequently and has been started to become involved in many storylines including Nicole Franklin inviting some guests from suburb to a party and David "Gardy '' Gardener coercing Roman Harris into a robbery on the Wharf. The River Boys, who were introduced in 2011, come from Mangrove River. Wilson 's Beach is Mangrove River 's main beach for surfing. Mangrove River High School was burnt down in October 2013 and its students were subsequently transferred to Summer Bay High. In 2015, Evelyn and Josh went to Mangrove River to find Matt.
Yabbie Creek is Summer Bay 's nearest neighbouring town where various characters either dine out, shop or take in movies.
|
what is the difference between oculus rift dk2 and cv1 | Oculus Rift - Wikipedia
The Oculus Rift is a virtual reality headset developed and manufactured by Oculus VR, a division of Facebook Inc., released on March 28, 2016.
Oculus initiated a Kickstarter campaign in 2012 to fund the Rift 's development, after being founded as an independent company two months prior. The project proved successful, raising US $ 2.5 million. In March 2014, Facebook purchased Oculus for $2 billion. In March 2017, after 3 years at the company, it was announced Oculus founder and creator Palmer Luckey was leaving Facebook.
The Rift has gone through various pre-production models since the Kickstarter campaign, around five of which were demonstrated to the public. Two of these models were shipped to backers, labelled as ' development kits '; the DK1 in mid 2013 and DK2 in mid 2014, to give developers a chance to develop content in time for the Rift 's release. However, both were also purchased by a large number of enthusiasts who wished to get an early preview of the technology.
The Rift has two Pentile OLED displays, 1080 × 1200 resolution per eye, a 90 Hz refresh rate, and 110 ° field of view. The device also features rotational and positional tracking, and integrated headphones that provide a 3D audio effect.
Through Meant to be Seen (MTBS) 's virtual reality and 3D discussion forums, Palmer Luckey, the founder of Oculus and longtime MTBS discussion forum moderator, developed the idea of creating a new head - mounted display that was both more effective than what was then on the market, and inexpensive for gamers.
The first rough prototype was hacked together in 2011 by Palmer Luckey (then 18 years old) in his parents ' garage in Long Beach, California. Coincidentally, John Carmack had been doing his own research and happened upon Luckey 's developments as a fellow member of MTBS. After sampling an early prototype, Carmack favored Luckey 's approach and just before the 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo, Id Software announced that their future updated version of Doom 3, BFG Edition, would be compatible with head - mounted display units.
In June 2012, during the E3 convention, Carmack introduced a duct taped head - mounted display based on Luckey 's Oculus Rift prototype, which ran Carmack 's own software. The unit featured a high speed IMU and a 5.6 - inch (14 cm) LCD, visible via dual lenses, that were positioned over the eyes to provide a 90 degrees horizontal and 110 degrees vertical stereoscopic 3D perspective.
Two months after being formed as a company, Palmer 's Oculus VR launched a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign on August 1 of 2012 for their virtual reality headset, which was named the Rift. The main purpose of the kickstarter was to get an Oculus Rift prototype -- now referred to as DK1 (Development Kit 1) -- into the hands of developers to begin integration of the device into their games. DK1 was given as a reward to backers who pledged $300 or more on Kickstarter, and was later sold publicly for $300 on their website. These kits sold at a rate of 4 -- 5 per minute for the first day, before slowing down throughout the week.
The Rift DK1 was released on March 29, 2013, and used a 7 - inch (18 cm) screen with a significantly lower pixel switching time than the original prototype, reducing latency and motion blur when turning one 's head quickly. The pixel fill is also better, reducing the screen door effect and making individual pixels less noticeable. The LCD was brighter and the color depth is 24 bits per pixel.
The 7 - inch screen also makes the stereoscopic 3D no longer 100 % overlapping, the left eye seeing extra area to the left and the right eye seeing extra area to the right. The field of view (FOV) is more than 90 degrees horizontal (110 degrees diagonal), which is more than double the FOV of previous VR devices from other companies, and is the primary strength of the device. The resolution is 1280 × 800 (16: 10 aspect ratio), which leads to an effective of 640 × 800 per eye (4: 5 aspect ratio). However, since the Rift does not feature a 100 % overlap between the eyes, the combined horizontal resolution is effectively greater than 640. The image for each eye is shown in the panel as a barrel distorted image that is then corrected by pincushion effect created by lenses in the headset, generating a spherical - mapped image for each eye.
Initial prototypes used a Hillcrest Labs 6DoF head tracker that is normally 125 Hz, with a special firmware requested by John Carmack that makes it run at 250 Hz, tracker latency being vital due to the dependency of virtual reality 's realism on response time. The latest version includes Oculus 's new 1000 Hz Adjacent Reality Tracker, which will allow for much lower latency tracking than almost any other tracker. It uses a combination of three - axis gyros, accelerometers, and magnetometers, which make it capable of absolute (relative to Earth) head orientation tracking without drift.
The Development Kit 1 also included interchangeable lenses that will allow for simple dioptric correction.
The entire source for the Rift DK1 was released to the public in September 2014, including the firmware, schematics, and mechanicals for the device. The firmware is released under a simplified BSD license, while the schematics and mechanicals are released under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
In June 2013, a prototype of the rift that used a 1080p LCD panel was shown at Electronic Entertainment Expo. This step forwards to twice the number of pixels as DK1 significantly reduced the screen door effect and made objects in the virtual world more clear, especially at a distance. The poor resolution had been the main criticism of the DK1.
This HD prototype is the only prototype of the Rift shown to the public which did not turn into a publicly available developer kit.
In January 2014, an updated prototype codenamed "Crystal Cove '' was unveiled at Consumer Electronics Show, which used a special low - persistence of vision OLED display as well as a new motion tracking system that utilized an external camera to track infrared dots located on the headset. The new motion tracking system would allow the system to detect actions such as leaning or crouching, which was claimed to help alleviate sickness experienced by users when the software did not respond to these actions.
Oculus began shipping Development Kit 2 (DK2) in July 2014. This is a small refinement of the "Crystal Cove '' prototype, featuring several key improvements over the first development kit, such as having a higher - resolution (960 × 1080 per eye) low - persistence OLED display, higher refresh rate, positional tracking, a detachable cable, and the omission of the need for the external control box.
A teardown of DK2 revealed that it incorporates a modified Samsung Galaxy Note 3 smartphone display, including the front panel from the device itself.
In February 2015, Oculus announced that over 100,000 DK2 units had been shipped up until that point.
In September 2014, Oculus once again presented an updated version of the Rift, codenamed Crescent Bay. This version has a greater resolution than the DK2, a lower weight, built - in audio, and 360 - degree tracking thanks to the presence of tracking LEDs in the back of the headset. Oculus has also licensed software library RealSpace3D, which is expected to provide the Rift with HRTF and reverb algorithms. During a panel at SXSW 2015, titled "Explore the Future of VR '', it was publicly announced for the first time that the prototype uses two screens instead of one as previously thought.
Oculus VR announced on May 6, 2015, that the consumer version of the Rift would ship in the first quarter of 2016 with pre-orders starting on January 6, 2016, at 8 am PST. On January 5, 2016, the day before pre-orders went live, in an update posted to the original Kickstarter page, it was announced that all Kickstarter backers who pledged for a Rift development kit would get a free KickStarter Edition Oculus Rift. On January 6, 2016, pre-orders started, at $599.99. At the same time the shipment date was announced for March 28, 2016. On January 16, 2016, shipping dates for new orders of the Rift were delayed until July 2016 due to the number of pre-orders on day 1.
On March 25, 2016, the first batch of Oculus Rift virtual reality headsets began shipping to consumers. On April 12, 2016, customers were notified that their shipments were pushed back due to early component shortage. The dates varied between 3 and 8 weeks of delay in regards to previous estimates.
The consumer version is an improved version of the Crescent Bay Prototype, featuring per - eye displays running at 90 Hz with a higher combined resolution than DK2, 360 - degree positional tracking, integrated audio, a vastly increased positional tracking volume, and a heavy focus on consumer ergonomics and aesthetics.
During Oculus Connect in June 2017, Oculus VR announced and released their Oculus Rift for Business bundle for $900 USD which included the Rift HMD, Oculus Touch controllers, and expanded warranty, preferential customer service, commercial use license, three Constellation sensors, an Oculus remote, and three Rift Fits (the name given to the piece that cushions the device onto the user 's face).
In June 2015, Oculus revealed that due to the rapid innovation in the VR industry, it intended to release a successor to the Rift in around 2 -- 3 years from the Rift release, and that it was already being worked on.
The Oculus Rift headset uses an OLED panel for each eye, each having a resolution of 1080 × 1200. These panels have a refresh rate of 90 Hz and globally refresh, rather than scanning out in lines. They also use low persistence, meaning that they only display an image for 2 milliseconds of each frame. This combination of the high refresh rate, global refresh and low persistence means that the user experiences none of the motion blurring or judder that is experienced on a regular monitor. It uses lenses that allow for a wide field of view. The separation of the lenses is adjustable by a dial on the bottom of the device, in order to accommodate a wide range of interpupillary distances. The same pair of lenses are used for all users, however, there are multiple facial interfaces so that the user 's eyes can be positioned at a different distance. This also allows for users wearing glasses to use the Rift, as well as users with widely varying facial shapes.
Headphones are integrated, which provide real - time 3D audio effects. This was developed from technology licensed from RealSpace 3D Audio, by Visisonics.
The Rift has full 6 degree of freedom rotational and positional tracking. This tracking is performed by Oculus 's Constellation tracking system and is precise, low - latency, and sub-millimeter accurate.
Constellation is the headset 's positional tracking system, used to track the position of the user 's head as well as other VR devices, consisting of external infrared tracking sensors that optically track specially designed VR devices.
The Rift, or any other device being tracked by the system, is fitted with a series of precisely positioned infrared LEDs under or above the surface, set to blink in a specific pattern. By knowing the configuration of the LEDs on the objects and their pattern, the system can determine the precise position of the device with sub-millimeter accuracy and near - zero latency. The system then includes one or more USB stationary infrared sensors that originally come with a stand in a desk lamp form factor, but standard screw holes allow for the stand to be removed and the sensor to be mounted anywhere the user sees fit. The sensors normally sit on the user 's desk, creating a 3D space that allows the user to use the device while sitting, standing, walking, or even jumping around the room.
In its initial presentation, before the Touch controllers were released, the system was only used to track the head - mounted display, and a single sensor was included with the device, which was sufficient there being no chance of the user 's hands blocking the headset from it. When Touch controllers were released, two - sensor setups became the baseline, in order to guarantee proper tracking of the headset and controllers. For "room scale '' virtual reality, three or more sensors are required. When the controllers were purchased separately, a second sensor sensor was included, and the standard Rift bundle was updated to include the controllers and additional sensor. Additional sensors, placed behind the user, allow for 360o rotation without the sensors being occluded by the user himself. Three - and four - sensor configurations become the standard for this scenario.
Oculus will allow third - party peripheral manufacturers to create their own devices that are tracked by the system, providing an API for them to use.
As a result of a partnership with Microsoft, early Oculus Rift units were bundled with an Xbox One controller. The reason for this inclusion was that, in lack of motion controllers such as the Oculus Touch, the majority of virtual reality games that had been in development up to that point required a gamepad, so it was intended to allow users to play those games without the need to purchase any additional hardware.
The Oculus Rift 's motion controller system is known as Oculus Touch. It consists of a pair of handheld units, one for each hand, each containing an analog stick, three buttons, and two triggers (one commonly used for grabbing and the other for shooting or firing). The controllers are fully tracked in 3D space by the Constellation system, so they may be represented in the virtual environment, and each controller features a system for detecting finger gestures the user may make while holding them. Each controller uses a single AA alkaline cell. Initially released as a standalone accessory for the Rift, pre-orders for Oculus Touch began on October 10, 2016, with priority granted until October 27 to those who had originally pre-ordered Oculus Rift, and they were finally released on December 6, 2016.
In August 2017, the standard Rift bundle was modified, dropping the Oculus Remote, replacing the Xbox One controller with the Oculus Touch, and adding a second tracking sensor.
The Oculus Rift is officially supported on Windows, MacOS, and GNU / Linux. The runtime package includes several components which allow it to function and be configured on these operating systems. The Oculus Positional Tracking Sensor driver and the Oculus Service Application are included in the runtime package. The Oculus Display driver is also included in the runtime package and is only available for Windows. According to its developers, this driver allows the Oculus Rift to achieve lower latency.
The user must have this Oculus PC runtime and the drivers installed in order to use the Rift. The runtime service implements a number of processing techniques intended to minimize latency and in addition improve the smoothness of VR applications under weaker hardware. These include direct mode, asynchronous timewarp, and asynchronous spacewarp.
When the user puts on the Rift and no other content is being outputted to the headset, they are presented with Oculus Home. This is the default environment of the Rift, which presents them with a loft environment and a floating menu, allowing the user to launch VR applications they own, see if their friends are using the Rift, and purchase virtual reality content on the Oculus Home store from the headset.
An update to the base software, called Core 2.0, introduced a more interactive default environment, allowing the user to navigate and customize it.
Oculus ' application store, called Oculus Store, is curated to only allow applications that run smoothly on the recommended hardware, and experiences are given ratings for their comfort (such as causing motion sickness or jump scares). However, developers do not have to use Oculus Home to distribute content for the Rift, this being entirely optional. The Store can be accessed from the VR - based Oculus Home, from its desktop app, or via the web.
Content for the Rift is developed using the Oculus PC SDK, a free proprietary SDK available for Microsoft Windows (OSX and Linux support is planned for the future). This is a feature complete SDK which handles for the developer the various aspects of making virtual reality content, such as the optical distortion and advanced rendering techniques.
The Oculus SDK is directly integrated with the popular game engines Unity 5, Unreal Engine 4, and Cryengine. This allows for developers already familiar with these engines to create VR content with little to no VR - specific code.
The Rift is an open platform, and thus developers do not need any approval or verification to develop, distribute, or sell content for it, and do not have to pay any licensing fees. The SDK, however, can not be modified or reused for other purposes or hardware without permission.
Content developed for the Development Kit 2 using SDK version 0.8 or above are compatible with the Rift; however, content developed for the Development Kit 1 or with older versions of the SDK will have to be recompiled using the latest SDK version to be compatible.
On 21 December 2015, Oculus announced the release of their finalized Rift 1.0 SDK, combined with the start of shipping their final version of the Oculus Rift VR headset to developers.
At Oculus 's 3rd annual conference (Oculus Connect 3), it announced the new technology, called "Asynchronous Spacewarp (ASW) ''. This technology allows the Rift to compensate for the dropped frames. According to Oculus, ASW reduces the minimum specs of a PC to run the Rift without any judder.
In May 2015, Oculus VR announced "recommended '' hardware specifications for computers utilizing Oculus Rift, specifying a CPU equivalent to an Intel Core i5 - 4590, at least 16 GB of RAM, at least an AMD Radeon R9 290 or Nvidia GeForce GTX 970 graphics card, an HDMI 1.3 output, three USB 3.0 ports, and one USB 2.0 port. Oculus VR stated that these requirements would remain in force for the life of the first consumer model. The company also stated that while upcoming discrete GPUs for laptops may be able to reach the required performance for Oculus Rift, systems that switch between integrated and discrete graphics may not handle output in a manner that supports the device. Oculus Rift only supports 64 - bit versions of Microsoft Windows 7 SP1 or later; Oculus VR stated that the device would initially support Windows only in order to focus on "delivering a high (-) quality consumer - level VR experience ''; support for Linux and macOS will be developed in the future.
A hardware testing application is available, and Oculus VR has also certified and promoted specific models of pre-built computers that meet these recommendations, from vendors such as Asus, Alienware and Dell Inc., as being "Oculus Ready ''.
On October 6, 2016, Oculus VR announced lessened hardware recommendations, now suggesting an Intel Core i3 - 6100 or AMD FX 4350 CPU, at least a GeForce GTX 960 or equivalent graphics card, two USB 3.0 ports and one USB 2.0 port, and Windows 8 or newer. The company stated that these lower requirements were enabled by the adoption of motion interpolation; on systems that can not handle full 90 frames per second rendering, the drivers will allow software to render at 45 FPS instead, and generate frames based on differences between them to send to the headset to maintain its frame rate. Oculus promoted that these changes lowered the average hardware cost of a PC meeting these specifications to US $500 and would also enable certain laptops to run Oculus Rift.
In June 2018, Oculus VR updated its recommended OS spec to Windows 10. While Windows 7 and Windows 8.1 users would still be able to access the standard Rift experience, newer features and apps might require an upgrade to Windows 10.
Oculus has stated that the Rift is primarily a gaming device and that their main content focus is gaming.
Existing games with a first - person or fixed - camera perspective can be ported to VR with some development effort. However, Oculus has stated that the best virtual reality experiences are those that are designed, from the beginning, for the Rift.
A number of AAA games have added Rift support (and can be played with the Development Kit 2), including Project CARS, Elite: Dangerous, Euro Truck Simulator 2, and Dirt Rally, as well as a number of indie games such as AaAaAA!!! -- A Reckless Disregard for Gravity and Ether One. Fans and hobbyists have also modded support for the Rift into several popular titles which allow for extensive low - level modding, including Minecraft and Flight Simulator X.
At the release event for the Rift in June 2015, Oculus announced 9 launch titles for the Rift, including EVE: Valkyrie by CCP and Edge of Nowhere by Insomniac Games. It also announced that it was working with other developers including Final Fantasy developer Square Enix, Rock Band developer Harmonix, and The Order: 1886 developer Ready at Dawn.
In July 2015, Oculus revealed that it was fully funding more than 20 second party high production value games made exclusively for the Rift, one of these being Insomniac 's Edge of Nowhere.
In July 2017, Marvel announced in the Disney 's D23 event that it will be bringing 12 superheroes of theirs to VR with an Oculus exclusive game called Powers United VR.
Oculus is including Oculus Cinema as a free application, which allows the Rift to be used to view conventional movies and videos from inside a virtual cinema environment, giving the user the perception of viewing the content on a cinema - sized screen. Oculus Cinema will also have a networked mode, in which multiple users can watch the same video in the same virtual space, seeing each other as avatars and being able to interact and talk to one another while watching the video.
The Rift also offers the opportunity to view new types of media that are impossible to view on regular monitors; 360 ° 3D videos and ' virtual reality movies ' (an entirely new medium).
Spherical videos (commonly called 360 ° videos) can be viewed simply by the user moving their head around, and the Rift opens up the possibility for stereoscopic spherical videos (commonly called 360 ° 3D videos). In September 2014, NextVR announced that they would be using a $200,000 camera rig to produce 360 ° 3D content for the Rift, including short films, as well as live streaming live events such as sports or concerts in 360 ° 3D. In July 2015, Oculus announced a deal with Canadian film company Felix & Paul Studios to produce 360 ° 3D videos for the Rift.
The Rift also supports a new medium of entertainment experiences, which Oculus calls "virtual reality movies ''. Oculus has established Oculus Story Studio to develop this type of content for the Rift, a team which has multiple former employees from major VFX companies such as PIXAR and ILM. Oculus Story Studio showed off its first VR movie, Lost, at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival, gaining positive reviews from attendees.
The studio intends to have 5 VR shorts released with the Rift at launch, including Lost, Bullfighter, Henry, Dear Angelica, and Kabloom.
Education
The Oculus rift is increasingly used in universities and schools as an educational tool. The ability to provide an immersive, engaging environment can assist a diverse range of students for learning. In particular, there appears to be benefits to medical, health science and exercise students when utilising the Oculus Rift as a supplement for content provided in anatomy and physiology. There is also an increasing uptake of the oculus rift within curricula in other fields such as marketing, architecture, clinical education, computer science and paramedics.
Oculus believes that social applications will be the most popular virtual reality experiences in the long term. A number of social applications for the Rift are in development, and it is expected that there will be significant competition in the sector.
In May 2015, AltspaceVR launched a public beta for DK2 owners to try out their social VR platform. AltspaceVR allows people to inhabit a shared virtual space with spatial voice communications, cast content from the Internet on virtual screens, and interact with objects (allowing activities such as playing chess or other board games). It also supports extra hardware like eye tracking and body tracking.
In 2013, Philip Rosedale, the founder of Second Life, left Linden Lab to work on a new virtual world designed for the Rift, called High Fidelity, which will link thousands of user - hosted virtual environments together into a consistent virtual world.
In May 2015, Linden Lab, the company behind Second Life, announced that they too were working on a new virtual world, codenamed Project Sansar, built for virtual reality headsets such as the Rift and Gear VR. Like Second Life, Sansar will be hosted on Linden 's servers and lease virtual land to players, on which they can build and sell virtual items and services (which Linden will take a cut of). Linden Lab hoped to release Sansar by the end of 2016.
As well as the consumer uses, the Rift has attracted significant interest from industry and professional spheres for productivity enhancement, visualization, and advertising.
A number of architecture firms have been experimenting with using the Rift for visualization and design. With the right software, the Rift allows architects to see exactly what their building will look like and get an understanding of the scale that is impossible on a traditional monitor.
In early 2015, Audi started using Rift Developer Kit 2 's at dealerships to help customers configure the car they are interested in, as well as to see what driving a race in the car would be like.
The Norwegian Army has been experimenting with the Rift Development Kit 2 to allow for a greater situational awareness of armoured vehicle drivers and commanders.
The use of Oculus Rift on an innovative virtual operator station assists the control of a teleoperated military mobile robot Tactical Robotic System (TAROS). Human operator can have intuitive control and meduate 3D view from stereovision cameras.
In October 2016, the television series Halcyon was released as a "virtual reality series '', where some episodes are broadcast on conventional television. and some as VR content for Oculus Rift. It is a crime drama following the world 's first "VR Crimes Unit '' in 2048.
Fox Sports began producing content for the Oculus Rift and other virtual reality systems in fall 2016. Its initial content consisted mainly of Fox College Football coverage.
Some online casinos have started using Oculus Rift to provide a unique online casino experience. A user can play slots and experience the lobby of a casino through a computer using a VR headset.
ZeniMax Media, the parent company of Bethesda Softworks, which in turn owns Id Software, presented a lawsuit against Facebook, claiming the Oculus Rift was the product of intellectual property owned by ZeniMax, developed by John Carmack during his time working for Id Software. The jury ruled partially in favor of ZeniMax, finding the defendants did not steal trade secrets but had violated a non-disclosure agreement. Facebook and some of the Oculus corporate officers were ordered to pay a total of USD 500 million. On March 10, 2017, it was revealed that Carmack was suing ZeniMax for USD 22.7 million it owed him from their purchase of id Software.
The Oculus Rift received generally positive reviews from gaming and tech websites. Wired gave 9 out of 10 stars to Oculus Rift and wrote, "The long - promised virtual reality headset is finally here, in a remarkably well - made and accessible device. '' A review by Dan Stapleton of IGN says, "The Oculus Rift is the first headset available, and it does a fantastic job of not just displaying high - quality VR, but making it easy to use. '' Many reviewers also wrote about the shortcomings of Rift, such as a hefty price tag ($599 in US) and the need of a powerful PC to run it.
The Wall Street Journal wrote, "The first totally immersive home virtual reality rig is a pricey, awkward, isolating -- and occasionally brilliant -- glimpse of the future of computing. '' The Verge said, "Virtual Reality: 8 / 10. Virtual reality is always almost here. ''
|
english babu desi mem full movie download khatrimaza | English Babu Desi Mem - Wikipedia
English Babu Desi Mem (Hindi: इंग्लिश बाबू देशी मेम, English: English sir, Indian madam) is an Indian film of Bollywood, released in 1996 starring Shah Rukh Khan, Sonali Bendre and Sunny Singh. The rights for this film are now owned by Shah Rukh Khan 's Red Chillies Entertainment.
Vikram Mayur, a rich Indian, born and raised in England, returns home to Bombay, to look for his late brother Hari 's eight - year - old son, Nandlal (or Nandu) raised by his caring aunt Bijuriya. Vikram faces a dilemma when he is torn between choosing to take Nandu back to England to learn his family 's business or risk throwing it all away by staying in India to be with Bijuriya, whom he slowly falls in love with. This film features Shahrukh Khan in a triple role as Gopal Mayur and his sons Hari and Vikram.
Hari and Vikram (both played by Shah Rukh Khan) are brothers of the head of Mayur group of industries. Hari is a registered pilot and elder of the two brothers. Hari 's father had promised his business partner that Hari will be married to the latter 's daughter. Hari tries to resist the marriage but receives clear signals that his father wo n't budge. Once during a test flight, while Hari is flying solo, he fakes an accident that leads everyone to believe he died.
In reality, Hari survives. When he finally comes to the shore, he is in Mumbai. He meets a poor girl Katariya (Rajeshwari Sachdev) and the two fall in love. They get married and start their own family. Tragedy strikes when their house gets accidentally burnt and Hari and Katariya die. Their son, Nandlal "Nandu '' (Sunny Singh) is brought up by Katariya 's little sister Bijuriya (Sonali Bendre)
When Hari 's son is 8 years old, Vikram comes to Mumbai. Vikram was never satisfied by the story that his brother died in a plane crash. After years of investigating, Vikram correctly predicts that his brother survived and most likely landed in India. He learns that Hari is dead, but his son is alive.
Vikram believes that as Hari 's son (whom he affectionately calls Master Mayur) is the next generation of Mayur industries, he should be taken back with him. Bijuriya, who is a bar dancer at Banjo 's Beer Bar, objects to this, thinking he is here to separate her and Nandu. Vikram and Bijuriya have not met yet. Vikram does not even know who has brought his nephew up. Bijuriya knows that if Vikram goes to court, she will lose Nandu forever.
Bijuriya pretends to be Princess Sonali, a royal family member who was Vikram 's nephew 's guardian. Vikram falls for her charade and slowly falls in love with her. But one day, her truth is exposed to him. Vikram decides to take his nephew back with him immediately. The nephew, who detests his newfound uncle and adores his aunt like a mother figure, protests this, but Vikram remains adamant.
Bijuriya forces Nandu to go with Vikram after getting to know that Nandu misses school and does petty jobs to earn money to marry off Bijuriya. She is forcibly taken to sleep with a goon Bheema Khalasi (Kiran Kumar) who had her eyes on her, just to fight for the child one last time. When Vikram learns about this, he comes to the hideout just before Bheema Khalasi is about to rape Bijuriya. Vikram overpowers the goon and saves Bijuriya. He is convinced that Bijuriya will be the best parent for his nephew. Vikram marries Bijuriya and takes her and his nephew back with him.
English Babu Desi Mem grossed ₹ 6.40 crore (US $1.0 million) in India and $135,000 (₹ 49.61 lakh) in other countries, for a worldwide total of ₹ 6.89 crore (US $1.1 million), against its ₹ 3.50 crore (US $550,000) budget. It had a worldwide opening weekend of ₹ 1.69 crore (US $260,000), and grossed ₹ 2.78 crore (US $430,000) in its first week. It is the 28th - highest - grossing film of 1996 worldwide.
It opened on Friday, 26 January 1996, across 145 screens, and earned ₹ 31 lakh (US $48,000) nett on its opening day. It grossed ₹ 1 crore (US $160,000) nett in its opening weekend, and had a first week of ₹ 1.64 crore (US $260,000) nett. The film earned a total of ₹ 3.78 crore (US $590,000) nett, and was declared "Flop '' by Box Office India. It is the 30th - highest - grossing film of 1996 in India.
It earned $135,000 (₹ 49.61 lakh) outside India. Overseas, it was the 10th - highest - grossing film of 1996.
|
where do you find red and yellow marrow | Bone marrow - wikipedia
Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones. It is mostly found in the center of many bones but primarily in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis.In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or hematopoiesis. It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4 % of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb). Human marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day, which join the systemic circulation via permeable vasculature sinusoids within the medullary cavity. All types of hematopoietic cells, including both myeloid and lymphoid lineages, are created in bone marrow; however, lymphoid cells must migrate to other lymphoid organs (e.g. thymus) in order to complete maturation.
Bone marrow transplants can be conducted to treat severe diseases of the bone marrow, including certain forms of cancer such as leukemia. Additionally, bone marrow stem cells have been successfully transformed into functional neural cells, and can also potentially be used to treat illnesses such as inflammatory bowel disease.
The composition of marrow is dynamic, as the mixture of cellular and non-cellular components (connective tissue) shifts with age and in response to systemic factors. In humans, marrow is colloquially characterized as "red '' or "yellow '' marrow (Latin: medulla ossium rubra, Latin: medulla ossium flava, respectively) depending on the prevalence of hematopoetic cells vs fat cells. While the precise mechanisms underlying marrow regulation are not understood, compositional changes occur according to stereotypical patterns. For example, a newborn baby 's bones exclusively contain hematopoietically active "red '' marrow, and there is a progressive conversion towards "yellow '' marrow with age. In adults, red marrow is found mainly in the central skeleton, such as the pelvis, sternum, cranium, ribs, vertebrae and scapulae, and variably found in the proximal epiphyseal ends of long bones such as the femur and humerus. In circumstances of chronic hypoxia, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow to increase blood cell production.
At the cellular level, the main functional component of bone marrow includes the progenitor cells which are destined to mature into blood and lymphoid cells. Marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to the three classes of blood cells that are found in circulation: white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
The stroma of the bone marrow includes all tissue not directly involved in the marrow 's primary function of hematopoiesis. Stromal cells may be indirectly involved in hematopoiesis, providing a microenvironment that influences the function and differentiation of hematopoeietic cells. For instance, they generate colony stimulating factors, which have a significant effect on hematopoiesis. Cell types that constitute the bone marrow stroma include:
The bone marrow stroma contains mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), also known as marrow stromal cells. These are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types. MSCs have been shown to differentiate, in vitro or in vivo, into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, myocytes, marrow adipocytes and beta - pancreatic islets cells.
The blood vessels of the bone marrow constitute a barrier, inhibiting immature blood cells from leaving the marrow. Only mature blood cells contain the membrane proteins, such as aquaporin and glycophorin, that are required to attach to and pass the blood vessel endothelium. Hematopoietic stem cells may also cross the bone marrow barrier, and may thus be harvested from blood.
The red bone marrow is a key element of the lymphatic system, being one of the primary lymphoid organs that generate lymphocytes from immature hematopoietic progenitor cells. The bone marrow and thymus constitute the primary lymphoid tissues involved in the production and early selection of lymphocytes. Furthermore, bone marrow performs a valve - like function to prevent the backflow of lymphatic fluid in the lymphatic system.
Biological compartmentalization is evident within the bone marrow, in that certain cell types tend to aggregate in specific areas. For instance, erythrocytes, macrophages, and their precursors tend to gather around blood vessels, while granulocytes gather at the borders of the bone marrow.
Animal bone marrow has been used in cuisine worldwide for millennia, such as the famed Milanese Ossobuco.
The normal bone marrow architecture can be damaged or displaced by aplastic anemia, malignancies such as multiple myeloma, or infections such as tuberculosis, leading to a decrease in the production of blood cells and blood platelets. The bone marrow can also be affected by various forms of leukemia, which attacks its hematologic progenitor cells. Furthermore, exposure to radiation or chemotherapy will kill many of the rapidly dividing cells of the bone marrow, and will therefore result in a depressed immune system. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning are due to damage sustained by the bone marrow cells.
To diagnose diseases involving the bone marrow, a bone marrow aspiration is sometimes performed. This typically involves using a hollow needle to acquire a sample of red bone marrow from the crest of the ilium under general or local anesthesia.
Bone marrow derived stem cells have a wide array of application in regenerative medicine.
Medical imaging may provide a limited amount of information regarding bone marrow. Plain film x-rays pass through soft tissues such as marrow and do not provide visualization, although any changes in the structure of the associated bone may be detected. CT imaging has somewhat better capacity for assessing the marrow cavity of bones, although with low sensitivity and specificity. For example, normal fatty "yellow '' marrow in adult long bones is of low density (- 30 to - 100 Hounsfield units), between subcutaneous fat and soft tissue. Tissue with increased cellular composition, such as normal "red '' marrow or cancer cells within the medullary cavity will measure variably higher in density.
MRI is more sensitive and specific for assessing bone bone composition. MRI enables assessment of the average molecular composition of soft tissues, and thus provides information regarding the relative fat content of marrow. In adult humans, "yellow '' fatty marrow is the dominant tissue in bones, particularly in the (peripheral) appendicular skeleton. Because fat molecules have a high T1 - relaxivity, T1 - weighted imaging sequences show "yellow '' fatty marrow as bright (hyperintense). Furthermore, normal fatty marrow loses signal on fat - saturation sequences, in a similar pattern to subcutaneous fat.
When "yellow '' fatty marrow becomes replaced by tissue with more cellular composition, this change is apparent as decreased brightness on T1 - weighted sequences. Both normal "red '' marrow and pathologic marrow lesions (such as cancer) are darker than "yellow '' marrow on T1 - weight sequences, although can often be distinguished by comparison with the MR signal intensity of adjacent soft tissues. Normal "red '' marrow is typically equivalent or brighter than skeletal muscle or intervertebral disc on T1 - weighted sequences.
Fatty marrow change, the inverse of red marrow hyperplasia, can occur with normal aging, though it can also be seen with certain treatments such as radiation therapy. Diffuse marrow T1 hypointensity without contrast enhancement or cortical discontinuity suggests red marrow conversion or myelofibrosis. Falsely normal marrow on T1 can be seen with diffuse multiple myeloma or leukemic infiltration when the water to fat ratio is not sufficiently altered, as may be seen with lower grade tumors or earlier in the disease process.
Bone marrow examination is the pathologic analysis of samples of bone marrow obtained via biopsy and bone marrow aspiration. Bone marrow examination is used in the diagnosis of a number of conditions, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, anemia, and pancytopenia. The bone marrow produces the cellular elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. While much information can be gleaned by testing the blood itself (drawn from a vein by phlebotomy), it is sometimes necessary to examine the source of the blood cells in the bone marrow to obtain more information on hematopoiesis; this is the role of bone marrow aspiration and biopsy.
The ratio between myeloid series and erythroid cells is relevant to bone marrow function, and also to diseases of the bone marrow and peripheral blood, such as leukemia and anemia. The normal myeloid - to - erythroid ratio is around 3: 1; this ratio may increase in myelogenous leukemias, decrease in polycythemias, and reverse in cases of thalassemia.
In a bone marrow transplant, hematopoietic stem cells are removed from a person and infused into another person (allogenic) or into the same person at a later time (autologous). If the donor and recipient are compatible, these infused cells will then travel to the bone marrow and initiate blood cell production. Transplantation from one person to another is conducted for the treatment of severe bone marrow diseases, such as congenital defects, autoimmune diseases or malignancies. The patient 's own marrow is first killed off with drugs or radiation, and then the new stem cells are introduced. Before radiation therapy or chemotherapy in cases of cancer, some of the patient 's hematopoietic stem cells are sometimes harvested and later infused back when the therapy is finished to restore the immune system.
Bone marrow stem cells can be induced to become neural cells to treat neurological illnesses, and can also potentially be used for the treatment of other illnesses, such as inflammatory bowel disease. In 2013, following a clinical trial, scientists proposed that bone marrow transplantation could be used to treat HIV in conjunction with antiretroviral drugs; however, it was later found that HIV remained in the bodies of the test subjects.
The stem cells are typically harvested directly from the red marrow in the iliac crest, often under general anesthesia. The procedure is minimally invasive and does not require stitches afterwards. Depending on the donor 's health and reaction to the procedure, the actual harvesting can be an outpatient procedure, or can require 1 -- 2 days of recovery in the hospital.
Another option is to administer certain drugs that stimulate the release of stem cells from the bone marrow into circulating blood. An intravenous catheter is inserted into the donor 's arm, and the stem cells are then filtered out of the blood. This procedure is similar to that used in blood or platelet donation. In adults, bone marrow may also be taken from the sternum, while the tibia is often used when taking samples from infants. In newborns, stem cells may be retrieved from the umbilical cord.
The earliest fossilised evidence of bone marrow was discovered in 2014 in Eusthenopteron, a lobe - finned fish which lived during the Devonian period approximately 370 million years ago. Scientists from Uppsala University and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility used X-ray synchrotron microtomography to study the fossilised interior of the skeleton 's humerus, finding organised tubular structures akin to modern vertebrate bone marrow. Eusthenopteron is closely related to the early tetrapods, which ultimately evolved into the land - dwelling mammals and lizards of the present day.
|
when did uncle tom's cabin become popular | Uncle Tom 's Cabin - wikipedia
Uncle Tom 's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly, is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852, the novel "helped lay the groundwork for the Civil War '', according to Will Kaufman.
Stowe, a Connecticut - born teacher at the Hartford Female Seminary and an active abolitionist, featured the character of Uncle Tom, a long - suffering black slave around whom the stories of other characters revolve. The sentimental novel depicts the reality of slavery while also asserting that Christian love can overcome something as destructive as enslavement of fellow human beings.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin was the best - selling novel of the 19th century and the second best - selling book of that century, following the Bible. It is credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s. In the first year after it was published, 300,000 copies of the book were sold in the United States; one million copies in Great Britain. In 1855, three years after it was published, it was called "the most popular novel of our day. '' The impact attributed to the book is great, reinforced by a story that when Abraham Lincoln met Stowe at the start of the Civil War, Lincoln declared, "So this is the little lady who started this great war. '' The quote is apocryphal; it did not appear in print until 1896, and it has been argued that "The long - term durability of Lincoln 's greeting as an anecdote in literary studies and Stowe scholarship can perhaps be explained in part by the desire among many contemporary intellectuals... to affirm the role of literature as an agent of social change. ''
The book and the plays it inspired helped popularize a number of stereotypes about black people. These include the affectionate, dark - skinned "mammy ''; the "pickaninny '' stereotype of black children; and the "Uncle Tom '', or dutiful, long - suffering servant faithful to his white master or mistress. In recent years, the negative associations with Uncle Tom 's Cabin have, to an extent, overshadowed the historical impact of the book as a "vital antislavery tool. ''
Stowe, a Connecticut - born teacher at the Hartford Female Seminary and an active abolitionist, wrote the novel as a response to the passage, in 1850, of the second Fugitive Slave Act. Much of the book was composed in Brunswick, Maine, where her husband, Calvin Ellis Stowe, taught at his alma mater, Bowdoin College.
Stowe was partly inspired to create Uncle Tom 's Cabin by the slave narrative The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself (1849). Henson, a formerly enslaved black man, had lived and worked on a 3,700 acres (15 km) tobacco plantation in North Bethesda, Maryland, owned by Isaac Riley. Henson escaped slavery in 1830 by fleeing to the Province of Upper Canada (now Ontario), where he helped other fugitive slaves settle and become self - sufficient, and where he wrote his memoirs. Stowe acknowledged in 1853 that Henson 's writings inspired Uncle Tom 's Cabin. When Stowe 's work became a best - seller, Henson republished his memoirs as The Memoirs of Uncle Tom and traveled on lecture tours extensively in the United States and Europe. Stowe 's novel lent its name to Henson 's home -- Uncle Tom 's Cabin Historic Site, near Dresden, Canada -- which since the 1940s has been a museum. The cabin where Henson lived while he was enslaved no longer exists, but a cabin on the Riley farm erroneously thought to be the Henson Cabin was purchased by the Montgomery County, Maryland, government in 2006. It is now a part of the National Park Service National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program, and plans are underway to build a museum and interpretive center on the site.
American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, a volume co-authored by Theodore Dwight Weld and the Grimké sisters, is also a source of some of the novel 's content. Stowe said she based the novel on a number of interviews with people who escaped slavery during the time when she was living in Cincinnati, Ohio, across the Ohio River from Kentucky, a slave state. In Cincinnati the Underground Railroad had local abolitionist sympathizers and was active in efforts to help runaway slaves on their escape route from the South.
Stowe mentioned a number of the inspirations and sources for her novel in A Key to Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1853). This non-fiction book was intended to verify Stowe 's claims about slavery. However, later research indicated that Stowe did not read many of the book 's cited works until after she had published her novel.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin first appeared as a 40 - week serial in The National Era, an abolitionist periodical, starting with the June 5, 1851, issue. It was originally intended as a shorter narrative that would run for only a few weeks. Stowe expanded the story significantly, however, and it was instantly popular, such that several protests were sent to the Era office when she missed an issue. Because of the story 's popularity, the publisher John P. Jewett contacted Stowe about turning the serial into a book. While Stowe questioned if anyone would read Uncle Tom 's Cabin in book form, she eventually consented to the request.
Convinced the book would be popular, Jewett made the unusual decision (for the time) to have six full - page illustrations by Hammatt Billings engraved for the first printing. Published in book form on March 20, 1852, the novel sold 3,000 copies on that day alone, and soon sold out its complete print run. A number of other editions were soon printed (including a deluxe edition in 1853, featuring 117 illustrations by Billings).
In the first year of publication, 300,000 copies of Uncle Tom 's Cabin were sold. At that point, however, "demand came to an unexpected halt... No more copies were produced for many years, and if, as is claimed, Abraham Lincoln greeted Stowe in 1862 as ' the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war, ' the work had effectively been out of print for many years. '' Jewett went out of business, and it was not until Ticknor and Fields put the work back in print in November 1862 that demand began again to increase.
The book was translated into all major languages, and in the United States it became the second best - selling book after the Bible. A number of the early editions carried an introduction by Rev James Sherman, a Congregational minister in London noted for his abolitionist views. Uncle Tom 's Cabin sold equally well in Britain, with the first London edition appearing in May 1852 and selling 200,000 copies. In a few years over 1.5 million copies of the book were in circulation in Britain, although most of these were infringing copies (a similar situation occurred in the United States).
The book opens with a Kentucky farmer named Arthur Shelby facing the loss of his farm because of debts. Even though he and his wife Emily Shelby believe that they have a benevolent relationship with their slaves, Shelby decides to raise the needed funds by selling two of them -- Uncle Tom, a middle - aged man with a wife and children, and Harry, the son of Emily Shelby 's maid Eliza -- to a slave trader. Emily Shelby is averse to this idea because she had promised her maid that her child would never be sold; Emily 's son, George Shelby, hates to see Tom go because he sees the man as his friend and mentor.
When Eliza overhears Mr. and Mrs. Shelby discussing plans to sell Tom and Harry, Eliza determines to run away with her son. The novel states that Eliza made this decision because she fears losing her only surviving child (she had already miscarried two children). Eliza departs that night, leaving a note of apology to her mistress.
Tom is sold and placed on a riverboat which sets sail down the Mississippi River. While on board, Tom meets and befriends a young white girl named Eva. Eva 's father Augustine St. Clare buys Tom from the slave trader and takes him with the family to their home in New Orleans. Tom and Eva begin to relate to one another because of the deep Christian faith they both share.
During Eliza 's escape, she meets up with her husband George Harris, who had run away previously. They decide to attempt to reach Canada. However, they are tracked by a slave hunter named Tom Loker. Eventually Loker and his men trap Eliza and her family, causing George to shoot him in the side. Worried that Loker may die, Eliza convinces George to bring the slave hunter to a nearby Quaker settlement for medical treatment.
Back in New Orleans, St. Clare debates slavery with his Northern cousin Ophelia who, while opposing slavery, is prejudiced against black people. St. Clare, however, believes he is not biased, even though he is a slave owner. In an attempt to show Ophelia that her views on blacks are wrong, St. Clare purchases Topsy, a young black slave, and asks Ophelia to educate her.
After Tom has lived with the St. Clares for two years, Eva grows very ill. Before she dies she experiences a vision of heaven, which she shares with the people around her. As a result of her death and vision, the other characters resolve to change their lives, with Ophelia promising to throw off her personal prejudices against blacks, Topsy saying she will better herself, and St. Clare pledging to free Tom.
Before St. Clare can follow through on his pledge, however, he dies after being stabbed outside of a tavern. His wife reneges on her late husband 's vow and sells Tom at auction to a vicious plantation owner named Simon Legree. Legree (a transplanted northerner) takes Tom and Emmeline (whom Legree purchased at the same time) to rural Louisiana, where they meet Legree 's other slaves.
Legree begins to hate Tom when Tom refuses Legree 's order to whip his fellow slave. Legree beats Tom viciously and resolves to crush his new slave 's faith in God. Despite Legree 's cruelty, however, Tom refuses to stop reading his Bible and comforting the other slaves as best he can. While at the plantation, Tom meets Cassy, another of Legree 's slaves. Cassy was previously separated from her son and daughter when they were sold; unable to endure the pain of seeing another child sold, she killed her third child.
At this point Tom Loker returns to the story. Loker has changed as the result of being healed by the Quakers. George, Eliza, and Harry have also obtained their freedom after crossing into Canada. In Louisiana, Uncle Tom almost succumbs to hopelessness as his faith in God is tested by the hardships of the plantation. However, he has two visions, one of Jesus and one of Eva, which renew his resolve to remain a faithful Christian, even unto death. He encourages Cassy to escape, which she does, taking Emmeline with her. When Tom refuses to tell Legree where Cassy and Emmeline have gone, Legree orders his overseers to kill Tom. As Tom is dying, he forgives the overseers who savagely beat him. Humbled by the character of the man they have killed, both men become Christians. Very shortly before Tom 's death, George Shelby (Arthur Shelby 's son) arrives to buy Tom 's freedom but finds he is too late.
On their boat ride to freedom, Cassy and Emmeline meet George Harris ' sister and accompany her to Canada. Cassy discovers that Eliza is her long - lost daughter who was sold as a child. Now that their family is together again, they travel to France and eventually Liberia, the African nation created for former American slaves. George Shelby returns to the Kentucky farm and frees all his slaves. George tells them to remember Tom 's sacrifice and his belief in the true meaning of Christianity.
Uncle Tom, the title character, was initially seen as a noble, long - suffering Christian slave. In more recent years, however, his name has become an epithet directed towards African - Americans who are accused of selling out to whites. Stowe intended Tom to be a "noble hero '' and praiseworthy person. Throughout the book, far from allowing himself to be exploited, Tom stands up for his beliefs and is grudgingly admired even by his enemies.
Eliza is a slave and personal maid to Mrs. Shelby who escapes to the North with her five - year - old son Harry after he is sold to Mr. Haley. Her husband, George, eventually finds Eliza and Harry in Ohio and emigrates with them to Canada, then France and finally Liberia.
The character Eliza was inspired by an account given at Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati by John Rankin to Stowe 's husband Calvin, a professor at the school. According to Rankin, in February 1838 a young slave woman, Eliza Harris, had escaped across the frozen Ohio River to the town of Ripley with her child in her arms and stayed at his house on her way further north.
Evangeline St. Clare is the daughter of Augustine St. Clare. Eva enters the narrative when Uncle Tom is traveling via steamship to New Orleans to be sold, and he rescues the five - or six - year - old girl from drowning. Eva begs her father to buy Tom, and he becomes the head coachman at the St. Clare house. He spends most of his time with the angelic Eva. Eva often talks about love and forgiveness, even convincing the dour slave girl Topsy that she deserves love. She even touches the heart of her Aunt Ophelia.
Eventually Eva falls terminally ill. Before dying, she gives a lock of her hair to each of the slaves, telling them that they must become Christians so that they may see each other in Heaven. On her deathbed, she convinces her father to free Tom, but because of circumstances the promise never materializes.
A similar character, also named Little Eva, later appeared in the children 's novel Little Eva: The Flower of the South by Philip J. Cozans (although this ironically was an anti-Tom novel).
Simon Legree is a cruel slave owner -- a Northerner by birth -- whose name has become synonymous with greed. He is arguably the novel 's main antagonist. His goal is to demoralize Tom and break him of his religious faith; he eventually orders Tom whipped to death out of frustration for his slave 's unbreakable belief in God. The novel reveals that, as a young man, he had abandoned his sickly mother for a life at sea and ignored her letter to see her one last time at her deathbed. He sexually exploits Cassy, who despises him, and later sets his designs on Emmeline.
It is unclear if Legree is based on any actual individuals. Reports surfaced after the 1870s that Stowe had in mind a wealthy cotton and sugar plantation owner named Meredith Calhoun, who settled on the Red River north of Alexandria, Louisiana. Generally, however, the personal characteristics of Calhoun ("highly educated and refined '') do not match the uncouthness and brutality of Legree. Calhoun even edited his own newspaper, published in Colfax (originally "Calhoun 's Landing ''), which was renamed The National Democrat after Calhoun 's death. However, Calhoun 's overseers may have been in line with the hated Legree 's methods and motivations.
The more notable of the secondary and minor characters in Uncle Tom 's Cabin are:
Uncle Tom 's Cabin is dominated by a single theme: the evil and immorality of slavery. While Stowe weaves other subthemes throughout her text, such as the moral authority of motherhood and the redeeming possibilities offered by Christianity, she emphasizes the connections between these and the horrors of slavery. Stowe sometimes changed the story 's voice so she could give a "homily '' on the destructive nature of slavery (such as when a white woman on the steamboat carrying Tom further south states, "The most dreadful part of slavery, to my mind, is its outrages of feelings and affections -- the separating of families, for example. ''). One way Stowe showed the evil of slavery was how this "peculiar institution '' forcibly separated families from each other. One of the subthemes presented in the novel is temperance. Stowe made it somewhat subtle and in some cases she weaved it into events that would also support the dominant theme. One example of this is when Augustine St. Clare is killed, he attempted to stop a brawl between two inebriated men in a cafe and was stabbed. One other example is the death of the slave woman Prue who was whipped to death for being drunk on a consistent basis; however, her reasons for doing so is due to the loss of her baby. In the opening of the novel, the fates of Eliza and her son are being discussed between slave owners over wine. Considering that Stowe intended this to be a subtheme, this scene could foreshadow future events that put alcohol in a bad light.
Because Stowe saw motherhood as the "ethical and structural model for all of American life '' and also believed that only women had the moral authority to save the United States from the demon of slavery, another major theme of Uncle Tom 's Cabin is the moral power and sanctity of women. Through characters like Eliza, who escapes from slavery to save her young son (and eventually reunites her entire family), or Eva, who is seen as the "ideal Christian '', Stowe shows how she believed women could save those around them from even the worst injustices. While later critics have noted that Stowe 's female characters are often domestic clichés instead of realistic women, Stowe 's novel "reaffirmed the importance of women 's influence '' and helped pave the way for the women 's rights movement in the following decades.
Stowe 's puritanical religious beliefs show up in the novel 's final, overarching theme -- the exploration of the nature of Christianity and how she feels Christian theology is fundamentally incompatible with slavery. This theme is most evident when Tom urges St. Clare to "look away to Jesus '' after the death of St. Clare 's beloved daughter Eva. After Tom dies, George Shelby eulogizes Tom by saying, "What a thing it is to be a Christian. '' Because Christian themes play such a large role in Uncle Tom 's Cabin -- and because of Stowe 's frequent use of direct authorial interjections on religion and faith -- the novel often takes the "form of a sermon. ''
Uncle Tom 's Cabin is written in the sentimental and melodramatic style common to 19th century sentimental novels and domestic fiction (also called women 's fiction). These genres were the most popular novels of Stowe 's time and tended to feature female main characters and a writing style which evoked a reader 's sympathy and emotion. Even though Stowe 's novel differs from other sentimental novels by focusing on a large theme like slavery and by having a man as the main character, she still set out to elicit certain strong feelings from her readers. The power in this type of writing can be seen in the reaction of contemporary readers. Georgiana May, a friend of Stowe 's, wrote a letter to the author, saying: "I was up last night long after one o'clock, reading and finishing Uncle Tom 's Cabin. I could not leave it any more than I could have left a dying child. '' Another reader is described as obsessing on the book at all hours and having considered renaming her daughter Eva. Evidently the death of Little Eva affected a lot of people at that time, because in 1852, 300 baby girls in Boston alone were given that name.
Despite this positive reaction from readers, for decades literary critics dismissed the style found in Uncle Tom 's Cabin and other sentimental novels because these books were written by women and so prominently featured "women 's sloppy emotions. '' One literary critic said that had the novel not been about slavery, "it would be just another sentimental novel, '' while another described the book as "primarily a derivative piece of hack work. '' In The Literary History of the United States, George F. Whicher called Uncle Tom 's Cabin "Sunday - school fiction '', full of "broadly conceived melodrama, humor, and pathos. ''
However, in 1985 Jane Tompkins expressed a different view of Uncle Tom 's Cabin with her book In Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction. Tompkins praised the style so many other critics had dismissed, writing that sentimental novels showed how women 's emotions had the power to change the world for the better. She also said that the popular domestic novels of the 19th century, including Uncle Tom 's Cabin, were remarkable for their "intellectual complexity, ambition, and resourcefulness ''; and that Uncle Tom 's Cabin offers a "critique of American society far more devastating than any delivered by better - known critics such as Hawthorne and Melville. ''
This view remains the subject of dispute. Writing in 2001, legal scholar Richard Posner described Uncle Tom 's Cabin as part of the mediocre list of canonical works that emerges when political criteria are imposed on literature.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin has exerted an influence equaled by few other novels in history. Upon publication, Uncle Tom 's Cabin ignited a firestorm of protest from defenders of slavery (who created a number of books in response to the novel) while the book elicited praise from abolitionists. As a best - seller, the novel heavily influenced later protest literature.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin outraged people in the American South. The novel was also roundly criticized by slavery supporters.
Acclaimed Southern novelist William Gilmore Simms declared the work utterly false, while others called the novel criminal and slanderous. Reactions ranged from a bookseller in Mobile, Alabama, being forced to leave town for selling the novel to threatening letters sent to Stowe (including a package containing a slave 's severed ear). Many Southern writers, like Simms, soon wrote their own books in opposition to Stowe 's novel.
Some critics highlighted Stowe 's paucity of life - experience relating to Southern life, saying that it led her to create inaccurate descriptions of the region. For instance, she had never been to a Southern plantation. However, Stowe always said she based the characters of her book on stories she was told by runaway slaves in Cincinnati. It is reported that "She observed firsthand several incidents which galvanized her to write (the) famous anti-slavery novel. Scenes she observed on the Ohio River, including seeing a husband and wife being sold apart, as well as newspaper and magazine accounts and interviews, contributed material to the emerging plot. ''
In response to these criticisms, in 1853 Stowe published A Key to Uncle Tom 's Cabin, an attempt to document the veracity of the novel 's depiction of slavery. In the book, Stowe discusses each of the major characters in Uncle Tom 's Cabin and cites "real life equivalents '' to them while also mounting a more "aggressive attack on slavery in the South than the novel itself had. '' Like the novel, A Key to Uncle Tom 's Cabin was a best - seller. However, while Stowe claimed A Key to Uncle Tom 's Cabin documented her previously consulted sources, she actually read many of the cited works only after the publication of her novel. A major part of the Key was Stowe 's critique of how the legal system supported slavery and licensed owners ' mistreatment of slaves. Thus, Stowe put more than slavery on trial; she put the law on trial. This continued an important theme of Uncle Tom 's Cabin -- that the shadow of law brooded over the institution of slavery and allowed owners to mistreat slaves and then avoid punishment for their mistreatment. In some cases, as Stowe pointed out, it even prevented kind owners from freeing their slaves.
Despite these criticisms, the novel still captured the imagination of many Americans. According to Stowe 's son, when Abraham Lincoln met her in 1862 Lincoln commented, "So this is the little lady who started this great war. '' Historians are undecided if Lincoln actually said this line, and in a letter that Stowe wrote to her husband a few hours after meeting with Lincoln no mention of this comment was made. Since then, many writers have credited this novel with focusing Northern anger at the injustices of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law and helping to fuel the abolitionist movement. Union general and politician James Baird Weaver said that the book convinced him to become active in the abolitionist movement.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin also created great interest in the United Kingdom. The first London edition appeared in May 1852 and sold 200,000 copies. Some of this interest was because of British antipathy to America. As one prominent writer explained, "The evil passions which Uncle Tom gratified in England were not hatred or vengeance (of slavery), but national jealousy and national vanity. We have long been smarting under the conceit of America -- we are tired of hearing her boast that she is the freest and the most enlightened country that the world has ever seen. Our clergy hate her voluntary system -- our Tories hate her democrats -- our Whigs hate her parvenus -- our Radicals hate her litigiousness, her insolence, and her ambition. All parties hailed Mrs. Stowe as a revolter from the enemy. '' Charles Francis Adams, the American minister to Britain during the war, argued later that "Uncle Tom 's Cabin; or Life among the Lowly, published in 1852, exercised, largely from fortuitous circumstances, a more immediate, considerable and dramatic world - influence than any other book ever printed. ''
A French edition, translated by M.L. Carion (or by (Anne -) Louise Swanton - Belloc? (1796 -- 1881)), appeared by 1853 published in Cambrai and in Paris. By 1857, the novel had been translated into 20 languages, including two independent translations into Slovene just one year after its original publication, which started the since - then uninterrupted dialogue between American authors and Slovene translators and readers. Later, it was translated into almost every major language, including Chinese (with translator Lin Shu creating the first Chinese translation of an American novel in 1901) and Amharic (with the 1930 translation created in support of Ethiopian efforts to end the suffering of blacks in that nation). The book was so widely read that Sigmund Freud reported a number of patients with sado - masochistic tendencies who he believed had been influenced by reading about the whipping of slaves in Uncle Tom 's Cabin. A short article which was published in the oficial newspaper of the Salvadoran government in July 22, 1853 praised Harriet Beecher Stowe and her book 's success.
As the first widely read political novel in the United States, Uncle Tom 's Cabin greatly influenced development of not only American literature but also protest literature in general. Later books which owe a large debt to Uncle Tom 's Cabin include The Jungle by Upton Sinclair and Silent Spring by Rachel Carson.
Despite this undisputed significance, Uncle Tom 's Cabin has been called "a blend of children 's fable and propaganda. '' The novel has also been dismissed by a number of literary critics as "merely a sentimental novel, '' while critic George Whicher stated in his Literary History of the United States that "Nothing attributable to Mrs. Stowe or her handiwork can account for the novel 's enormous vogue; its author 's resources as a purveyor of Sunday - school fiction were not remarkable. She had at most a ready command of broadly conceived melodrama, humor, and pathos, and of these popular sentiments she compounded her book. ''
Other critics, though, have praised the novel. Edmund Wilson stated that "To expose oneself in maturity to Uncle Tom 's Cabin may... prove a startling experience. '' Jane Tompkins states that the novel is one of the classics of American literature and wonders if many literary critics dismiss the book because it was simply too popular during its day.
Over the years scholars have postulated a number of theories about what Stowe was trying to say with the novel (aside from the obvious themes, such as condemning slavery). For example, as an ardent Christian and active abolitionist, Stowe placed many of her religious beliefs into the novel. Some scholars have stated that Stowe saw her novel as offering a solution to the moral and political dilemma that troubled many slavery opponents: whether engaging in prohibited behavior was justified in opposing evil. Was the use of violence to oppose the violence of slavery and the breaking of proslavery laws morally defensible? Which of Stowe 's characters should be emulated, the passive Uncle Tom or the defiant George Harris? Stowe 's solution was similar to Ralph Waldo Emerson 's: God 's will would be followed if each person sincerely examined his principles and acted on them.
Scholars have also seen the novel as expressing the values and ideas of the Free Will Movement. In this view, the character of George Harris embodies the principles of free labor, while the complex character of Ophelia represents those Northerners who condoned compromise with slavery. Dinah, who operates on passion. During the course of the novel Ophelia is transformed, just as the Republican Party (three years later) proclaimed that the North must transform itself and stand up for its antislavery principles.
Feminist theory can also be seen at play in Stowe 's book, with the novel as a critique of the patriarchal nature of slavery. For Stowe, blood relations rather than paternalistic relations between masters and slaves formed the basis of families. Moreover, Stowe viewed national solidarity as an extension of a person 's family, thus feelings of nationality stemmed from possessing a shared race. Consequently, she advocated African colonization for freed slaves and not amalgamation into American society.
The book has also been seen as an attempt to redefine masculinity as a necessary step toward the abolition of slavery. In this view, abolitionists had begun to resist the vision of aggressive and dominant men that the conquest and colonization of the early 19th century had fostered. In order to change the notion of manhood so that men could oppose slavery without jeopardizing their self - image or their standing in society, some abolitionists drew on principles of women 's suffrage and Christianity as well as passivism, and praised men for cooperation, compassion, and civic spirit. Others within the abolitionist movement argued for conventional, aggressive masculine action. All the men in Stowe 's novel are representations of either one kind of man or the other.
Some modern scholars and readers have criticized the book for supposedly condescending racist descriptions of the black characters ' appearances, speech, and behavior, as well as the passive nature of Uncle Tom in accepting his fate. The novel 's creation and use of common stereotypes about African Americans is significant because Uncle Tom 's Cabin was the best - selling novel in the world during the 19th century. As a result, the book (along with illustrations from the book and associated stage productions) was accused of playing a major role in permanently ingraining such stereotypes into the American psyche. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Black Power and Black Arts Movements attacked the novel, claiming that the character of Uncle Tom engaged in "race betrayal '', and that Tom made slaves out to be worse than slave owners.
Among the stereotypes of blacks in Uncle Tom 's Cabin are the "happy darky '' (in the lazy, carefree character of Sam); the light - skinned tragic mulatto as a sex object (in the characters of Eliza, Cassy, and Emmeline); the affectionate, dark - skinned female mammy (through several characters, including Mammy, a cook at the St. Clare plantation); the pickaninny stereotype of black children (in the character of Topsy); the Uncle Tom, an African American who is too eager to please white people. Stowe intended Tom to be a "noble hero '' and a Christ - like figure who, like Jesus at his crucifixion, forgives the people responsible for his death. The false stereotype of Tom as a "subservient fool who bows down to the white man '', and the resulting derogatory term "Uncle Tom '', resulted from staged "Tom Shows '', which replaced Tom 's grim death with an upbeat ending where Tom causes his oppressors to see the error of their ways, and they all reconcile happily. Stowe had no control over these shows and their alteration of her story.
These negative associations have to some extent obscured the historical impact of Uncle Tom 's Cabin as a "vital antislavery tool ''.. James Baldwin, in a 1949 essay "Everybody 's Protest Novel '', called Uncle Tom 's Cabin a "very bad novel ''... "ruined by its "self - righteous, virtuous sentimentality '', and stated that Stowe was less a novelist than an "impassioned pamphleteer '', i.e., a propagandist for the antislavery cause. Edward Rothstein has claimed that Baldwin missed the point and that the purpose of the novel was "to treat slavery not as a political issue but as an individually human one -- and ultimately a challenge to Christianity itself ''; as a propaganda work it need not necessarily be great literature in order to succeed in its goals.
In recent years, however, scholars such as Henry Louis Gates Jr. have re-examined Uncle Tom 's Cabin, stating that the book is a "central document in American race relations and a significant moral and political exploration of the character of those relations ''.
In response to Uncle Tom 's Cabin, writers in the Southern United States produced a number of books to rebut Stowe 's novel. This so - called Anti-Tom literature generally took a pro-slavery viewpoint, arguing that the issues of slavery as depicted in Stowe 's book were overblown and incorrect. The novels in this genre tended to feature a benign white patriarchal master and a pure wife, both of whom presided over childlike slaves in a benevolent extended family style plantation. The novels either implied or directly stated that African Americans were a childlike people unable to live their lives without being directly overseen by white people.
Among the most famous anti-Tom books are The Sword and the Distaff by William Gilmore Simms, Aunt Phillis 's Cabin by Mary Henderson Eastman, and The Planter 's Northern Bride by Caroline Lee Hentz, with the last author having been a close personal friend of Stowe 's when the two lived in Cincinnati. Simms ' book was published a few months after Stowe 's novel, and it contains a number of sections and discussions disputing Stowe 's book and her view of slavery. Hentz 's 1854 novel, widely read at the time but now largely forgotten, offers a defense of slavery as seen through the eyes of a northern woman -- the daughter of an abolitionist, no less -- who marries a southern slave owner.
In the decade between the publication of Uncle Tom 's Cabin and the start of the American Civil War, between twenty and thirty anti-Tom books were published. Among these novels are two books titled Uncle Tom 's Cabin As It Is (one by W.L. Smith and the other by C.H. Wiley) and a book by John Pendleton Kennedy. More than half of these anti-Tom books were written by white women, with Simms commenting at one point about the "Seemingly poetic justice of having the Northern woman (Stowe) answered by a Southern woman. ''
Even though Uncle Tom 's Cabin was the best - selling novel of the 19th century, far more Americans of that time saw the story as a stage play or musical than read the book. Eric Lott, in his book Uncle Tomitudes: Racial Melodrama and Modes of Production, estimates that at least three million people saw these plays, ten times the book 's first - year sales.
Given the lax copyright laws of the time, stage plays based on Uncle Tom 's Cabin -- "Tom shows '' -- began to appear while the novel was still being serialized. Stowe refused to authorize dramatization of her work because of her distrust of drama (although she did eventually go to see George L. Aiken 's version and, according to Francis Underwood, was "delighted '' by Caroline Howard 's portrayal of Topsy). Aiken 's stage production continued as "the most popular play in England and America for seventy - five years. '' Stowe 's refusal to authorize a particular dramatic version left the field clear for any number of adaptations, some launched for (various) political reasons and others as simply commercial theatrical ventures.
No international copyright laws existed at the time. The book and plays were translated into several languages; Stowe received no money, which could have meant as much as "three fourths of her just and legitimate wages. ''
All Tom shows appear to have incorporated elements of melodrama and blackface minstrelsy. These plays varied tremendously in their politics -- some faithfully reflected Stowe 's sentimentalized antislavery politics, while others were more moderate, or even pro-slavery. Many of the productions featured demeaning racial caricatures of Black people, while a number of productions also featured songs by Stephen Foster (including "My Old Kentucky Home '', "Old Folks at Home '', and "Massa 's in the Cold Ground ''). The best - known Tom Shows were those of George Aiken and H.J. Conway.
The version by Aiken is perhaps the best known stage adaptation, released just a few months after the novel was published. This six - act behemoth also set an important precedent by being the first show on Broadway to stand on its own, without the performance of other entertainments or any afterpiece. Most of Aiken 's dialogue is lifted verbatim from Stowe 's novel and it included four full musical numbers written by the producer, George C. Howard. Another legacy of this adaptation is its reliance upon very different locations all portrayed on the same stage. This reliance led to large sets and set a precedent for the future days of film. By focusing on the stark and desperate situations of his characters, Aiken appealed to the emotions of his audiences. By combining this melodramatic approach with the content of Stowe 's novel, Aiken helped to create a powerful visual indictment against the institution of slavery.
The many stage variants of Uncle Tom 's Cabin "dominated northern popular culture... for several years '' during the 19th century, and the plays were still being performed in the early 20th century.
One of the unique and controversial variants of the Tom Shows was Walt Disney 's 1933 Mickey 's Mellerdrammer. Mickey 's Mellerdrammer is a United Artists film released in 1933. The title is a corruption of "melodrama '', thought to harken back to the earliest minstrel shows, as a film short based on a production of Uncle Tom 's Cabin by the Disney characters. In that film, Mickey Mouse and friends stage their own production of Uncle Tom 's Cabin. Mickey Mouse was already black - colored, but the advertising poster for the film shows Mickey dressed in blackface with exaggerated, orange lips; bushy, white sidewhiskers made out of cotton; and his trademark white gloves.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin has been adapted several times as a film. Most of these movies were created during the silent film era (Uncle Tom 's Cabin was the most - filmed book of that time period). Because of the continuing popularity of both the book and "Tom '' shows, audiences were already familiar with the characters and the plot, making it easier for the film to be understood without spoken words. There has been no Hollywood treatment since the end of the silent era.
The first film version of Uncle Tom 's Cabin was one of the earliest full - length movies (although full - length at that time meant between 10 and 14 minutes). This 1903 film, directed by Edwin S. Porter, used white actors in blackface in the major roles and black performers only as extras. This version was evidently similar to many of the "Tom Shows '' of earlier decades and featured numerous stereotypes about blacks (such as having the slaves dance in almost any context, including at a slave auction).
In 1910, a three - reel Vitagraph Company of America production was directed by J. Stuart Blackton and adapted by Eugene Mullin. According to The Dramatic Mirror, this film was "a decided innovation '' in motion pictures and "the first time an American company '' released a dramatic film in three reels. Until then, full - length movies of the time were 15 minutes long and contained only one reel of film. The movie starred Florence Turner, Mary Fuller, Edwin R. Phillips, Flora Finch, Genevieve Tobin and Carlyle Blackwell, Sr.
At least four more movie adaptations were created in the next two decades. The last silent film version was released in 1927. Directed by Harry A. Pollard (who played Uncle Tom in a 1913 release of Uncle Tom 's Cabin), this two - hour movie was more than a year in production and was the third most expensive picture of the silent era (at a cost of $1.8 million). The black actor Charles Gilpin was originally cast in the title role, but he was fired after the studio decided his "portrayal was too aggressive. '' James B. Lowe took over the character of Tom. The screenplay takes many liberties with the original book, including altering the Eliza and George subplot, introducing the Civil War and Emancipation, and combining the characters of Eliza and Emmeline. Another difference occurs after Tom dies: Simon Legree is haunted by an apparitional vision of the late Tom and falls to his death in a futile effort to attack the ghostly image.
Black media outlets of the time praised the film, but the studio -- fearful of a backlash from Southern and white film audiences -- ended up cutting out controversial scenes, including the film 's opening sequence at a slave auction (in which a mother is torn away from her baby). The story was adapted by Harvey F. Pollard, Thew and A.P. Younger, with titles by Walter Anthony. It starred James B. Lowe, Virginia Grey, George Siegmann, Margarita Fischer, Mona Ray and Madame Sul - Te - Wan.
For several decades after the end of the silent film era, the subject matter of Stowe 's novel was judged too sensitive for further film interpretation. In 1946, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer considered filming the story but ceased production after protests led by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
A German - language version, Onkel Toms Hütte, directed by Géza von Radványi, was released in 1965 and was presented in the United States by exploitation film presenter Kroger Babb.
The most recent film version was a television broadcast in 1987, directed by Stan Lathan and adapted by John Gay. It starred Avery Brooks, Phylicia Rashad, Edward Woodward, Jenny Lewis, Samuel L. Jackson and Endyia Kinney.
In addition to film adaptations, versions of Uncle Tom 's Cabin have been produced in other formats. In Brazil, the adapted version A Cabana do Pai Tomás was produced as a TV soap opera by Rede Globo; with 205 episodes, it was aired from July 1969 to March 1970.
A number of animated cartoons were produced, including the Bugs Bunny cartoon Southern Fried Rabbit (1953), in which Bugs disguises himself as Uncle Tom and sings My Old Kentucky Home in order to cross the Mason - Dixon line; Uncle Tom 's Bungalow (1937), a Warner Brothers cartoon supervised by Tex Avery; Eliza on Ice (1944), one of the earliest Mighty Mouse cartoons produced by Paul Terry; and Uncle Tom 's Cabaña (1947), an eight - minute cartoon directed by Tex Avery.
Uncle Tom 's Cabin has influenced numerous movies, including The Birth of a Nation. This controversial 1915 film set the dramatic climax in a slave cabin similar to that of Uncle Tom, where several white Southerners unite with their former enemy (Yankee soldiers) to defend, according to the film 's caption, their "Aryan birthright. '' According to scholars, this reuse of such a familiar image of a slave cabin would have resonated with, and been understood by, audiences of the time.
Other movies influenced by or making use of Uncle Tom 's Cabin include Dimples (a 1936 Shirley Temple film), Uncle Tom 's Uncle, (a 1926 Our Gang episode), its 1932 remake Spanky, the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The King and I (in which a ballet called "Small House of Uncle Thomas '' is performed in traditional Siamese style), and Gangs of New York (in which Leonardo DiCaprio and Daniel Day - Lewis 's characters attend an imagined wartime adaptation of Uncle Tom 's Cabin).
Major collections of Uncle Tom 's Cabin books, ephemera, and artifacts reside at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia and the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
|
what gland is also known as the mixed gland | Salivary gland - wikipedia
The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands, glands with ducts, that produce saliva, which is composed of several components including amylase, a digestive enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose and glucose. In humans and some other mammals the secretion is alpha - amylase, also known as ptyalin.
The salivary glands are detailed below:
The two parotid glands are major salivary glands wrapped around the mandibular ramus in humans. The largest of the salivary glands, they secrete saliva to facilitate mastication and swallowing, and amylase to begin the digestion of starches. It is the serous type of gland which secretes the ptyalin. It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct or Stensen duct. The glands are located posterior to the mandibular ramus and anterior to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. They are clinically relevant in dissections of facial nerve branches while exposing the different lobes of it since any iatrogenic lesion will result in either loss of action or strength of muscles involved in facial expression. They produce 20 % of the total salivary content in the oral cavity.
The submandibular glands are a pair of major salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws, superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral cavity via the submandibular duct or Wharton duct. Approximately 65 - 70 % of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, even though they are much smaller than the parotid glands. You can usually feel this gland, as it is in the superficial cervical region and feels like a rounded ball. It is located about two fingers above the Adam 's apple (laryngeal prominence) and about two inches apart under the chin.
The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature; however, it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands does not have intercalated ducts and usually does not have striated ducts either, so saliva exits directly from 8 - 20 excretory ducts known as the Rivinus ducts. Approximately 5 % of saliva entering the oral cavity comes from these glands.
There are 800 - 1000 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within the submucosa of the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal, labial, and lingual mucosa, the soft palate, the lateral parts of the hard palate, and the floor of the mouth or between muscle fibers of the tongue. They are 1 - 2mm in diameter and unlike the major glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue, only surrounded by it. The gland has usually a number of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature (except for Von Ebner glands - see next section) and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are sometimes associated with minor salivary glands if there is dry mouth present (see further discussion). The minor salivary glands are innervated by the seventh cranial or facial nerve.
Von Ebner 's glands are glands found in a trough circling the circumvallate papillae on the dorsal surface of the tongue near the terminal sulcus. They secrete a purely serous fluid that begins lipid hydrolysis. They also facilitate the perception of taste through secretion of digestive enzymes and proteins. The arrangement of these glands around the circumvallate papillae provides a continuous flow of fluid over great number of taste bud along the sides of the papillae. It is important for dissolving the food particles to be tested.
Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system. Parasympathetic stimulation evokes a copious flow of saliva. In contrast, sympathetic stimulation produces either a small flow, which is rich in protein, or no flow at all.
The gland is internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.
Secretory cells are found in a group, or acinus (plural, acini). Each acinus is located at the terminal part of the gland connected to the ductal system, with many acini within each lobule of the gland. Each acinus consists of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a lumen, a central opening where the saliva is deposited after being produced by the secretory cells. The three forms of acini are classified in terms of the type of epithelial cell present and the secretory product being produced: serous, mucoserous and mucous.
In the duct system, the lumina are formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or secretory ducts). These are found on most major and minor glands (exception may be the sublingual gland).
All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present there but the saliva also contains enzymes that are actually activated by the acid.
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 60 % of these genes are expressed in normal, adult salivary glands. Less than 100 genes are more specifically expressed in the salivary gland. The salivary gland specific genes are mainly genes that encode for secreted proteins and compared to other organs in the human body, the salivary gland has the highest fraction of secreted genes. The heterogeneous family of proline - rich, human salivary glycoproteins, such as PRB1 and PRH1, are salivary gland specific proteins with highest level of expression. Examples of other specifically expressed proteins include the digestive amylase enzyme AMY1A, the mucin MUC7 and statherin, all of major importance for specific characteristics of saliva.
A sialogram is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct that may be used to investigate its function.
A salivary calculus may cause blockage of the ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland. These are most commonly found in the submandibular gland ducts.
Saliva production may be pharmacologically stimulated by sialagogues such as pilocarpine and cevimeline. It can also be suppressed by so - called antisialagogues such as tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, antihypertensives, and polypharmacy. Cancer treatments including chemotherapy and radiation therapy may impair salivary flow. Radiation therapy may cause permanent hyposalivation due to injury to the oral mucosa containing the salivary glands, resulting in dry mouth or xerostomia, whereas chemotherapy may cause only temporary salivary impairment.
Graft versus host disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation may manifest as dry mouth and many small mucoceles.
Tumours of the salivary glands may occur, including mucoepidermoid carcinoma.
A unique commensal community of microorganisms, or bacteria, are present in the health salivary glands. During the study of this biome, many new genera of bacteria were discovered that had not been seen before.
Aging of salivary glands show some structural changes:
In addition to that, there would be some changes in salivary contents:
However, there is no overall change in the amount of saliva secreted.
The salivary glands of some species however, are modified to produce proteins; salivary amylase is found in many, but by no means all, bird and mammal species (including humans, as noted above). Furthermore, the venom glands of venomous snakes (colloquially called poisonous snakes), Gila monsters, and some shrews, are modified salivary glands. In other organisms such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like silk or glues, and fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.
|
who played the voice of salem the cat | Nick Bakay - wikipedia
Nicholas Bakay (/ bəˈkeɪ / bə - KAY; born October 8, 1959) is an American actor, voice actor, writer, comedian and sportscaster. He is known as the voice of Salem Saberhagen on ABC / The WB 's Sabrina the Teenage Witch and Sabrina: The Animated Series, and Norbert Beaver on The Angry Beavers. He played Karl on the Fox series ' Til Death as well as serving as a producer of the show until it was cancelled by Fox.
Nicholas Bakay was born on October 8, 1959 in Buffalo, New York, where he attended Nichols School. He graduated from Kenyon College in 1981. He has Hungarian roots (his surname means "from Baka '').
Bakay served as a writer of Sabrina the Teenage Witch, in which he also voiced Salem Saberhagen, a warlock who has been transformed into the Spellman family 's pet cat for trying to take over the world. Bakay also served as a writer for the cartoon series Sabrina: The Animated Series, also providing his voice as Salem in this series as well, and as the voice of Norbert on The Angry Beavers.
Bakay is also an avid sport writer and commentator. He writes a weekly column for NFL.com called "Nick Bakay 's Manly House of Football '', as well as occasional columns for ESPN.com and ESPN The Magazine. He appears on SportsCenter on ESPN Wednesday and Thursday mornings during NFL season, and has frequently done segments on NFL Total Access on NFL Network. Bakay also has guest hosted numerous episodes of Up Close and Talk2, as well as contributed to Jim Rome Is Burning and numerous other sports shows.
Early in his career he wrote the storylines for the Evil Clown Comics series which appeared in National Lampoon magazine. From 1993 -- 1994, he was a writer for the comedy sketch series In Living Color, and appeared as Stu Dunfy, the host of the fictional game show The Dirty Dozens. He worked at Comedy Central, writing and appearing on numerous shows, including Night After Night with Allan Havey and Sports Monster.
Beginning in 2000, Bakay worked as a producer on the CBS hit comedy, The King of Queens, where he also wrote and acted in several episodes. He co-wrote the 2009 comedy film Paul Blart: Mall Cop with King of Queens star Kevin James, as well as its sequel, Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2 (2015).
In 2006, Bakay created, wrote, and voiced a cartoon for Comedy Central called The Adventures of Baxter and McGuire, which was nominated for an Emmy in the "Best Broadband Comedy '' category.
In 2013, Bakay began as a producer for the series Mom. Bakay also voiced the self - help radio announcer throughout the series.
From 2006 to 2010, Bakay served as a producer for and acted in the Fox comedy, ' Til Death.
Bakay has guest - starred on numerous TV sitcoms. He appeared on In Living Color in a semi-recurring role as Stu Dunfy, guest - host of the sketch "The Dirty Dozens '' (and other voice work). He also appeared on the Seinfeld episode ("The Smelly Car ''), Bakay plays Elaine 's boyfriend who in the beginning of the episode is so great because he "pillages and plunders, '' but later on, he ca n't bear being with Elaine because of the intense body odor she acquired from being in Jerry 's car.
In the That ' 70s Show episode "Ski Trip '', Bakay played Gus, a gay truck driver attracted to Kelso. He also stars in another episode of That ' 70s Show as the voice of Donna 's journal, and in "An Eric Forman Christmas '' as the voice of Santa Claus in Kelso 's Rankin - Bass - modeled dream.
Bakay had numerous recurring roles (such as Father McDaniel, Gus and miscellaneous voice work) on the show The King of Queens, which he also served as a producer and writer on. In the popular sitcom Ellen, Bakay starred as bookstore employee Lloyd in the 10th episode of the 2nd series, alongside comedian Ellen DeGeneres.
He also had roles on The Simpsons and Sabrina the Teenage Witch, playing Salem. He was the side - kick on two late night talk shows, Night After Night with Allan Havey and Dennis Miller 's short - lived show.
Bakay met his wife Robin while working at Comedy Central, where she was writing and producing on - air promos. They married in February 1994 and have two children together.
|
roger federer how many times has he won wimbledon | Roger Federer - wikipedia
US $ 109,853,682
Roger Federer (German pronunciation: (ˈrɔdʒər ˈfeːdərər); born 8 August 1981) is a Swiss professional tennis player who is currently ranked world No. 2 in men 's singles tennis by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP). Federer has won 19 Grand Slam singles titles, the most in history for a male tennis player and has held the world No. 1 spot in the ATP rankings for a record total of 302 weeks, including a record 237 consecutive weeks. After turning professional in 1998, he was continuously ranked in the top ten from October 2002 to November 2016.
In majors, he has won a record eight Wimbledon titles, five Australian Open titles, a record five consecutive US Open titles and one French Open title. He is among eight men to have captured a career Grand Slam and has reached a record 29 men 's singles Grand Slam finals, including ten in a row from the 2005 Wimbledon Championships to the 2007 US Open. Given these achievements, many players and analysts consider Federer the greatest tennis player of all time.
Among Federer 's other ATP tournament records include winning six ATP World Tour Finals, 19 ATP Tour 500 tournaments (tied with Rafael Nadal) and playing in the finals at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments (tied with Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic). He has also won an Olympic gold medal in doubles with his compatriot Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and an Olympic silver medal in singles at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. Representing Switzerland, Federer was a part of the 2001 winning Hopman Cup team and the 2014 winning Davis Cup team.
Federer has been named Swiss Sports Personality of the Year a record six times. In 2007, he won the ESPY Award for Best International Athlete and he has won the Best Male Tennis Player award a record seven times. He was named ATP Player of the Year five times, was named ITF World Champion five time, and won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years. He was named three times the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year. In 2017, ESPN ranked him fourth in its most famous athletes list, first among tennis players.
Federer was born in Basel, Switzerland. His father, Robert Federer, is Swiss - German, from Berneck, in the Canton of St. Gallen; and his mother, Lynette Federer (née Durand), from Kempton Park, Gauteng. Federer 's mother is descended from Dutch and French Huguenots. Federer has one sibling, his older sister Diana, who is the mother of a set of twins. Since his mother is South African, he holds both Swiss and South African citizenship. He grew up in nearby Birsfelden, Riehen, and then Münchenstein, close to the French and German borders and speaks Swiss German, Standard German, English and French fluently, as well as functional Italian and Swedish, Swiss German being his native language. Federer served as a ball boy at his hometown Basel tournament, the Swiss Indoors, in 1992 and 1993.
Like all male Swiss citizens, Federer was subject to compulsory military service in the Swiss Armed Forces. However, in 2003 he was ruled "unsuitable '' and was subsequently not required to fulfill his military obligation. Instead, he served in the civil protection force and was required to pay 3 % of his taxable income as an alternative. He grew up supporting F.C. Basel and the Swiss National Football Team. Federer also credits his hand - eye coordination to the wide range of sports he played as a child, including badminton and basketball.
Federer is married to former Women 's Tennis Association player Mirka Federer. He met her while both were competing for Switzerland in the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Miroslava Vavrinec retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury 7 years before she married Federer. They were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009, surrounded by a small group of close friends and family. In July 2009, Mirka gave birth to identical twin girls, Myla Rose and Charlene Riva. The Federers had another pair of identical twins in 2014, this time boys whom they named Leo and Lennart (known as Lenny).
In 2003, he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sports. Since May 2004, citing his close ties with South Africa, including that being where his mother was raised, he began supporting the South Africa - Swiss charity IMBEWU which helps children better connect to sports and social and health awareness. Later, In 2005, Federer visited South Africa to meet the children that had benefited from his support. In 2005, he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina. At the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, Federer arranged an exhibition involving several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief. The proceeds went to the victims of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. In December 2006 he visited Tamil Nadu, one of the areas in India most affected by the tsunami. He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF in April 2006 and has appeared in UNICEF public messages to raise public awareness of AIDS.
In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Federer arranged a collaboration with fellow top tennis players for a special charity event during the 2010 Australian Open called ' Hit for Haiti ', in which proceeds went to Haiti earthquake victims. He participated in a follow - up charity exhibition during the 2010 Indian Wells Masters which raised $1 million. The Nadal vs Federer "Match for Africa '' in 2010 in Zurich and Madrid raised more than $4 million for the Roger Federer Foundation and Fundación Rafa Nadal. In January 2011, Federer took part in an exhibition, Rally for Relief, to raise money for the victims of the Queensland floods. In 2014, the "Match for Africa 2 '' between Federer and Stan Wawrinka, again in Zurich, raised £ 850,000 for education projects in southern Africa.
Federer 's main accomplishments as a junior player came at Wimbledon in 1998, where he won both the boys ' singles final over Irakli Labadze, and in doubles teamed with Olivier Rochus, defeating the team of Michaël Llodra and Andy Ram. In addition, Federer lost the US Open Junior final in 1998 to David Nalbandian. He won four ITF junior singles tournaments in his career, including the prestigious Orange Bowl, where he defeated Guillermo Coria in the final. He ended 1998 with the # 1 junior world ranking, is awarded ITF junior World Champion, and he entered his first tournament as a professional during 1998 in Gstaad, where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in the first round.
Federer entered the top 100 ranking for the first time on 20 September 1999 and started at the 1999 Marseille Open defeating the reigning champion of the 1998 French Open, Spaniard Carlos Moya. His first final came at the Marseille Open in 2000, where he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset. Federer won the 2001 Hopman Cup representing Switzerland, along with Martina Hingis. The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan - Michael Gambill in the finals. Federer 's first singles win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament, where he defeated Julien Boutter in the final. Although he won his first title already in 1999 on the Challenger tour, winning the doubles event in Segovia, Spain with Dutchman Sander Groen, the final was played on Federer 's 18th birthday. In 2001, Federer made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open, losing to former world # 2 and eventual finalist Alex Corretja. His run to the French quarterfinals launched him into the top 15 for the first time in his career.
His international breakthrough came at the 2001 Wimbledon Championships where a 19 year old Federer faced the four - time defending champion and all - time Grand Slam leader Pete Sampras. The teenage Swiss stunned the seven time Wimbledon champion and # 1 seed in a dramatic five set epic to reach the quarterfinals. In the quarters he faced Englishman Tim Henman, eventually losing in an overtime fourth set tiebreaker. Federer 's breakthrough at Wimbledon signaled the record breaking dominance he would display at the All England Club over the next two decades.
The first final he reached at the prestigious Masters level came at the 2002 Miami Masters event, where he lost to former and future world # 1 Andre Agassi on hard court. Federer won his first Master Series event at the 2002 Hamburg Masters on clay, over Marat Safin; the victory put him in top 10 for the first time. Federer made 10 singles finals between 1998 and 2002, of which he won four and lost six. He also made six finals in doubles. Of note are Federer and partner Max Mirnyi 's defeat in the final of the Indian Wells Masters in 2002, and their victory in the same year in the final of the Rotterdam 500 series event. Federer had won the latter a year earlier with partner Jonas Björkman. He finished 2001 with an ATP ranking of # 13, and 2002 was the first year he was ranked within the top 10, finishing at # 6.
In 2003, Federer won his first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, beating Andy Roddick in the semifinals and Mark Philippoussis in the final. In August he had a chance to take over the # 1 ranking for the first time from Andre Agassi if he made it to the Montreal final. However, he fell in the semifinals to Roddick, in a final set tiebreaker leaving him a tantalizing 120 points behind Agassi. This, coupled with early losses to David Nalbandian at Cincinnati and the US Open, denied Federer the chance to become # 1 for the duration of the season.
Federer won his first and only doubles Masters Series 1000 event in Miami with Max Mirnyi and made it to one singles Masters Series 1000 event in Rome on clay, which he lost. Federer made it to nine finals on the ATP Tour and won seven of them, including the 500 series events at Dubai and Vienna. Lastly, Federer won the year - end championships over Andre Agassi, finishing the year as world # 2, narrowly behind Andy Roddick by only 160 points.
During 2004, Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles for the first time in his career and became the first person to do so since Mats Wilander in 1988. His first major hard - court title came at the Australian Open over Marat Safin, thereby becoming the world # 1 for the first time. He then won his second Wimbledon crown over Andy Roddick. Federer defeated the 2001 US Open champion, Lleyton Hewitt, at the US Open for his first title there.
Federer won three ATP Masters Series 1000 events, one was on clay in Hamburg, and the other two were on hard surfaces at Indian Wells and in Canada. Federer took the ATP 500 series event at Dubai and wrapped up the year by winning the year - end championships for the second time. He also won his first tournament on home soil by capturing the Swiss Open in Gstaad. His 11 singles titles were the most of any player in two decades, and his record of 74 -- 6 was the best since Ivan Lendl in 1986. He reached the year - end world No. 1 ranking for the first time.
In 2005, Federer failed to reach the finals of the first two Grand Slam tournaments, losing the Australian Open semifinal to eventual champion Safin after holding match points, and the French Open semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal. However, Federer quickly reestablished his dominance on grass, winning the Wimbledon Championships over Andy Roddick. At the US Open, Federer defeated Andre Agassi in the latter 's last major final.
Federer also took four ATP Masters Series 1000 wins: Indian Wells, Miami and Cincinnati on hard court, and Hamburg on clay. The win in Miami was particularly noteworthy as it was the first final contested between Federer and Rafael Nadal in what would become one of the greatest rivalries in tennis history. Federer recovered from two sets and a break down to take the final in five sets. Furthermore, Federer won two ATP 500 series events at Rotterdam and Dubai. Federer lost the year - end championships to David Nalbandian in five sets while playing through a foot injury that sidelined him for almost the rest of the season after September. He maintained his position as world # 1 for the entire season.
The season was statistically one of the most dominant in the Open Era. He won 11 singles titles, which tied his 2004 season as the most in over two decades, his 81 match victories were the most since Pete Sampras in 1993, and his record of 81 -- 4 (95.2 %) remains the second - best winning percentage in the Open Era behind only John McEnroe in 1984.
The 2006 season was statistically the best season of Federer 's career, as well as one of the greatest seasons of any player in tennis history. In November 2011, Stephen Tignor, chief editorial writer for Tennis.com, ranked Federer 's 2006 season as the second - greatest season of all time during the Open Era, behind only Rod Laver 's Grand Slam year of 1969.
Federer won 12 singles titles (the most of any player since John McEnroe in 1984) and had a match record of 92 -- 5 (the most wins since Ivan Lendl in 1982). Federer reached the finals in an astounding 16 of the 17 tournaments he entered during the season.
In 2006, Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and reached the final of the other, with the only loss coming against Nadal in the French Open. This was Federer and Nadal 's first meeting in a Grand Slam final. He was the first man to reach all four finals in a calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969. Federer defeated Nadal in the Wimbledon Championships final. In the Australian Open, Federer defeated Marcos Baghdatis, and at the US Open, Federer defeated Roddick (2003 champion). In addition, Federer made it to six ATP Masters Series 1000 finals, winning four on hard surfaces and losing two on clay to Nadal. Federer, however, consistently pushed Nadal to the limit on clay throughout the season taking him to fourth - set tiebreakers in Monte - Carlo and Paris, and a thrilling match in Rome that went to a deciding fifth - set tiebreaker.
Federer won one ATP 500 series event in Tokyo and captured the year - end championships for the third time in his career, again finishing the year as world # 1. Federer only lost to two players during 2006, to Nadal four times in finals, and to 19 - year - old Andy Murray in the second round of the 2006 Cincinnati Masters, in what would be Federer 's only defeat before reaching the final of a tournament that year. Federer finished the season on a 29 - match winning streak, as well as winning 48 of his last 49 matches after the French Open.
A personal highlight for Federer came near the end of the season when he won his hometown tournament, the Swiss Indoors in Basel, Switzerland.
In 2007, Federer reached all four Grand Slam singles finals, winning three of them again. He won the Australian Open without dropping a set, beating Fernando González in the final. This made him the first man in the 21st century to accomplish the feat, as Björn Borg at the 1980 French Open was the last to win a Grand Slam tournament without the loss of a set. Federer had entered the year on a huge winning streak and after capturing his fourth Dubai crown Federer 's winning streak stood at 41 matches, the longest of his career and only five shy of the record. Federer entered Indian Wells as the three - time defending champion, but his streak would end in controversy. He was defeated by an Argentine, Guillermo Cañas, who had failed a drug test for illegal doping.
This surprising first - round defeat marked the first time since August 2006 he suffered defeat, a period spanning over seven months.
During the clay season, Federer 's victory in the Hamburg Masters final was particularly impressive, as it snapped Rafael Nadal 's 81 - match winning streak on clay, an Open - Era record. Federer turned the match around from a set down to sweep 12 of the final 14 games, including a final set bagel. At the French Open, some anticipated that Federer could become the first man in almost 40 years to hold all four majors simultaneously, having just resoundingly defeated young rival Nadal on clay entering the tournament. However, in a repeat of the previous year Federer played a tough four - set final against Nadal, but was undone by going 1 / 17 on break - point chances.
At Wimbledon, Federer entered the tournament not only as the four - time defending champion, but also riding a 48 - match winning streak on grass. Once again, he defeated Rafael Nadal for a second consecutive year in the final, this time in a thrilling five - set encounter that many analysts hailed as the greatest Wimbledon final since 1980. Victory at Wimbledon equaled him with Björn Borg for the record of five consecutive championships at the All England Club.
Federer reached the final in Montreal before playing a young and relatively unknown Serbian named Novak Djokovic. Djokovic proved his potential by stunning the world # 1 in a final - set tiebreaker upset. Federer rebounded in Cincinnati to capture his fifth title of the year. Federer entered the US Open as the three - time defending champion and faced Djokovic in the final. This time, Federer prevailed in a close straight - set match. Victory in New York moved him ahead of Laver and Borg for third on the all - time list of major championship victories. Throughout the tournament, the American press labelled him Darth Federer for his all - black attire (which included tuxedo - striped shorts) and the tournament played The Imperial March from Star Wars when he was announced onto the court for each of his matches. He would close out the year with victories in Basel and the Year End Championships in Shanghai.
He finished the season as the year - end world # 1 for the fourth year in a row, demonstrating his dominance, and during these four years he won 11 Grand Slam singles titles. After his phenomenal triple Grand Slam season yet again, Federer became the only player in history to win three Majors in a year for three years (2004, 2006, 2007). It was the third consecutive season that Federer would hold the world # 1 ranking for all 52 weeks of the year.
Federer 's success in 2008 was severely hampered by a lingering bout of mononucleosis, which he suffered from during the first half of the year. At the end of the year, he would suffer a back injury that would prove to be recurring throughout his career.
In 2008, Federer captured one Grand Slam, a singles title at the US Open over Briton Andy Murray. Federer was defeated by Nadal in two Grand Slam finals, at the French Open, and at Wimbledon, when he was going for six straight wins to break Björn Borg 's record. At the Australian Open, Federer lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Djokovic, which ended his record of 10 consecutive finals. Later in the year, it was found Federer had been suffering from mononucleosis at the start of the year, particularly during the Australian Open. He lost twice in Masters Series 1000 finals on clay to Nadal, at Monte Carlo and Hamburg. However, Federer captured three titles in 250 - level events at Estoril, Halle, and Basel.
At the Olympic Games, Federer and Stan Wawrinka won the gold medal in doubles, after beating the Bryan brothers American team in the semifinals and the Swedish duo of Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson in the final However, Federer could only reach the quarterfinals in the singles draw, knocked out by then world # 8 James Blake. He ended the year as world # 2.
Federer entered the 2009 season with 13 Grand Slams, only one behind Pete Sampras ' all - time record. The season began with a loss to Nadal in the finals of the Australian Open in a hotly contested five - set match. Federer struggled following the defeat in Melbourne and entered the clay season without a title.
Federer 's season turned around in the final masters event of the clay season when he defeated Nadal on clay for only the second time to capture the Madrid Masters. Federer entered the French Open with few predicting him to win the elusive Parisian title having lost to Nadal in the final weekend for the past four seasons. After Nadal 's unexpected defeat to Robin Söderling, Federer suddenly became the overwhelming favorite. It would not be easy as in his next match as he was forced to come from two sets and break point down in the third set to defeat Tommy Haas in five sets. He was also forced to fight back from a two - sets - to - one deficit against a young Juan Martín del Potro to win a five setter in the semifinals. In the final, he faced Söderling, and with a straight sets victory, he finally captured the Coupe des Mousquetaires and career Grand Slam. This victory tied him with Pete Sampras for the most Grand Slam singles titles.
Federer immediately turned his sights to the grass courts of Wimbledon, where he breezed his way to the final. In the championship match he faced long - time rival Andy Roddick in what would be their eighth and eventually final meeting at a Grand Slam. Roddick pushed Federer into a record - setting fifth set, which the Swiss claimed 16 -- 14 to win his 15th men 's singles Grand Slam singles title, breaking the all - time record of Pete Sampras.
Federer continued his summer run by winning his third title on the lightning - fast courts of the Cincinnati Masters, defeating Novak Djokovic in the final. At the US Open he defeated Söderling in the quarters and Djokovic, for the third consecutive year, in the semifinals. On the penultimate point of the Djokovic match he hit what many consider to be the greatest shot of his career, a tweener winner, to setup match points. Federer played del Potro in the final and led two sets to one before ultimately losing a fourth set tiebreaker and subsequently the match.
The 2009 season was perhaps the most historically relevant of Federer 's career as he completed a career Grand Slam by winning his first French Open title and won a men 's record fifteenth Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, surpassing Pete Sampras 's mark of fourteen. The 2009 Wimbledon final was also historic for being the longest Grand Slam final in terms of games played with Federer prevailing 16 -- 14 in the fifth set. Upon breaking the Grand Slam tournament record, Federer was hailed by some analysts and many tennis greats as the greatest player in tennis history. Federer finished the season as the year end World No. 1 for the fifth time in his career.
The year started with a win at the Australian Open, where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and extended the Grand Slam singles record to sixteen titles, matching Andre Agassi 's record of four Australian Open titles. Since Wimbledon 2005 Federer had made the finals of 18 out of 19 Grand Slam tournaments, an extraordinary period of sustained excellence unparalleled in the Open Era. This tournament, however, would mark the end of his utter dominance at the majors.
At the French Open, Federer won his 700th tour match and 150th tour match on clay. However, he failed to reach a Grand Slam semifinal for the first time since the 2004 French Open, losing to Söderling in the last 8 and relinquishing his # 1 ranking, having been just one week away from equalling Pete Sampras 's record of 286 weeks as world # 1. In a huge upset at Wimbledon, Federer lost in the last 8 again to Tomáš Berdych and fell to # 3 in the rankings for the first time in 6 years and 8 months.
Towards the middle of July, Federer hired Pete Sampras ' old coach Paul Annacone on a trial basis to put his tennis game and career back on track. At the 2010 US Open, Federer reached the semifinals, where he lost a heart - breaking five - set match to Novak Djokovic after holding two match points. Federer made it to four Masters 1000 finals, prevailing at the Cincinnati Masters against Mardy Fish.
Federer finished the year in strong form, winning indoor titles at the Stockholm Open, Swiss Indoors, and the ATP World Tour Finals in London, which brought his tally to 66 career titles. Federer won the year - end championships in London by beating rival Rafael Nadal for his fifth title at the event. He showed much of his old form, beating all contenders except Nadal in straight sets. It remains the only tournament in his career where Federer defeated all fellow members of the Big Four. Since Wimbledon 2010, Federer had a win - loss record of 34 -- 4. Federer finished in the top two for the eighth consecutive season.
The 2011 season, although great by most players ' standards, was a lean year for Federer. He was defeated in straight sets in the semifinals of the 2011 Australian Open by eventual champion Novak Djokovic, marking the first time since July 2003 that he did not hold any of the four major titles. In the French Open semifinals, Federer ended Djokovic 's undefeated streak of 43 consecutive wins with a four - set victory. However, Federer then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal. At Wimbledon, Federer advanced to his 29th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal, but lost to Jo - Wilfried Tsonga. It marked the first time in his career that he had lost a Grand Slam tournament match after winning the first two sets.
At the US Open, Federer lost a much - anticipated semifinal match to Novak Djokovic, after squandering two match points in the fifth set, which repeated his previous year 's result against Djokovic and added a second loss from two sets up in Grand Slam tournament play to his record. With that loss, it meant that Federer did not win at least one of the four majors in 2011, the first time since 2002. Later that month in September 2011, in a South African poll, Federer was voted the second most trusted and respected person in the world, next to Nelson Mandela.
Federer finished the season on a high note by yet again dominating the indoor season, winning his last three tournaments of the year at the Swiss Indoors, Paris Masters, and ATP World Tour Finals, and with a 16 match winning streak. He ended a 10 - month title drought by winning the Swiss Indoors for the fifth time, defeating Kei Nishikori. Federer followed this up with his first Paris Masters title, where he became the first player to reach all nine Masters 1000 finals. In the final of the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals, Federer defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga for the third consecutive Sunday and, in doing so, claimed a record sixth ATP World Tour Finals title, finishing the year as world # 3.
The 2012 season was a return to excellence for Federer. He had his most match wins since 2006 and his highest winning percentage and number of titles won since 2007.
Federer reached the semifinal of the 2012 Australian Open, setting up a 27th career meeting with Nadal, a match he lost in four tight sets. He then won the Rotterdam Open for the first time since 2005, defeating Juan Martín del Potro. Federer played in the 2012 Dubai Tennis Championships, where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and won the championship title for the fifth time in his career. Federer then moved on to the Indian Wells Masters, where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals, and John Isner in the final. Federer won the title for a record fourth time, and, in doing so, equalled Rafael Nadal 's record of 19 ATP Masters 1000 titles.
Federer went on to compete at the Madrid Masters on the new blue clay surface, where he beat Tomáš Berdych in the final, thus regaining the world # 2 ranking from Rafael Nadal. In the French Open, Federer made the semifinals before losing to Djokovic.
At Wimbledon, Federer survived a five - set match in the third round against Julien Benneteau on his way to the semifinals. In his semifinal match - up against world # 1 Novak Djokovic, Federer earned a record eighth Wimbledon final appearance after dispatching Djokovic in four sets. Federer defeated Andy Murray in four sets in the 2012 Wimbledon final, regaining the world # 1 ranking in the process. "It 's amazing. It equals me with Pete Sampras, who 's my hero. It just feels amazing '', Federer said of winning his seventh Wimbledon championship, tying Sampras ' Open Era record. By defeating top - ranked Djokovic in the semifinals and winning in the finals, Federer returned to the top spot in the world rankings and, in doing so, broke Sampras ' record of 286 weeks atop the list.
Four weeks after the Wimbledon final, Federer again faced Murray on the Wimbledon centre court, this time for the final of the 2012 Summer Olympics. This came after an epic 4 - hour 26 - minute semifinal against Juan Martín del Potro of Argentina that Federer won 19 -- 17 in the third and final set. He lost to Murray in straight sets in the final, winning a silver medal for his country.
Federer won in Cincinnati, beating Novak Djokovic soundly in the final. In the US Open, five - time champ Federer was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals. In the Shanghai Rolex Masters, defeating Stan Wawrinka in the third round, Federer confirmed his 300th week at # 1. Federer made it to the finals of the ATP World Tour Finals, where he lost to Novak Djokovic in two sets.
Federer struggled with back injuries sustained in March and again in July and saw his ranking drop from # 2 to # 6. The 2013 season was the first since 1999 in which Federer failed to reach a final in the first four months of the year.
Federer 's first and only title of 2013 came at the Gerry Weber Open (def. Mikhail Youzhny), where he also played doubles with good friend Tommy Haas. With the victory in Halle, he tied John McEnroe for the third-most number of ATP titles won by a male player in the Open Era. Federer, however, was unable to maintain his form into Wimbledon, suffering his worst Grand Slam tournament defeat since 2003 in the second round against Sergiy Stakhovsky. Not only did the loss end Federer 's record streak of 36 consecutive quarterfinals at Grand Slam tournaments, it meant he would drop out of the top 4 for first time since July 2003, exactly 10 years after he won his first Wimbledon title.
During the summer, he experimented with various different racquets and played the German Open with a blacked - out 98 - inch Wilson racquet, instead of his regular Pro Staff 6.1 90 BLX racquet with the smaller 90 - inch hitting area. He returned to his regular racquet for the second half of the season. After Wimbledon, Federer continued to be upset early in tournaments in Hamburg and Gstaad because of a serious back injury through October, when he announced that he was parting ways with Paul Annacone, his coach for the last three years. Federer made the final in Basel, succumbing to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets, and indicated it was a mistake to have played certain tournaments while suffering from a back injury.
On 27 December 2013, Federer announced that Stefan Edberg was joining his team as co-coach with Severin Lüthi.
Federer began the season by changing rackets for the first time in his career, from his longtime frame of 90 square inches to one measured at 97 square inches. He had long been at a comparative disadvantage in equipment as almost the entire tour, including his top rivals Nadal and Djokovic, used more powerful frames of between 95 and 100 square inches. At the Australian Open, Federer defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Murray to reach his 11th consecutive semifinal in Melbourne, before losing to Rafael Nadal in straight sets.
At the Dubai Tennis Championships, he defeated Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, and then defeated Tomáš Berdych in the final to win his sixth Dubai crown and his first title since Halle in 2013. Federer made the final at the Indian Wells Masters, but lost to Novak Djokovic in a final - set tiebreaker. At the Davis Cup quarterfinals, Federer won both of his singles rubbers against Kazakhstan, the second of which was the first live deciding rubber of his Davis Cup career. Federer then took a wild card into the Monte - Carlo Masters defeating Novak Djokovic on his way to the finals, but lost to compatriot Stan Wawrinka in a tight final.
In June, Federer announced that after the end of his third term, he would resign as President of the ATP Players Council, a position he had held since 2008. At the Halle Open, Federer reached both the singles and the doubles finals and won his seventh Halle singles title, beating Alejandro Falla in the final. At Wimbledon, Federer reached a record ninth final, but he was defeated by Djokovic in an epic five - set match.
Federer made the final of the Canadian Open but was defeated by Jo - Wilfried Tsonga. Federer defeated Spain 's David Ferrer in three sets to capture his sixth Cincinnati crown and 22nd ATP World Tour Masters 1000 title, his first in Cincinnati since 2012. He then reached the semifinals at the US Open but lost in straight sets to eventual champion Marin Čilić. At the Davis Cup semifinals, Federer won both his singles matches against Italy in straight sets and led Switzerland to the final for the first time since 1992.
Federer then played in the Shanghai Masters. He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, ending the Serb 's 28 - match unbeaten run on Chinese soil. He battled Frenchman Gilles Simon in his second Shanghai final, defeating him in two tiebreak sets and collected the 23rd Masters 1000 title of his career. The victory saw Federer return to world # 2 for the first time since May 2013. Federer then played the Swiss Indoors in October, where he won a record sixth title and his 82nd ATP men 's singles title overall. Federer also reached the finals of the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals to face Djokovic again, but withdrew from the final because of another back injury from his semifinal match against Stan Wawrinka.
Despite his injury, Federer finished the season on a high by defeating Richard Gasquet to clinch the Davis Cup for Switzerland for the first time in its history. The final was held at the Stade Pierre - Mauroy in Lille, France attracting over 27,000 spectators per match; this broke attendance record for the highest ever officially - sanctioned competition tennis match.
Federer started his season at the Brisbane International. He defeated Milos Raonic in the final, thereby becoming only the third man in the Open Era to have 1000 or more wins, joining Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl, as well as the first man in the Open Era to win at least one title in each of 15 consecutive years. In Dubai, Federer successfully defended his title with a straight - set victory over Novak Djokovic in the final, marking his seventh title at the tournament and, after Wimbledon and Halle, was the third time he had won seven or more titles in a tournament. Additionally, Federer became the fourth person since 1991 to surpass 9,000 career aces. In March, he reached the final of the Indian Wells, but lost in three sets to defending champion Djokovic.
Federer won his third title of the season at the inaugural Istanbul Open clay - court tournament, ending a title drought on red clay since the 2009 French Open. Federer made it to the final of the Italian Open in May, but was unable to win his first title there, losing to Djokovic in the final.
As the new expanded grass season began, Federer won his record eighth Gerry Weber Open and become only the third man in the Open Era to win a title eight times. Federer entered Wimbledon as the second seed. He played a flawless match to defeat Andy Murray in straight sets in the semifinals and advance to his 10th Wimbledon final in a repeat against Novak Djokovic. Federer lost the match in four sets.
He defeated Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic in straight sets to win the Cincinnati Masters for the seventh time. This marked the first time that Federer had beaten the top 2 players in the world at the same tournament. At the US Open, he advanced to his first final there since 2009 without dropping a set, including a win over Stan Wawrinka in the semifinals. In the final, he was once again defeated by top seed Djokovic in four sets. At the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel, Federer won his sixth singles title of the year, and his 88th ATP title, defeating his old rival Rafael Nadal in the final. It was the seventh time he had captured his hometown tournament.
In December, Federer announced that he would enter the 2016 ATP World Tour season with a new - look coaching team, having additionally announced that Stefan Edberg would not be travelling with him next year. While countryman Severin Lüthi remained Federer 's head coach, joining the team in 2016 was Croatian former world # 3 player Ivan Ljubicic. The Swiss tennis player revealed that Edberg originally signed on to the coaching team for one season only in 2014, but agreed to stay on in 2015.
Federer started his season in the Brisbane International as the defending champion, despite having a virus when the tournament started. However, in a rematch of the previous year 's final, he lost in the final to Milos Raonic in straight sets. Federer then participated at the 2016 Australian Open and rebounded from his third round defeat by Andreas Seppi in 2015 by reaching the semifinals but lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets. The day after his loss to Djokovic, Federer sustained a knee injury and in early February, he underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair a torn meniscus in his knee and missed the tournaments in Rotterdam, Dubai and Indian Wells in February and March. He was scheduled to return to action in Miami. Due to a stomach virus he had to withdraw from Miami thus prolonging his time on the sidelines.
Federer made his comeback at the Monte - Carlo Masters, losing in the quarterfinals to Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in three sets. In Madrid, he suffered a back injury during practice and withdrew shortly after arriving. He then participated in the Internazionali BNL d'Italia where he lost in the third round to Dominic Thiem. His withdrawal from the French Open broke a record run of 65 consecutive participations in the main draw of Grand Slam tournaments, stretching back to the 2000 Australian Open.
Still suffering from recurring knee pain during the grass season he lost in the semifinals of Stuttgart and Halle. On 6 July, he came back from two sets down to defeat Marin Čilić in five sets in the 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinals, equalling Jimmy Connors ' all - time records of eleven Wimbledon semifinals and 84 match wins. He suffered his first defeat in a Wimbledon semifinal two days later in a five - set loss to Raonic, re-injuring his knee in the fifth set.
On 26 July, Federer announced that he would miss the 2016 Summer Olympics and the remainder of the 2016 season to fully recover from his knee injury.
Federer 's 2017 season marked a return to excellence for him. He had the most number of grand slams since 2009, most career titles since 2007, and highest win percentage since 2006. Statistically, this season was his career best since 2007.
Federer played in the Hopman Cup and Australian Open in January 2017. At the Australian Open, he beat top - 10 players Tomáš Berdych and Kei Nishikori to reach the quarterfinals, where he beat Mischa Zverev, making Federer the oldest man to compete in a grand slam semi-final since Jimmy Connors in 1991. In the semi-finals, he defeated Stanislas Wawrinka in five sets, making him the oldest player to compete in a Grand Slam final since Ken Rosewall in 1974. Coming back from a break down in the fifth set, Federer defeated Rafael Nadal to win the Australian Open, which also marked Federer 's 100th match at the Australian Open; it was the first time Federer had won a match against Nadal in a Grand Slam event since the 2007 Wimbledon final, and also marked Federer 's first ever Grand Slam victory over Nadal outside the grass courts of Wimbledon. His victory against Nadal moved Federer to number ten in the ATP rankings, and made him the oldest player to win a major since Bill Tilden won Wimbledon in 1930.
In March, the Swiss won his 25th Masters title at Indian Wells, defeating Wawrinka in the final and gaining another victory over Nadal in the 4th round. This was also Federer 's 90th career title and he climbed to # 6 in the ATP rankings. Federer collected his 26th Masters title by defeating Nadal in the final of the Miami Masters in straight sets and climbed to # 4 in the ATP rankings. This marked the third time Federer had won in Indian Wells and Miami back - to - back, colloquially referred to as the Sunshine Double (2005, 2006 and 2017).
Due to concerns about his longevity, Federer decided that he would skip the entire clay - court season. He returned to the tour at the beginning of the grass - court season in Stuttgart, where he suffered a shock defeat to Tommy Haas in the second round despite holding match points, the lowest - ranked player (No. 302) to beat him since No. 407 Bjoern Phau in 1999. He rebounded the following week by winning a record - extending ninth title at the Gerry Weber Open in Halle, doing so without the loss of a set. In the 2017 Wimbledon Championships, Federer made it to the final without dropping a set, defeating Milos Raonic in the quarterfinals and Tomáš Berdych in the semifinals. In the final, Federer defeated Marin Cilic in straight sets to win a record - breaking eighth Wimbledon title and his record - extending 19th overall major title, to become the oldest male player to win Wimbledon in the Open era. The Swiss became the second man in the Open era to win Wimbledon without dropping a set after Björn Borg in 1976. It marked the second time in his career that he had won a grand slam tournament without losing a set, matching his performance at the 2007 Australian Open. Federer moved up to become world number 3 in the ATP Rankings after the event and qualified for the ATP Finals for a record 15th time.
At the opening of the summer hard court swing Federer was defeated in the final of the Montreal Masters by Alexander Zverev after injuring his back during the match. Due to the injury, he opted to withdraw from the Cincinnati Masters to be fit for the US Open. This injury effectively cost him the # 1 ranking as he would have attained it by reaching the Cincinnati final, a tournament he has won seven times. Despite his withdrawal from Cincinnati, Federer had little time to recover for the US Open, and the back injury severely affected his practice sessions. Even from the start, he looked uncomfortable and it took him five sets to win each of the first two rounds against Frances Tiafoe and Mikhail Youzhny. His campaign at the US Open finally ended in the last 8, where he lost to Juan Martin del Potro in four sets. His game was hampered by unforced errors at crucial points in the match and even he admitted that he never felt he had a chance to win the tournament.
Federer 's next participation was in September in the inaugural Laver Cup, representing team Europe. Federer played his first singles match on day two, where he dispatched Sam Querrey in straight sets. Later on day two, he partnered with his rival Nadal in doubles, where they defeated the Team World duo of Sam Querrey and Jack Sock in the match tie breaker, which took place at one set all. This was the first time Federer and Nadal competed on the same side of a doubles match. On day three, Federer competed in the final match of the tournament, where he sealed victory for Team Europe by defeating Nick Kyrgios in the champion 's tiebreak (saving a match point). With three wins and seven points, Federer was the most accomplished player of the tournament.
At the Shanghai Masters, Federer captured his third Masters title of the season, defeating world No. 1 Rafael Nadal in the final. This was Federer 's fifth straight victory over Nadal in their rivalry and his 94th career title, drawing him level with 2nd - placed Ivan Lendl. During the indoors season, Federer participated in his hometown tournament, the Swiss Indoors in Basel, Switzerland. His victory over Juan Martin Del Potro in the final earned him a record eighth championship in Basel and led to him achieving his 95th career title, surpassing Ivan Lendl in number of career titles.
Federer made his Davis Cup for Switzerland debut in the World Group 1st Round against Italy in 1999 at 17 years of age. In his first match he defeated Davide Sanguinetti in four sets and recorded a second singles victory in a dead rubber two days later as Switzerland advanced to the World Group Quarterfinals. In the Quarterfinals Federer, who was still 17 years old, suffered his first Davis Cup loss when he was defeated by Belgian Christophe Van Garsse in five sets. The Swiss team would go on to lose the rubber 3 -- 2. A year later, Federer competed in his first Davis Cup doubles rubber where he teamed with countryman Lorenzo Manta to defeat Australians Wayne Arthurs and Sandon Stolle in four sets. Despite the doubles victory, Federer lost both singles rubbers to Mark Philippoussis and Lleyton Hewitt which saw Switzerland sent to the World Group Playoffs for the first time in Federer 's career. He would return for the playoffs in July 2000 and led Switzerland to a 5 -- 0 win over Belarus by recording wins in singles and doubles.
His first Davis Cup highlight came in 2003 as the newly crowned Wimbledon champion led his country to an historic semifinal run. After recording five wins in ties against the Netherlands and France, the Swiss team traveled to Melbourne to play the highly rated Australians. Federer once again defeated Wimbledon runner - up Mark Philippoussis in the second rubber but allowed the Australians to lead the tie 2 -- 1 going into Day 3 after dropping the doubles rubber in five sets. Federer then played Lleyton Hewitt in a sudden death situation for Switzerland and despite leading two sets to love, succumbed to a fast finishing Hewitt in five sets. Australia would go on to claim the Davis Cup title months later as Federer 's interest in Davis Cup began to wane and his focus shifted to his personal career. He would go on to skip many ties over the years but often competed in the World Group Playoffs each year in order for Switzerland to maintain their place in the top division.
The emergence of countryman Stanislas Wawrinka as a Grand Slam singles champion in 2014 renewed hope for Federer in his Davis Cup quest, and the pair both committed to playing each tie that year. Their commitment would pay off as wins over Serbia, Kazakhstan and Italy allowed the Swiss team to advance to the 2014 Davis Cup Final. Leading into the final, Federer was suffering from a back injury that threw serious doubt over Switzerland 's chance to claim the title, and a second rubber straight sets loss to Gaël Monfils seemingly spelled the worst for Switzerland. However, a rejuvenated Federer returned the next day to help claim the doubles rubber, which set up a fourth rubber singles tie between Federer and Richard Gasquet. Federer defeated Gasquet in straight sets and in doing so handed Switzerland its first (and only to date) Davis Cup title.
Federer holds many Davis Cup records for Switzerland that includes most total wins, most singles wins and most years played.
An 18 - year - old Federer made his Olympic debut at Sydney in 2000, where he entered the singles competition. He surprised many by reaching the semifinals but lost to Tommy Haas in the semifinals and then to Arnaud Di Pasquale in the bronze medal match, causing Federer to leave Sydney empty handed. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Federer was the clear favorite after claiming the world number one ranking earlier in the year and capturing the Australian Open and Wimbledon titles. However, he lost in the second round to 18 - year - old Tomáš Berdych. In doubles, he and compatriot Yves Allegro lost in the second round. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Federer was again the top seed and favorite, but lost in the quarterfinals to James Blake. However, he found more success on the doubles court, capturing the gold medal in men 's doubles with compatriot Stan Wawrinka, defeating Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson of Sweden. At both the Athens and Beijing Olympic Games, Federer was the flagbearer for Switzerland in the opening ceremony. At London 2012, Federer won his first singles medal, losing to Andy Murray in the final to claim the silver. He and Wawrinka were unable to defend their gold medal in doubles, losing in the second round to Jonathan Erlich and Andy Ram of Israel. Federer did not compete in the Rio Olympics after taking the rest of the season off after Wimbledon to recover from a knee injury.
Federer and Rafael Nadal have been playing each other since 2004, and their rivalry is a significant part of both men 's careers.
They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 17 August 2009, when Nadal fell to world # 3 (Andy Murray became the new # 2), and again since 11 September 2017. They are the only pair of men to have ever finished six consecutive calendar years at the top. Federer was ranked # 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004. Nadal, who is five years younger, ascended to # 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks, before surpassing Federer in August 2008.
Nadal leads their head - to - head 23 -- 15. Federer has a winning record on grass (2 -- 1) and indoor hard courts (5 -- 1), while Nadal leads the outdoor hard courts (8 -- 6) and clay (13 -- 2). Because tournament seedings are based on rankings, 24 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all - time record nine Grand Slam finals. From 2006 to 2008, they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final. They then met in the 2009 Australian Open final, the 2011 French Open final, and the 2017 Australian Open final. Nadal won six of the nine, losing the first two Wimbledon finals and the second Australian Open final. Four of these finals were five set - matches (2007 and 2008 Wimbledon, 2009 and 2017 Australian Open), with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long - time tennis analysts. Of their 38 meetings, 13 have reached a deciding set. They have also played in 12 Masters Series finals, including their lone five - hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth - set tie - break, having saved two match points.
Federer and Novak Djokovic have met 45 times with Federer trailing 22 -- 23 wins. They are tied 17 -- 17 on hard - courts and 4 -- 4 on clay while Federer trails 1 -- 2 on grass. The Federer -- Djokovic rivalry is the largest rivalry in men 's Grand Slam tournament history with a record 15 matches played against each other with Federer trailing 6 -- 9. Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments (2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open, also 2015 Wimbledon, US Open and 2016 Australian Open), and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double - figure career wins over Federer. Djokovic is one of two players (the other again being Nadal) on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Grand Slam event (2008 Australian Open, 2011 Australian Open, 2012 French Open) and the only player to do so three times. Of their 45 meetings, 15 have reached a deciding set.
Federer and Djokovic first played in a Grand Slam final at the 2007 US Open where the three - time reigning champion and world # 1 Federer emerged victorious in straight sets. Federer ended Djokovic 's perfect 41 -- 0 start to the 2011 season in the semifinals of the French Open, but Djokovic was able to avenge this loss at the 2011 US Open in five sets after saving two match points against Federer for the second straight year. In the semifinals of Wimbledon 2012, Federer beat defending champion and world # 1 Djokovic in four sets. The two met again during the finals of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic emerging victorious after five sets. Federer also ended Djokovic 's 28 straight wins in China at 2014 Shanghai Open. Federer and Djokovic rematched in the 2015 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic once again claiming victory in four sets. The pair met once more for the final major of the season, the 2015 US Open and once more Djokovic prevailed in four sets. Many experts have included the rivalry between Federer and Djokovic as one of the best rivalries in the Open Era.
Federer and Andy Murray have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 -- 11. Federer leads 12 -- 10 on hard courts, and 2 -- 1 on grass. They have never met on clay. The two have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level, the first three times in the finals, Federer winning all three of these matches; at the 2008 US Open and the 2010 Australian Open, both of which he won in straight sets, and at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in which Murray took the opening set, but went on to lose in four sets. However, Murray won their encounter in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open, defeating the Swiss for the first time at a Grand slam tournament in five sets. At the 2014 Australian Open, Federer reversed that result, defeating Murray in four sets in the quarterfinals. The most recent meeting between the two in a Major was in the semifinals of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, where a dominant Federer triumphed in straight sets.
They met in the final of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, in which Murray defeated Federer in straight sets, denying the Swiss a career Golden Slam. Murray also leads 6 -- 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments, 2 -- 0 in finals. They have also met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals, with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008, and Federer in London in 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2014. Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer (the other two being Nadal and Novak Djokovic).
One of Federer 's longstanding rivalries was with American Andy Roddick. Roddick lost his world # 1 ranking to Federer after Federer won his first Australian Open in 2004. Federer and Roddick met on 24 occasions, including four Grand Slam event finals (three at Wimbledon and one at the US Open -- all won by Federer). Federer 's record is overall 21 -- 3. Roddick himself said it was not much of a rivalry, being so one - sided.
In the 2009 Wimbledon final, Roddick lost to Federer in five sets. The match included a 30 - game fifth set (a Grand Slam final record) and lasted over four hours. In the final game of the deciding set, Roddick 's serve was broken for the first time in the match. With that victory, Federer broke Pete Sampras ' record of 14 Grand Slam singles titles, and Roddick apologised to Sampras (who was there) for not being able to stop Federer.
Lleyton Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions. Early in their careers, Hewitt dominated Federer, winning seven of their first nine meetings, including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semifinal which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland. However, from 2004 onward, Federer dominated the rivalry, winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18 -- 9 overall head - to - head record. This is Hewitt 's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996. They met in one Grand Slam tournament final, the 2004 US Open final, where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer scored a bagel on both sides of a second - set tiebreak. Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy, including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005. Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International, where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets for his first title since 2010, when he also beat Federer to the Halle title.
Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men 's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999. They lost in third round to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter.
Federer and Andre Agassi played each other 11 times between 1998 and 2005 before Agassi 's retirement in 2006. Federer led the rivalry 8 -- 3. This was Federer 's most significant rivalry with an all - time great player of the previous generation. They first met in only the third tournament of Federer 's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer 's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17 - year - old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Masters in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two days with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al - Arab. Their final match was at one of the most prestigious platforms in the sport, when they played in the finals of the 2005 US Open. Federer was victorious in four sets, claiming the 6th Grand Slam tournament of his career and denying Agassi his 9th.
Juan Martín del Potro and Roger Federer have played 24 times with Federer leading 18 -- 6. They have met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments with Federer leading 5 -- 2. Their two most famous Grand Slam tournament meetings came in 2009. The first was in the French Open semifinals, when Federer survived a five - set clash when he was on his way to the only French title of his career. The second was in the final of the US Open, where del Potro stunned five - time defending champion Federer in five sets, ending his 20 - match winning streak at Grand Slams. Another high - profile match was in the semifinals of the 2012 London Olympics, where Federer prevailed 19 -- 17 in the final set to secure the Olympic silver medal. They also met in the finals of the Swiss Indoors in 2012, 2013 and 2017, with del Potro prevailing on first two occasions, and Federer on last one of them in tight three - set matches. In the 2017 U.S. Open quarterfinals, in a rematch of the 2009 US Open final, Del Potro again stunned Federer in four sets to end his unbeaten streak in grand slams that year. With this win, Del Potro also denied the first Federer - Nadal match at US Open, as in 2009 where he crushed Nadal in straight sets in the semifinals. Federer, however avenged this loss at the Shanghai Masters semifinals, where he beat del Potro in three sets after coming from a set down.
Marat Safin and Federer played each other 12 times, with Federer leading 10 -- 2. Federer and Safin turned pro within one year of each other, with Safin turning pro in 1997 and Federer in 1998. Federer leads 4 -- 1 on hard courts, 3 -- 0 on grass, and 3 -- 0 on clay courts, while Safin leads 1 -- 0 on carpet. Notable meetings include Federer 's defeating Safin at the 2002 Hamburg Masters to win the first Masters 1000 title of his career, as well as Federer 's emerging victorious in the semifinals of the 2004 Tennis Masters Cup, after winning a tiebreak 20 -- 18 on his eighth match point. Federer also defeated Safin in the finals of the 2004 Australian Open to capture his first Australian Open and second Grand Slam tournament title. However, Safin defeated Federer in the 2005 Australian Open semifinals, having saved one match point in the fourth - set tiebreak, to end a 26 - match winning streak by Federer. They met each other five times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 4 -- 1.
David Nalbandian was Federer 's biggest rival in his early career. The two played each other 19 times, with Federer leading 11 -- 8. Nalbandian dominated early on, winning their first five matches from 2002 -- 03. Federer reversed this trend at the 2003 Masters Cup, where he recorded his first victory, and would go on to win 11 of their last 14 meetings. Federer leads 6 -- 5 on hard courts, 1 -- 0 on grass, and 3 -- 1 on clay courts, while Nalbandian leads 2 -- 1 on carpet. Notable meetings include Nalbandian 's win in a fifth - set tiebreaker to win the 2005 Masters Cup, and Federer 's win in the 2006 French Open semifinals. They met each other six times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 4 -- 2.
Tomáš Berdych and Federer have played each other 25 times with Federer leading 19 -- 6. Federer leads 11 -- 5 on hard courts, 3 -- 1 on grass courts, 4 -- 0 on clay courts, and 1 -- 0 on carpet. Berdych won their first professional match, notably upsetting then world # 1 Federer at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Federer then went on to win their next eight meetings, before Berdych ended the losing streak in 2010. Between 2010 and 2013, Berdych won 5 of 8 meetings. Federer then switched to a larger racquet in 2014 to prevent being overpowered by players like Berdych and leads 8 -- 0 since. They have met nine times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 7 -- 2, and Berdych is one of five players, along with Arnaud Clément, Álex Corretja, David Nalbandian, and Jo - Wilfried Tsonga, to defeat Federer multiple times in majors before the semifinal stage. Their most notable Grand Slam matches took place in the 2009 Australian Open, when Federer prevailed in five sets after dropping the first two sets, the 2010 Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 US Open, both of which Berdych won in four sets. Berdych went on to reach the only Grand Slam final of his career after the Wimbledon quarterfinal victory which was significant as it ended Federer 's run of seven consecutive finals at Wimbledon dating back to 2003.
Jo - Wilfried Tsonga and Federer have met 17 times with Federer leading 11 -- 6. Federer leads 5 -- 3 on outdoor hard courts and 4 -- 0 on indoor hard, while Tsonga leads 1 -- 0 on grass. They are 2 -- 2 on clay courts. The pair have met six times in Grand Slam tournaments, including their five - set matches in the quarterfinals of 2011 Wimbledon and 2013 Australian Open. They have also one Grand Slam semifinal meeting in the 2010 Australian Open, with Federer winning in straight sets. Federer and Tsonga have played in the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals final and the Swiss maestro won his record - sixth Year - End Championship, after a three - setter. The pair have also met in two ATP World Tour Masters 1000 finals. The first was in the 2011 BNP Paribas Masters, with Federer winning his first title in Bercy, and the second was in the 2014 Rogers Cup, with Tsonga winning his second Masters 1000 title.
Federer 's most notable matchup with a compatriot has been with Stan Wawrinka and they have played each other 23 times with Federer leading 20 -- 3. Federer leads 6 -- 1 in Grand Slam tournaments, 15 -- 0 on hard courts, 1 -- 0 on grass courts and 4 -- 3 on clay courts. The pair are 1 -- 1 in finals. Their first meeting in the final came at 2014 Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters where Wawrinka defeated Federer in three sets to win his first Masters 1000 title before Federer avenged his loss at 2017 BNP Paribas Open by beating him in the final. While the rivalry is one - sided in Federer 's favour, the two of them have contested some close matches. Wawrinka defeated Federer in straight sets during the 2015 French Open quarterfinals en route to winning his first French Open title, although Federer then won a straight - sets victory in the 2015 US Open semifinals. Other close matches include the 2012 Shanghai Masters and the 2013 Indian Wells Masters, both of which Federer won in three sets, the 2014 Wimbledon quarterfinal which Federer won in four sets, the 2014 ATP World Tour Final semifinal in which Federer won in three sets after saving four match points and the 2017 Australian Open semifinal which Federer won in five sets. Despite their on - court rivalry, they are friends off court and they have played doubles together on numerous occasions, most notably when they won the doubles Olympic Gold at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and the 2014 Davis Cup.
Federer has been widely regarded as the greatest tennis player of all time. He dominated the game at his peak and has won more Grand Slam tournament titles (19) than any other men 's singles player. He is also the first men 's singles player to have reached ten consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals and a total of 29 Grand Slam finals. He has earned a men 's doubles gold medal, and a men 's single silver medal at the Olympics in 2008 and 2012, respectively. He spent the most amount of time in the Open Era at the top of the ATP Rankings (302 weeks). He also holds the record for the most titles (6) at the year - end tournament, where only the year - end eight highest - ranked players participate. Federer was ranked among the top eight players in the world continuously for 14 years and two weeks; from 14 October 2002 till 31 October 2016, when injuries forced him to skip much of the 2016 season.
Federer has won the ATPWorldTour.com Fans ' Favourite Award a record 14 times consecutively (2003 -- 16), won the ATP Player of the year five time (2004 -- 07, 2009), become ITF World Champion 5 times (2004 -- 07, 2009) and won the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award (voted for by the players) a record 12 times (2004 -- 09, 2011 -- 16), both being awards indicative of respect and popularity. He also won the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award twice (2006, 2013) and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years (2005 -- 08). Federer is at times known as Federer Express, shortened to Fed Express or FedEx, and Swiss Maestro, or just Maestro.
In 2016, he was ranked by ESPN as the greatest male or female tennis player ever. After his victory over Rafael Nadal in the 2017 Australian Open Final, John McEnroe concluded that "Federer (had) cemented himself as the greatest player of all time ''.
One of his most lasting legacies may turn out to be his creation of a new annual tournament called the Laver Cup which pits Europe against the rest of the world. Federer founded the tournament in honor of tennis legend Rod Laver and the inaugural edition was played in 2017.
Federer helped to lead a revival in tennis known by many as the Golden Age. This led to increased interest in the sport, which in turn led to higher revenues for many venues across tennis. During this period rising revenues led to exploding prize money; when Federer first won the Australian Open in 2004 he earned $985,000, compared to when he won in 2017 and the prize had increased to $2,774,000.
Upon winning the 2009 French Open and completing the career Grand Slam, Federer became the first individual male tennis player to grace the cover of Sports Illustrated since Andre Agassi in 1999. He was also the first non-American player to appear on the cover of the magazine since Stefan Edberg in 1992. Federer again made the cover of Sports Illustrated following his record breaking 8th Wimbledon title and second Grand Slam of 2017, becoming the first male tennis player to be featured on the cover since himself in 2009.
Federer 's versatility has been described by Jimmy Connors as: "In an era of specialists, you 're either a clay court specialist, a grass court specialist, or a hard court specialist... or you 're Roger Federer. ''
An elite athlete, Federer is an all - court, all - around player known for his speed, fluid style of play, and exceptional shot making. Federer mainly plays from the baseline but is also comfortable at the net, being one of the best volleyers in the game. He has a powerful, accurate smash and very effectively performs rare elements playing tennis, such as backhand smash and skyhook, half - volley and jump smash (slam dunk). David Foster Wallace compared the brute force of Federer 's forehand motion with that of "a great liquid whip '', while John McEnroe has referred to Federer 's forehand as "the greatest shot in our sport. '' Federer is also known for his efficient movement around the court and excellent footwork, which enables him to run around shots directed to his backhand and instead hit a powerful inside - out or inside - in forehand, one of his best shots.
Federer plays with a single - handed backhand, which gives him great variety. He employs the slice, occasionally using it to lure his opponent to the net and deliver a passing shot. Federer can also fire topspin winners and possesses a ' flick ' backhand with which he can generate pace with his wrist; this is usually used to pass the opponent at the net. His serve is difficult to read because he always uses a similar ball toss, regardless of what type of serve he is going to hit and where he aims to hit it, and turns his back to his opponents during his motion. He is often able to produce big serves on key points during a match. His first serve is typically around 200 km / h (125 mph); however, he is capable of serving at 220 km / h (137 mph). Federer is also accomplished at serve and volleying, and employed this tactic frequently in his early career.
Later in his career, Federer added the drop shot to his arsenal and can perform a well - disguised one off both wings. He sometimes uses a between - the - legs shot, which is colloquially referred to as a "tweener '' or "hotdog ''. His most notable use of the tweener was in the semifinals of the 2009 US Open against Novak Djokovic, bringing him triple match point. Federer is one of the top players who employs successfully the "squash shot '', when he gets pushed deep and wide on his forehand wing. Since Stefan Edberg joined his coaching team at the start of the 2014 season, Federer has played a more offensive game, attacking the net more often, and improved his volley shots. In the lead - up to the 2015 US Open, Federer successfully added a new unique shot to his arsenal called SABR (Sneak Attack by Roger), in which he charges his opponent while receiving the serve and hits a return on the run. With the switch to a bigger 97 inch racket from 90 inches, Federer has gained easy power while relinquishing some control on his shots. The bigger racket has enabled easier serving and better defense on both wings with less shanks. However this has diminished his forehand, slice backhand and dropshot. Since his comeback in 2017, Federer is noted for his improved backhand both down the line and cross court which was cited as the reason for his defeat of Nadal in the 2017 Australian Open Final and Indian Wells 4th Round.
Federer is also noted for his cool demeanour and emotional control on the court. In contrast to his early career, most of his professional game has been characterised by lack of outbursts or emotional frustration at errors, which gives him an advantage over less controlled opponents.
"I do n't get the anxiety during a match so much anymore. You know, to throw racquets, to toss balls out of the court, scream and stuff. I almost laugh (on the inside) about it a little bit today when an opponent does it. But that 's something for me that 's not a problem any more. '' ~ Roger Federer
Federer plays with the Wilson Prostaff RF97 Autograph, a 97 square inch tennis racquet with 21.5 mm beam, 360 g weight, 331 swing weight and 16x19 string pattern (all strung with overgrip). Since the 1998 Wimbledon Junior Championships Federer played with a Pro Staff 6.0 85 racquet. He switched to a bigger custom - built 90 tennis racquet since 2003, which is characterised by its smaller hitting area of 90 square inches, heavy strung weight of 364 grams, and thin beam of 17.5 millimetres. His grip size was 4 3 / 8 inches (sometimes referred to as L3). Federer strung his racquets at 21.5 kg mains / 20 kg crosses pre-stretched 20 percent, using Wilson Natural Gut 16 gauge for his main strings and Luxilon Big Banger ALU Power Rough 16L gauge (polyester) for his cross strings. When asked about string tensions, Federer stated "this depends on how warm the days are and with what kind of balls I play and against who I play. So you can see -- it depends on several factors and not just the surface; the feeling I have is most important. ''
Federer has a contract with Nike footwear and apparel. For the 2006 championships at Wimbledon, Nike designed a jacket emblazoned with a crest of three tennis racquets, symbolising the three Wimbledon Championships he had previously won, and which was updated the next year with four racquets after he won the Championship in 2006. At Wimbledon 2008, and again in 2009, Nike continued this trend by making him a personalised cardigan that also had his own logo, an R and an F joined together.
Federer is one of the highest - earning athletes in the world. He is listed at # 4 on the Forbes "World 's Highest Paid Athletes '' list. As of 2013, he remains the top earner in tennis with ten endorsement deals. He makes 40 to 50 million euros a year from prize money and endorsements from Nike and the Swiss companies Nationale Suisse, Credit Suisse, Rolex, Lindt, Sunrise, and Jura Elektroapparate. In 2010, his endorsement by Mercedes - Benz China was extended into a global partnership deal. His other sponsors include Gillette, Wilson, and Moët & Chandon. Previously, he was an ambassador for NetJets, Emmi AG, and Maurice Lacroix.
Note: Federer received fourth - round walkovers at the US Open (2004 and 2012) and the Wimbledon Championships (2007), and a second - round walkover at the Australian Open (2012); these are not counted as wins
|
what do cashews look like on the tree | Cashew - wikipedia
The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew seed and the cashew apple. It can grow as high as 14 m (46 ft), but the dwarf cashew, growing up to 6 m (20 ft), has proved more profitable, with earlier maturity and higher yields.
The species is originally native to northeastern Brazil. Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s. Major production of cashews occurs in Vietnam, Nigeria, India, and Ivory Coast.
The cashew nut, often simply called a cashew, is widely consumed. It is eaten on its own, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter. The shell of the cashew seed yields derivatives that can be used in many applications including lubricants, waterproofing, paints, and arms production, starting in World War II. The cashew apple is a light reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or distilled into liquor.
Its English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree caju (Portuguese pronunciation: (kaˈʒu)), which itself is derived from the Tupian word acajú, literally meaning "nut that produces itself ''. The generic name Anacardium, originally from the Greek, refers to the unusual location of the seed outside the core or heart of the fruit (ana - means "again '' or "backward '' and - cardium means "heart ''). A mid-seventeenth century ethnographic painting by Albert Eckhout, who accompanied Dutch governor - general Johan Maurits, shows a woman under a fruiting cashew tree.
The cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 m (46 ft) tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk. The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4 -- 22 cm (1.6 -- 8.7 in) long and 2 -- 15 cm (0.79 -- 5.91 in) broad, with smooth margins. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm (10 in) long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7 -- 15 mm (0.28 -- 0.59 in) long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area around 7,500 m (81,000 sq ft); it is located in Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil.
The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit). What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear - shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower. Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow and / or red structure about 5 -- 11 cm (2.0 -- 4.3 in) long. It is edible and has a strong "sweet '' smell and a sweet taste. The pulp of the cashew apple is very juicy, but the skin is fragile, making it unsuitable for transport. In Latin America, a fruit drink is made from the cashew apple pulp which has a very refreshing taste and tropical flavor that can be described as having notes of mango, raw green pepper, and just a little hint of grapefruit - like citrus.
The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney or boxing - glove shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple. The drupe develops first on the tree, and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple. Within the true fruit is a single seed, which is often considered a nut, in the culinary sense. The seed is surrounded by a double shell containing an allergenic phenolic resin, anacardic acid, a potent skin irritant chemically related to the better - known allergenic oil urushiol which is also a toxin found in the related poison ivy. Properly roasting cashews destroys the toxin, but it must be done outdoors as the smoke (not unlike that from burning poison ivy) contains urushiol droplets which can cause severe, sometimes life - threatening, reactions by irritating the lungs. People who are allergic to cashew (or poison ivy) urushiols may cross-react to mango or pistachio which are also in the Anacardiaceae family. Some people are allergic to cashews, but cashews are a less frequent allergen than tree nuts or peanuts.
While the cashew plant is native to northeast Brazil, the Portuguese took it to Goa, India, between 1560 and 1565. From there it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.
Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.
Cashew nuts are commonly used in Indian cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., korma), or some sweets (e.g., kaju barfi). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In Goan cuisine, both roasted and raw kernels are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashew nuts are also used in Thai and Chinese cuisines, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of Antipolo, and is eaten with suman. Pampanga also has a sweet dessert called turrones de casuy, which is cashew marzipan wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashew nut is called kacang mete or kacang mede, while the cashew apple is called jambu monyet (translates in English to monkey rose apple).
In Mozambique, bolo polana is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is popular in South Africa.
In Brazil, the cashew fruit juice is popular. Brazilians prefer the fruit to the nut. In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste - like dessert called dulce de marañón, with marañón as a Spanish name for cashew.
In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the demands for manufacturing cashew milk, a plant milk alternative to dairy milk.
The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds which may cause contact dermatitis similar in severity to that of poison ivy, primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol. Due to the possible dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers. Readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, cardanol is under research for its potential applications in nanomaterials and biotechnology.
In 2015, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 738,861 tonnes, led by India and Côte d'Ivoire each with 23 % of the world total (table). Vietnam and Brazil also had significant production of cashew kernels.
In 2014, rapid growth of cashew cultivation in Côte d'Ivoire made this country the top African exporter. Fluctuations in world market prices, poor working conditions, and low pay for local harvesting have caused discontent in the cashew nut industry.
Cashew nuts are produced in tropical countries because the tree is frost sensitive, adapting to various climatic regions between the latitudes of 25 ° N and 25 ° S. The traditional cashew tree is tall (up to 14 m) and takes three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests can begin. More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to 6 m tall, and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 metric tons per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies are used to further improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards.
In a 100 - gram serving, raw cashews provide 553 Calories, 67 % of the Daily Value (DV) in total fats, 36 % DV of protein, 13 % DV of dietary fiber and 11 % DV of carbohydrates (table). Cashews are rich sources (> 19 % DV) of dietary minerals, including particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79 - 110 % DV), and of thiamin, vitamin B and vitamin K (32 - 37 % DV) (table). Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14 - 61 % DV) (table). Cashews (100 grams, raw) contain 113 milligrams (1.74 gr) of beta - sitosterol.
For some 5 % of people, cashews can lead to complications or allergic reactions which may be life - threatening. These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins. Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing, particularly in Europe.
Cashew oil is a dark yellow oil for cooking or salad dressing pressed from cashew nuts (typically broken chunks created during processing). This may be produced from a single cold pressing.
Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil (CAS registry number 8007 - 24 - 7) is a natural resin with a yellowish sheen found in the honeycomb structure of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. It is a raw material of multiple uses in developing drugs, antioxidants, fungicides, and biomaterials. It is used in tropical folk medicine and for anti termite treatment of timber. Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.
These substances are skin allergens, like the oils of poison ivy, and present danger during manual cashew processing.
This natural oil phenol has been found to have interesting chemical structural features which enable a range of chemical modifications to create a wide spectrum of biobased monomers capitalizing on the chemically versatile construct, containing three different functional groups: the aromatic ring, the hydroxyl group, and the double bonds in the flanking alkyl chain. These can be split into key groups, used as polyols, which have recently seen a dramatic increase in demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of ridged polyurethanes aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass.
CNSL may be used as a resin for carbon composite products. CNSL - based Novolac is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a reticulating agent for epoxy matrices in composite applications providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material.
The cashew apple, also called cashew fruit, is the fleshy part of the cashew fruit attached to the cashew nut. The top end of the cashew apple is attached to the stem that comes off the tree. The bottom end of the cashew apple attaches to the cashew nut, which is encased in a shell. In botanical terms, the cashew apple is an accessory fruit that grows on the cashew seed (which is the nut).
The cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, as well as an alcoholic drink. It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries such as India and Brazil. In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic.
Cashew nuts are more popular than cashew apples in many parts of the world that do not grow cashews, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is difficult to transport. Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices.
Cashew apples have a sweet but astringent taste traced to the waxy layer on the skin that contains a chemical, urushiol, which can cause minor skin irritation to areas that have had contact with it. In cultures that consume cashew apples, this astringency is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water; alternatively, boiling the fruit in salt water for five minutes or soaking it in gelatin solution also reduces the astringency.
In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and the juice extracted and kept for fermentation for a few days. Fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called feni or fenny. Feni is about 40 -- 42 % alcohol. The single - distilled version is called urrac, which is about 15 % alcohol.
In the southern region of Mtwara, Tanzania, the cashew apple (bibo in Swahili) is dried and saved. Later, it is reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor often referred to by the generic name, gongo.
In Mozambique, cashew farmers commonly make a strong liquor from the cashew apple, agua ardente (burning water).
According to one source, an alcohol had been distilled in the early 20th century from the juice of the fruit, and was manufactured in the West Indies.
In traditional Maya medicine, the leaves or bark of cashew trees can be made into a tea to treat diarrhea.
Discarded cashew nuts unfit for human consumption, alongside the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels, can be used to feed livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees.
|
where does to kill a movkingbird take place | To Kill a Mockingbird - wikipedia
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on Lee 's observations of her family, her neighbors and an event that occurred near her hometown of Monroeville, Alabama, in 1936, when she was 10 years old.
The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator 's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel 's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism. ''
As a Southern Gothic novel and a Bildungsroman, the primary themes of To Kill a Mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence. Scholars have noted that Lee also addresses issues of class, courage, compassion, and gender roles in the American Deep South. The book is widely taught in schools in the United States with lessons that emphasize tolerance and decry prejudice. Despite its themes, To Kill a Mockingbird has been subject to campaigns for removal from public classrooms, often challenged for its use of racial epithets.
Reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication. Despite the number of copies sold and its widespread use in education, literary analysis of it is sparse. Author Mary McDonough Murphy, who collected individual impressions of To Kill a Mockingbird by several authors and public figures, calls the book "an astonishing phenomenon ''. In 2006, British librarians ranked the book ahead of the Bible as one "every adult should read before they die ''. It was adapted into an Oscar - winning film in 1962 by director Robert Mulligan, with a screenplay by Horton Foote. Since 1990, a play based on the novel has been performed annually in Harper Lee 's hometown.
To Kill a Mockingbird was Lee 's only published book until Go Set a Watchman, an earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, was published on July 14, 2015. Lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in February 2016, although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964.
Born in 1926, Harper Lee grew up in the Southern town of Monroeville, Alabama, where she became close friends with soon - to - be famous writer Truman Capote. She attended Huntingdon College in Montgomery (1944 -- 45), and then studied law at the University of Alabama (1945 -- 49). While attending college, she wrote for campus literary magazines: Huntress at Huntingdon and the humor magazine Rammer Jammer at the University of Alabama. At both colleges, she wrote short stories and other works about racial injustice, a rarely mentioned topic on such campuses at the time. In 1950, Lee moved to New York City, where she worked as a reservation clerk for British Overseas Airways Corporation; there, she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in Monroeville. Hoping to be published, Lee presented her writing in 1957 to a literary agent recommended by Capote. An editor at J.B. Lippincott, who bought the manuscript, advised her to quit the airline and concentrate on writing. Donations from friends allowed her to write uninterrupted for a year.
After finishing the first draft and returning it to Lippincott, the manuscript, at that point titled "Go Set a Watchman '', fell into the hands of Therese von Hohoff Torrey -- known professionally as Tay Hohoff -- a small, wiry veteran editor in her late 50s. Hohoff was impressed. "(T) he spark of the true writer flashed in every line, '' she would later recount in a corporate history of Lippincott. But as Hohoff saw it, the manuscript was by no means fit for publication. It was, as she described it, "more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel. '' During the next couple of years, she led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form and was retitled To Kill a Mockingbird.
Ultimately, Lee spent over two and a half years writing To Kill a Mockingbird. The book was published on July 11, 1960. After rejecting the "Watchman '' title, it was initially re-titled Atticus, but Lee renamed it "To Kill a Mockingbird '' to reflect that the story went beyond just a character portrait. The editorial team at Lippincott warned Lee that she would probably sell only several thousand copies. In 1964, Lee recalled her hopes for the book when she said, "I never expected any sort of success with ' Mockingbird. '... I was hoping for a quick and merciful death at the hands of the reviewers but, at the same time, I sort of hoped someone would like it enough to give me encouragement. Public encouragement. I hoped for a little, as I said, but I got rather a whole lot, and in some ways this was just about as frightening as the quick, merciful death I 'd expected. '' Instead of a "quick and merciful death '', Reader 's Digest Condensed Books chose the book for reprinting in part, which gave it a wide readership immediately. Since the original publication, the book has never been out of print.
The story takes place during three years (1933 -- 35) of the Great Depression in the fictional "tired old town '' of Maycomb, Alabama, the seat of Maycomb County. It focuses on six - year - old Jean Louise Finch (nicknamed Scout), who lives with her older brother, Jeremy (nicknamed Jem), and their widowed father, Atticus, a middle - aged lawyer. Jem and Scout befriend a boy named Dill, who visits Maycomb to stay with his aunt each summer. The three children are terrified yet fascinated by their neighbor, the reclusive Arthur "Boo '' Radley. The adults of Maycomb are hesitant to talk about Boo, and few of them have seen him for many years. The children feed one another 's imagination with rumors about his appearance and reasons for remaining hidden, and they fantasize about how to get him out of his house. After two summers of friendship with Dill, Scout and Jem find that someone leaves them small gifts in a tree outside the Radley place. Several times the mysterious Boo makes gestures of affection to the children, but, to their disappointment, he never appears in person.
Judge Taylor appoints Atticus to defend Tom Robinson, a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman, Mayella Ewell. Although many of Maycomb 's citizens disapprove, Atticus agrees to defend Tom to the best of his ability. Other children taunt Jem and Scout for Atticus 's actions, calling him a "nigger - lover ''. Scout is tempted to stand up for her father 's honor by fighting, even though he has told her not to. Atticus faces a group of men intent on lynching Tom. This danger is averted when Scout, Jem, and Dill shame the mob into dispersing by forcing them to view the situation from Atticus ' and Tom 's perspective.
Atticus does not want Jem and Scout to be present at Tom Robinson 's trial. No seat is available on the main floor, so by invitation of the Rev. Sykes, Jem, Scout, and Dill watch from the colored balcony. Atticus establishes that the accusers -- Mayella and her father, Bob Ewell, the town drunk -- are lying. It also becomes clear that the friendless Mayella made sexual advances toward Tom, and that her father caught her and beat her. Despite significant evidence of Tom 's innocence, the jury convicts him. Jem 's faith in justice becomes badly shaken, as is Atticus ', when the hapless Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape from prison.
Despite Tom 's conviction, Bob Ewell is humiliated by the events of the trial, Atticus explaining that he "destroyed (Ewell 's) last shred of credibility at that trial. '' Ewell vows revenge, spitting in Atticus ' face, trying to break into the judge 's house, and menacing Tom Robinson 's widow. Finally, he attacks the defenseless Jem and Scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school Halloween pageant. Jem suffers a broken arm in the struggle, but amid the confusion someone comes to the children 's rescue. The mysterious man carries Jem home, where Scout realizes that he is Boo Radley.
Sheriff Tate arrives and discovers that Bob Ewell has died during the fight. The sheriff argues with Atticus about the prudence and ethics of charging Jem (whom Atticus believes to be responsible) or Boo (whom Tate believes to be responsible). Atticus eventually accepts the sheriff 's story that Ewell simply fell on his own knife. Boo asks Scout to walk him home, and after she says goodbye to him at his front door he disappears again. While standing on the Radley porch, Scout imagines life from Boo 's perspective, and regrets that they had never repaid him for the gifts he had given them.
Scout then goes back home to Atticus and stays up with him for a while in Jem 's room. Soon Atticus takes her to bed and tucks her in, before leaving to go back to Jem.
Lee has said that To Kill a Mockingbird is not an autobiography, but rather an example of how an author "should write about what he knows and write truthfully ''. Nevertheless, several people and events from Lee 's childhood parallel those of the fictional Scout. Lee 's father, Amasa Coleman Lee, was an attorney, similar to Atticus Finch, and in 1919, he defended two black men accused of murder. After they were convicted, hanged and mutilated, he never tried another criminal case. Lee 's father was also the editor and publisher of the Monroeville newspaper. Although more of a proponent of racial segregation than Atticus, he gradually became more liberal in his later years. Though Scout 's mother died when she was a baby, Lee was 25 when her mother, Frances Cunningham Finch, died. Lee 's mother was prone to a nervous condition that rendered her mentally and emotionally absent. Lee 's older brother Edwin was the inspiration for Jem.
Lee modeled the character of Dill on her childhood friend, Truman Capote, known then as Truman Persons. Just as Dill lived next door to Scout during the summer, Capote lived next door to Lee with his aunts while his mother visited New York City. Like Dill, Capote had an impressive imagination and a gift for fascinating stories. Both Lee and Capote were atypical children: both loved to read. Lee was a scrappy tomboy who was quick to fight, but Capote was ridiculed for his advanced vocabulary and lisp. She and Capote made up and acted out stories they wrote on an old Underwood typewriter Lee 's father gave them. They became good friends when both felt alienated from their peers; Capote called the two of them "apart people ''. In 1960, Capote and Lee traveled to Kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for Capote 's nonfiction novel In Cold Blood.
Down the street from the Lees lived a family whose house was always boarded up; they served as the models for the fictional Radleys. The son of the family got into some legal trouble and the father kept him at home for 24 years out of shame. He was hidden until virtually forgotten; he died in 1952.
The origin of Tom Robinson is less clear, although many have speculated that his character was inspired by several models. When Lee was 10 years old, a white woman near Monroeville accused a black man named Walter Lett of raping her. The story and the trial were covered by her father 's newspaper which reported that Lett was convicted and sentenced to death. After a series of letters appeared claiming Lett had been falsely accused, his sentence was commuted to life in prison. He died there of tuberculosis in 1937. Scholars believe that Robinson 's difficulties reflect the notorious case of the Scottsboro Boys, in which nine black men were convicted of raping two white women on negligible evidence. However, in 2005, Lee stated that she had in mind something less sensational, although the Scottsboro case served "the same purpose '' to display Southern prejudices. Emmett Till, a black teenager who was murdered for allegedly flirting with a white woman in Mississippi in 1955, and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, is also considered a model for Tom Robinson.
The strongest element of style noted by critics and reviewers is Lee 's talent for narration, which in an early review in Time was called "tactile brilliance ''. Writing a decade later, another scholar noted, "Harper Lee has a remarkable gift of story - telling. Her art is visual, and with cinematographic fluidity and subtlety we see a scene melting into another scene without jolts of transition. '' Lee combines the narrator 's voice of a child observing her surroundings with a grown woman 's reflecting on her childhood, using the ambiguity of this voice combined with the narrative technique of flashback to play intricately with perspectives. This narrative method allows Lee to tell a "delightfully deceptive '' story that mixes the simplicity of childhood observation with adult situations complicated by hidden motivations and unquestioned tradition. However, at times the blending causes reviewers to question Scout 's preternatural vocabulary and depth of understanding. Both Harding LeMay and the novelist and literary critic Granville Hicks expressed doubt that children as sheltered as Scout and Jem could understand the complexities and horrors involved in the trial for Tom Robinson 's life.
Writing about Lee 's style and use of humor in a tragic story, scholar Jacqueline Tavernier - Courbin states: "Laughter... (exposes) the gangrene under the beautiful surface but also by demeaning it; one can hardly... be controlled by what one is able to laugh at. '' Scout 's precocious observations about her neighbors and behavior inspired National Endowment of the Arts director David Kipen to call her "hysterically funny ''. To address complex issues, however, Tavernier - Courbin notes that Lee uses parody, satire, and irony effectively by using a child 's perspective. After Dill promises to marry her, then spends too much time with Jem, Scout reasons the best way to get him to pay attention to her is to beat him up, which she does several times. Scout 's first day in school is a satirical treatment of education; her teacher says she must undo the damage Atticus has wrought in teaching her to read and write, and forbids Atticus from teaching her further. Lee treats the most unfunny situations with irony, however, as Jem and Scout try to understand how Maycomb embraces racism and still tries sincerely to remain a decent society. Satire and irony are used to such an extent that Tavernier - Courbin suggests one interpretation for the book 's title: Lee is doing the mocking -- of education, the justice system, and her own society -- by using them as subjects of her humorous disapproval.
Critics also note the entertaining methods used to drive the plot. When Atticus is out of town, Jem locks a Sunday school classmate in the church basement with the furnace during a game of Shadrach. This prompts their black housekeeper Calpurnia to escort Scout and Jem to her church, which allows the children a glimpse into her personal life, as well as Tom Robinson 's. Scout falls asleep during the Halloween pageant and makes a tardy entrance onstage, causing the audience to laugh uproariously. She is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume, which saves her life.
Scholars have characterized To Kill a Mockingbird as both a Southern Gothic and a Bildungsroman. The grotesque and near - supernatural qualities of Boo Radley and his house, and the element of racial injustice involving Tom Robinson, contribute to the aura of the Gothic in the novel. Lee used the term "Gothic '' to describe the architecture of Maycomb 's courthouse and in regard to Dill 's exaggeratedly morbid performances as Boo Radley. Outsiders are also an important element of Southern Gothic texts and Scout and Jem 's questions about the hierarchy in the town cause scholars to compare the novel to Catcher in the Rye and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Despite challenging the town 's systems, Scout reveres Atticus as an authority above all others, because he believes that following one 's conscience is the highest priority, even when the result is social ostracism. However, scholars debate about the Southern Gothic classification, noting that Boo Radley is in fact human, protective, and benevolent. Furthermore, in addressing themes such as alcoholism, incest, rape, and racial violence, Lee wrote about her small town realistically rather than melodramatically. She portrays the problems of individual characters as universal underlying issues in every society.
As children coming of age, Scout and Jem face hard realities and learn from them. Lee seems to examine Jem 's sense of loss about how his neighbors have disappointed him more than Scout 's. Jem says to their neighbor Miss Maudie the day after the trial, "It 's like bein ' a caterpillar wrapped in a cocoon... I always thought Maycomb folks were the best folks in the world, least that 's what they seemed like ''. This leads him to struggle with understanding the separations of race and class. Just as the novel is an illustration of the changes Jem faces, it is also an exploration of the realities Scout must face as an atypical girl on the verge of womanhood. As one scholar writes, "To Kill a Mockingbird can be read as a feminist Bildungsroman, for Scout emerges from her childhood experiences with a clear sense of her place in her community and an awareness of her potential power as the woman she will one day be. ''
Despite the novel 's immense popularity upon publication, it has not received the close critical attention paid to other modern American classics. Don Noble, editor of a book of essays about the novel, estimates that the ratio of sales to analytical essays may be a million to one. Christopher Metress writes that the book is "an icon whose emotive sway remains strangely powerful because it also remains unexamined ''. Noble suggests it does not receive academic attention because of its consistent status as a best - seller ("If that many people like it, it ca n't be any good. '') and that general readers seem to feel they do not require analytical interpretation.
Harper Lee has remained famously detached from interpreting the novel since the mid-1960s. However, she gave some insight into her themes when, in a rare letter to the editor, she wrote in response to the passionate reaction her book caused: "Surely it is plain to the simplest intelligence that To Kill a Mockingbird spells out in words of seldom more than two syllables a code of honor and conduct, Christian in its ethic, that is the heritage of all Southerners. ''
When the book was released, reviewers noted that it was divided into two parts, and opinion was mixed about Lee 's ability to connect them. The first part of the novel concerns the children 's fascination with Boo Radley and their feelings of safety and comfort in the neighborhood. Reviewers were generally charmed by Scout and Jem 's observations of their quirky neighbors. One writer was so impressed by Lee 's detailed explanations of the people of Maycomb that he categorized the book as Southern romantic regionalism. This sentimentalism can be seen in Lee 's representation of the Southern caste system to explain almost every character 's behavior in the novel. Scout 's Aunt Alexandra attributes Maycomb 's inhabitants ' faults and advantages to genealogy (families that have gambling streaks and drinking streaks), and the narrator sets the action and characters amid a finely detailed background of the Finch family history and the history of Maycomb. This regionalist theme is further reflected in Mayella Ewell 's apparent powerlessness to admit her advances toward Tom Robinson, and Scout 's definition of "fine folks '' being people with good sense who do the best they can with what they have. The South itself, with its traditions and taboos, seems to drive the plot more than the characters.
The second part of the novel deals with what book reviewer Harding LeMay termed "the spirit - corroding shame of the civilized white Southerner in the treatment of the Negro ''. In the years following its release, many reviewers considered To Kill a Mockingbird a novel primarily concerned with race relations. Claudia Durst Johnson considers it "reasonable to believe '' that the novel was shaped by two events involving racial issues in Alabama: Rosa Parks ' refusal to yield her seat on a city bus to a white person, which sparked the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the 1956 riots at the University of Alabama after Autherine Lucy and Polly Myers were admitted (Myers eventually withdrew her application and Lucy was expelled, but reinstated in 1980). In writing about the historical context of the novel 's construction, two other literary scholars remark: "To Kill a Mockingbird was written and published amidst the most significant and conflict - ridden social change in the South since the Civil War and Reconstruction. Inevitably, despite its mid-1930s setting, the story told from the perspective of the 1950s voices the conflicts, tensions, and fears induced by this transition. ''
Scholar Patrick Chura, who suggests Emmett Till was a model for Tom Robinson, enumerates the injustices endured by the fictional Tom that Till also faced. Chura notes the icon of the black rapist causing harm to the representation of the "mythologized vulnerable and sacred Southern womanhood ''. Any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused. Tom Robinson 's trial was juried by poor white farmers who convicted him despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence, as more educated and moderate white townspeople supported the jury 's decision. Furthermore, the victim of racial injustice in To Kill a Mockingbird was physically impaired, which made him unable to commit the act he was accused of, but also crippled him in other ways. Roslyn Siegel includes Tom Robinson as an example of the recurring motif among white Southern writers of the black man as "stupid, pathetic, defenseless, and dependent upon the fair dealing of the whites, rather than his own intelligence to save him ''. Although Tom is spared from being lynched, he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison, being shot seventeen times.
The theme of racial injustice appears symbolically in the novel as well. For example, Atticus must shoot a rabid dog, even though it is not his job to do so. Carolyn Jones argues that the dog represents prejudice within the town of Maycomb, and Atticus, who waits on a deserted street to shoot the dog, must fight against the town 's racism without help from other white citizens. He is also alone when he faces a group intending to lynch Tom Robinson and once more in the courthouse during Tom 's trial. Lee even uses dreamlike imagery from the mad dog incident to describe some of the courtroom scenes. Jones writes, "(t) he real mad dog in Maycomb is the racism that denies the humanity of Tom Robinson... When Atticus makes his summation to the jury, he literally bares himself to the jury 's and the town 's anger. ''
In a 1964 interview, Lee remarked that her aspiration was "to be... the Jane Austen of South Alabama. '' Both Austen and Lee challenged the social status quo and valued individual worth over social standing. When Scout embarrasses her poorer classmate, Walter Cunningham, at the Finch home one day, Calpurnia, their black cook, chastises and punishes her for doing so. Atticus respects Calpurnia 's judgment, and later in the book even stands up to his sister, the formidable Aunt Alexandra, when she strongly suggests they fire Calpurnia. One writer notes that Scout, "in Austenian fashion '', satirizes women with whom she does not wish to identify. Literary critic Jean Blackall lists the priorities shared by the two authors: "affirmation of order in society, obedience, courtesy, and respect for the individual without regard for status ''.
Scholars argue that Lee 's approach to class and race was more complex "than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ' poor white trash '... Lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice, silence the voices that might challenge the existing order, and greatly complicate many Americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation. '' Lee 's use of the middle - class narrative voice is a literary device that allows an intimacy with the reader, regardless of class or cultural background, and fosters a sense of nostalgia. Sharing Scout and Jem 's perspective, the reader is allowed to engage in relationships with the conservative antebellum Mrs. Dubose; the lower - class Ewells, and the Cunninghams who are equally poor but behave in vastly different ways; the wealthy but ostracized Mr. Dolphus Raymond; and Calpurnia and other members of the black community. The children internalize Atticus ' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person 's skin, gaining a greater understanding of people 's motives and behavior.
The novel has been noted for its poignant exploration of different forms of courage. Scout 's impulsive inclination to fight students who insult Atticus reflects her attempt to stand up for him and defend him. Atticus is the moral center of the novel, however, and he teaches Jem one of the most significant lessons of courage. In a statement that both foreshadows Atticus ' motivation for defending Tom Robinson and describes Mrs. Dubose, who is determined to break herself of a morphine addiction, Atticus tells Jem that courage is "when you 're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what ''.
Charles J. Shields, who wrote the first book - length biography of Harper Lee, offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that "its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal ''. Atticus ' lesson to Scout that "you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view -- until you climb around in his skin and walk around in it '' exemplifies his compassion. She ponders the comment when listening to Mayella Ewell 's testimony. When Mayella reacts with confusion to Atticus ' question if she has any friends, Scout offers that she must be lonelier than Boo Radley. Having walked Boo home after he saves their lives, Scout stands on the Radley porch and considers the events of the previous three years from Boo 's perspective. One writer remarks, "... (w) hile the novel concerns tragedy and injustice, heartache and loss, it also carries with it a strong sense (of) courage, compassion, and an awareness of history to be better human beings. ''
Just as Lee explores Jem 's development in coming to grips with a racist and unjust society, Scout realizes what being female means, and several female characters influence her development. Scout 's primary identification with her father and older brother allows her to describe the variety and depth of female characters in the novel both as one of them and as an outsider. Scout 's primary female models are Calpurnia and her neighbor Miss Maudie, both of whom are strong - willed, independent, and protective. Mayella Ewell also has an influence; Scout watches her destroy an innocent man in order to hide her desire for him. The female characters who comment the most on Scout 's lack of willingness to adhere to a more feminine role are also those who promote the most racist and classist points of view. For example, Mrs. Dubose chastises Scout for not wearing a dress and camisole, and indicates she is ruining the family name by not doing so, in addition to insulting Atticus ' intentions to defend Tom Robinson. By balancing the masculine influences of Atticus and Jem with the feminine influences of Calpurnia and Miss Maudie, one scholar writes, "Lee gradually demonstrates that Scout is becoming a feminist in the South, for with the use of first - person narration, she indicates that Scout / Jean Louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a Southern lady she possessed as a child. ''
Absent mothers and abusive fathers are another theme in the novel. Scout and Jem 's mother died before Scout could remember her, Mayella 's mother is dead, and Mrs. Radley is silent about Boo 's confinement to the house. Apart from Atticus, the fathers described are abusers. Bob Ewell, it is hinted, molested his daughter, and Mr. Radley imprisons his son in his house to the extent that Boo is remembered only as a phantom. Bob Ewell and Mr. Radley represent a form of masculinity that Atticus does not, and the novel suggests that such men, as well as the traditionally feminine hypocrites at the Missionary Society, can lead society astray. Atticus stands apart as a unique model of masculinity; as one scholar explains: "It is the job of real men who embody the traditional masculine qualities of heroic individualism, bravery, and an unshrinking knowledge of and dedication to social justice and morality, to set the society straight. ''
Allusions to legal issues in To Kill a Mockingbird, particularly in scenes outside of the courtroom, have drawn the attention of legal scholars. Claudia Durst Johnson writes that "a greater volume of critical readings has been amassed by two legal scholars in law journals than by all the literary scholars in literary journals ''. The opening quote by the 19th - century essayist Charles Lamb reads: "Lawyers, I suppose, were children once. '' Johnson notes that even in Scout and Jem 's childhood world, compromises and treaties are struck with each other by spitting on one 's palm, and laws are discussed by Atticus and his children: is it right that Bob Ewell hunts and traps out of season? Many social codes are broken by people in symbolic courtrooms: Mr. Dolphus Raymond has been exiled by society for taking a black woman as his common - law wife and having interracial children; Mayella Ewell is beaten by her father in punishment for kissing Tom Robinson; by being turned into a non-person, Boo Radley receives a punishment far greater than any court could have given him. Scout repeatedly breaks codes and laws and reacts to her punishment for them. For example, she refuses to wear frilly clothes, saying that Aunt Alexandra 's "fanatical '' attempts to place her in them made her feel "a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on (her) ''. Johnson states, "(t) he novel is a study of how Jem and Scout begin to perceive the complexity of social codes and how the configuration of relationships dictated by or set off by those codes fails or nurtures the inhabitants of (their) small worlds. ''
Songbirds and their associated symbolism appear throughout the novel. Their family name Finch is also Lee 's mother 's maiden name. The titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme, which first appears when Atticus, having given his children air - rifles for Christmas, allows their Uncle Jack to teach them to shoot. Atticus warns them that, although they can "shoot all the bluejays they want '', they must remember that "it 's a sin to kill a mockingbird ''. Confused, Scout approaches her neighbor Miss Maudie, who explains that mockingbirds never harm other living creatures. She points out that mockingbirds simply provide pleasure with their songs, saying, "They do n't do one thing but sing their hearts out for us. '' Writer Edwin Bruell summarized the symbolism when he wrote in 1964, "' To kill a mockingbird ' is to kill that which is innocent and harmless -- like Tom Robinson. '' Scholars have noted that Lee often returns to the mockingbird theme when trying to make a moral point.
Tom Robinson is the chief example among several innocents destroyed carelessly or deliberately throughout the novel. However, scholar Christopher Metress connects the mockingbird to Boo Radley: "Instead of wanting to exploit Boo for her own fun (as she does in the beginning of the novel by putting on gothic plays about his history), Scout comes to see him as a ' mockingbird ' -- that is, as someone with an inner goodness that must be cherished. '' The last pages of the book illustrate this as Scout relates the moral of a story Atticus has been reading to her, and, in allusions to both Boo Radley and Tom Robinson, states about a character who was misunderstood, "when they finally saw him, why he had n't done any of those things... Atticus, he was real nice, '' to which he responds, "Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them. ''
The novel exposes the loss of innocence so frequently that reviewer R.A. Dave claims that because every character has to face, or even suffer defeat, the book takes on elements of a classical tragedy. In exploring how each character deals with his or her own personal defeat, Lee builds a framework to judge whether the characters are heroes or fools. She guides the reader in such judgments, alternating between unabashed adoration and biting irony. Scout 's experience with the Missionary Society is an ironic juxtaposition of women who mock her, gossip, and "reflect a smug, colonialist attitude toward other races '' while giving the "appearance of gentility, piety, and morality ''. Conversely, when Atticus loses Tom 's case, he is last to leave the courtroom, except for his children and the black spectators in the colored balcony, who rise silently as he walks underneath them, to honor his efforts.
Despite her editors ' warnings that the book might not sell well, it quickly became a sensation, bringing acclaim to Lee in literary circles, in her hometown of Monroeville, and throughout Alabama. The book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the Book of the Month Club and editions released by Reader 's Digest Condensed Books.
Initial reactions to the novel were varied. The New Yorker declared Lee "a skilled, unpretentious, and totally ingenuous writer '', and The Atlantic Monthly 's reviewer rated the book "pleasant, undemanding reading '', but found the narrative voice -- "a six - year - old girl with the prose style of a well - educated adult '' -- to be implausible. Time magazine 's 1960 review of the book states that it "teaches the reader an astonishing number of useful truths about little girls and about Southern life '' and calls Scout Finch "the most appealing child since Carson McCullers ' Frankie got left behind at the wedding ''. The Chicago Sunday Tribune noted the even - handed approach to the narration of the novel 's events, writing: "This is in no way a sociological novel. It underlines no cause... To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel of strong contemporary national significance. ''
Not all reviewers were enthusiastic. Some lamented the use of poor white Southerners, and one - dimensional black victims, and Granville Hicks labeled the book "melodramatic and contrived ''. When the book was first released, Southern writer Flannery O'Connor commented, "I think for a child 's book it does all right. It 's interesting that all the folks that are buying it do n't know they 're reading a child 's book. Somebody ought to say what it is. '' Carson McCullers apparently agreed with the Time magazine review, writing to a cousin: "Well, honey, one thing we know is that she 's been poaching on my literary preserves. ''
One year after its publication To Kill a Mockingbird had been translated into ten languages. In the years since, it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages. The novel has never been out of print in hardcover or paperback, and has become part of the standard literature curriculum. A 2008 survey of secondary books read by students between grades 9 -- 12 in the U.S. indicates the novel is the most widely read book in these grades. A 1991 survey by the Book of the Month Club and the Library of Congress Center for the Book found that To Kill a Mockingbird was rated behind only the Bible in books that are "most often cited as making a difference ''. It is considered by some to be the Great American Novel.
The 50th anniversary of the novel 's release was met with celebrations and reflections on its impact. Eric Zorn of the Chicago Tribune praises Lee 's "rich use of language '' but writes that the central lesson is that "courage is n't always flashy, is n't always enough, but is always in style ''. Jane Sullivan in the Sydney Morning Herald agrees, stating that the book "still rouses fresh and horrified indignation '' as it examines morality, a topic that has recently become unfashionable. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie writing in The Guardian states that Lee, rare among American novelists, writes with "a fiercely progressive ink, in which there is nothing inevitable about racism and its very foundation is open to question '', comparing her to William Faulkner, who wrote about racism as an inevitability. Literary critic Rosemary Goring in Scotland 's The Herald notes the connections between Lee and Jane Austen, stating the book 's central theme, that "one 's moral convictions are worth fighting for, even at the risk of being reviled '' is eloquently discussed.
Native Alabamian Allen Barra sharply criticized Lee and the novel in The Wall Street Journal calling Atticus a "repository of cracker - barrel epigrams '' and the novel represents a "sugar - coated myth '' of Alabama history. Barra writes, "It 's time to stop pretending that To Kill a Mockingbird is some kind of timeless classic that ranks with the great works of American literature. Its bloodless liberal humanism is sadly dated ''. Thomas Mallon in The New Yorker criticizes Atticus ' stiff and self - righteous demeanor, and calls Scout "a kind of highly constructed doll '' whose speech and actions are improbable. Although acknowledging that the novel works, Mallon blasts Lee 's "wildly unstable '' narrative voice for developing a story about a content neighborhood until it begins to impart morals in the courtroom drama, following with his observation that "the book has begun to cherish its own goodness '' by the time the case is over. Defending the book, Akin Ajayi writes that justice "is often complicated, but must always be founded upon the notion of equality and fairness for all. '' Ajayi states that the book forces readers to question issues about race, class, and society, but that it was not written to resolve them.
Many writers compare their perceptions of To Kill a Mockingbird as adults with when they first read it as children. Mary McDonagh Murphy interviewed celebrities including Oprah Winfrey, Rosanne Cash, Tom Brokaw, and Harper 's sister Alice Lee, who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled Scout, Atticus, and Boo.
One of the most significant impacts To Kill a Mockingbird has had is Atticus Finch 's model of integrity for the legal profession. As scholar Alice Petry explains, "Atticus has become something of a folk hero in legal circles and is treated almost as if he were an actual person. '' Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center cites Atticus Finch as the reason he became a lawyer, and Richard Matsch, the federal judge who presided over the Timothy McVeigh trial, counts Atticus as a major judicial influence. One law professor at the University of Notre Dame stated that the most influential textbook he taught from was To Kill a Mockingbird, and an article in the Michigan Law Review claims, "No real - life lawyer has done more for the self - image or public perception of the legal profession, '' before questioning whether "Atticus Finch is a paragon of honor or an especially slick hired gun ''.
In 1992, an Alabama editorial called for the death of Atticus, saying that as liberal as Atticus was, he still worked within a system of institutionalized racism and sexism and should not be revered. The editorial sparked a flurry of responses from attorneys who entered the profession because of him and esteemed him as a hero. Critics of Atticus maintain he is morally ambiguous and does not use his legal skills to challenge the racist status quo in Maycomb. However, in 1997, the Alabama State Bar erected a monument to Atticus in Monroeville, marking his existence as the "first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history ''. In 2008, Lee herself received an honorary special membership to the Alabama State Bar for creating Atticus who "has become the personification of the exemplary lawyer in serving the legal needs of the poor ''.
To Kill a Mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963. The book 's racial slurs, profanity, and frank discussion of rape have led people to challenge its appropriateness in libraries and classrooms across the United States. The American Library Association reported that To Kill a Mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 -- 2009.
One of the first incidents of the book being challenged was in Hanover, Virginia, in 1966: a parent protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral. Johnson cites examples of letters to local newspapers, which ranged from amusement to fury; those letters expressing the most outrage, however, complained about Mayella Ewell 's attraction to Tom Robinson over the depictions of rape. Upon learning the school administrators were holding hearings to decide the book 's appropriateness for the classroom, Harper Lee sent $10 to The Richmond News Leader suggesting it to be used toward the enrollment of "the Hanover County School Board in any first grade of its choice ''. The National Education Association in 1968 placed the novel second on a list of books receiving the most complaints from private organizations -- after Little Black Sambo.
With a shift of attitudes about race in the 1970s, To Kill a Mockingbird faced challenges of a different sort: the treatment of racism in Maycomb was not condemned harshly enough. This has led to disparate perceptions that the novel has a generally positive impact on race relations for white readers, but a more ambiguous reception by black readers. In one high - profile case outside the U.S., school districts in the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia attempted to have the book removed from standard teaching curricula in the 1990s, stating:
The terminology in this novel subjects students to humiliating experiences that rob them of their self - respect and the respect of their peers. The word ' Nigger ' is used 48 times (in) the novel... We believe that the English Language Arts curriculum in Nova Scotia must enable all students to feel comfortable with ideas, feelings and experiences presented without fear of humiliation... To Kill a Mockingbird is clearly a book that no longer meets these goals and therefore must no longer be used for classroom instruction.
Furthermore, despite the novel 's thematic focus on racial injustice, its black characters are not fully examined. In its use of racial epithets, stereotyped depictions of superstitious blacks, and Calpurnia, who to some critics is an updated version of the "contented slave '' motif and to others simply unexplored, the book is viewed as marginalizing black characters. One writer asserts that the use of Scout 's narration serves as a convenient mechanism for readers to be innocent and detached from the racial conflict. Scout 's voice "functions as the not - me which allows the rest of us -- black and white, male and female -- to find our relative position in society ''. A teaching guide for the novel published by The English Journal cautions, "what seems wonderful or powerful to one group of students may seem degrading to another ''. A Canadian language arts consultant found that the novel resonated well with white students, but that black students found it "demoralizing ''. Another criticism, articulated by Michael Lind, is that the novel indulges in classist stereotyping and demonization of poor rural "white trash ''.
The novel is cited as a factor in the success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s, however, in that it "arrived at the right moment to help the South and the nation grapple with the racial tensions (of) the accelerating civil rights movement ''. Its publication is so closely associated with the Civil Rights Movement that many studies of the book and biographies of Harper Lee include descriptions of important moments in the movement, despite the fact that she had no direct involvement in any of them. Civil Rights leader Andrew Young comments that part of the book 's effectiveness is that it "inspires hope in the midst of chaos and confusion '' and by using racial epithets portrays the reality of the times in which it was set. Young views the novel as "an act of humanity '' in showing the possibility of people rising above their prejudices. Alabama author Mark Childress compares it to the impact of Uncle Tom 's Cabin, a book that is popularly implicated in starting the U.S. Civil War. Childress states the novel "gives white Southerners a way to understand the racism that they 've been brought up with and to find another way. And most white people in the South were good people. Most white people in the South were not throwing bombs and causing havoc... I think the book really helped them come to understand what was wrong with the system in the way that any number of treatises could never do, because it was popular art, because it was told from a child 's point of view. ''
Diane McWhorter, Pulitzer Prize - winning historian of the Birmingham civil rights campaign, asserts that To Kill a Mockingbird condemns racism instead of racists, and states that every child in the South has moments of racial cognitive dissonance when they are faced with the harsh reality of inequality. This feeling causes them to question the beliefs with which they have been raised, which for many children is what the novel does. McWhorter writes of Lee, "for a white person from the South to write a book like this in the late 1950s is really unusual -- by its very existence an act of protest. '' Author James McBride calls Lee brilliant but stops short of calling her brave: "I think by calling Harper Lee brave you kind of absolve yourself of your own racism... She certainly set the standards in terms of how these issues need to be discussed, but in many ways I feel... the moral bar 's been lowered. And that 's really distressing. We need a thousand Atticus Finches. '' McBride, however, defends the book 's sentimentality, and the way Lee approaches the story with "honesty and integrity ''.
During the years immediately following the novel 's publication, Harper Lee enjoyed the attention its popularity garnered her, granting interviews, visiting schools, and attending events honoring the book. In 1961, when To Kill a Mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list, it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, stunning Lee. It also won the Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the same year, and the Paperback of the Year award from Bestsellers magazine in 1962. Starting in 1964, Lee began to turn down interviews, complaining that the questions were monotonous, and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought. Since then, she declined talking with reporters about the book. She also steadfastly refused to provide an introduction, writing in 1995: "Introductions inhibit pleasure, they kill the joy of anticipation, they frustrate curiosity. The only good thing about Introductions is that in some cases they delay the dose to come. Mockingbird still says what it has to say; it has managed to survive the years without preamble. ''
In 2001, Lee was inducted into the Alabama Academy of Honor. In the same year, Chicago mayor Richard M. Daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries, and chose his favorite book, To Kill a Mockingbird, as the first title of the One City, One Book program. Lee declared that "there is no greater honor the novel could receive ''. By 2004, the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program, more than any other novel. David Kipen of the National Endowment of the Arts, who supervised The Big Read, states "people just seem to connect with it. It dredges up things in their own lives, their interactions across racial lines, legal encounters, and childhood. It 's just this skeleton key to so many different parts of people 's lives, and they cherish it. ''
In 2006, Lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Notre Dame. During the ceremony, the students and audience gave Lee a standing ovation, and the entire graduating class held up copies of To Kill a Mockingbird to honor her. Lee was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 5, 2007 by President George W. Bush. In his remarks, Bush stated, "One reason To Kill a Mockingbird succeeded is the wise and kind heart of the author, which comes through on every page... To Kill a Mockingbird has influenced the character of our country for the better. It 's been a gift to the entire world. As a model of good writing and humane sensibility, this book will be read and studied forever. ''
The book was made into the well - received 1962 film with the same title, starring Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch. The film 's producer, Alan J. Pakula, remembered Universal Pictures executives questioning him about a potential script: "They said, ' What story do you plan to tell for the film? ' I said, ' Have you read the book? ' They said, ' Yes. ' I said, ' That 's the story. ' '' The movie was a hit at the box office, quickly grossing more than $20 million from a $2 - million budget. It won three Oscars: Best Actor for Gregory Peck, Best Art Direction - Set Decoration, Black - and - White, and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium for Horton Foote. It was nominated for five more Oscars including Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Mary Badham, the actress who played Scout.
Harper Lee was pleased with the movie, saying: "In that film the man and the part met... I 've had many, many offers to turn it into musicals, into TV or stage plays, but I 've always refused. That film was a work of art. '' Peck met Lee 's father, the model for Atticus, before the filming. Lee 's father died before the film 's release, and Lee was so impressed with Peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocketwatch, which he had with him the evening he was awarded the Oscar for Best Actor. Years later, he was reluctant to tell Lee that the watch was stolen out of his luggage in London Heathrow Airport. When Peck eventually did tell Lee, he said she responded, "' Well, it 's only a watch. ' Harper -- she feels deeply, but she 's not a sentimental person about things. '' Lee and Peck shared a friendship long after the movie was made. Peck 's grandson was named "Harper '' in her honor.
In May 2005, Lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the Los Angeles Public Library at the request of Peck 's widow Veronique, who said of Lee: "She 's like a national treasure. She 's someone who has made a difference... with this book. The book is still as strong as it ever was, and so is the film. All the kids in the United States read this book and see the film in the seventh and eighth grades and write papers and essays. My husband used to get thousands and thousands of letters from teachers who would send them to him. ''
The book has also been adapted as a play by Christopher Sergel. It debuted in 1990 in Monroeville, a town that labels itself "The Literary Capital of Alabama ''. The play runs every May on the county courthouse grounds and townspeople make up the cast. White male audience members are chosen at the intermission to make up the jury. During the courtroom scene the production moves into the Monroe County Courthouse and the audience is racially segregated. Author Albert Murray said of the relationship of the town to the novel (and the annual performance): "It becomes part of the town ritual, like the religious underpinning of Mardi Gras. With the whole town crowded around the actual courthouse, it 's part of a central, civic education -- what Monroeville aspires to be. ''
Sergel 's play toured in the UK starting at West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in 2006, and again in 2011 starting at the York Theatre Royal, both productions featuring Duncan Preston as Atticus Finch. The play also opened the 2013 season at Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre in London where it played to full houses and starred Robert Sean Leonard as Atticus Finch, his first London appearance in 22 years. The production returned to the venue to close the 2014 season, prior to a UK tour.
According to a National Geographic article, the novel is so revered in Monroeville that people quote lines from it like Scripture; yet Harper Lee herself refused to attend any performances, because "she abhors anything that trades on the book 's fame ''. To underscore this sentiment, Lee demanded that a book of recipes named Calpurnia 's Cookbook not be published and sold out of the Monroe County Heritage Museum. David Lister in The Independent states that Lee 's refusal to speak to reporters made them desire to interview her all the more, and her silence "makes Bob Dylan look like a media tart ''. Despite her discouragement, a rising number of tourists made Monroeville their destination, hoping to see Lee 's inspiration for the book, or Lee herself. Local residents call them "Mockingbird groupies '', and although Lee was not reclusive, she refused publicity and interviews with an emphatic "Hell, no! ''
An earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, titled Go Set a Watchman, was controversially released on July 14, 2015. This draft, which was completed in 1957, is set 20 years after the time period depicted in To Kill a Mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative. This earlier version of the story follows an adult Scout Finch who travels from New York City to visit her father, Atticus Finch, in Maycomb, Alabama, where she is confronted by the intolerance in her community. The Watchman manuscript was believed to have been lost until Lee 's lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it, but this claim has been widely disputed. Watchman contains early versions of many of the characters from To Kill a Mockingbird. According to Lee 's agent Andrew Nurnberg, Mockingbird was originally intended to be the first book of a trilogy: "They discussed publishing Mockingbird first, Watchman last, and a shorter connecting novel between the two. '' This assertion has been discredited, however, by rare - books expert James S. Jaffe, who reviewed the pages at the request of Lee 's attorney and found them to be only another draft of To Kill a Mockingbird. Nurnberg 's statement was also contrary to Jonathan Mahler 's description of how Watchman was seen as just the first draft of Mockingbird. Instances where many passages overlap between the two books, in some case word for word, also refutes this assertion.
|
when was the new deal put into place | New Deal - wikipedia
The New Deal was a series of programs, public work projects, financial reforms and regulations enacted in the United States 1933 - 36, in response to the Great Depression. Some of these federal programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Security Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). These programs included support for farmers, the unemployed, youth and the elderly. It included new constraints and safeguards on the banking industry and efforts to re-inflate the economy after prices had fallen sharply. New Deal programs included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs focused on what historians refer to as the "3 Rs '': relief for the unemployed and poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The New Deal produced a political realignment, making the Democratic Party the majority (as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of the nine presidential terms from 1933 -- 1969) with its base in liberal ideas, the South, traditional Democrats, big city machines and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities. The Republicans were split, with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as hostile to business and economic growth and liberals in support. The realignment crystallized into the New Deal coalition that dominated presidential elections into the 1960s while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress in domestic affairs from 1937 -- 1964.
By 1936, the term "liberal '' typically was used for supporters of the New Deal and "conservative '' for its opponents. From 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavors by a "pro-spender '' majority in Congress (drawn from two - party, competitive, non-machine, progressive and left party districts). In the 1938 midterm election, Roosevelt and his liberal supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal (1933 -- 1934) and a Second New Deal (1935 -- 1938), with the second one more liberal and more controversial.
The First New Deal (1933 -- 1934) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) provided $500 million ($9.45 billion today) for relief operations by states and cities, while the short - lived CWA gave locals money to operate make - work projects in 1933 -- 1934. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash. The controversial work of the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was also part of the First New Deal.
The Second New Deal in 1935 -- 1938 included the Wagner Act to protect labor organizing, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and the FSA, which both occurred in 1937; and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers. The FSA was also one of the oversight authorities of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration, which administered relief efforts to Puerto Rican citizens affected by the Great Depression.
The economic downturn of 1937 -- 1938 and the bitter split between the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal conservative coalition. By 1942 -- 1943, they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and the CCC and blocked major liberal proposals. Nonetheless, Roosevelt turned his attention to the war effort and won reelection in 1940 -- 1944. Furthermore, the Supreme Court declared the NRA and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional, but the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. Republican president Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 1961) left the New Deal largely intact, even expanding it in some areas. In the 1960s, Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard Nixon generally retained. However, after 1974 the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support. The New Deal regulation of banking (Glass -- Steagall Act) lasted until it was suspended in the 1990s.
Several New Deal programs remain active and those operating under the original names include the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third. Prices fell by 20 %, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the United States increased from 4 % to 25 %. Additionally, one - third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part - time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50 % of the nation 's human work - power was going unused.
Before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks. When thousands of banks closed, depositors lost their savings as at that time there was no national safety net, no public unemployment insurance and no Social Security. Relief for the poor was the responsibility of families, private charity and local governments, but as conditions worsened year by year demand skyrocketed and their combined resources increasingly fell far short of demand.
The depression had devastated the nation. As Roosevelt took the oath of office at noon on March 4, 1933, all state governors had authorized bank holidays or restricted withdrawals -- many Americans had little or no access to their bank accounts. Farm income had fallen by over 50 % since 1929. An estimated 844,000 non-farm mortgages had been foreclosed between 1930 -- 1933, out of five million in all. Political and business leaders feared revolution and anarchy. Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., who remained wealthy during the Depression, stated years later that "in those days I felt and said I would be willing to part with half of what I had if I could be sure of keeping, under law and order, the other half ''.
The phrase "New Deal '' was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase, although the term was originally used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur 's Court.
Upon accepting the 1932 Democratic nomination for president, Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people '', saying:
Roosevelt entered office without a specific set of plans for dealing with the Great Depression -- so he improvised as Congress listened to a very wide variety of voices. Among Roosevelt 's more famous advisers was an informal "Brain Trust '', a group that tended to view pragmatic government intervention in the economy positively. His choice for Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, greatly influenced his initiatives. Her list of what her priorities would be if she took the job illustrates: "a forty - hour workweek, a minimum wage, worker 's compensation, unemployment compensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid for unemployment relief, Social Security, a revitalized public employment service and health insurance ''.
The New Deal policies drew from many different ideas proposed earlier in the 20th century. Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold led efforts that hearkened back to an anti-monopoly tradition rooted in American politics by figures such as Andrew Jackson and Thomas Jefferson. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, an influential adviser to many New Dealers, argued that "bigness '' (referring, presumably, to corporations) was a negative economic force, producing waste and inefficiency. However, the anti-monopoly group never had a major impact on New Deal policy. Other leaders such as Hugh S. Johnson of the NRA took ideas from the Woodrow Wilson Administration, advocating techniques used to mobilize the economy for World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917 -- 1918. Other New Deal planners revived experiments suggested in the 1920s, such as the TVA. The "First New Deal '' (1933 -- 1934) encompassed the proposals offered by a wide spectrum of groups (not included was the Socialist Party, whose influence was all but destroyed). This first phase of the New Deal was also characterized by fiscal conservatism (see Economy Act, below) and experimentation with several different, sometimes contradictory, cures for economic ills.
There were dozens of new agencies created by Roosevelt through Executive Orders. They are typically known by their alphabetical initials.
The American people were generally extremely dissatisfied with the crumbling economy, mass unemployment, declining wages and profits and especially Herbert Hoover 's policies such as the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and the Revenue Act of 1932. Roosevelt entered office with enormous political capital. Americans of all political persuasions were demanding immediate action and Roosevelt responded with a remarkable series of new programs in the "first hundred days '' of the administration, in which he met with Congress for 100 days. During those 100 days of lawmaking, Congress granted every request Roosevelt asked and passed a few programs (such as the FDIC to insure bank accounts) that he opposed. Ever since, presidents have been judged against Roosevelt for what they accomplished in their first 100 days. Walter Lippmann famously noted:
At the end of February we were a congeries of disorderly panic - stricken mobs and factions. In the hundred days from March to June we became again an organized nation confident of our power to provide for our own security and to control our own destiny.
The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand. Economic indicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March, then began a steady, sharp upward recovery. Thus the Federal Reserve Index of Industrial Production sank to its lowest point of 52.8 in July 1932 (with 1935 -- 1939 = 100) and was practically unchanged at 54.3 in March 1933. However, by July 1933 it reached 85.5, a dramatic rebound of 57 % in four months. Recovery was steady and strong until 1937. Except for employment, the economy by 1937 surpassed the levels of the late 1920s. The Recession of 1937 was a temporary downturn. Private sector employment, especially in manufacturing, recovered to the level of the 1920s, but failed to advance further until the war. The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937, an increase of 3,984,468. The ratio of these numbers, times the number of jobs in 1932, means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the same employment level.
The Economy Act, drafted by Budget Director Lewis Williams Douglas, was passed on March 14, 1933. The act proposed to balance the "regular '' (non-emergency) federal budget by cutting the salaries of government employees and cutting pensions to veterans by fifteen percent. It saved $500 million per year and reassured deficit hawks, such as Douglas, that the new President was fiscally conservative. Roosevelt argued there were two budgets: the "regular '' federal budget, which he balanced; and the emergency budget, which was needed to defeat the depression. It was imbalanced on a temporary basis.
Roosevelt initially favored balancing the budget, but soon found himself running spending deficits to fund his numerous programs. However, Douglas -- rejecting the distinction between a regular and emergency budget -- resigned in 1934 and became an outspoken critic of the New Deal. Roosevelt strenuously opposed the Bonus Bill that would give World War I veterans a cash bonus. Congress finally passed it over his veto in 1936 and the Treasury distributed $1.5 billion in cash as bonus welfare benefits to 4 million veterans just before the 1936 election.
New Dealers never accepted the Keynesian argument for government spending as a vehicle for recovery. Most economists of the era, along with Henry Morgenthau of the Treasury Department, rejected Keynesian solutions and favored balanced budgets.
At the beginning of the Great Depression, the economy was destabilized by bank failures followed by credit crunches. The initial reasons were substantial losses in investment banking, followed by bank runs. Bank runs occurred when a large number of customers withdrew their deposits because they believed the bank might become insolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a self - fulfilling prophecy: as more people withdrew their deposits, the likelihood of default increased and this encouraged further withdrawals.
Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz have argued that the drain of money out of the banking system caused the monetary supply to shrink, forcing the economy to likewise shrink. As credit and economic activity diminished, price deflation followed, causing further economic contraction with disastrous impact on banks. Between 1929 and 1933, 40 % of all banks (9,490 out of 23,697 banks) failed. Much of the Great Depression 's economic damage was caused directly by bank runs.
Herbert Hoover had already considered a bank holiday to prevent further bank runs, but rejected the idea because he was afraid to trip a panic. However, Roosevelt gave a radio address, held in the atmosphere of a Fireside Chat, in which he explained to the public in simple terms the causes of the banking crisis, what the government will do and how the population could help. He closed all the banks in the country and kept them all closed until he could pass new legislation.
On March 9, 1933, Roosevelt sent to Congress the Emergency Banking Act, drafted in large part by Hoover 's top advisors. The act was passed and signed into law the same day. It provided for a system of reopening sound banks under Treasury supervision, with federal loans available if needed. Three - quarters of the banks in the Federal Reserve System reopened within the next three days. Billions of dollars in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into them within a month, thus stabilizing the banking system. By the end of 1933, 4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger banks. Their deposits totalled $3.6 billion: depositors lost a total of $540 million and eventually received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their deposits -- it is a common myth that they received nothing back.
The Glass -- Steagall Act limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate speculations. It also established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured deposits for up to $2,500, ending the risk of runs on banks. This banking reform offered unprecedented stability as while throughout the 1920s more than five hundred banks failed per year, it was less than ten banks per year after 1933.
Under the gold standard, the United States kept the dollar convertible to gold. The Federal Reserve would have had to execute an expansionary monetary policy to fight the deflation and to inject liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling -- but lower interest rates would have led to a gold outflow. Under the gold standards, price -- specie flow mechanism countries that lost gold, but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation). As long as the Federal Reserve had to defend the gold parity of the Dollar it had to sit idle while the banking system crumbled.
In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding the export of gold except under license from the Treasury. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of U.S. dollars. The Treasury no longer paid out gold in exchange for dollars and gold would no longer be considered valid legal tender for debts in private and public contracts.
The dollar was allowed to float freely on foreign exchange markets with no guaranteed price in gold. With the passage of the Gold Reserve Act in 1934, the nominal price of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. These measures enabled the Federal Reserve to increase the amount of money in circulation to the level the economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the suspension in the hope that the decline in prices would finally end. In her essay "What ended the Great Depression? '' (1992), Christina Romer argued that this policy raised industrial production by 25 % until 1937 and by 50 % until 1942.
Before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, there was no regulation of securities at the federal level. Even firms whose securities were publicly traded published no regular reports or even worse rather misleading reports based on arbitrarily selected data. To avoid another Wall Street Crash, the Securities Act of 1933 was enacted. It required the disclosure of the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, the names and compensations of corporate officers, about firms whose securities were traded. Additionally those reports had to be verified by independent auditors. In 1934, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission was established to regulate the stock market and prevent corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting.
In a measure that garnered substantial popular support for his New Deal, Roosevelt moved to put to rest one of the most divisive cultural issues of the 1920s. He signed the bill to legalize the manufacture and sale of alcohol, an interim measure pending the repeal of prohibition, for which a constitutional amendment of repeal (the 21st) was already in process. The repeal amendment was ratified later in 1933. States and cities gained additional new revenue and Roosevelt secured his popularity especially in the cities and ethnic areas by helping the beer start flowing.
Relief was the immediate effort to help the one - third of the population that was hardest hit by the depression. Relief was also aimed at providing temporary help to suffering and unemployed Americans. Local and state budgets were sharply reduced because of falling tax revenue, but New Deal relief programs were used not just to hire the unemployed but also to build needed schools, municipal buildings, waterworks, sewers, streets, and parks according to local specifications. While the regular Army and Navy budgets were reduced, Roosevelt juggled relief funds to help them out. All of the CCC camps were directed by army officers, who salaries came from the relief budget. The PWA built numerous warships, including two aircraft carriers; the money came from the PWA agency. PWA also built warplanes, while the WPA built military bases and airfields.
To prime the pump and cut unemployment, the NIRA created the Public Works Administration (PWA), a major program of public works, which organized and provided funds for the building of useful works such as government buildings, airports, hospitals, schools, roads, bridges and dams. From 1933 to 1935 PWA spent $3.3 billion with private companies to build 34,599 projects, many of them quite large.
Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons were put to work on a wide range of government financed public works projects, building bridges, airports, dams, post offices, hospitals and hundreds of thousands of miles of road. Through reforestation and flood control, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one authority, Roosevelt 's New Deal "was literally stamped on the American landscape ''.
The rural U.S. was a high priority for Roosevelt and his energetic Secretary of Agriculture, Henry A. Wallace. Roosevelt believed that full economic recovery depended upon the recovery of agriculture and raising farm prices was a major tool, even though it meant higher food prices for the poor living in cities.
Many rural people lived in severe poverty, especially in the South. Major programs addressed to their needs included the Resettlement Administration (RA), the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, National Youth Administration (NYA), Forest Service and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), including school lunches, building new schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration launched the Tennessee Valley Authority, a project involving dam construction planning on an unprecedented scale to curb flooding, generate electricity and modernize poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region of the Southern United States. Under the Farmers ' Relief Act of 1933, the government paid compensation to farmers who reduced output, thereby raising prices. As a result of this legislation, the average income of farmers almost doubled by 1937.
In the 1920s, farm production had increased dramatically thanks to mechanization, more potent insecticides and increased use of fertilizer. Due to an overproduction of agricultural products, farmers faced a severe and chronic agricultural depression throughout the 1920s. The Great Depression even worsened the agricultural crises and at the beginning of 1933 agricultural markets nearly faced collapse. Farm prices were so low that in Montana wheat was rotting in the fields because it could not be profitably harvested. In Oregon, sheep were slaughtered and left to the buzzards because meat prices were not sufficient to warrant transportation to markets.
Roosevelt was keenly interested in farm issues and believed that true prosperity would not return until farming was prosperous. Many different programs were directed at farmers. The first 100 days produced the Farm Security Act to raise farm incomes by raising the prices farmers received, which was achieved by reducing total farm output. The Agricultural Adjustment Act created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in May 1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm organizations (especially the Farm Bureau) and reflected debates among Roosevelt 's farm advisers such as Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace, M.L. Wilson, Rexford Tugwell and George Peek.
The AAA aimed to raise prices for commodities through artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of domestic allotments, setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice, tobacco and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the process of using government to benefit their incomes. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of their land idle with funds provided by a new tax on food processing. To force up farm prices to the point of "parity, '' 10 million acres (40,000 km) of growing cotton was plowed up, bountiful crops were left to rot and six million piglets were killed and discarded.
The idea was to give farmers a "fair exchange value '' for their products in relation to the general economy ("parity level ''). Farm incomes and the income for the general population recovered fast since the beginning of 1933. Food prices remained still well below the 1929 peak. The AAA established an important and long - lasting federal role in the planning on the entire agricultural sector of the economy and was the first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural economy. The original AAA did not provide for any sharecroppers or tenants or farm laborers who might become unemployed, but there were other New Deal programs especially for them.
A Gallup poll printed in the Washington Post revealed that a majority of the American public opposed the AAA. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, (is) a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government ''. The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times since then, but together with large subsidies is still in effect today.
The Farm Tenancy Act in 1937 was the last major New Deal legislation that concerned farming. In turn, it created the Farm Security Administration (FSA), which replaced the Resettlement Administration.
The Food Stamp Plan -- a major new welfare program for urban poor -- was established in 1939 to provide stamps to poor people who could use them to purchase food at retail outlets. The program ended during wartime prosperity in 1943, but was restored in 1961. It survived into the 21st century with little controversy because it was seen to benefit the urban poor, food producers, grocers and wholesalers as well as farmers, thus it gained support from both liberal and conservative Congressmen. In 2013, Tea Party activists in the House nonetheless tried to end the program, now known as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, while the Senate fought to preserve it.
Recovery was the effort in numerous programs to restore the economy to normal health. By most economic indicators, this was achieved by 1937 -- except for unemployment, which remained stubbornly high until World War II began. Recovery was designed to help the economy bounce back from depression. Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929 -- 1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.
From 1929 to 1933, the industrial economy had been suffering from a vicious cycle of deflation. Since 1931, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the voice of the nation 's organized business, promoted an anti-deflationary scheme that would permit trade associations to cooperate in government - instigated cartels to stabilize prices within their industries. While existing antitrust laws clearly forbade such practices, organized business found a receptive ear in the Roosevelt Administration.
Roosevelt 's advisers believed that excessive competition and technical progress had led to overproduction and lowered wages and prices, which they believed lowered demand and employment (deflation). He argued that government economic planning was necessary to remedy this. New Deal economists argued that cut - throat competition had hurt many businesses and that with prices having fallen 20 % and more, "deflation '' exacerbated the burden of debt and would delay recovery. They rejected a strong move in Congress to limit the workweek to 30 hours. Instead their remedy, designed in cooperation with big business, was the NIRA. It included stimulus funds for the WPA to spend and sought to raise prices, give more bargaining power for unions (so the workers could purchase more) and reduce harmful competition.
At the center of the NIRA was the National Recovery Administration (NRA), headed by former General Hugh S. Johnson, who had been a senior economic official in World War I. Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code '': a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 -- 45 hours and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code '' would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment. To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle '' publicity campaign to boost what he called "industrial self - government ''. The NRA brought together leaders in each industry to design specific sets of codes for that industry -- the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA announced agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. By March 1934, industrial production was 45 % higher than in March 1933.
NRA Administrator Hugh Johnson was showing signs of mental breakdown due to the extreme pressure and workload of running the National Recovery Administration. After two meetings with Roosevelt and an abortive resignation attempt, Johnson resigned on September 24, 1934 and Roosevelt replaced the position of Administrator with a new National Industrial Recovery Board, of which Donald Richberg was named Executive Director.
On May 27, 1935, the NRA was found to be unconstitutional by a unanimous decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Schechter v. United States. After the end of the NRA, quotas in the oil industry were fixed by the Railroad Commission of Texas with Tom Connally 's federal Hot Oil Act of 1935, which guaranteed that illegal "hot oil '' would not be sold. By the time NRA ended in May 1935, well over 2 million employers accepted the new standards laid down by the NRA, which had introduced a minimum wage and an eight - hour workday, together with abolishing child labor. These standards were reintroduced by the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938.
The New Deal had an important impact in the housing field. The New Deal followed and increased President Hoover 's lead and seek measures. The New Deal sought to stimulate the private home building industry and increase the number of individuals who owned homes. The New Deal implemented two new housing agencies; Home Owners ' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). HOLC set uniform national appraisal methods and simplified the mortgage process. The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) created national standards for home construction.
Reform was based on the assumption that the depression was caused by the inherent instability of the market and that government intervention was necessary to rationalize and stabilize the economy and to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. Reforms targeted the causes of the depression and sought to prevent a crisis like it from happening again. In other words, financially rebuilding the U.S. while ensuring not to repeat history.
There is consensus amongst economic historians that protectionist policies, culminating in the Smoot - Hawley Act of 1930, worsened the Depression. Roosevelt already spoke against the act while campaigning for president during 1932. In 1934, the Reciprocal Tariff Act was drafted by Cordell Hull. It gave the president power to negotiate bilateral, reciprocal trade agreements with other countries. The act enabled Roosevelt to liberalize American trade policy around the globe and it is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy that persists to this day.
A separate set of programs operated in Puerto Rico, headed by the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration. It promoted land reform and helped small farms, it set up farm cooperatives, promoted crop diversification and helped local industry. The Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration was directed by Juan Pablo Montoya Sr. from 1935 to 1937.
In the spring of 1935, responding to the setbacks in the Court, a new skepticism in Congress and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action, New Dealers passed important new initiatives. Historians refer to them as the "Second New Deal '' and note that it was more liberal and more controversial than the "First New Deal '' of 1933 -- 1934.
Until 1935 there were just a dozen states that had old age insurance laws, but these programs were woefully underfunded and therefore almost worthless. Just one state (Wisconsin) had an insurance program. The United States was the only modern industrial country where people faced the Depression without any national system of social security. The work programs of the "First New Deal '' such as CWA and FERA were designed for immediate relief, for a year or two.
The most important program of 1935 and perhaps the New Deal as a whole was the Social Security Act. It established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment insurance and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy children in families without a father present. It established the framework for the U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund -- he said: "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program ''.
Compared to the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative, but for the first time the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the Wagner Act, finally guaranteed workers the rights to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. The Act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances. The Wagner Act did not compel employers to reach agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor. The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass - production sector, led by the older and larger American Federation of Labor and the new. more radical Congress of Industrial Organizations. Labor thus became a major component of the New Deal political coalition. However, the intense battle for members between the AFL and the CIO coalitions weakened labor 's power.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories of workers. Child labour of children under the age of 16 was forbidden, children under 18 years were forbidden to work in hazardous employment. As a result, the wages of 300,000 workers, especially in the South, were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced. It was the last major New Deal legislation and it passed with support of Northern industrialists who wanted to stop the drain of jobs to the low - wage South.
Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the Works Progress Administration (WPA), headed by close friend Harry Hopkins. Roosevelt had insisted that the projects had to be costly in terms of labor, long - term beneficial and the WPA was forbidden to compete with private enterprises -- therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) was created to return the unemployed to the work force. The WPA financed a variety of projects such as hospitals, schools and roads, and employed more than 8.5 million workers who built 650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 public buildings as well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds and so on.
Prominent projects were the Lincoln Tunnel, the Triborough Bridge, the LaGuardia Airport, the Overseas Highway and the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge. The Rural Electrification Administration used co-ops to bring electricity to rural areas, many of which still operate. The National Youth Administration was another the semi-autonomous WPA program for youth. Its Texas director, Lyndon B. Johnson, later used the NYA as a model for some of his Great Society programs in the 1960s. The WPA was organized by states, but New York City had its own branch Federal One, which created jobs for writers, musicians, artists and theater personnel. It became a hunting ground for conservatives searching for communist employees.
The Federal Writers ' Project operated in every state, where it created a famous guide book -- it also catalogued local archives and hired many writers, including Margaret Walker, Zora Neale Hurston and Anzia Yezierska, to document folklore. Other writers interviewed elderly ex-slaves and recorded their stories. Under the Federal Theater Project, headed by charismatic Hallie Flanagan, actresses and actors, technicians, writers and directors put on stage productions. The tickets were inexpensive or sometimes free, making theater available to audiences unaccustomed to attending plays.
One Federal Art Project paid 162 trained woman artists on relief to paint murals or create statues for newly built post offices and courthouses. Many of these works of art can still be seen in public buildings around the country, along with murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the Treasury Department. During its existence, the Federal Theatre Project provided jobs for circus people, musicians, actors, artists and playwrights, together with increasing public appreciation of the arts.
In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the Wealth Tax Act (Revenue Act of 1935) to redistribute wealth. The bill imposed an income tax of 79 % on incomes over $5 million. Since that was an extraordinary high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate actually covered just one individual -- John D. Rockefeller. The bill was expected to raise only about $250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the primary goal. Morgenthau called it "more or less a campaign document ''. In a private conversation with Raymond Moley, Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was "stealing Huey Long 's thunder '' by making Long 's supporters his own. At the same time, it raised the bitterness of the rich who called Roosevelt "a traitor to his class '' and the wealth tax act a "soak the rich tax ''.
A tax called the undistributed profits tax was enacted in 1936. This time the primary purpose was revenue, since Congress had enacted the Adjusted Compensation Payment Act, calling for payments of $2 billion to World War I veterans. The bill established the persisting principle that retained corporate earnings could be taxed. Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. Its proponents intended the bill to replace all other corporation taxes -- believing this would stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals. In the end, Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7 to 27 % and largely exempting small enterprises. Facing widespread and fierce criticism, the tax deduction of paid dividends was repealed in 1938.
The United States Housing Act of 1937 created the United States Housing Authority within the U.S. Department of the Interior. It was one of the last New Deal agencies created. The bill passed in 1937 with some Republican support to abolish slums.
When the Supreme Court started abolishing New Deal programs as unconstitutional, Roosevelt launched a surprise counter-attack in early 1937. He proposed adding five new justices, but conservative Democrats revolted, led by the Vice President. The Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 failed -- it never reached a vote. Momentum in Congress and public opinion shifted to the right and very little new legislation was passed expanding the New Deal. However, retirements allowed Roosevelt to put supporters on the Court and it stopped killing New Deal programs.
The Roosevelt administration was under assault during Roosevelt 's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued until most of 1938. Production and profits declined sharply. Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in May 1937 to 19.0 % in June 1938. The downturn was perhaps due to nothing more than the familiar rhythms of the business cycle, but until 1937 Roosevelt had claimed responsibility for the excellent economic performance. That backfired in the recession and the heated political atmosphere of 1937.
The U.S. reached full employment after entering World War II in December 1941. Under the special circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled the gross national product (GNP). Military Keynesianism brought full employment and federal contracts were cost - plus. Instead of competitive bidding to get lower prices, the government gave out contracts that promised to pay all the expenses plus a modest profit. Factories hired everyone they could find regardless of their lack of skills -- they simplified work tasks and trained the workers, with the federal government paying all the costs. Millions of farmers left marginal operations, students quit school and housewives joined the labor force.
The emphasis was for war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of cost and inefficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the labor force and the tables turned such that employers needed to actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in the military. Propaganda campaigns started pleading for people to work in the war factories. The barriers for married women, the old, the unskilled -- and (in the North and West) the barriers for racial minorities -- were lowered.
In 1929, federal expenditures accounted for only 3 % of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditures tripled, but the national debt as a percent of GNP showed little change. Spending on the war effort quickly eclipsed spending on New Deal programs. In 1944, government spending on the war effort exceeded 40 % of GNP. The U.S. economy experienced dramatic growth during the Second World War mostly due to the deemphasis of free enterprise in favor of the imposition of strict controls on prices and wages. These controls shared broad support among labor and business, resulting in cooperation between the two groups and the U.S. government. This cooperation resulted in the government subsidizing business and labor through both direct and indirect methods.
Conservative domination of Congress during the war meant that all welfare projects and reforms had to have their approval, which was given when business supported the project. For example, the Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal - mining industry, saving workers ' lives and company money. In terms of welfare, the New Dealers wanted benefits for everyone according to need. However, conservatives proposed benefits based on national service -- especially tied to military service or working in war industries -- and their approach won out.
The Community Facilities Act of 1940 (the Lanham Act) provided federal funds to defense - impacted communities where the population had soared and local facilities were overwhelmed. It provided money for the building of housing for war workers as well as recreational facilities, water and sanitation plants, hospitals, day care centers and schools.
The Servicemen 's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided family allowances for dependents of enlisted men. Emergency grants to states were authorized in 1942 for programs for day care for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at the time of the veteran 's death, provided the child was disabled at the age of sixteen and that the disability continued to the date of the claim. The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year, expanded federal - state public health programs and increased the annual amount for grants for public health services.
The Emergency Maternity and Infant Care Program (EMIC), introduced in March 1943 by the Children 's Bureau, provided free maternity care and medical treatment during an infant 's first year for the wives and children of military personnel in the four lowest enlisted pay grades. One out of seven births was covered during its operation. EMIC paid $127 million to state health departments to cover the care of 1.2 million new mothers and their babies. The average cost of EMIC maternity cases completed was $92.49 for medical and hospital care. A striking effect was the sudden rapid decline in home births as most mothers now had paid hospital maternity care.
Under the 1943 Disabled Veterans Rehabilitation Act, vocational rehabilitation services were offered to wounded World War II veterans and some 621,000 veterans would go on to receive assistance under this program. The G.I. Bill (Servicemen 's Readjustment Act of 1944) was a landmark piece of legislation, providing 16 million returning veterans with benefits such as housing, educational and unemployment assistance and played a major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class.
In response to the March on Washington Movement led by A. Philip Randolph, Roosevelt promulgated Executive Order 8802 in June 1941, which established the President 's Committee on Fair Employment Practices (FEPC) "to receive and investigate complaints of discrimination '' so that "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin ''.
A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp, long lasting decrease in the level of income inequality (Great Compression). The gap between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of nutrition because food rationing and price controls provided a reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not typically receive overtime and therefore the gap between white collar and blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor during the 1930s had four or more wage earners and these families shot to the top one - third income bracket. Overtime provided large paychecks in war industries and average living standards rose steadily, with real wages rising by 44 % in the four years of war, while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than $2,000 fell from 75 % to 25 % of the population.
In 1941, 40 % of all American families lived on less than the $1,500 per year defined as necessary by the Works Progress Administration for a modest standard of living. The median income stood at $2,000 a year, while 8 million workers earnt below the legal minimum. From 1939 to 1944, wages and salaries more than doubled, with overtime pay and the expansion of jobs leading to a 70 % rise in average weekly earnings during the course of the war. Membership in organized labor increased by 50 % between 1941 and 1945 and because the War Labor Board sought labor - management peace, new workers were encouraged to participate in the existing labor organizations, thereby receiving all the benefits of union membership such as improved working conditions, better fringe benefits and higher wages. As noted by William H. Chafe, "with full employment, higher wages and social welfare benefits provided under government regulations, American workers experienced a level of well - being that, for many, had never occurred before ''.
As a result of the new prosperity, consumer expenditures rose by nearly 50 %, from $61.7 billion at the start of the war to $98.5 billion by 1944. Individual savings accounts climbed almost sevenfold during the course of the war. The share of total income held by the top 5 % of wage earners fell from 22 % to 17 % while the bottom 40 % increased their share of the economic pie. In addition, during the course of the war the proportion of the American population earning less than $3,000 (in 1968 dollars) fell by half.
Analysts agree the New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics into the 1960s. A 2013 study found that "an average increase in New Deal relief and public works spending resulted in a 5.4 percentage point increase in the 1936 Democratic voting share and a smaller amount in 1940. The estimated persistence of this shift suggests that New Deal spending increased long - term Democratic support by 2 to 2.5 percentage points. Thus, it appears that Roosevelt 's early, decisive actions created long - lasting positive benefits for the Democratic party... The New Deal did play an important role in consolidating Democratic gains for at least two decades ''.
However, there is disagreement about whether it marked a permanent change in values. Cowie and Salvatore in 2008 argued that it was a response to Depression and did not mark a commitment to a welfare state because the U.S. has always been too individualistic. MacLean rejected the idea of a definitive political culture. She says they overemphasized individualism and ignored the enormous power that big capital wields, the Constitutional restraints on radicalism and the role of racism, antifeminism and homophobia. She warns that accepting Cowie and Salvatore 's argument that conservatism 's ascendancy is inevitable would dismay and discourage activists on the left. Klein responds that the New Deal did not die a natural death -- it was killed off in the 1970s by a business coalition mobilized by such groups as the Business Roundtable, the Chamber of Commerce, trade organizations, conservative think tanks and decades of sustained legal and political attacks.
Historians generally agree that during Roosevelt 's 12 years in office there was a dramatic increase in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt also established the presidency as the prominent center of authority within the federal government. Roosevelt created a large array of agencies protecting various groups of citizens -- workers, farmers and others -- who suffered from the crisis and thus enabled them to challenge the powers of the corporations. In this way, the Roosevelt administration generated a set of political ideas -- known as New Deal liberalism -- that remained a source of inspiration and controversy for decades. New Deal liberalism lay the foundation of a new consensus. Between 1940 and 1980, there was the liberal consensus about the prospects for the widespread distribution of prosperity within an expanding capitalist economy. Especially Harry S. Truman 's Fair Deal and in the 1960s Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs.
The New Deal 's enduring appeal on voters fostered its acceptance by moderate and liberal Republicans.
As the first Republican President elected after Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953 -- 1961) built on the New Deal in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost - effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self - financed program. He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing -- he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than jobs program). In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:
Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things (...) Their number is negligible and they are stupid.
In 1964, Barry Goldwater, an unreconstructed anti-New Dealer, was the Republican presidential candidate on a platform that attacked the New Deal. The Democrats under Lyndon B. Johnson won a massive landslide and Johnson 's Great Society programs extended the New Deal. However, the supporters of Goldwater formed the New Right which helped to bring Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election. Once an ardent supporter of the New Deal, Reagan turned against it, now viewing government as the problem rather than solution and as president moved the nation away from the New Deal model of government activism, shifting greater emphasis to the private sector.
A 2017 review study of the existing literature in the Journal of Economic Literature summarized the findings of the research as follows:
The studies find that public works and relief spending had state income multipliers of around one, increased consumption activity, attracted internal migration, reduced crime rates, and lowered several types of mortality. The farm programs typically aided large farm owners but eliminated opportunities for share croppers, tenants, and farm workers. The Home Owners ' Loan Corporation 's purchases and refinancing of troubled mortgages staved off drops in housing prices and home ownership rates at relatively low ex post cost to taxpayers. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation 's loans to banks and railroads appear to have had little positive impact, although the banks were aided when the RFC took ownership stakes.
Historians debating the New Deal have generally divided between liberals who support it, conservatives who oppose it and some New Left historians who complain it was too favorable to capitalism and did too little for minorities. There is consensus on only a few points, with most commentators favorable toward the CCC and hostile toward the NRA.
Consensus historians of the 1950s, such as Richard Hofstadter, according to Lary May:
Liberal historians argue that Roosevelt restored hope and self - respect to tens of millions of desperate people, built labor unions, upgraded the national infrastructure and saved capitalism in his first term when he could have destroyed it and easily nationalized the banks and the railroads. Historians generally agree that apart from building up labor unions, the New Deal did not substantially alter the distribution of power within American capitalism. "The New Deal brought about limited change in the nation 's power structure ''. The New Deal preserved democracy in the United States in a historic period of uncertainty and crises when in many other countries democracy failed.
The most common arguments can be summarized as follows:
Julian Zelizer (2000) has argued that fiscal conservatism was a key component of the New Deal. A fiscally conservative approach was supported by Wall Street and local investors and most of the business community -- mainstream academic economists believed in it as apparently did the majority of the public. Conservative southern Democrats, who favored balanced budgets and opposed new taxes, controlled Congress and its major committees. Even liberal Democrats at the time regarded balanced budgets as essential to economic stability in the long run, although they were more willing to accept short - term deficits. As Zelizer notes, public opinion polls consistently showed public opposition to deficits and debt. Throughout his terms, Roosevelt recruited fiscal conservatives to serve in his administration, most notably Lewis Douglas the Director of Budget in 1933 -- 1934; and Henry Morgenthau Jr., Secretary of the Treasury from 1934 to 1945. They defined policy in terms of budgetary cost and tax burdens rather than needs, rights, obligations, or political benefits. Personally, Roosevelt embraced their fiscal conservatism, but politically he realized that fiscal conservatism enjoyed a strong wide base of support among voters, leading Democrats and businessmen. On the other hand, there was enormous pressure to act and spending money on high visibility work programs with millions of paychecks a week.
Douglas proved too inflexible and he quit in 1934. Morgenthau made it his highest priority to stay close to Roosevelt, no matter what. Douglas 's position, like many of the Old Right, was grounded in a basic distrust of politicians and the deeply ingrained fear that government spending always involved a degree of patronage and corruption that offended his Progressive sense of efficiency. The Economy Act of 1933, passed early in the Hundred Days, was Douglas 's great achievement. It reduced federal expenditures by $500 million, to be achieved by reducing veterans ' payments and federal salaries. Douglas cut government spending through executive orders that cut the military budget by $125 million, $75 million from the Post Office, $12 million from Commerce, $75 million from government salaries and $100 million from staff layoffs. As Freidel concludes: "The economy program was not a minor aberration of the spring of 1933, or a hypocritical concession to delighted conservatives. Rather it was an integral part of Roosevelt 's overall New Deal ''.
Revenues were so low that borrowing was necessary (only the richest 3 % paid any income tax between 1926 and 1940). Douglas therefore hated the relief programs, which he said reduced business confidence, threatened the government 's future credit and had the "destructive psychological effects of making mendicants of self - respecting American citizens ''. Roosevelt was pulled toward greater spending by Hopkins and Ickes and as the 1936 election approached he decided to gain votes by attacking big business.
Morgenthau shifted with Roosevelt, but at all times tried to inject fiscal responsibility -- he deeply believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act met Morgenthau 's requirement because it strengthened the party 's political base and involved no new spending. In contrast to Douglas, Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt 's double budget as legitimate -- that is a balanced regular budget and an "emergency '' budget for agencies, like the WPA, PWA and CCC, that would be temporary until full recovery was at hand. He fought against the veterans ' bonus until Congress finally overrode Roosevelt 's veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. His biggest success was the new Social Security program as he managed to reverse the proposals to fund it from general revenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. It was Morgenthau who insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Security because workers outside industry would not be paying their way.
While many Americans suffered economically during the Great Depression, African Americans also had to deal with social ills, such as racism, discrimination and segregation. Black workers were especially vulnerable to the economic downturn since most of them worked the most marginal jobs such as unskilled or service - oriented work, therefore they were the first to be discharged and additionally many employers preferred white workers. When jobs were scarce some employers even dismissed blacks to create jobs for whites. In the end there were three times more African American workers on public assistance or relief than white workers.
The WPA, NYA and CCC relief programs allocated 10 % of their budgets to blacks (who comprised about 10 % of the total population, and 20 % of the poor). They operated separate all - black units with the same pay and conditions as white units. Some leading white New Dealers, especially Eleanor Roosevelt, Harold Ickes and Aubrey Williams, worked to ensure blacks received at least 10 % of welfare assistance payments. However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic and political advantages that whites received. Most unions excluded blacks from joining and enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually impossible, especially since most blacks worked in hospitality and agricultural sectors.
The New Deal programs put millions of Americans immediately back to work or at least helped them to survive. The programs were not specifically targeted to alleviate the much higher unemployment rate of blacks. Some aspects of the programs were even unfavorable to blacks. The Agricultural Adjustment Acts for example helped farmers which were predominantly white, but reduced the need of farmers to hire tenant farmers or sharecroppers which were predominantely black. While the AAA stipulated that a farmer had to share the payments with those who worked the land this policy was never enforced. The Farm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for tenant farmers, created in 1937, made efforts to empower African Americans by appointing them to agency committees in the South. Senator James F. Byrnes of South Carolina raised opposition to the appointments because he stood for white farmers who were threatened by an agency that could organize and empower tenant farmers. Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling national pressure FSA was forced to release the African Americans of their positions. The goals of the FSA were notoriously liberal and not cohesive with the southern voting elite. Some New Deal measures inadvertently discriminated against harmed blacks. Thousands of blacks were thrown out of work and replaced by whites on jobs where they were paid less than the NRA 's wage minimums because some white employers considered the NRA 's minimum wage "too much money for Negroes ''. By August 1933, blacks called the NRA the "Negro Removal Act ''. An NRA study found that the NIRA put 500,000 African Americans out of work.
However, since blacks felt the sting of the depression 's wrath even more severely than whites they welcomed any help. Until 1936 almost all African Americans (and many whites) shifted from the "Party of Lincoln '' to the Democratic Party. This was a sharp realignment from 1932, when most African Americans voted the Republican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political alliance between blacks and the Democratic Party that survives into the 21st century.
There was no attempt whatsoever to end segregation, or to increase black rights in the South. Roosevelt appointed an unprecedented number of blacks to second - level positions in his administration -- these appointees were collectively called the Black Cabinet.
The wartime Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) executive orders that forbade job discrimination against African Americans, women and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough that brought better jobs and pay to millions of minority Americans. Historians usually treat FEPC as part of the war effort and not part of the New Deal itself.
The New Deal was racially segregated as blacks and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the WPA -- it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate the NYA. Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North, but of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South only 11 were black. Historian Anthony Badger argues that "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation ''. In its first few weeks of operation, CCC camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, practically all the camps in the United States were segregated, and blacks were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned. Kinker and Smith argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow ''.
Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes was one of the Roosevelt Administration 's most prominent supporters of blacks and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP. In 1937, when Senator Josiah Bailey Democrat of North Carolina accused him of trying to break down segregation laws Ickes wrote him to deny that:
The New Deal 's record came under attack by New Left historians in the 1960s for its pusillanimity in not attacking capitalism more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality. The critics emphasize the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They demonstrate the New Deal 's commitment to save capitalism and its refusal to strip away private property. They detect a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy and call instead for more emphasis on conflict and exploitation.
At first, the New Deal created programs primarily for men as it was assumed that the husband was the "breadwinner '' (the provider) and if they had jobs the whole family would benefit. It was the social norm for women to give up jobs when they married -- in many states, there were laws that prevented both husband and wife holding regular jobs with the government. So too in the relief world, it was rare for both husband and wife to have a relief job on FERA or the WPA. This prevailing social norm of the breadwinner failed to take into account the numerous households headed by women, but it soon became clear that the government needed to help women as well.
Many women were employed on FERA projects run by the states with federal funds. The first New Deal program to directly assist women was the Works Progress Administration (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired single women, widows, or women with disabled or absent husbands. The WPA employed about 500,000 women and they were assigned mostly to unskilled jobs. 295,000 worked on sewing projects that made 300 million items of clothing and bedding to be given away to families on relief and to hospitals and orphanages. Women also were hired for the WPA 's school lunch program. Both men and women were hired for the small but highly publicized arts programs (such as music, theater, and writing).
The Social Security program was designed to help retired workers and widows but did not include domestic workers, farmers or farm laborers, the jobs most often held by blacks. However, Social Security was not a relief program and it was not designed for short - term needs, as very few people received benefits before 1942.
The New Deal expanded the role of the federal government, particularly to help the poor, the unemployed, youth, the elderly and stranded rural communities. The Hoover administration started the system of funding state relief programs, whereby the states hired people on relief. With the CCC in 1933 and the WPA in 1935, the federal government now became involved in directly hiring people on relief in granting direct relief or benefits. Total federal, state and local spending on relief rose from 3.9 % of GNP in 1929 to 6.4 % in 1932 and 9.7 % in 1934 -- the return of prosperity in 1944 lowered the rate to 4.1 %. In 1935 -- 1940, welfare spending accounted for 49 % of the federal, state and local government budgets. In his memoirs, Milton Friedman said that the New Deal relief programs were an appropriate response. He and his wife were not on relief, but they were employed by the WPA as statisticians. Friedman said that programs like the CCC and WPA were justified as temporary responses to an emergency. Friedman said that Roosevelt deserved considerable credit for relieving immediate distress and restoring confidence.
In a survey of economic historians conducted by Robert Whaples, Professor of Economics at Wake Forest University, anonymous questionnaires were sent to members of the Economic History Association. Members were asked to disagree, agree, or agree with provisos with the statement that read: "Taken as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression ''. While only 6 % of economic historians who worked in the history department of their universities agreed with the statement, 27 % of those that work in the economics department agreed. Almost an identical percent of the two groups (21 % and 22 %) agreed with the statement "with provisos '' (a conditional stipulation) while 74 % of those who worked in the history department and 51 % in the economic department disagreed with the statement outright.
From 1933 to 1941, the economy expanded at an average rate of 7.7 % per year. Despite high economic growth, unemployment rates fell slowly.
John Maynard Keynes explained that situation as an underemployment equilibrium where skeptic business prospects prevent companies from hiring new employees. It was seen as a form of cyclical unemployment.
There are different assumptions as well. According to Richard L. Jensen, cyclical unemployment was a grave matter primarily until 1935. Between 1935 and 1941, structural unemployment became the bigger problem. Especially the unions successes in demanding higher wages pushed management into introducing new efficiency - oriented hiring standards. It ended inefficient labor such as child labor, casual unskilled work for subminimum wages and sweatshop conditions. In the long term, the shift to efficiency wages led to high productivity, high wages and a high standard of living, but it necessitated a well - educated, well - trained, hard - working labor force. It was not before war time brought full employment that the supply of unskilled labor (that caused structural unemployment) downsized.
At the beginning of the Great Depression, many economists traditionally argued against deficit spending. The fear was that government spending would "crowd out '' private investment and would thus not have any effect on the economy, a proposition known as the Treasury view, but Keynesian economics rejected that view. They argued that by spending vastly more money -- using fiscal policy -- the government could provide the needed stimulus through the multiplier effect. Without that stimulus, business simply would not hire more people, especially the low skilled and supposedly "untrainable '' men who had been unemployed for years and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to increase deficit spending. Roosevelt afterwards complained that "he left a whole rigmarole of figures -- he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist ''.
The New Deal tried public works, farm subsidies and other devices to reduce unemployment, but Roosevelt never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. Between 1933 and 1941, the average federal budget deficit was 3 % per year. Roosevelt did not fully utilize deficit spending. The effects of federal public works spending were largely offset by Herbert Hoover 's large tax increase in 1932, whose full effects for the first time were felt in 1933 and it was undercut by spending cuts, especially the Economy Act. According to Keynesians like Paul Krugman, the New Deal therefore was not as successful in the short run as it was in the long run.
Following the Keynesian consensus (that lasted until the 1970s), the traditional view was that federal deficit spending associated with the war brought full - employment output while monetary policy was just aiding the process. In this view, the New Deal did not end the Great Depression, but halted the economic collapse and ameliorated the worst of the crises.
More influential among economists has been the monetarist interpretation of Milton Friedman, which includes a full - scale monetary history of what he calls the "Great Contraction ''. Friedman concentrated on the failures before 1933 and points out that between 1929 and 1932 the Federal Reserve allowed the money supply to fall by a third which is seen as the major cause that turned a normal recession into a Great Depression. Friedman especially criticized the decisions of Hoover and the Federal Reserve not to save banks going bankrupt. Monetarists state that the banking and monetary reforms were a necessary and sufficient response to the crises. They reject the approach of Keynesian deficit spending.
You have to distinguish between two classes of New Deal policies. One class of New Deal policies was reform: wage and price control, the Blue Eagle, the national industrial recovery movement. I did not support those. The other part of the new deal policy was relief and recovery... providing relief for the unemployed, providing jobs for the unemployed, and motivating the economy to expand... an expansive monetary policy. Those parts of the New Deal I did support.
Ben Bernanke and Martin Parkinson declared in "Unemployment, Inflation, and Wages in the American Depression '' (1989) that "the New Deal is better characterized as having cleared the way for a natural recovery (for example, by ending deflation and rehabilitating the financial system) rather than as being the engine of recovery itself ''.
Challenging the traditional view, monetarists and New Keynesians like J. Bradford DeLong, Lawrence Summers and Christina Romer argued that recovery was essentially complete prior to 1942 and that monetary policy was the crucial source of pre-1942 recovery. The extraordinary growth in money supply beginning in 1933 lowered real interest rates and stimulated investment spending. According to Bernanke, there was also a debt - deflation effect of the depression which was clearly offset by a reflation through the growth in money supply. However, before 1992 scholars did not realize that the New Deal provided for a huge aggregate demand stimulus through a de facto easing of monetary policy. While Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz argued in A Monetary History of the United States (1963) that the Federal Reserve System had made no attempt to increase the quantity in high - powered money and thus failed to foster recovery, they somehow did not investigate the impact of the monetary policy of the New Deal. In 1992, Christina Romer explained in "What Ended the Great Depression? '' that the rapid growth in money supply beginning in 1933 can be traced back to a large unsterilized gold inflow to the U.S. which was partly due to political instability in Europe, but to a larger degree to the revaluation of gold through the Gold Reserve Act. The Roosevelt administration had chosen not to sterilize the gold inflow precisely because they hoped that the growth of money supply would stimulate the economy.
Replying to DeLong et al. in the Journal of Economic History, J.R. Vernon argues that deficit spending leading up to and during World War II still played a large part in the overall recovery, according to his study "half or more of the recovery occurred during 1941 and 1942 ''.
According to Peter Temin, Barry Wigmore, Gauti B. Eggertsson and Christina Romer, the biggest primary impact of the New Deal on the economy and the key to recovery and to end the Great Depression was brought about by a successful management of public expectations. The thesis is based on the observation that after years of deflation and a very severe recession important economic indicators turned positive just in March 1933 when Roosevelt took office. Consumer prices turned from deflation to a mild inflation, industrial production bottomed out in March 1933, investment doubled in 1933 with a turnaround in March 1933. There were no monetary forces to explain that turnaround. Money supply was still falling and short - term interest rates remained close to zero. Before March 1933, people expected a further deflation and recession so that even interest rates at zero did not stimulate investment. However, when Roosevelt announced major regime changes people began to expect inflation and an economic expansion. With those expectations, interest rates at zero began to stimulate investment just as they were expected to do. Roosevelt 's fiscal and monetary policy regime change helped to make his policy objectives credible. The expectation of higher future income and higher future inflation stimulated demand and investments. The analysis suggests that the elimination of the policy dogmas of the gold standard, a balanced budget in times of crises and small government led endogenously to a large shift in expectation that accounts for about 70 -- 80 percent of the recovery of output and prices from 1933 to 1937. If the regime change had not happened and the Hoover policy had continued, the economy would have continued its free - fall in 1933 and output would have been 30 percent lower in 1937 than in 1933.
Followers of the real business - cycle theory believe that the New Deal caused the depression to persist longer than it would otherwise have. Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian say Roosevelt 's policies prolonged the depression by seven years. According to their study, the "New Deal labor and industrial policies did not lift the economy out of the Depression '', but that the "New Deal policies are an important contributing factor to the persistence of the Great Depression ''. They claim that the New Deal "cartelization policies are a key factor behind the weak recovery ''. They say that the "abandonment of these policies coincided with the strong economic recovery of the 1940s ''. The study by Cole and Ohanian is based on a real business - cycle theory model. The underlying assumptions of this theory are subject to numerous criticisms and the theory is unable to posit any convincing explanations for the initial causes of the Great Depression. Laurence Seidman noted that according to the assumptions of Cole and Ohanian, the labor market clears instantaneously, which leads to the incredible conclusion that the surge in unemployment between 1929 and 1932 (before the New Deal) was in their opinion both optimal and solely based on voluntary unemployment. Additionally, Cole and Ohanian 's argument does not count workers employed through New Deal programs. Such programs built or renovated 2,500 hospitals, 45,000 schools, 13,000 parks and playgrounds, 7,800 bridges, 700,000 miles (1,100,000 km) of roads, 1,000 airfields and employed 50,000 teachers through programs that rebuilt the country 's entire rural school system.
Lowell E. Gallaway and Richard K. Vedder argue on the basis of libertarian theories that the Great Depression was caused by too high wages which they say had caused a loss of depositor confidence which caused the bank runs. They further conclude that the "Great Depression was very significantly prolonged in both its duration and its magnitude by the impact of New Deal programs ''. They suggest that without Social Security, work relief, unemployment insurance, mandatory minimum wages and without special government - granted privileges for labor unions, business would have hired more workers and the unemployment rate during the New Deal years would have been 6.7 % instead of 17.2 %. Amity Shlaes wrote that "from 1929 to 1940, from Hoover to Roosevelt, government intervention helped to make the Depression Great ''. Shlaes said that the NRA was misguided because it used price setting to fix monetary problems. According to Shlaes, Roosevelt 's experimentation frightened business into inaction and prevented recovery. Eric Rauchway showed that Shlaes tried to diminish the economic growth by referring to the unrepresentative Dow Jones Industrial Average. He continued that usually a historian or economist would have referred to the gross domestic product, which according to the Historical Statistics of the United States grew impressively by 9 % annually during Roosevelt 's first term and by 11 % annually after the short recession of 1937 -- 1938.
The economic reforms were mainly intended to rescue the capitalist system by providing a more rational framework in which it could operate. The banking system was made less vulnerable. The regulation of the stock market and the prevention of some corporate abuses relating to the sale of securities and corporate reporting addressed the worst excesses. Roosevelt allowed trade unions to take their place in labor relations and created the triangular partnership between employers, employees and government.
David M. Kennedy wrote that "the achievements of the New Deal years surely played a role in determining the degree and the duration of the postwar prosperity ''.
Paul Krugman stated that the institutions built by the New Deal remain the bedrock of the United States economic stability. Against the background of the 2007 -- 2012 global financial crisis, he explained that the financial crises would have been much worse if the New Deals Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had not insured most bank deposits and older Americans would have felt much more insecure without Social Security. Libertarian economist Milton Friedman after 1960 attacked Social Security from a free market view stating that it had created welfare dependency.
The New Deal banking reform was weakened since the 1980s. The repeal of the Glass - Steagall Act in 1999 allowed the shadow banking system to grow rapidly. Since it was neither regulated nor covered by a financial safety net, the shadow banking system was central to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 and the subsequent Great Recession.
While it is essentially consensus among historians and academics that the New Deal brought about a large increase in the power of the federal government, there has been some scholarly debate concerning the results of this federal expansion. Historians like Arthur M. Schlesinger and James T. Patterson have argued that the augmentation of the federal government exacerbated tensions between the federal and state governments. However, contemporaries such as Ira Katznelson have suggested that due to certain conditions on the allocation of federal funds, namely that the individual states get to control them, the federal government managed to avoid any tension with states over their rights. This is a prominent debate concerning the historiography of federalism in the United States and -- as Schlesinger and Patterson have observed -- the New Deal marked an era when the federal - state power balance shifted further in favor of the federal government, which heightened tensions between the two levels of government in the United States.
Ira Katznelson has argued that although the federal government expanded its power and began providing welfare benefits on a scale previously unknown in the United States, it often allowed individual states to control the allocation of the funds provided for such welfare. This meant that the states controlled who had access to these funds, which in turn meant many Southern states were able to racially segregate -- or in some cases, like a number of counties in Georgia, completely exclude African - Americans -- the allocation of federal funds. This enabled these states to continue to relatively exercise their rights and also to preserve the institutionalization of the racist order of their societies. While Katznelson has conceded that the expansion of the federal government had the potential to lead to federal - state tension, he has argued it was avoided as these states managed to retain some control. As Katznelson has observed, "furthermore, they (state governments in the South) had to manage the strain that potentially might be placed on local practices by investing authority in federal bureaucracies... To guard against this outcome, they key mechanism deployed was a separation of the source of funding from decisions about how to spend the new monies ''.
However, Schlesinger has disputed Katznelson 's claim and has argued that the increase in the power of the federal government was perceived to come at the cost of states ' rights, thereby aggravating state governments, which exacerbated federal - state tensions. Schlesinger has utilized quotes from the time to highlight this point, Schlesinger has observed that "the actions of the New Deal, (Ogden L.) Mills said, "abolish the sovereignty of the States. They make of a government of limited powers one of unlimited authority over the lives of us all ''.
Moreover, Schlesinger has argued that this federal - state tension was not a one - way street and that the federal government became just as aggravated with the state governments as they did with it. State governments were often guilty of inhibiting or delaying federal policies. Whether through intentional methods, like sabotage, or unintentional ones, like simple administrative overload -- either way these problems aggravated the federal government and thus heightened federal - state tensions. As Schlesinger has also noted that "students of public administration have never taken sufficient account of the capacity of lower levels of government to sabotage or defy even a masterful President ''.
James T. Patterson has reiterated this argument, though he observes that this increased tension can be accounted for not just from a political perspective, but from an economic one too. Patterson has argued that the tension between the federal and state governments at least partly also resulted from the economic strain under which the states had been put by the federal government 's various policies and agencies. Some states were either simply unable to cope with the federal government 's demand and thus refused to work with them, or admonished the economic restraints and actively decided to sabotage federal policies. This was demonstrated, Patterson has noted, with the handling of federal relief money by Ohio governor, Martin L. Davey. The case in Ohio became so detrimental to the federal government that Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, had to federalize Ohio relief. Although this argument differs somewhat from Schlesinger 's, the source of federal - state tension remained the growth of the federal government. As Patterson has asserted, "though the record of the FERA was remarkably good -- almost revolutionary -- in these respects it was inevitable, given the financial requirements imposed on deficit - ridden states, that friction would develop between governors and federal officials ''.
In this dispute it can be inferred that Katznelson and Schlesinger and Patterson have only disagreed on their inference of the historical evidence. While both parties have agreed that the federal government expanded and even that states had a degree of control over the allocation of federal funds, they have disputed the consequences of these claims. Katznelson has asserted that it created mutual acquiescence between the levels of government, while Schlesinger and Patterson have suggested that it provoked contempt for the state governments on the part of the federal government and vice versa, thus exacerbating their relations. In short, irrespective of the interpretation this era marked an important time in the historiography of federalism and also nevertheless provided some narrative on the legacy of federal - state relations.
Worldwide, the Great Depression had the most profound impact in the German Reich and the United States. In both countries the pressure to reform and the perception of the economic crisis were strikingly similar. When Hitler came to power he was faced with exactly the same task that faced Roosevelt, overcoming mass unemployment and the global Depression. The political responses to the crises were essentially different: while American democracy remained strong, Germany replaced democracy with fascism, a Nazi dictatorship.
The initial perception of the New Deal was mixed. On the one hand, the eyes of the world were upon the United States because many democrats in Europe and the United States saw in Roosevelt _́ s reform program a positive counterweight to the seductive powers of the two great alternative systems, communism and fascism. As the historian Isaiah Berlin wrote in 1955: "The only light in the darkness was the administration of Mr. Roosevelt and the New Deal in the United States ''.
By contrast, enemies of the New Deal sometimes called it "fascist '', but they meant very different things. Communists denounced the New Deal in 1933 and 1934 as fascist in the sense that it was under the control of big business. They dropped that line of thought when Stalin switched to the "Popular Front '' plan of cooperation with liberals.
In 1934, Roosevelt defended himself against those critics in a "fireside chat '':
(Some) will try to give you new and strange names for what we are doing. Sometimes they will call it ' Fascism ', sometimes ' Communism ', sometimes ' Regimentation ', sometimes ' Socialism '. But, in so doing, they are trying to make very complex and theoretical something that is really very simple and very practical... Plausible self - seekers and theoretical die - hards will tell you of the loss of individual liberty. Answer this question out of the facts of your own life. Have you lost any of your rights or liberty or constitutional freedom of action and choice?
After 1945, only few observers continued to see similarities and later on some scholars such as Kiran Klaus Patel, Heinrich August Winkler and John Garraty came to the conclusion that comparisons of the alternative systems do not have to end in an apology for Nazism since comparisons rely on the examination of both similarities and differences. Their preliminary studies on the origins of the fascist dictatorships and the American (reformed) democracy came to the conclusion that besides essential differences "the crises led to a limited degree of convergence '' on the level of economic and social policy. The most important cause was the growth of state interventionism since in the face of the catastrophic economic situation both societies no longer counted on the power of the market to heal itself.
John Garraty wrote that the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was based on economic experiments in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, without establishing a totalitarian dictatorship. Contrary to that, historians such as Hawley have examined the origins of the NRA in detail, showing the main inspiration came from Senators Hugo Black and Robert F. Wagner and from American business leaders such as the Chamber of Commerce. The model for the NRA was Woodrow Wilson 's War Industries Board, in which Johnson had been involved too. Historians argue that direct comparisons between Fascism and New Deal are invalid since there is no distinctive form of fascist economic organization. Gerald Feldman wrote that fascism has not contributed anything to economic thought and had no original vision of a new economic order replacing capitalism. His argument correlates with Mason _́ s that economic factors alone are an insufficient approach to understand fascism and that decisions taken by fascists in power can not be explained within a logical economic framework. In economic terms, both ideas were within the general tendency of the 1930s to intervene in the free market capitalist economy, at the price of its laissez - faire character, "to protect the capitalist structure endangered by endogenous crises tendencies and processes of impaired self - regulation ''.
Stanley Payne, a historian of fascism, examined possible fascist influences in the United States by looking at the KKK and its offshoots and movements led by Father Coughlin and Huey Long. He concluded that "the various populist, nativist, and rightist movements in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s fell distinctly short of fascism ''. According to Kevin Passmore, lecturer in History at Cardiff University, the failure of fascism in the United States was due to the social policies of the New Deal that channelled anti-establishment populism into the left rather than the extreme right.
For decades, the New Deal was generally held in very high regard in the scholarship and the textbooks. That changed in the 1960s when New Left historians began a revisionist critique that said the New Deal was a bandaid for a patient that needed radical surgery to reform capitalism, put private property in its place and lift up workers, women and minorities. The New Left believed in participatory democracy and therefore rejected the autocratic machine politics typical of the big city Democratic organizations.
In the 1960s, New Left historians have been among the New Deal 's harsh critics. In a 1968 essay, Barton J. Bernstein compiled a chronicle of missed opportunities and inadequate responses to problems. The New Deal may have saved capitalism from itself, Bernstein charged, but it had failed to help -- and in many cases actually harmed -- those groups most in need of assistance. In The New Deal (1967), Paul K. Conkin similarly chastised the government of the 1930s for its weak policies toward marginal farmers, for its failure to institute sufficiently progressive tax reform, and its excessive generosity toward select business interests. In 1966, Howard Zinn criticized the New Deal for working actively to actually preserve the worst evils of capitalism.
By the 1970s, liberal historians were responding with a defense of the New Deal based on numerous local and microscopic studies. Praise increasingly focused on Eleanor Roosevelt, seen as a more appropriate crusading reformer than her husband. Since then, research on the New Deal has been less interested in the question of whether the New Deal was a "conservative '', "liberal '', or "revolutionary '' phenomenon than in the question of constraints within which it was operating.
In a series of articles, political sociologist Theda Skocpol has emphasized the issue of "state capacity '' as an often - crippling constraint. Ambitious reform ideas often failed, she argued, because of the absence of a government bureaucracy with significant strength and expertise to administer them. Other more recent works have stressed the political constraints that the New Deal encountered. Conservative skepticism about the efficacy of government was strong both in Congress and among many citizens. Thus some scholars have stressed that the New Deal was not just a product of its liberal backers, but also a product of the pressures of its conservative opponents.
During the New Deal the communists established a network of a dozen or so members working for the government. They were low level and had a minor influence on policies. Harold Ware led the largest group which worked in the Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA). Secretary of Agriculture Wallace got rid of them all in a famous purge in 1935. Ware died in 1935 and some individuals such as Alger Hiss moved to other government jobs. Other communists worked for the National Labor Relations Board, the National Youth Administration, the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Theater Project, the Treasury and the Department of State.
Since 1933, politicians and pundits have often called for a "new deal '' regarding an object -- that is, they demand a completely new, large - scale approach to a project. As Arthur A. Ekirch Jr. (1971) has shown, the New Deal stimulated utopianism in American political and social thought on a wide range of issues. In Canada, Conservative Prime Minister Richard B. Bennett in 1935 proposed a "new deal '' of regulation, taxation and social insurance that was a copy of the American program, but Bennett 's proposals were not enacted and he was defeated for reelection in October 1935. In accordance with the rise of the use of U.S. political phraseology in Britain, the Labour government of Tony Blair termed some of its employment programs "new deal '', in contrast to the Conservative Party 's promise of the "British Dream ''.
The Works Progress Administration subsidized artists, musicians, painters and writers on relief with a group of projects called Federal One. While the WPA program was by far the most widespread, it was preceded by three programs administered by the US Treasury which hired commercial artists at usual commissions to add murals and sculptures to federal buildings. The first of these efforts was the short - lived Public Works of Art Project, organized by Edward Bruce, an American businessman and artist. Bruce also led the Treasury Department 's Section of Painting and Sculpture (later renamed the Section of Fine Arts) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP). The Resettlement Administration (RA) and Farm Security Administration (FSA) had major photography programs. The New Deal arts programs emphasized regionalism, social realism, class conflict, proletarian interpretations and audience participation. The unstoppable collective powers of common man, contrasted to the failure of individualism, was a favorite theme.
Post Office murals and other public art, painted by artists in this time, can still be found at many locations around the U.S. The New Deal particularly helped American novelists. For journalists and the novelists who wrote non-fiction, the agencies and programs that the New Deal provided, allowed these writers to describe about what they really saw around the country.
Many writers chose to write about the New Deal and whether they were for or against it and if it was helping the country out. Some of these writers were Ruth McKenney, Edmund Wilson and Scott Fitzgerald. Another subject that was very popular for novelists was the condition of labor. They ranged from subjects on social protest to strikes.
Under the WPA, the Federal Theatre project flourished. Countless theatre productions around the country were staged. This allowed thousands of actors and directors to be employed, among them were Orson Welles, and John Huston.
The FSA photography project is most responsible for creating the image of the Depression in the U.S. Many of the images appeared in popular magazines. The photographers were under instruction from Washington as to what overall impression the New Deal wanted to give out. Director Roy Stryker 's agenda focused on his faith in social engineering, the poor conditions among cotton tenant farmers and the very poor conditions among migrant farm workers -- above all he was committed to social reform through New Deal intervention in people 's lives. Stryker demanded photographs that "related people to the land and vice versa '' because these photographs reinforced the RA 's position that poverty could be controlled by "changing land practices ''. Though Stryker did not dictate to his photographers how they should compose the shots, he did send them lists of desirable themes, such as "church '', "court day '', "barns ''.
Films of the late New Deal era such as Citizen Kane (1941) ridiculed so - called "great men '' while the heroism of the common man appeared in numerous movies, such as The Grapes of Wrath (1940). Thus in Frank Capra 's famous films, including Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939), Meet John Doe (1941) and It 's a Wonderful Life (1946), the common people come together to battle and overcome villains who are corrupt politicians controlled by very rich, greedy capitalists.
By contrast, there was also a smaller but influential stream of anti-New Deal art. Gutzon Borglum 's sculptures on Mount Rushmore emphasized great men in history (his designs had the approval of Calvin Coolidge). Gertrude Stein and Ernest Hemingway disliked the New Deal and celebrated the autonomy of perfected written work as opposed to the New Deal idea of writing as performative labor. The Southern Agrarians celebrated a premodern regionalism and opposed the TVA as a modernizing, disruptive force. Cass Gilbert, a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order, designed the new Supreme Court building (1935). Its classical lines and small size contrasted sharply with the gargantuan modernistic federal buildings going up in the Washington Mall that he detested. Hollywood managed to synthesize liberal and conservative streams as in Busby Berkeley 's Gold Digger musicals, where the storylines exalt individual autonomy while the spectacular musical numbers show abstract populations of interchangeable dancers securely contained within patterns beyond their control.
The New Deal had many programs and new agencies, most of which were universally known by their initials. Most were abolished during World War II while others remain in operation today. They included the following:
"Most indexes worsened until the summer of 1932, which may be called the low point of the depression economically and psychologically ''. Economic indicators show the American economy reached nadir in summer 1932 to February 1933, then began recovering until the recession of 1937 -- 1938. Thus the Federal Reserve Industrial Production Index hit its low of 52.8 on July 1, 1932 and was practically unchanged at 54.3 on March 1, 1933, but by July 1, 1933 it reached 85.5 (with 1935 -- 39 = 100 and for comparison 2005 = 1,342). In Roosevelt 's 12 years in office, the economy had an 8.5 % compound annual growth of GDP, the highest growth rate in the history of any industrial country, but recovery was slow and by 1939 the gross domestic product (GDP) per adult was still 27 % below trend.
|
who plays emma's father on bates motel | Ian Hart - wikipedia
Ian Hart (born Ian Davies; 8 October 1964) is an English stage, television and film actor best known for playing Quirinus Quirrell in the 2001 fantasy film Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone.
Hart was born in Knotty Ash, a district of Liverpool, Merseyside, one of three siblings, and was brought up in a Roman Catholic family. He attended the Cardinal Heenan Catholic High School and was in his teens a member of the Everyman Youth Theatre before studying drama at the now - defunct Mabel Fletcher College of Music and Drama in Liverpool. He then moved on and started acting in 1980.
From 1988 to 1991, Hart studied video production at South Mersey College (now part of Liverpool Community College). He portrayed a POUM militia volunteer in the Spanish Civil War in Land and Freedom (1995), an unemployed Liverpool shipyard worker in Liam (2000). His best known role, however, is that of Professor Quirrell in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (2001). He also provided the voice of the CGI - generated face of Lord Voldemort.
Hart has played John Lennon in three productions -- as a 22 - year - old Lennon a few months prior to the late 1963 British Invasion in The Hours and Times (1991), a slightly younger Lennon during The Beatles ' 1960 - 62 Hamburg period in Backbeat (1994), and a 50 - year - old Lennon (having avoided his true fate at age 40) in the Playhouse Presents television production Snodgrass (2013).
Hart played Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in the film Finding Neverland in 2004, having already played Doyle 's creation Dr. Watson in a BBC One television film of The Hound of the Baskervilles in 2002, and reprising the role in 2004 in Sherlock Holmes and the Case of the Silk Stocking, with a different actor playing Sherlock Holmes.
He also played schizophrenic paparazzo Don Konkey in the FX series Dirt in 2007 and 2008.
In 2009 he played Tom Ripley in BBC Radio Four 's adaptations of all five of Patricia Highsmith 's "Ripliad '' series.
Hart had an interesting audience interaction during the Duke of York 's Theatre 's 2009 production of Andrew Bovell 's play Speaking in Tongues. After the performance on 23 November, Hart went into the audience and remonstrated with a man whom he had earlier told to "shut up '' from the stage.
He also played Adolf Hitler in the BBC one - off drama The Man Who Crossed Hitler, which aired in August 2011.
Hart 's wife is named Lynne. The couple have two daughters and have lived in Crouch End in North London.
|
top 10 cities with highest crime rate in the world | List of cities by murder rate - Wikipedia
The following 50 cities have the highest murder rates in the world of all cities not at war, with a population of at least 300,000 people, and all relevant data available online.
|
where does the light rail go in phoenix | Valley Metro rail - wikipedia
Valley Metro Rail (styled corporately as METRO) is a 26.3 - mile (42 km) light rail line operating in the U.S. state of Arizona. Part of the Valley Metro public transit system, it serves the cities of Phoenix, Tempe, and Mesa. Construction began in March 2005; operation started December 27, 2008. The line had a weekday ridership of 49,416 in 2016, making it the 14th busiest light rail system in the country.
In the years since it opened in 2008, the system has undergone two expansions, with at least five more scheduled, including Tempe Streetcar. Furthermore, extensions are planned in Glendale, and into South Phoenix to Baseline Road, all of which were expanded as a direct result of obtaining funding under the Proposition 104 sales tax increase.
The expected construction cost for the initial 20 miles was $1.4 billion, or $70 million per mile. In 2008, Valley Metro estimated the train would cost $184 million to operate over the following five years with fares covering $44 million of the operation costs and tax subsidies covering the remaining costs.
Trains operate on city streets in a "center reservation '', similar to the Red Line of the METRO light rail system in Houston, the surface sections of the Green Line in Boston, and some surface sections of the Muni Metro in San Francisco. Some parts of the line, such as the bridge over Tempe Town Lake (near State Route 202), have no contact with other traffic. The vehicles used are rated for a maximum speed of 58 mph, and have to complete the 26 mile route in 90 minutes, including station stops. The system is powered by an overhead catenary that supplies power at 750 V.
Numerous plans have preceded the current implementation of light rail. The Phoenix Street Railway provided streetcar service from 1887 to 1948. Historic vehicles may be seen at the Arizona Street Railway Museum, with Car # 116 celebrating her 80th birthday on December 25, 2008, just days before the opening of modern rail service. In 1989, the ValTrans elevated rail proposal, was turned down by voters in a referendum due to cost and feasibility concerns. Other subsequent initiatives during the 1990s failed over similar reasons.
Metro was created by the Transit 2000 Regional Transportation Plan (RTP), which involved a 0.5 per cent sales tax and was approved by voters in Phoenix in 2000. Transit 2000 aimed at improving the local bus service (considered unacceptably inadequate compared to other major US cities) and the formation of bus rapid transit and light rail, among other things, which was seen as a more affordable approach. It used the route placing and color designations from the 1989 plan.
Construction on a new light rail line began in March 2005. In March 2008, cracks in the system 's rails were discovered. The cause of the cracks was determined to be improper use of plasma cutting torches by contractors. The affected track was repaired by May at a cost of $600,000 with still no word on which parties will be held financially responsible. The last of the concrete and rail for the system was installed in the end of April, with CEO declaring the system to be on time and on budget.
There are 28 stations on the initial twenty - mile starter segment. The line celebrated its grand opening December 27, 2008, with official ribbon - cutting ceremonies and community celebrations spread throughout Phoenix, Tempe, and Mesa. The event was produced by Arizona 's Entertainment Solutions, Inc. and was attended by thousands of local residents who waited as long as an hour or more to ride the vehicles. The stations have been designed to complement their immediate surroundings. Station platform areas are approximately 16 feet (4.9 m) wide by 300 feet (91 m) long.
As of early 2014, income has exceeded Metro 's stated goal with 44.6 % farebox recovery, partially due to the light rail ridership far exceeding original projections. The light rail has also led to rapid urban development in downtown Phoenix and Tempe, generating additional revenue through taxes.
Valley Metro had its busiest month in April 2017, with a total passenger count of 1,514,456 and an average weekday ridership of 52,910. On the weekend of March 31, 2017, through April 2, 2017, the light rail system saw 275,615 passengers board the train due to several large events including Final Four Fan Fest, March Madness Music Festival, Arizona Diamondbacks home opener, Phoenix Pride Festival, Phoenix Suns game, and Tempe Festival of the Arts. That Sunday, April 2, 2017, they saw 80,210 passengers board the train thanks to fans attending the Arizona Diamondbacks home opening game as well as the other large events occurring that weekend.
The Central Mesa Extension extended 3.1 miles (5.0 km) from Sycamore / Main St in the median of Main Street to Mesa Drive. It added four stations at Alma School Road, Country Club Drive, Center Street, and Mesa Drive. In March 2012, Valley Metro selected a design - build joint venture between Kiewit Corporation and Mass. Electric to construct the extension. Construction began in July 2012, and passenger service began on August 22, 2015. Mesa held a summit in early 2012 to have urban developers give their ideas on how to revitalize Downtown Mesa. The extension cost $200 million, paid for from a combination of Proposition 400 sales tax revenues and federal air quality and New Starts grants, and is estimated to have added 5,000 daily riders.
An original part of the Regional Transportation Plan, this extension was originally scheduled to open in 2012. However, a combination of lower than expected sales tax revenues, combined with uncertainty surrounding the availability of federal funds to support the project resulted in the opening date being pushed back initially to 2014, and then by 9 years, to fiscal year 2023, by the Phoenix City Council in June 2009.
In July 2012, a vote was held to reschedule this extension to open in 2016. Under this plan, the city of Phoenix advanced $60 million of local funds to Valley Metro Rail, who would then fund the remaining cost of the project (approximately $267 million) with both Transit 2000 and Proposition 400 funds, thereby allowing work on the project to begin.
The design - build contract was awarded to a joint venture of Sundt and Stacy and Witbeck, for the 3.2 mile extension. Construction began in January 2013, with a celebration to mark the laying of the first track section being held in July 2014. Construction work continued until December 2015, when it was announced the extension would open March 19, 2016 and that testing along the new stretch would continue.
This extension is the first to extend light rail within the city of Phoenix. The system continues north from the previous terminus at 19th Avenue and Montebello, along the median of 19th Avenue, to a new terminus and park and ride located on the southwest corner of 19th Ave / Dunlap. The extension features two additional stations, located at Northern and Glendale avenues and is predicted to serve 5,000 riders per day during its first full year of operation.
Currently the Valley Metro Rail system consists of one single line serving all 35 stations total, and denoted with a gold - yellow color on Valley Metro publications. The line starts in Phoenix at the 19th Ave / Dunlap station on its own right of way south of Dunlap before turning south on 19th Avenue for four miles. It then turns eastward on Camelback Road for 2 1 / 2 miles, then turns south onto Central Avenue where it continues all the way into Downtown Phoenix. At Roosevelt, the line splits into one - way segments: the Mesa bound portions line runs on First Avenue south before turning east on Jefferson Street; likewise, the Dunlap bound portion of the line starts at 26th Street on Washington Street before turning north on Central Avenue. (Interestingly, between 5th and 26th Streets on the Washington / Jefferson corridors, the Valley Metro Rail has a distinction of running in the middle of one - way thoroughfares.) After both tracks rejoin east of 24th Street on Washington Street, it continues past Sky Harbor Airport (which is connected by the PHX Sky Train to the light rail), then turns southeast ward crossing into Tempe. The line leaves Washington Street and crosses Tempe Town Lake on its own bridge, turns east along Mill Avenue before going into its own right of way near ASU. Going southward, it joins Apache Boulevard going east ward, with Apache changing to Main Street in Mesa where the light rail line ends at Mesa Drive.
Service begins Monday through Friday at 4: 30 a.m., while Saturday and Sunday service begins at 4: 50 a.m. Service ends at approximately 1 a.m. Monday through Thursday nights, weekend service ends at 3: 25 a.m. Friday and Saturday mornings, with Sunday service ending at approximately 12: 30 a.m. Monday morning.
Due to the fact a complete light rail trip takes 83 minutes from end to end, trains departing at 11 p.m. for example end by 12: 25a. m. Weekday frequencies consist of every 12 minutes, Saturday daytime service every 15 minutes and Sunday and evening service being every 20 minutes.
Valley Metro Rail currently operates a fleet of 50 light rail vehicles (LRV) manufactured by Kinki Sharyo. Each LRV seats 66, with a total capacity including standees of 200. The vehicles are accessible with space for four wheelchairs and four bicycles, per vehicle. Up to three vehicles may operate together in a single train set. The vehicles have a maximum speed of 58 mph (93 km / h).
Valley Metro Rail shares its fare system with the Valley Metro Bus system, but uses a proof - of - payment system to allow for simplified boarding and platform access. Tickets can be purchased from ticket vending machines at the entrance to all stations but must be validated before boarding the train.
Fare enforcement sweeps are conducted throughout the system at random to ensure compliance. The system currently has a fare compliance rate of 94 %, with an average of 16 % of fares being validated by inspectors.
An eastern extension, 1.9 miles (3.1 km) past the current terminus at Mesa Drive to Gilbert Road, began construction in October 2016, and is expected to begin operating in the Spring of 2019. The line, budgeted at approximately $184 million, will travel in the median of Main Street and have two stations. The design - build contract for this project was awarded to Sundt / Stacy and Witbeck, with Jacobs Engineering providing design services for the project.
Tempe Streetcar will consist of 14 stations, running from Dorsey Lane west on Apache Boulevard, then north on Mill Avenue. From there, it will loop around Downtown Tempe along Mill and Ash avenues. The route continues along Rio Salado Parkway to Marina Heights, with a possible extension to Mesa to connect with the Cubs ' new spring training facility, as well as Tempe Marketplace and future development along Rio Salado.
Upon completion of Northwest Phase I, focus now shifts to Phase II of the project. Estimated to be complete by 2023, this extension will continue west on Dunlap Avenue before turning to head north along 25th Avenue. From there, the system will head west on Mountain View Road, before crossing Interstate 17 and terminating on the east side of Metrocenter Mall. The extension is expected to include three new stations, one in the vicinity of 25th Avenue and Dunlap, another adjacent to the Rose Mofford Sports Complex and a relocated transit center on the east side of Metrocenter Mall.
As of October 2017, the project is in the environmental assessment (EA) phase, with a public comment opportunity on the Draft EA expected in the Fall of 2017.
The South Central Extension will run from Downtown Phoenix, south along Central Avenue to Baseline Road, adding 4.9 miles (7.9 km) and 7 stations, while connecting with 2 park and ride locations.
Additionally, this project will form a light rail hub in Downtown Phoenix, between Central and First avenues to the West and East, and Washington and Jefferson streets to the North and South. Also included are new tracks for turn - around / staging purposes at both Third Avenue and Fifth Street, for enhanced flexibility during peak service.
After receiving environmental approval from the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) in January 2017, the project is now in the design phase. Construction is schedule to begin in 2019, with operations expected in 2023.
The Capitol / I - 10 West extension will run from Downtown Phoenix from Central Station and 1st Avenue / Jefferson west to Interstate 17 and turn north to the interchange of Interstate 10 and I - 17 ("The Stack ''). Then the line will turn west and continue down I - 10 in the median past 43rd Avenue. It will then go over the westbound lanes of I - 10 to continue alongside the highway to the 79th Avenue park and ride, adding 11 miles (18 km) and 11 stations to connect the West Valley and ease congestion on Interstate 10. The line will transfer over I - 10 from the median to the shoulder to accommodate the proposed extension of Loop 202, which will connect with I - 10 around 51st Avenue.
Both Phase I and II are now in the final stages of the environmental assessment, Phase I of the project will begin operations in 2023. Phase II operations are currently scheduled to begin in 2030, however the project could be accelerated to open sooner.
Starting in 2013, Valley Metro along with the cities of Glendale and Phoenix approved a project to study the potential extension of light rail, bus rapid transit or streetcar to Glendale. Initially three different route options were proposed, all of which headed west from the current light rail system and featured a shared terminus in the Downtown Glendale area. Options included travel directly across Glendale Avenue, as well as routes which travel along Camelback Road and a combination of 43rd and 51st avenues, before entering the shared downtown terminus area.
In February 2016, a community working group recommend a route for this project, this route travels along Camelback Road until 43rd Avenue, at which point light rail would travel north along 43rd Avenue until Glendale Avenue, from there it would continue west until it reaches 56th Avenue, where the route is likely to shift approximately 500 feet (150 m) north to Glenn Drive, where it will continue to the downtown terminus. Light rail was selected as the preferred type of transit for the route, as opposed to bus rapid transit or streetcar.
Following the recommendation, the project now enters a technical definition phase, to better identify how the line would cross Interstate 17, in addition to defining how the route will transition from Glendale Avenue to Glenn Drive in downtown Glendale. Upon completion of this phase, the route will be presented for approval to both Glendale and Phoenix city councils.
Any project which occurs as a result of this study will have a budget of $543 million, with construction to begin in 2023 and operations to begin in 2026.
The 50th Street infill station project adds a new station to the existing alignment at 50th Street and Washington. The project aims to enable better connectivity with nearby businesses, and recent commercial and residential development projects in the area.
The project, funded entirely by the City of Phoenix, began construction in June 2017, service to the new station is expected to begin in 2019.
Currently, an extension is planned to occur in Northeast Phoenix in 2034, and Arizona State University 's West campus in 2044.
Route map: Google
|
who was the last grey's anatomy dedicated to | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season consists of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - tying fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, was left blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
|
young jeezy let's get it thug motivation | Let 's Get It: Thug Motivation 101 - wikipedia
Let 's Get It: Thug Motivation 101 is the debut studio album by American rapper Jeezy. It was released on July 26, 2005, by his indie record label CTE World, under the distribution from Def Jam Recordings. On the UK 's album release, it features the remixed version of "Go Crazy '', featuring guest appearance from rapper Jay - Z.
The album was supported by four singles: "And Then What '' featuring Mannie Fresh, "Soul Survivor '' featuring Akon, "Go Crazy '' and "My Hood ''.
The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 172,000 copies in the first week. On September 29, 2005, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
In 2015, hip hop writer Brooklyn Russell declared the album "trap rap 's apotheosis '' while observing its impact: "Working with only a handful of Shawty Redd beats and his naturally raspy voice, Atlanta native Young Jeezy would lay down the blueprint for an entire region of rappers -- virtually knocking big players like Lil Jon out of commission. ''
In 2012, Complex called the album one of the classic albums of the last decade.
In the United States, Let 's Get It: Thug Motivation 101 debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling 172,000 copies in the first week. On September 29, 2005, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In 2009, the album sold 1,933,000 copies in the United States.
|
what is it in it comes at night | It Comes at Night - wikipedia
It Comes at Night is a 2017 American psychological horror film written and directed by Trey Edward Shults. It stars Joel Edgerton, Christopher Abbott, Carmen Ejogo, Kelvin Harrison Jr. and Riley Keough.
The film had its premiere at the Overlook Film Festival in Mount Hood, Oregon on April 29, 2017, and was theatrically released on June 9, 2017 in the United States, by A24. It was positively received by critics, and has been a modest success at the box office, grossing $19 million.
A highly contagious outbreak has ravaged the world. Paul, his wife Sarah, and their teenage son Travis have secluded themselves in their home deep in the woods in an undisclosed location. When Sarah 's father, Bud, contracts the disease, they kill him and burn his body in a shallow grave. The next night, they capture an intruder breaking into the house. Paul ties him to a tree and places a bag over his head overnight to confirm he is not suffering from the disease. The stranger, Will, explains that he did not know the house was occupied and was only searching for fresh water for himself, his wife, and his young son. Will offers to trade some of their supply of food for water. Sarah suggests bringing Will 's family back to their home, reasoning that the more people they have with them, the easier it would be to defend themselves should anyone else discover their location. Paul agrees, and he takes Will to collect his family. Along the way, they are ambushed by two men. Paul kills them and accuses Will of having set him up. Will points out that he fought them as well and assuages Paul 's mistrust.
A few days later, Paul returns along with Will, his wife Kim, and son Andrew. After establishing the rules that Paul and Sarah have used to stay safe, including keeping the only entrance locked with a key Paul or Sarah wear around their neck, and keeping nighttime excursions to a minimum, the two families begin to establish a sense of normality and grow closer to each other. One day, Travis 's dog Stanley begins barking aggressively at and chases an unseen presence in the woods. Travis follows the dog deeper into the woods before Stanley 's barking suddenly ceases. Travis insists to Paul and Will that he heard something in the woods. They decide to return home, as Paul insists Stanley knows the woods and will find his own way home. That night, Will seemingly contradicts a story he had told Paul earlier about what he and Kim were doing prior to finding the abandoned house. This causes Paul to begin distrusting Will.
That evening, Travis is awakened by a nightmare about his grandfather. He discovers Andrew sleeping on the floor of Bud 's old room, also suffering from a nightmare. Travis leads him back to his parents ' room before hearing a sound from downstairs. Investigating, Travis finds that the front door of the house is slightly opened. He wakes Paul and Will, who investigate further and find a bleeding and gravely sick Stanley lying on the floor. They kill and burn the dog. When Travis reveals that the door was already open when he came downstairs, Sarah suggests that a sleepwalking Andrew might have opened the door. As tensions between the two families begin to rise, Paul decides that they should isolate themselves in their own rooms for a couple of days so that they can calm down and ensure no one is infected.
The next morning, Travis overhears a distraught Kim telling Will that they need to leave. Travis informs his parents that Andrew might be infected and, as such, he may be infected himself. Paul and Sarah don protective masks and gloves and take weapons to confront Kim and Will, fearing that they may steal their food and water, or return later by force. When Paul asks to be let in to see if Andrew is sick, Will draws a gun and takes Paul captive. Will insists that his family is healthy and demands Paul give him a fair share of food and water so that they can leave. Paul and Sarah overwhelm Will and force him and his family outside. Will and Paul get into a brutal fight before Sarah shoots and kills Will. Kim flees into the woods with Andrew. Paul fires after them, killing Andrew. Kim hysterically begs Paul to kill her to end her misery, and he does. Having witnessed it all, the dazed Travis vomits blood in the bathroom. Later, he spots signs of illness in the mirror.
Later, Travis awakens in bed, visibly sick. His mother comforts him as he dies. Some time later, Paul and Sarah sit at the dinner table in silence. They share a shattered, devastated look as the film ends.
Shults began writing the film after the death of his father as a way of dealing with the pain. Although the film is post-apocalyptic Shults did not look to any other such films as inspiration; instead, he cited the work of Paul Thomas Anderson and John Cassavetes and the films Night of the Living Dead and The Shining as inspirations. To the later point, the film takes some influences from The Shining 's Overlook Hotel in that the layout of the house is specifically obscure and never properly established. Shults has described it "as this kind of labyrinth '' and a metaphor for "the mesh of Travis ' head. ''
In June 2016, Joel Edgerton joined the cast of the film. In August 2016, it was announced that Christopher Abbott, Riley Keough and Carmen Ejogo had also joined the cast.
Principal photography began in August 2016 in New York.
The film had its world premiere at The Overlook Film Festival at Timberline Lodge, Oregon, on April 29, 2017. The film was scheduled to be released on August 25, 2017, but was rescheduled for June 9, 2017.
As of August 12, 2017, It Comes at Night has grossed $13.9 million in the United States and Canada and $5.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $19.2 million.
It Comes at Night was released alongside The Mummy and Megan Leavey, and was expected to gross around $7 million from 2,533 theaters in its opening weekend, with a chance of making as much as $12 million. It made $700,000 from Thursday night previews and $2.4 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $6 million, finishing 6th at the box office. Deadline.com noted the film 's poor audience word - of - mouth led to a drop of potential Saturday and Sunday sales.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 89 % among critics based on 194 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It Comes at Night makes lethally effective use of its bare - bones trappings while proving once again that what 's left unseen can be just as horrifying as anything on the screen. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score 78 out of 100 based on the appraisals of 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews, '' but audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of only "D '' on an A+ to F scale. However, Steve Pulaski of Influx Magazine, reflecting once again the generally positive critical opinion as opposed to the more negative popular reception, gave the film an A, stating that "It Comes at Night is a near - masterpiece of form; a supremely engaging horror - drama that 's well - shot, eerie beyond belief, and immaculately paced to boot. ''
|
game of thrones what episode are we on | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
|
who is buried upside down on box hill | Box Hill, Surrey - wikipedia
Box Hill is a summit of the North Downs in Surrey, approximately 30 km (19 mi) south - west of London. The hill takes its name from the ancient box woodland found on the steepest west - facing chalk slopes overlooking the River Mole. The western part of the hill is owned and managed by the National Trust, whilst the village of Box Hill lies on higher ground to the east. The highest point is Betchworth Clumps at 224 m (735 ft) above OD, although the Salomons Memorial (at 172 metres) overlooking the town of Dorking is the most popular viewpoint.
Box Hill lies within the Surrey Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and forms part of the Mole Gap to Reigate Escarpment Site of Special Scientific Interest. The north - and south - facing slopes support an area of chalk downland, noted for its orchids and other rare plant species. The hill provides a habitat for 40 species of butterfly, and has given its name to a species of squash bug, now found throughout south - east England.
An estimated 850,000 people visit Box Hill each year. The National Trust visitors ' centre provides both a cafeteria and gift shop, and the panoramic views of the western Weald may be enjoyed from the North Downs Way, a long - distance footpath that runs along the southern escarpment. Box Hill featured prominently on the route of the 2012 Summer Olympics cycling road race events (the men doing nine circuits and the women doing two circuits).
Box Hill stands at the south - eastern corner of the Mole Gap, the valley carved by the River Mole through the North Downs. Box Hill School is in the village of Mickleham 1.4 kilometres (0.9 mi) to the north, and the hill overlooks the town of Dorking to the south - west. The hill is approximately 30 km (19 mi) south - west of central London and is the 12th highest in Surrey.
The National Trust owns and manages much of the western and north - eastern part of Box Hill. Leopold Salomons, owner of Norbury Park donated 95 ha (230 acres) in 1914 in order to protect it from development. Additional land was purchased or donated between 1921 and 1999 and today the Box Hill estate covers an area of around 490 ha (1,200 acres), including Mickleham Downs to the north and Lower Boxhill Farm to the south.
The ' village ' of Box Hill (part of a joint civil parish with Headley) is to the east of the National Trust property. The earliest flint cottages date from the 1800s, although much of the village was constructed in the first half of the 20th century. By 2005 there were more than 800 dwellings of which over five hundred were mobile homes. An estimated 41 % of the community is aged 60 or over. St Andrew 's Church, part of the Parish of Headley, was opened in 1969 and the village hall opened in 1974
Box Hill is a Special Area of Conservation and included in a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest, affording it a level of legislative protection against planning applications. The chalk downland environment supports notable populations of bats, lepidopterans, orchids and the hill 's namesake, the box tree (Buxus sempervirens). Box Hill also has over 40 species of butterflies and plants.
The earliest archaeological evidence of human activity on Box Hill are two Bronze Age round barrows located close to the Salomons Memorial. The larger barrow is 20 m (66 ft) in diameter and 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) high. In medieval times the larger barrow was used as a boundary marker or mere for the parish of Mickleham. Traces of prehistoric field boundaries are visible on Burford Spur and the low flint banks on the steeper and more wooded White Hill may be contemporaneous.
The origin of the Box trees growing on the hill is disputed: Several sources from the late 18th century suggest that the first Box Trees on the Hill were planted by Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel during the reign of Charles I. Older medieval documents however make reference to local individuals with surnames including Atteboxe, de la Boxe and Buxeto, suggesting that Box was already common in the local area by the 13th century, and it has also been observed that Thomas Howard never owned the Box Hill estate. The diarist John Evelyn records a visit to the hill in August 1655 to view "those natural bowers, cabinets and shady walks in the box copses. '' The close grain of the Box wood made it highly prized for its timber for carving and there are numerous accounts of the sale of trees from the hill throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.
The pillow mounds to the north - east of the Salomons Memorial are thought to date from the medieval period and were probably constructed as artificial warrens for rabbits. High Ashurst warren is recorded as remaining in use until the late 18th century. A second warren was probably situated close to Warren Farm in the Headley Valley and it has been speculated that the present farmhouse was originally the warrener 's cottage.
The proposals for a land value tax outlined by Chancellor David Lloyd George in his People 's Budget of 1909 prompted the trustees of the Deepdene estate to start to sell the unimproved land on the western side of Box Hill. As a result of negotiations led by Sir Robert Hunter, one of the founders of the National Trust, Leopold Salomons of Norbury Park purchased 95 ha (230 acres) which included the Old Fort, Swiss Cottage and the western flank of the hill above the River Mole, for £ 16,000.
Two further purchases of 28 ha (69 acres) and 102 ha (250 acres) transferred Lodge Hill and Ashurst Rough to National Trust ownership in 1921 and 1923. The Trust continued to purchase land, and by the mid-1980s the estate comprised some 500 ha (1,200 acres). The most recent additions to the Box Hill Estate include farmland at Westhumble and at the foot of the hill, purchased in the late 1990s.
The National Trust also owns Headley Heath, a geologically distinct area of heathland which lies to the north - east of Box Hill village. The majority of the heath was acquired in a single purchase in 1946.
Box Hill was given to the nation by Leopold Salomons in 1914.
A country park, owned by the National Trust, now provides public access to Box Hill, and the Pilgrims ' Way long distance footpath runs about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) to the south.
On the hill there are car parks and a viewpoint, from where the town of Dorking can be viewed. But that is not the highest point: the ridge rises toward the east, and most of the village of Box Hill is higher, at an altitude of around 200 metres (656 ft). The Ordnance Survey mark a spot height of 224 metres (735 ft) at the radio mast at TQ 2040 5175.
Near the viewpoint there is a National Trust shop containing a small visitor centre, and a café. The car parks are owned and run by the National Trust. Details of footpaths are available in this area. There are a number of public footpaths, but they are not necessarily clearly marked (e.g. the ' Family Fun Trail ', details of which are available in the shop).
Box Hill is served by local and London bus routes, providing access to both the visitor centre and the foot of the hill, where there is another car park (opposite the Burford Bridge Hotel) that is frequented by motorcyclists.
The route to the top from the A24, known as the Zig Zag Road, is quite steep and is a popular test of fitness for cyclists. There is another small car park halfway up this road, with room for only around 10 cars.
The nearest railway station is Box Hill & Westhumble railway station.
The most notable sight on Box Hill is the view from the viewing platform. There can be a very clear view, roughly south over Dorking and further towards Gatwick Airport and right across to the South Downs, including Chanctonbury Ring and Devil 's Dyke, Sussex (a distance of 26 miles, according to the inscription on the viewing platform). The Salomons Memorial is sometimes mistakenly thought to be at the summit of the hill, but the land continues to rise to the east. The highest point is at Betchworth Clumps, a wooded area to the south of the Hand - in - Hand public house, at an elevation of 224 metres (735 ft). The summit is occupied by a water tower and transmitter mast.
The Old Fort is one of 13 mobilisation centres (known collectively as the London Defence Positions) built in the 1890s to protect London from invasion from continental Europe. The six acre site of the fort was originally purchased by the Ministry of Defence in 1891, and construction began in 1896. Box Hill fort was laid out in the form of an infantry redoubt, typical of the period, but also included magazines for the storage of artillery ammunition. (In common with the majority of the twelve other mobilisation centres, the Box Hill fort was designed for the use of the infantry only and the stored ammunition was intended for the use of mobile field artillery which would be deployed nearby as required.) A reform of defence policy by the Secretary of War Viscount Haldane in 1905 resulted in all 13 centres being declared redundant, and Box Hill Fort was sold back to the estate trustees in 1908. The building can not be entered by visitors. It is inhabited by bats, which are protected species in the UK.
The circular flint tower located on the northern tip of Lodge Hill was built for the piano maker Thomas Broadwood, who purchased Juniper Hall in 1815.
The Zig Zag Road is the most direct route to the National Trust visitors ' centre from the Mole Gap for both cars and bicycles. The exact age of the Zig Zag Road is uncertain, but it first appears on the Ordnance Survey map of 1869, and has been popular with cyclists since the 1880s.
The road is a steady climb of 120 metres (390 ft) over 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) and, although on a much smaller scale, has been likened to the Alpe d'Huez in the French Alps. The Zig Zag Road featured prominently in the 2012 Summer Olympics cycling road race events: in a mid-race circuit at Box Hill, the men climbed the road nine times and the women twice.
Peter Labilliere was born in Dublin on 30 May 1725 to a family of French Huguenot descent. He joined the British Army at the age of 14, becoming a major in 1760. After leaving the army he became a political agitator and was accused in 1775 of bribing British troops not to fight in the American War of Independence, although he was never tried for treason. Throughout the 1770s and 80s Labiliere corresponded regularly with both Benjamin Franklin (at that time the American representative in France) and the Long Island wax sculptor Patience Wright. The effect of his anti-war protests on British public sentiment is uncertain, although he appears to have attracted a following of over 700 like - minded adherents, and the army was required to rely on German mercenaries, as recruitment of British troops for the war became increasingly difficult.
Labilliere moved to Dorking from Chiswick in around 1789, living in a small cottage called "The Hole in the Wall, '' on Butter Hill, and often visiting Box Hill to meditate. With old age he became increasingly eccentric and neglected his own personal hygiene to such an extent that he acquired the nickname "the walking dung - hill ''. He died on 6 June 1800. In accordance with his wishes he was buried head downwards, on 10 or 11 June on the western side of Box Hill above The Whites. In the presence of a crowd of thousands that included visitors from London as well as the local "quality gentry '', Labilliere was buried without any religious ceremony, having reportedly said that the world was "topsy - turvey '' and that it would be righted in the end if he were interred thus. But this preference was not mentioned in his "Book of Devotions '': rather he there said that he wished to emulate the example of St Peter, who was crucified upside - down according to tradition.
The memorial stone on Box Hill is not believed to mark the exact location of his burial (which is thought to be several metres to the west on a steep incline). There are two errors on the memorial stone itself: He was buried in June 1800 (rather than July) and all surviving manuscripts indicate that he spelt his name Labilliere (rather than Labelliere).
Labelliere 's story was recorded (under that spelling) by John Timbs in his English Eccentrics and Eccentricities, published in 1866.
He then earned a mention (continuing the ' e ' spelling) in Edith Sitwell 's 1933 book The English Eccentrics, which surely draws on Timbs ' description, and through which he came to feature in W.H. Auden 's 1940 book of poems New Year Letter (The Double Man in the United States) (Part 1, ll. 368 - 82):
Also from the Sitwell account, he appears as a character in the 1964 chamber opera English Eccentrics, by Malcolm Williamson.
The Weypole (or Waypole) is a roughly semi-circular 2.4 ha (5.9 - acre) area of level ground at the foot of Box Hill, between The Whites and the River Mole. The area was originally part of the grounds of Burford Lodge, built by John Eckersall in 1776, and the apple and cherry trees in the area suggest that it was used as an orchard for a time. The Burford Lodge estate was later owned by the horticulturalist Sir Trevor Lawrence, who created a garden along the banks of the Mole for his collection of orchids.
A ford across the River Mole is thought to have existed here since prehistoric times. The way - pole was a notched post secured in the riverbed, to indicate the depth of the water. Stepping stones at this site are first recorded in 1841 and they may have been installed by an owner of Burford Lodge to facilitate access to the Weypole orchard. The current stones were dedicated on 11 September 1946 by Prime Minister Clement Attlee, at the request of James Chuter Ede, local politician and Attlee 's Home Secretary, replacing those destroyed during World War 2 as an anti-invasion measure. The spot is popular with both anglers and families, although swimming is strongly discouraged. The stones give their name to the pub in the nearby village of Westhumble.
John Logie Baird, the inventor of the first working television system, lived at Swiss Cottage from 1929 until 1932. Baird conducted some of his experiments on Box Hill, including his Noctovisor, an infra - red viewing device.
The Burford Bridge Hotel and Juniper Hall Field Studies Centre lie at the foot of Box Hill close to the river Mole. Both are rich in historical associations with famous visitors and residents.
John Evelyn notes in his Diary in 1662 that Box Hill was frequented by the ladies and gentlemen from nearby Epsom spa.
In 1733, George Lambert painted Box Hill. The painting is now in The Tate.
An important passage of Jane Austen 's novel Emma is set at Box Hill.
In England: A Nation, (London: R. Brimley Johnson, 1904), edited by Lucian Oldershaw, and in a chapter entitled "The Patriotic Idea '' written by G.K. Chesterton, the beauty of Box Hill violated by an invading army is used to express a healthy patriot 's love for his nation is opposed to the jingoistic nationalism of tabloid newspapers: "But just as a man who has been in love will find it difficult to write a whole frantic epic about a flirtation, so all that kind of rhetoric about the Union Jack and the Anglo - Saxon blood, which has made amusing the journalism of this country for the last six years, will be merely impossible to the man who has for one moment called up before himself what would be the real sensation of hearing that a foreign army was encamped on Box Hill. ''
The 1981 Public Image Ltd song "The Flowers of Romance '', from the album of the same title, includes the line "I 've got binoculars on top of Box Hill ''.
British biker rock band, Dumpy 's Rusty Nuts, released a single called ' Boxhill or Bust ' in the early 1980s. The song is something of a cult anthem for bikers, and reflects the popularity of Box Hill amongst the biking community.
Musician Ben Watt of Everything But The Girl wrote a song "On Box Hill '', released as the B side of the single "Some Things Do n't Matter '' (Cherry Red Records) in 1983. This song about a sunny day on Box Hill also appears on his début album North Marine Drive.
In Richard Thompson 's song "1952 Vincent Black Lightning '', Box Hill is the location to which James and Red Molly ride on James ' motorcycle. In the cover version of this song by bluegrass artist Del McCoury on the album Del and the Boys, Box Hill is changed to Knoxville, a city in Tennessee, U.S.A.
Mystery author Cyril Hare sets his 1954 novel, That Yew Tree 's Shade (published in the U.S. as Death Walks the Woods) at "Yew Hill '', which Hare admits in an introduction is modelled on Box Hill.
Actor and singer Tom Felton 's song called "Time Well Spent '' mentions him going to "chill out on Box Hill ''.
The 2012 British film Berberian Sound Studio contains a short film - within - the - film - a spoof 1970s - style documentary about the outstanding natural and man - made features of Box Hill.
In 2013 a body that had lain undiscovered for 2 years was found on Box Hill. It was identified as missing teacher Brian Hynard who had left 2 suicide notes before disappearing. In 1995 teenager Ruth Wilson disappeared after being dropped off by taxi on Box Hill.
|
are there always 20 horses in kentucky derby | Kentucky Derby - wikipedia
The Kentucky Derby / ˈdɜːrbi /, is a horse race that is held annually in Louisville, Kentucky, United States, on the first Saturday in May, capping the two - week - long Kentucky Derby Festival. The race is a Grade I stakes race for three - year - old Thoroughbreds at a distance of one and a quarter miles (2 km) at Churchill Downs. Colts and geldings carry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) and fillies 121 pounds (55 kilograms).
The race is often called "The Run for the Roses '' for the blanket of roses draped over the winner. It is also known in the United States as "The Most Exciting Two Minutes In Sports '' or "The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports '' in reference to its approximate duration. It is the first leg of the American Triple Crown and is followed by the Preakness Stakes, then the Belmont Stakes. Unlike the Preakness and Belmont Stakes, which took hiatuses in 1891 -- 1893 and 1911 -- 1912, respectively, the Kentucky Derby has been run every consecutive year since 1875, even during both World Wars. A horse must win all three races to win the Triple Crown. In the 2015 listing of the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities (IFHA), the Kentucky Derby tied with the Whitney Handicap as the top Grade 1 race in the United States outside the Breeders ' Cup races.
The attendance at the Kentucky Derby ranks first in North America and usually surpasses the attendance of all other stakes races including the Preakness Stakes, Belmont Stakes, and the Breeders ' Cup.
In 1872, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark, Jr., grandson of William Clark of the Lewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visiting Epsom in Surrey where The Derby had been running annually since 1780. From there, Clark went on to Paris, France, where in 1863, a group of racing enthusiasts had formed the French Jockey Club and had organized the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France.
Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club for the purpose of raising money to build quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known as Churchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack. Officially, the racetrack was incorporated as Churchill Downs in 1937.
The Kentucky Derby was first run at 1 1 / 2 miles (12 furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as the Epsom Derby. The distance was changed in 1896 to its current 1 1 / 4 miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three - year - old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockey Oliver Lewis, a colt named Aristides, who was trained by future Hall of Famer Ansel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second - place finish in the Belmont Stakes.
Although the first race meeting proved a success, the track ran into financial difficulties and in 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902 when Col. Matt Winn of Louisville put together a syndicate of businessmen to acquire the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three - year - old thoroughbred horses in North America.
Thoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete later in the Preakness Stakes at the Pimlico Race Course, in Baltimore, Maryland, followed by the Belmont Stakes in Elmont, New York. The three races offered large purses and in 1919 Sir Barton became the first horse to win all three races. However, the term Triple Crown did n't come into use for another eleven years. In 1930, when Gallant Fox became the second horse to win all three races, sportswriter Charles Hatton brought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a "superhorse '' that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term was coined, the race, which had been run in mid-May since inception, was changed to the first Saturday in May to allow for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Prior to 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917 and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby were run on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes.
On May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby was originated by WHAS and was also carried by WGN in Chicago. On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced by WAVE - TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then - CBS affiliate WHAS - TV. In 1954, the purse exceeded $ 100,000 for the first time. In 1968, Dancer 's Image became the first (and to this day the only) horse to win the race and then be disqualified after traces of phenylbutazone, an analgesic and anti-inflammatory drug, were found in the horse 's urinalysis; Forward Pass won after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer 's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner for Calumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run on phenylbutazone. In 1970, Diane Crump became the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom.
The fastest time ever run in the Derby was set in 1973 at 1: 59.4 minutes when Secretariat broke the record set by Northern Dancer in 1964. Not only has Secretariat 's record time yet to be topped, in the race itself, he did something unique in Triple Crown races: each successive quarter, his times were faster. Though times for non-winners were not recorded, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one - fifth of a second to calculate Sham 's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two - minute finish, only the third, was set in 2001 by Monarchos at 1: 59.97.
In 2005, the purse distribution for the Derby was changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so.
Since the Kentucky Derby is the biggest race in the world, millions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks. In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million. TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders ' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year.
The race often draws celebrities. HM Queen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007.
The 2004 Derby marked the first time that jockeys -- as a result of a court order -- were allowed to wear corporate advertising logos on their clothing.
Norman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville - based fast - food company Yum! Brands, Inc. announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race "The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands. '' In 2018, Woodford Reserve replaced Yum Brands as the presenting sponsor.
In addition to the race itself, a number of traditions play a large role in the Derby atmosphere. The mint julep -- an iced drink consisting of bourbon, mint, and a sugar syrup -- is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic drink can be served in an ice - frosted silver julep cup, but most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners. Also, burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby.
The infield -- a spectator area inside the track -- offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly prior to the jumbotron installation in 2014. Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, "Millionaire 's Row '' refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well - connected. Women appear in fine outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following the Call to the Post, as the horses are paraded before the grandstands, the University of Louisville Cardinal Marching Band plays Stephen Foster 's "My Old Kentucky Home, '' a tradition which began in 1921. The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft to Louisville International Airport.
The Derby is frequently referred to as "The Run for the Roses, '' because a lush blanket of 554 red roses is awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year. The tradition originated in 1883 when New York socialite E. Berry Wall presented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party that was attended by Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. M. Lewis Clark. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race 's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to roses being draped on the Derby winner. The Governor of Kentucky awards the garland and the Kentucky Derby Trophy. Pop vocalist Dan Fogelberg composed the song "Run for the Roses '' which was released in time for the 1980 running of the race.
"Riders Up! '' is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, it was recited by a dignitary or celebrity attendee.
In the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities are held for the Kentucky Derby Festival. Thunder Over Louisville -- an airshow and fireworks display -- generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks prior to the Derby.
Most wins by a jockey
Most wins by a trainer
Most wins by an owner
Stakes record
Record victory margin
Longest shot to win the Derby
Miscellaneous
designates a Triple Crown Winner. designates a filly.
Legend -- ₩ = Triple Crown winners, ♥ = Filly
|
what is a master of arts in teaching | Master of Arts in Teaching - Wikipedia
The Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) or Master of Science in Teaching (MST) degree is generally a pre-service degree that usually requires a minimum of 30 semester hours beyond the bachelor 's degree. While the program often requires education classes in order to meet state license requirements, it emphasizes advanced coursework in a specific academic discipline to enhance one 's knowledge in that subject area. Furthermore, it focuses on educating the candidate in practical teaching skills for use as a teacher as opposed to focusing on performing research in the educational field. Candidates usually spend a semester as a full time student teacher in order to earn the degree. There are two general models that (MAT or MST) degrees follow: a 5th year model, in which students spend one year extra beyond their bachelor 's degree to earn a master 's degree and an initial teaching license, or a "Flex '' program, which usually offers part - time weekend and evening courses to accommodate professionals who are changing careers.
The Master of Arts or Master of Science in Teaching degree is often advantageous to middle school and secondary school teachers because it allows them to focus on subject area knowledge in their undergraduate program and then acquire pedagogical skills in their graduate studies.
Although there is no set standard in determining whether a program is to be an MAT or MST, the difference between them can often be observed to MAT programs focusing more on enhancing knowledge of subject area with optional courses steered towards advanced coursework and content while MST programs in "more effective teaching methods '' with optional courses towards better understanding and applying education pedagogy.
They differ from the Master of Education (M. Ed) degree, which is usually designed for practicing teachers or those who desire to serve as counselors (school or otherwise) or as educational administrators.
|
ten little fingers and ten little toes by mem fox summary | Ten Little Fingers and Ten Little Toes - Wikipedia
Ten Little Fingers and Ten Little Toes is a 2008 children 's picture book by Mem Fox and Helen Oxenbury. It is about babies, who, although they are from around the world, all share the common trait of having the same number of digits.
Ten Little Fingers has been commended for its positive treatment of racial diversity.
A review by The New York Times stated "two beloved picture - book creators -- the storyteller Mem Fox and the artist Helen Oxenbury -- merge their talents in a winsome look at babies around the world. '' BookList called it "A standout for its beautiful simplicity '' and "A gentle, joyous offering. '' and the School Library Journal described it as a "nearly perfect picture book. '' and concluded "Whether shared one - on - one or in storytimes, where the large trim size and big, clear images will carry perfectly, this selection is sure to be a hit. '' Publishers Weekly, in a starred review, wrote "Put two titans of kids ' books together for the first time, and what do you get (besides the urge to shout, "What took you so long? '')? The answer: an instant classic. '' and the New York Journal of Books, in a review of a bilingual edition, wrote "This is a sturdy, toddler - sized board book that has something for everybody. Ms. Fox 's text, soft and pure, offers sweet innocence, the joy of lives beginning, and the unique beauty of the mother - child love. Artist Helen Oxenbury 's exquisite illustrations are the perfect complement to the text ''.
The Horn Book Magazine referred to it as a "love song '' and concluded "Snuggle up with your favorite baby and kiss those fingers and toes to both your hearts ' content. '' and BookPage Reviews called it "a jewel of a picture book '' and wrote "With minimal text, and sweet illustrations by beloved British artist Helen Oxenbury, it 's truly an international treat... Ten Little Fingers and Ten Little Toes gently presents -- but never preaches -- a satisfying lesson about humanity and international harmony. ''
Ten Little Fingers has also been reviewed by the Journal of Children 's Literature, The Christian Century, First Opinions -- Second Reactions, YC: Young Children, Library Sparks, Reading Time, and the New England Reading Association Journal.
It won the 2009 Australian Book Industry Book of the Year for Younger Children Award
|
when did the first chevy corvette come out | Chevrolet Corvette - wikipedia
The Chevrolet Corvette, known colloquially as the Vette or Chevy Corvette, is a sports car manufactured by Chevrolet. The car has been produced through seven generations. The first model, a convertible, was introduced at the GM Motorama in 1953 as a concept show car. Myron Scott is credited for naming the car after the type of small, maneuverable warship called a corvette. Originally built in Flint, Michigan and St. Louis, Missouri, the Corvette is currently manufactured in Bowling Green, Kentucky and is the official sports car of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
The first generation of Corvette was introduced late in the 1953 model year. Originally designed as a show car for the 1953 Motorama display at the New York Auto Show, it generated enough interest to induce GM to make a production version to sell to the public. First production was on June 30, 1953.
This generation was often referred to as the "solid - axle '' models (the independent rear suspension was not introduced until the second generation). Three hundred hand - built polo white Corvette convertibles were produced for the 1953 model year.
The 1954 model year vehicles could be ordered in Pennant Blue, Sportsman Red, Black, or Polo White; 3,640 were built, and sold slowly.
The 1955 model offered a 265 cu in (4.34 L) V8 engine as an option. With a large inventory of unsold 1954 models, GM limited production to 700 for 1955. With the new V8, the 0 -- 60 mph time improved by 1.5 seconds.
A new body was introduced for the 1956 model featuring a new "face '' and side coves; the taillamp fins were also gone. An optional fuel injection system was made available in the middle of the 1957 model year. It was one of the first mass - produced engines in history to reach 1 bhp (0.75 kW) per cubic inch (16.4 cubic cm) and Chevrolet 's advertising agency used a "one hp per cubic inch '' slogan for advertising the 283 bhp (211 kW) 283 cu in (4.64 L) Small - Block engine. Other options included power windows (1956), hydraulically operated power convertible top (1956), heavy duty brakes and suspension (1957), and four speed manual transmission (late 1957). Delco Radio transistorized signal - seeking "hybrid '' car radio, which used both vacuum tubes and transistors in its radio 's circuitry (1956 option).
The 1958 Corvette received a body and interior freshening which included a longer front end with quad headlamps, bumper exiting exhaust tips, a new steering wheel, and a dashboard with all gauges mounted directly in front of the driver. Exclusive to the 1958 model were hood louvers and twin trunk spears. The 1959 -- 60 model years had few changes except a decreased amount of body chrome and more powerful engine offerings.
In 1961, the rear of the car was completely redesigned with the addition of a "duck tail '' with four round lights. The light treatment would continue for all following model year Corvettes until 2014. In 1962, the Chevrolet 283 cu in (4.64 L) Small - Block was enlarged to 327 cu in (5.36 L). In standard form it produced 250 bhp (190 kW). For an extra 12 % over list price, the fuel - injected version produced 360 bhp (270 kW), making it the fastest of the C1 generation. 1962 was also the last year for the wrap around windshield, solid rear axle, and convertible - only body style. The trunk lid and exposed headlamps did not reappear for many decades.
1954 Corvette convertible
1956 Corvette convertible
1959 Corvette convertible (rear)
1960 Corvette convertible
1956 Chevrolet Corvette transistorized "hybrid '' (vacuum tubes and transistors) car radio option
The second generation (C2) Corvette, which introduced Sting Ray to the model, continued with fiberglass body panels, and overall, was smaller than the first generation. The C2 was later referred to as mid-years. The car was designed by Larry Shinoda with major inspiration from a previous concept design called the "Q Corvette, '' which was created by Peter Brock and Chuck Pohlmann under the styling direction of Bill Mitchell. Earlier, Mitchell had sponsored a car known as the "Mitchell Sting Ray '' in 1959 because Chevrolet no longer participated in factory racing. This vehicle had the largest impact on the styling of this generation, although it had no top and did not give away what the final version of the C2 would look like. The third inspiration was a Mako Shark Mitchell had caught while deep - sea fishing.
Production started for the 1963 model year and ended in 1967. Introducing a new name, "Sting Ray '', the 1963 model was the first year for a Corvette coupé and it featured a distinctive tapering rear deck (a feature that later reappeared on the 1971 "Boattail '' Buick Riviera) with, for 1963 only, a split rear window. The Sting Ray featured hidden headlamps, non-functional hood vents, and an independent rear suspension. Corvette chief engineer Zora Arkus - Duntov never liked the split rear window because it blocked rear vision, but Mitchell thought it to be a key part of the entire design. Maximum power for 1963 was 360 bhp (270 kW) and was raised to 375 bhp (280 kW) in 1964. Options included electronic ignition, the breakerless magnetic pulse - triggered Delcotronic first offered on some 1963 Pontiac models. On 1964 models the decorative hood vents were eliminated and Duntov, the Corvette 's chief engineer, got his way with the split rear window changed to a full width window.
Four - wheel disc brakes were introduced in 1965, as was a "big block '' engine option: the 396 cu in (6.49 L) V8. Side exhaust pipes were also optionally available in 1965, and continued to be offered through 1967. The introduction of the 425 bhp (317 kW) 396 cu in (6.49 L) big block in 1965 spelled the beginning of the end for the Rochester fuel injection system. The 396 cu in (6.49 L) option cost US $292.70 while the fuel injected 327 cu in (5.36 L) engine cost US $538.00. Few people could justify spending US $245.00 more for 50 bhp (37 kW) less, even though FI could deliver over 20 mpg on the highway and would keep delivering fuel despite high G - loading in corners taken at racing speeds. Another rare ' 63 and ' 64 option was the Z06 competition package, which offered stiffer suspension, bigger, multi-segment lined brakes with finned drums and more, only a couple hundred coupes and ONE convertible were factory - equipped this way in 1963. With only 771 fuel - injected cars built in 1965, Chevrolet discontinued the option at the end of the ' 65 production, having introduced a less - expensive big block 396 engine rated at 425 hp in the middle of the production year and selling over 2,000 in just a few months. For 1966, Chevrolet introduced an even larger 427 cu in (7.00 L) Big Block version. Other options available on the C2 included the Wonderbar auto - tuning AM radio, AM - FM radio (mid-1963), air conditioning (late - 1963), a telescopic steering wheel (1965), and headrests (1966). The Sting Ray 's independent rear suspension was successfully adapted for the new - for - 1965 Chevrolet Corvair, which solved the quirky handling problems of that unique rear - engine compact.
1967 was the final year for the C2 generation. The 1967 model featured restyled fender vents, less ornamentation, and back - up lamps which were on the inboard in 1966 were now rectangular and centrally located. The first use of all four taillights in red started in 1961 and was continued thru the C - 2 line - up except for the 1966. The 1967 and subsequent models continuing on all Corvettes since. 1967 had the first L88 engine option which was rated at 430 bhp (320 kW), but unofficial estimates place the actual output at 560 bhp (420 kW) or more. Only twenty such engines were installed at the factory. From 1967 (to 1969), the Holley triple two - barrel carburetor, or Tri-Power, was available on the 427 L89 (a $368 option, on top of the cost for the high - performance 427). Despite these changes, sales slipped over 15 %, to 22,940 (8,504 coupes, off close to 15 %, and 14,436 convertibles, down nearly 19 %).
Duntov came up with a lightweight version of the C2 in 1962. Concerned about Ford and what they were doing with the Shelby Cobra, GM planned to manufacture 100 Grand Sport Corvettes, but only five were actually built. They were driven by historic drivers such as Roger Penske, A.J. Foyt, Jim Hall, and Dick Guldstrand among others. Today the five cars (001 - 005) are all held by private owners, and are among the most coveted and valuable Corvettes ever built. 002 is exhibited in the Simeone Foundation Automotive Museum and is in running condition.
The third generation Corvette, patterned after the Mako Shark II concept car, was introduced for the 1968 model year and was in production until 1982. C3 coupes featured the first use of T - top removable roof panels. It introduced monikers that were later revived, such as LT - 1, ZR - 1, Z07 and Collector Edition. In 1978, the Corvette 's 25th anniversary was celebrated with a two - tone Silver Anniversary Edition and an Indy Pace Car replica edition of the C3. This was also the first time that a Corvette was used as a Pace Car for the Indianapolis 500.
Engines and chassis components were mostly carried over from the C2, but the body and interior were new. The 350 cu in (5.7 L) engine replaced the old 327 cu in (5.36 L) as the base engine in 1969, but power remained at 300 bhp (224 kW). 1969 was the only year for a C3 to optionally offer either a factory installed side exhaust or normal rear exit with chrome tips. The all - aluminum ZL1 engine was also new for 1969; the special big - block engine was listed at 430 - hp (320 kW), but was reported to produce 560 hp (420 kW) and propelled a ZL1 through the 1 / 4 mile in 10.89 seconds.
There was an extended production run for the 1969 model year due a lengthy labor strike, which meant sales were down on the 1970 models, to 17,316. 1970 small - block power peaked with the optional high compression, high - revving LT - 1 that produced 370 bhp (276 kW). The 427 big - block was enlarged to 454 cu in (7.44 L) with a 390 bhp (291 kW) rating. The ZR - 1 special package was an option available on the 1970 through 1972 model years, and included the LT - 1 engine combined with special racing equipment. Only 53 ZR - 1 's were built.
In 1971, to accommodate regular low - lead fuel with lower anti-knock properties, the engine compression ratios were lowered which resulted in reduced power ratings. The power rating for the 350 cu in (5.7 L) L48 base engine decreased from 300 to 270 horsepower and the optional special high performance LT1 engine decreased from 370 to 330 horsepower. The LS5 454 cu in (7.4 L) motor was carried over and produced 365 hp (272 kW). Offered in ' 71 only was the LS6 454 cu in (7.4 L) big - block featuring aluminum heads and delivering 425 hp (317 kW), highest of the 1970 - 72 series, and could be ordered with an automatic transmission. For the 1972 model year, GM moved to the SAE Net measurement which resulted in further reduced, but more realistic, power ratings than the previous SAE Gross standard. Although the 1972 model 's 350 cu in (5.7 L) horsepower was actually the same as that for the 1971 model year, the lower net horsepower numbers were used instead of gross horsepower. The L48 base engine was now rated at 200 bhp (150 kW) and the optional LT1 engine was now rated at 270 bhp (200 kW). 1974 models had the last true dual exhaust system that was dropped on the 1975 models with the introduction of catalytic converters requiring the use of no - lead fuel. Engine power decreased with the base ZQ3 engine producing 165 bhp (123 kW), the optional L82 's output 205 bhp (153 kW), while the 454 big - block engine was discontinued. Gradual power increases after 1975 peaked with the 1980 model 's optional L82 producing 230 bhp (172 kW). The 1981 L82 had 190 bhp (142 kW) and the 1982 L82 had 200 bhp (149 kW).
Styling changed subtly throughout the generation until 1978 for the car 's 25th anniversary. The Sting Ray nameplate was not used on the 1968 model, but Chevrolet still referred to the Corvette as a Sting Ray; however, the 1969 (through 1976) models used the "Stingray '' name as one word, without the space. In 1970, the body design was updated including fender flares, and interiors were refined, which included redesigned seats, and indication lights near the gear shift that were an early use of fiber optics. Due to government regulation, the 1973 Corvette 's chrome front bumper was changed to a 5 - mile - per - hour (8 km / h) system with a urethane bumper cover. 1973 Corvettes are unique in that sense, as they are the only year where the front bumper was polyurethane and the rear retained the chrome two - piece bumper set. 1973 was also the last year chrome bumpers were used. The optional wire - spoked wheel covers (left) were offered for the last time in 1973. Only 45 Z07 were built in 1973. From 1974 onwards both the front and rear bumpers were polyurethane.
In 1974, a 5 - mile - per - hour (8 km / h) rear bumper system with a two - piece, tapering urethane bumper cover replaced the Kamm - tail and chrome bumper blades, and matched the new front design from the previous year. 1975 was the last year for the convertible, (which did not return for 11 years) and Dave McLellan succeeded Zora Arkus - Duntov as the Corvette 's Chief Engineer. For the 1976 models the fiberglass floor was replaced with steel panels to provide protection from the catalytic converter 's high operating temperature. For 15 model years the names Corvette, Sting Ray, and Stingray were synonymous. 1977 was last year the tunneled roof treatment with vertical back window was used, in addition leather seats were available at no additional cost for the first time. The black exterior color returned after a six - year absence.
The 1978 25th Anniversary model introduced the fastback glass rear window and featured a new interior and dashboard. Corvette 's 25th anniversary was celebrated with the Indy 500 Pace Car limited edition and a Silver Anniversary model featuring silver over gray lower body paint. All 1979 models featured the previous year 's pace car seats and offered the front and rear spoilers as optional equipment. 53,807 were produced for the model year, making 1979 the peak production year for all versions of the Corvette. Sales have trended downward since then. In 1980, the Corvette received an integrated aerodynamic redesign that resulted in a significant reduction in drag. After several years of weight increases, 1980 Corvettes were lighter as engineers trimmed both body and chassis weight. In mid-1981, production shifted from St. Louis, Missouri to Bowling Green, Kentucky, and several two - tone paint options were offered. The 1981 models were the last available with a manual transmission until well into the 1984 production run. In 1982, a fuel - injected engine returned, and a final C3 tribute Collectors Edition featured an exclusive, opening rear window hatch.
The fourth generation Corvette was the first complete redesign of the Corvette since 1963. Production was to begin for the 1983 model year but quality issues and part delays resulted in only 43 prototypes for the 1983 model year being produced that were never sold. All of the 1983 prototypes were destroyed or serialized to 1984 except one with a white exterior, medium blue interior, L83 350 ci, 205 bhp V8, and 4 - speed automatic transmission. After extensive testing and modifications were completed, it was initially retired as a display sitting in an external wall over the Bowling Green Assembly Plant 's employee entrance. Later this only surviving 1983 prototype was removed, restored and is now on public display at the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky. It is still owned by GM. On February 12, 2014, it was nearly lost to a sinkhole which opened up under the museum. Eight other Corvettes were severely damaged.
Regular fourth generation production began on January 3, 1983; the 1984 model year and delivery to customers began in March 1983. The 1984 model carried over the 350 cu in (5.7 L) L83 slightly more powerful (5 bhp) "Crossfire '' V8 engine from the final 1982 third generation model. New chassis features were aluminum brake calipers and an all - aluminum suspension for weight savings and rigidity. The new one piece targa top had no center reinforcement. A new electronic dashboard with digital liquid crystal displays for the speedometer and tachometer was standard. Beginning in 1985, the 230 bhp (170 kW) L98 engine with tuned port fuel injection became the standard engine.
September 1984 through 1988 Corvettes offered a Doug Nash designed "4 + 3 '' transmission -- a 4 - speed manual coupled to an automatic overdrive on the top three gears. It was designed to help the Corvette meet U.S. fuel economy standards. Since 1981 (when it was last offered), a manual transmission returned to the Corvette starting with production in late 1984. The transmission proved to be problematic and was replaced by a modern ZF 6 - speed manual transmission in 1989.
In 1986, the second Corvette Indy Pace Car was released. It was the first convertible Corvette since 1975. A Center High Mounted Signal Light (CHMSL) -- a third center brake light -- was added in 1986 to comply with safety regulations. While the color of the pace car used in the race was yellow, all 1986 convertibles also had an Indy 500 emblem mounted on the console, making any color a "pace car edition ''. In 1987, the B2K twin - turbo option became available from the factory. The Callaway Corvette was a Regular Production Option (RPO B2K). The B2K option coexisted from 1990 to 1991 with the ZR - 1 option, which then replaced it. Early B2Ks produced 345 bhp (257 kW) and 450 lb ft (610 N m); later versions boasted 450 bhp (336 kW) and 613 lb ft (831 N m).
1988 saw the 35th Anniversary Edition of the Corvette. Each of these featured a special badge with an identification number mounted next to the gear selector, and were finished with a white exterior, wheels, and interior. In 1991, all Corvettes received updates to the body, interior, and wheels. The convex rear fascia that set the 1990 ZR - 1 apart from the base model was now included on L98 Corvettes, making the styling of the expensive ZR - 1 even closer to that of the base cars. The most obvious difference remaining between the base and ZR - 1 models besides the wider rear wheels was the location of the CHMSL, which was integrated into the new rear fascia used on the base model, but remained at the top of the rear - hatch on the ZR - 1 's.
For the 1992 model year, the 300 bhp (220 kW) LT1 engine was introduced, an increase of 50 bhp (37 kW) over 1991 's L98 engine. This engine featured reverse - flow cooling (the heads were cooled before the block), which allowed for a higher compression ratio of 10.5: 1. A new distributor was also debuted. Called "Optispark '', the distributor was driven directly off the front of the camshaft and mounted in front of the timing cover, just above the crankshaft and harmonic balancer. Also new for 1992 was Acceleration Slip Regulation (ASR), a form of traction control which utilized the Corvette 's brakes, spark retard, and throttle close - down to prevent excessive rear wheel spin and possible loss of control. The traction control device could be switched off if desired.
A special 40th Anniversary Edition was released in 1993, which featured a commemorative Ruby Red color, 40th anniversary badges, and embroidered seat backs. The 1993 Corvette also marked the introduction of the Passive Keyless Entry System, making it the first GM car to feature it. Production of the ZR - 1 ended in 1995, after 6,939 cars had been built. 1996 was the final year of C4 production, and featured special models and options, including the Grand Sport and Collector Edition, OBD II (On - Board Diagnostics), run flat tires, and the LT4 engine. The 330 bhp (246 kW) LT4 V8 was available only with a manual transmission, while all 300 bhp (224 kW) LT1 Corvettes used automatic transmissions.
Chevrolet released the Grand Sport (GS) version in 1996 to mark the end of production of the C4 Corvette. The Grand Sport moniker was a nod to the original Grand Sport model produced in 1963. A total of 1,000 GS Corvettes were produced, 810 as coupes and 190 as convertibles. The 1996 GS came with the high - performance LT4 V8 engine, producing 330 bhp (246 kW) and 340 lb ft (460 N m). The Grand Sport came only in Admiral Blue with a white stripe down the middle, and black wheels and two red stripes on the front left wheel arch.
The C5 was the most completely redesigned Corvette since the Corvette 's inception in 1953. (Corvette Racing, David Kimble, 2012). Production of the C5 Corvette actually began in 1996 but quality / manufacturing snafus saw its release to the public in mass delayed until 1997, and continuing through the 2004 model year. The C5 was a completely new design that featured many new concepts and manufacturing breakthroughs that would be carried forward to the C6 & C7. It had a top speed of 176 mph (283 km / h) and was judged by the automotive press as a breakthrough with vastly improved dynamics in nearly every area over the previous C4 design. The list of all new innovations include:
For its first year, the C5 was available only as a coupe, although the new platform was designed from the ground up to be a convertible, which returned in 1998, followed by the fixed - roof coupe (FRC) in 1999. One concept for the FRC was for it to be a stripped - down model with a possible V6 engine (nicknamed in - house as the "Billy Bob ''). By 2000, FRC plans laid the groundwork for the return in 2001 of the Z06, an RPO option not seen since Zora 's 1963 race - ready Corvette.
The Z06 model replaced the FRC model as the highest performance C5 Corvette. Instead of a heavier double - overhead cam engine like the ZR - 1 of the C4 generation, the Z06 used an LS6, a 385 bhp (287 kW) derivative of the standard LS1 engine. Using the much more rigid fixed roof design allowed the Z06 unprecedented handling thanks to upgraded brakes and less body flex. Those characteristics, along with the use of materials such as a titanium exhaust system and a carbon fiber hood in the 2004 model year, led to further weight savings and performance gains for the C5 Z06. The LS6 was later upgraded to 405 bhp (302 kW) for 2002 -- 2004. Although the Z06 's rated power output equal to that of the C4 ZR - 1, the improved rigidity, suspension, brakes, and reduced weight of the C5 produced a car quicker than C4 ZR - 1.
For the C6 Corvette GM wanted to focus more upon refining the C5 than trying to redesign it. (Corvette: Sports Car Superstar, Editors of Consumer Guide, 2005) However, this did not prevent GM from trying to sell the C6 as being "all new '' even though it was not. The press immediately saw through the marketing ploy and GM 's use of "simply changing the part numbers '' to further the claim even though a large number of the parts were actually interchangeable between the C5 & C6. Car & Driver, along with Motor Trend quickly noticed the inaccuracy, noting that the C6 was more an "evolution of the C5, instead of a complete redo ''. This even lead C&D to term the C6 as the "C5 and 11 / 16ths ''. GM did give the C6 a nice face lift; reducing the exterior body overhangs for a noticeably overall reduction in outward dimension. The front headlights were also redone, deleting the traditional "pop - up '' headlights, and thereby shedding a few more parts off of the list that could cause quality problems. Beyond that, the majority of the C6 difference focused upon a concerted effort to upgrade the interior quality. Some are quick to point to a change in wheelbase between the C5 and C6, but here again it was smoke and mirrors. The change was necessitated by the use of a different automatic transmission which resulted in the rear linkage points being relocated; thus presenting a "longer '' wheelbase. However, many people have studied the change and determined that it actually did nothing to alter the suspension geometry from the C5 and thus the "smoke & mirrors '' idea that it was an "all new '' geometry (NOTE: Interestingly, the C7 has returned to a "shorter '' wheelbase more akin to the C5). If one were to Photoshop the C5, C6, and C7 's basic chassis ' frame to all be one color, they would look the same. So there was far more than just the front engine and rear transmission design of the C5 that was still very much present underneath the C6 's skin.
With that said the C6 DID bring a new, higher level of interior sophistication and quality above the C5. As a result of the upgraded interior, the C6 had an slight increase in passenger hip room. It also sported an updated LS1 / LS6 engine now called the LS2. This engine was primarily an LS1 / LS6 with a bump in displacement from 5.7 L to 6.0 liters. The increased displacement of the 6.0 bumped the LS2 's horsepower up by 50 BHP over its LS1 progenitor, but it was still 5 BHP less than the upgraded LS6 engine found in the previous C5 Z06. Thus the LS2 was now at 364 cu in, and it produced 400 bhp (300 kW) at 6000 rpm and 400 lb ft (540 N m) at 4400 rpm, giving the vehicle a 0 -- 60 mph time of under 4.2 seconds. Its top speed was 190 mph (310 km / h).
The C6 generation did not match the previous generation 's relatively good fuel economy, despite its relatively low 0.28 drag coefficient and low curb weight, achieving 16 / 26 mpg (city / highway) equipped with automatic or manual transmissions; like all manual transmission Corvettes since 1989, it is fitted with Computer Aided Gear Selection (CAGS) to improve fuel economy by requiring drivers to shift from 1st gear directly to 4th in low - speed / low - throttle conditions. This feature helps the C6 avoid the Gas Guzzler Tax by achieving better fuel economy.
The new Z06 arrived as a 2006 model in the third quarter of 2005. It has a 7.0 L version of the small block engine codenamed LS7. At 427.6 cubic inches, the Z06 was the largest small block ever offered from General Motors. Because of the Corvette 's former use of 427 cubic - inch big blocks in the late - 1960s and early 1970s, the LS7 's size was rounded down to 427 cubic inches. Official output was 505 bhp (377 kW) and has a 0 - 60 mph (97 km / h) time of 3.7 seconds. Top speed is 198 mph (319 km / h). Another first for a Corvette, the Z06 featured a full aluminim chasis. The frame mirrored the C5 / 6 architecture but substituting aluminum hydroformed rails and aluminum extrustions and castings fore and aft. This dropped weight from 419 to 287 pounds while improving chassis stiffness.
For 2008, the Corvette received a mild freshening: a new LS3 engine with displacement increased to 6.2 L (380 cu in), resulting in 430 bhp (321 kW) and 424 lb ft (575 N m) (436 bhp (325 kW) and 428 lb ft (580 N m) if ordered with the optional performance exhaust). The 6 - speed manual transmission also has improved shift linkage and a 0 -- 60 time of 4.0 seconds, while the automatic is set up for quicker shifts giving the C6 automatic a 0 -- 60 time of 4.0 seconds, quicker than any other production automatic Corvette. The interior was slightly updated and a new 4LT leather - wrap interior package was added. The wheels were also updated to a new five - spoke design.
The ZR1 was formally announced in a December 2007 press statement by General Motors, where it was revealed that their target of 100 bhp (75 kW) per 1 L (61 cu in) had been reached by a new "LS9 '' engine with an Eaton - supercharged 6.2 - liter engine producing 638 bhp (476 kW) and 604 lb ft (819 N m). The LS9 engine was the most powerful to be put into a GM production sports car. Its top speed was 205 mph (330 km / h).
The historical name Grand Sport returned to the Corvette lineup in 2010 as an entirely new model series that replaced the Z51 option. The new model was basically an LS3 equipped Z06 with a steel frame instead of aluminum. It retained many of the features of the Z06 including a wide body with 18x9. 5 and 19x12 inch wheels, dry sump oiling (manual transmission coupes only), 6 - piston 14 '' front brakes and 4 - piston rear, and improved suspension. Manual power train equipped G / S coupe models receive a tweaked LS3 with a forged crank, are built in Z06 fashion by hand, and utilize a dry - sump oil system. The first three gears were also made shorter for better throttle response and faster acceleration. A new launch control system was introduced for all models that allows for sub-4 - second 0 -- 60. EPA is estimated 26 MPG highway, 1.0 G on skid pad.
Beginning with the 2011 model year, buyers of the Corvette Z06 and ZR1 were offered the opportunity to assist in the build of their engine. Titled the "Corvette Engine Build Experience, '' buyers paid extra to be flown to the Wixom, Michigan Performance Build Center. Participants helped the assembly line workers build the V8 engine, then took delivery of the car at the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, KY, near the Corvette final assembly point.
The last C6 Corvette was manufactured in February 2013.
In May 2013, a federal investigation of problems with more than 100,000 C6 lighting systems was announced.
The next - generation (C7) Corvette had been in development since 2007. Originally set to be introduced for the 2011 model year, its introduction was delayed for 3 years. It was finally released for the 2014 model year. Mid-engine and rear - engine layouts had been considered, but the front - engine, rear - wheel drive (RWD) platform was chosen to keep production costs lower.
To GM 's product planners and marketers, the fact that the Corvette had become known as an "old man 's toy '' became a prime factor in developing the next generation. Studies showed that about 46 percent of Corvette buyers in 2012, through October, were 55 or older, compared with 22 percent of Audi R8 and 30 percent of Porsche 911 customers. The head of Chevy marketing, Chris Perry, acknowledges that too many people saw it as the car of "the successful plumber. '' John Fitzpatrick, Corvette 's marketing manager said "It 's the old saying, ' Nobody wants to be seen driving an old man 's car, but everybody wants to be seen driving a young man 's car. ' '' To counter that perception GM planned to make the new generation C7 more aspirational to younger people. Towards that end, a camouflaged version of the car was made available in the popular video game Gran Turismo 5 in November 2012. As part of the marketing effort associated with the introduction of the new generation, the 2013 Indianapolis 500 utilized a Corvette for the 12th time as its pace car.
Sales success of the new Corvette is important to GM. The Motley Fool reports that Chevrolet could be earning $10,000 or more in gross profit for every Corvette it sells. GM 's profit on sales is separate from the profits made by the individual dealerships selling the cars to the public.
The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette uses an LT1 6.2 L V8 (376 cu in) making 455 bhp (339 kW) or 460 bhp (340 kW) with the optional performance exhaust. The LT1 engine (the "LT1 '' designation was first used by GM in 1970 and then later in 1992.) is in the Gen V family of small block engines, which will be used in GM vehicles as the new small V8 option. It features three technologies new to the GM V8, though widely available on other engines in the marketplace: direct injection, variable valve timing, and an active fuel management system. Fuel injectors are located under the intake manifold. The Corvette remains rear - wheel drive with the transaxle located in the rear. Transmission choices include a 7 - speed manual or a 8 - speed automatic with paddle shifters. The new interior includes wide - bottom seats as standard, with sportier versions with high side bolsters optional. The Corvette 's flag logo has been revised for the new car and a small casting of a stingray has been added to the car 's ornamentation.
Features of the new generation 's structure include a carbon fiber hood and removable roof panel. The fenders, doors and rear quarter panels remain composite. At the rear of the car, the trademark round taillights have changed to a more squarish form. The underbody panels are made of "carbon - nano '' composite and it makes use of a new aluminum frame which locates the four wheels an inch farther apart, front to rear and side to side. Luggage space decreased by 33 % from the previous generation 's. The overall weight of the car was not announced by General Motors for many months after its first showing in January 2013. Despite the increased use of aluminum and other light weight materials, numerous publications reported that the weight would remain essentially unchanged from that of the previous generation 's. In August, 2013, the weight of the new Corvette was reported to be 3,444 lb (1,562 kg), meaning it would weigh more than the previous generation 's C6 ZR1 model (3,324 lb (1,508 kg)). The ZR1 C6 weight included a supercharger and intercooler on its 6.2 L engine.
Chevrolet announced the C7 Z06 at the 2014 Detroit Auto Show. The 2015 Z06 Corvette has 650 bhp from the supercharged LT4 aluminum 6.2 L V - 8 engine.
The new generation Corvette resurrected the "Stingray '' name (originally spelled "Sting Ray '' on 1963 to 1967 models and "Stingray '' from 1969 to 1976), last used in 1976.
For the 2015 model, Chevrolet began offering a transaxle version of the 8L90 8 - speed automatic to replace the previous 6 - speed 6L80.
Similar to other car makes such as BMW and Tesla, Corvettes connected to Telematic Control Units may be hacked by outsiders.
For the 2017 model year Chevrolet once again introduced the Grand Sport (GS) model. This model includes Z06 wide body styling features and suspension tuning along with the Z51 dry sump LT1 engine configuration. Grand Sport models were available in 10 exterior colors and could have the optional Heritage Package which included hash - mark fender graphics (available in six colors. As part of the introduction of the Grand Sport in Geneva, Switzerland, Chevrolet also announced a Grand Sport Collector Edition, which was to be limited to 1,000 vehicles in total and only 850 for the US Market. Final production numbers show 784 Coupes and 151 Convertibles were built; 935 total.
The $4,995 Z25 Option Package was a cosmetic upgrade that contained some unique features that were only available in the Z25 package, including;
Over the years, the Corvette has won awards from automobile publications as well as organizations such as the Society of Automotive Engineers.
Astronaut Alan Shepard, a long time Corvette owner, was invited by then GM Chief Engineer Zora Arkus - Duntov to drive pre-production Corvette models. General Motors executives later gave Shepard a 1972 model with a Bill Mitchell interior. Jim Rathmann, a Melbourne, Florida Chevrolet dealer and winner of the 1960 Indy 500, befriended astronauts Shepard, Gus Grissom, and Gordon Cooper. Rathmann convinced GM President Ed Cole to set up a program which supplied each astronaut with a pair of new cars each year. Most chose a family car for their wives and a Corvette for themselves. In his memoir Last Man On The Moon, Gene Cernan describes how this worked. The astronauts received brand - new Corvettes which they were given the option to purchase at a ' used ' price after they 'd been driven 3000 miles. Alan Bean recalls Corvettes lined up in the parking lot outside the astronaut offices at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, and friendly races between Shepard and Grissom along the Florida beach roads and beaches themselves as local police turned a blind eye. Shepard, Grissom and Cooper even pulled each other on skis in the shallow water. The Mercury and later astronauts were unofficially tied to the Corvette and appeared in official photographs with their cars and with mock - ups of space vehicles such as the Lunar Module or Lunar Rover. Cooper talked of the races along Cocoa Beach in his eulogy of Shepard at the Johnson Space Center in 1998.
Corvette concept cars have inspired the designs of several generations of Corvettes. The first Corvette, Harley Earl 's 1953 EX-122 Corvette prototype was itself, a concept show car, first shown to the public at the 1953 GM Motorama at the Waldorf - Astoria Hotel in New York City on January 17, 1953. It was brought to production in six months with only minor changes.
Harley Earl 's successor, Bill Mitchell was the man behind most of the Corvette concepts of the 1960s and 1970s. The second - generation (C2) of 1963 was his, and its design first appeared on the Stingray Racer of 1959. It made its public debut at Maryland 's Marlborough Raceway on April 18, 1959, powered by a 283 cu in (4.64 L) V8 with experimental 11: 1 compression aluminum cylinder heads and took fourth place. It raced through 1960 wearing only "Sting Ray '' badges before retiring to tour the auto - show circuit in 1961.
In 1961 the XP - 755 Mako Shark show car was designed by Larry Shinoda as a concept for future Corvettes. In keeping with the name, the streamlining, pointed snout, and other detailing was partly inspired by the look of that very fast fish. The 1961 Corvette tail was given two additional tail lights (six total) for the concept car. The body inspired the 1963 production Sting Ray.
In 1965 Mitchell removed the original concept body and redesigned it as the Mako Shark II. Chevrolet actually created two of them, only one of which was fully functional. The original Mako Shark was then retroactively called the Mako Shark I. The Mako Shark II debuted in 1965 as a show car and this concept influenced Mitchell 's redesigned Corvette of 1968.
The Aerovette has a mid-engine configuration using a transverse mounting of its V - 8 engine. Zora Arkus - Duntov 's engineers originally built two XP - 882s during 1969. John DeLorean, Chevy general manager, ordered one for display at the 1970 New York Auto Show. In 1972, DeLorean authorized further work on the XP - 882. A near - identical body in aluminum alloy was constructed and became the XP - 895 "Reynolds Aluminum Car. '' Duntov and Mitchell responded with two Chevrolet Vega (stillborn) Wankel 2 - rotor engines joined together as a 4 - rotor 420 hp (310 kW) engine which was used to power the XP - 895. It was first shown in late 1973. The 4 - rotor show car was outfitted with a 400 cu in (6.6 L) small - block V8 in 1977 and rechristened Aerovette. GM chairman Thomas Murphy approved the Aerovette for 1980 production, but Mitchell 's retirement that year, combined with then Corvette chief engineer Dave McLellan 's lack of enthusiasm for the mid-engine design and slow - selling data on mid-engined cars killed the last hope for a mid-engine Corvette.
A Corvette Stingray Anniversary concept car was unveiled at the 2009 Detroit Auto Show, fifty years after the Sting Ray racer - concept of 1959. The vehicle was based on a combination of the 1963 Sting Ray and the 1968 Stingray. The new Stingray concept appears in the 2009 movie Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, as the vehicle mode of the character Sideswipe. A convertible / speedster version was used for the same character in the 2011 sequel, Transformers: Dark of the Moon.
1959 Corvette XP - 87 Stingray Racer concept
The XP - 87 with a 1963 model and designer Bill Mitchell
1961 Mako Shark concept
1965 Mako Shark II concept
1977 Aerovette concept
2009 Corvette Stingray concept
Production statistics from when the first generation of Corvettes were released in 1953 until present.
According to research by Specialty Equipment Market Association and Experian Automotive, as of 2009, there were approximately 750,000 Corvettes of all model years registered in the United States. Corvette owners were fairly equally distributed throughout the country, with the highest density in Michigan (3.47 per 1000 residents) and the lowest density in Utah, Mississippi, and Hawaii (1.66, 1.63, and 1.53 registrations per 1000 residents). 47 % of them hold college degrees (significantly above the nationwide average of 27 %), and 82 % are between ages of 40 and 69 (median age being 53).
The Chevrolet Corvette C5 - R is a grand touring racing car built by Pratt & Miller and General Motors for competition in endurance racing. The car is based on the C5 generation of the Chevrolet Corvette sports car, yet is designed purely for motorsports use. It became one of the most dominant cars in GT categories, with wins at the 24 Hours of Daytona, 12 Hours of Sebring, and 24 Hours of Le Mans, as well as championships in the American Le Mans Series. The Corvette C5 - Rs debuted in 1999 and continues to be raced to this day, although the C5 - R has effectively been replaced by the Corvette C6. R.
C6. R GT1 (Z06) In 2005, the factory Corvette Team began racing the C6. R to coincide with the new sixth generation (C6) Corvette being released to the public. Private teams, primarily in Europe, continued to race the C5 - R for a couple of years before switching to the C6. R. Corvette C6. R went on to win its class at every race it entered in the 2005 ALMS season. By the end of 2009, Corvette had clinched four consecutive ALMS GT1 team and manufacturers titles (2005 -- 2008) and three Le Mans 24 Hour class victories in the LMGT1 category (2005, 2006, 2009). 2007 and 2008 races were won by the factory Aston Martin squad 's DBR9. The last official race for factory GT1 Corvettes was the 2009 24 Hours of Le Mans.
C6. R GT2 (ZR1) While some privateers continued to use GT1 version of the C6. R in Europe, the official factory team Corvette Racing switched from the slowly dying GT1 category to the much more competitive and popular GT2 class in mid-2009. The new GT2 C6. R used a modified version of the ZR1 model body, but does not have the ZR1 supercharged engine. GT2 rules are based more on production vehicles, therefore the GT2 C6. R naturally aspirated engine was considerably more restricted and less powerful than its predecessor. The car debuted at Mid-Ohio 's ALMS round. They achieved one ALMS race victory in the remaining 2009 ALMS season, and one victory at the final round of 2010 ALMS season, Petit Le Mans. Corvette Racing 's two GT2 C6.Rs also led most of the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans, but both cars were forced to retire. Racing in the new GTE Pro class, the C6. R raced in the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans with the No. 73 car taking the class victory. The No. 74 car led the class for most of the race but crashed in the morning hours. The C6. R raced by Larbre Competition also took the GTE Am class victory. In 2012, Corvette Racing returned to glory in the ALMS winning 4 of 10 races and claiming the Driver 's, Team, and Manufacturer 's Championships. Corvette Racing repeated the feat in 2013 by winning 5 of 10 races and claiming the Driver 's, Team and Manufacturer 's Championships again.
In 2014, Corvette Racing introduced the new C7. R to coincide with the launch of the seventh - generation C7 Corvette. The car made its on track debut at the 2013 Rolex Motorsports Reunion and later participated in the 2014 Roar Before the Rolex 24 to prepare for the 2014 United SportsCar Championship. The car 's new livery was debuted at the 2014 North American International Auto Show. In 2015, the Corvette Racing C7. R took class victories at both the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 24 Hours of Le Mans.
A Corvette has been selected as the pace car at the Indianapolis 500, 14 times. The 2008 edition of the Indy 500 represented a record fifth - consecutive year to lead the field until 2009 when the Chevrolet Camaro SS was selected. The Corvette 's pace car years and details include:
|
who is the actor that played lando calrissian | Billy Dee Williams - wikipedia
William December "Billy Dee '' Williams Jr. (born April 6, 1937) is an American actor, artist, singer, and writer. He is best known for his role as Lando Calrissian in the Star Wars film franchise. Williams has also appeared in critically acclaimed films like Brian 's Song, Lady Sings the Blues, Mahogany, Nighthawks, and Batman; in which he played Harvey Dent.
Williams was born in New York, the son of Loretta Anne (1915 - 2016), a West Indian - born elevator operator from Montserrat, and William December Williams, Sr. (1910 - 2007), an African - American caretaker from Texas. He has a twin sister, Loretta, and grew up in Harlem, where he was raised by his maternal grandmother while his parents worked at several jobs. Williams graduated from The High School of Music & Art (later merged with the High School of Performing Arts to become the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art) in Manhattan, where he was a classmate of Diahann Carroll, who would later play the wife of his character Brady Lloyd on the 1980s prime - time soap opera Dynasty.
Williams first appeared on Broadway in 1945 in The Firebrand of Florence. He returned to Broadway as an adult in 1960 in the adaptation of The Cool Word. He appeared in A Taste of Honey in 1961. A 1976 Broadway production, I Have a Dream, was directed by Robert Greenwald and starred Williams as Martin Luther King Jr. His most recent Broadway appearance was in August Wilson 's Fences, as a replacement for James Earl Jones in the role of Troy Maxson in 1988.
Williams made his film debut in 1959 in The Last Angry Man, opposite Paul Muni, in which he portrayed a delinquent young man. He rose to stardom after starring in the critically lauded blockbuster biographical television movie, Brian 's Song (1971), in which he played Chicago Bears star football player Gale Sayers, who stood by his friend Brian Piccolo (played by James Caan), during Piccolo 's struggle with terminal cancer. The film was so popular that it was given a theatrical release. Both Williams and Caan were nominated for Emmy Awards for best actor for their performances.
Having broken through, Williams became one of America 's most well - known black film actors of the 1970s, after starring in a string of critically acclaimed and popular movies, many of them in the "blaxploitation '' genre. In 1972, he starred as Billie Holiday 's husband Louis McKay in Motown Productions ' Holiday biopic Lady Sings the Blues. The film was a box office blockbuster, becoming one of the highest - grossing films of the year and received five Academy Award nominations. Diana Ross starred in Lady Sings the Blues opposite Williams; Motown paired the two of them again three years later in the successful follow - up project Mahogany.
In early 1980s Williams played Lando Calrissian in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi. Calrissian 's charm proved to be popular with audiences. He reprised the role when he lent his voice for the character in the 2002 video game Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast, as well as the audio dramatization of Dark Empire, the National Public Radio adaptation of The Empire Strikes Back, two productions for the Star Wars: Battlefront series: Star Wars: Battlefront II and Star Wars Battlefront: Elite Squadron and in two episodes of the animated TV series Star Wars: Rebels. Between his appearances in the Star Wars films, he starred alongside Sylvester Stallone as a cop in the 1981 thriller Nighthawks.
He co-starred in 1989 's Batman as district attorney Harvey Dent, a role that was planned to develop into Dent 's alter - ego, the villain Two - Face, in sequels. Unfortunately for Williams, that never came to pass; he was set to reprise the role in the sequel Batman Returns, but his character was deleted and replaced with villain Max Shreck. When Joel Schumacher stepped in to direct Batman Forever, where Two - Face was to be a secondary villain, Schumacher decided to hire Tommy Lee Jones for the role. There was a rumor that Schumacher had to pay Williams a fee in order to hire Jones, but Williams said that it was not true: "You only get paid if you do the movie. I had a two - picture deal with Star Wars. They paid me for that, but I only had a one picture deal for Batman. '' Williams eventually voiced Two - Face in the 2017 film The Lego Batman Movie.
After The Walt Disney Company acquired ownership of Lucasfilm in 2012, plans for a sequel trilogy to the Star Wars films were announced. On April 29, 2014, Disney announced a cast list for Star Wars Episode VII, set decades after Episode VI. The confirmed cast included the actors who portrayed Han Solo, Princess Leia and Luke Skywalker, along with Chewbacca, C - 3PO and R2 - D2, but Calrissian 's character was omitted. Fans made their displeasure known on social networks immediately.
Williams 's television work included a recurring guest - starring role on the short - lived show Gideon 's Crossing. He is also well known for his appearance in advertisements for Colt 45 (a brand of malt liquor) in the 1980s and early 1990s, for which he received much criticism. Williams responded indifferently to the criticism of his appearances in the liquor commercials. When questioned about his appearances, he allegedly replied by saying, "I drink, you drink. Hell, if marijuana was legal, I 'd appear in a commercial for it. ''
In the 1984 -- 1985 season of Dynasty, he played Brady Lloyd opposite Diahann Carroll.
Williams was paired with actress Marla Gibbs on three situation comedies: The Jeffersons (Gibbs 's character, Florence, had a crush on Williams and challenged him on everything because she thought he was an imposter); 227 (her character, Mary, pretending to be royalty, met Williams at a banquet); and The Hughleys (Gibbs and Williams portrayed Darryl 's parents).
In 1992, he portrayed Berry Gordy in The Jacksons: An American Dream.
In 1993, Williams had a guest appearance on the spin - off to The Cosby Show, A Different World, as Langston Paige, a grumpy landlord, in a backdoor pilot for his own series. He appeared as himself on Martin where he provided Martin with advice on getting back together with Gina.
Williams made a special guest appearance on the hit sketch comedy show In Living Color in 1990. He portrayed Pastor Dan in an episode of That ' 70s Show. In this episode entitled "Baby Do n't You Do It '' (2004), his character is obsessed with Star Wars, and uses this to help counsel Eric Forman (himself a Star Wars fan) and Donna Pinciotti about their premarital relationship. Williams made a cameo appearance as himself on the television series Lost in the episode "Exposé ''. He also appears regularly on short clips on the Jimmy Kimmel Live! as a semi-parody of himself. In February 2006, he guest starred as himself in the season 5 episode "Her Story II '' of Scrubs, where he plays the godfather of Julie (Mandy Moore). Turk hugs him, calling him "Lando '', even though he prefers to be called Billy Dee.
He played Toussaint Dubois for General Hospital: Night Shift in 2007 and 2008. Williams reprised his role as Toussaint on General Hospital beginning in June 2009. Also in 2009, he took on the role of the voice of Admiral Bitchface, the head of the military on the planet Titan in the Adult Swim animated series Titan Maximum. In July 2010, Williams appeared in the animated series The Boondocks, where he voiced a fictionalized version of himself in the episode "The Story of Lando Freeman ''.
In February 2011, Williams appeared as a guest star on USA Network 's White Collar as Ford, an old friend of Neal Caffrey 's landlady June, played by Diahann Carroll. In February 2012, Williams was the surprise guest during a taping of The Oprah Winfrey Show spotlighting Diana Ross. Ross and Williams were reunited after having not seen each other in 29 years. In October 2012, Williams appeared as a guest star on NCIS in Season 10 Episode 5 titled "Namesake '', as Gibbs ' namesake and his father 's former best friend, Leroy Jethro Moore. On January 9, 2013, Williams appeared as himself in a cameo role on Modern Family, Season 4 / Episode 11 "New Year 's Eve ''.
It was announced on March 4, 2014 that Williams would be competing on the 18th season of Dancing with the Stars. He partnered with professional dancer Emma Slater. The couple had to withdraw from the competition on the third week due to an injury to Williams 's back.
In spite of his absence from Episode VII, Williams returned to the role of Lando Calrissian in a 2015 episode of Star Wars Rebels.
In 1961, Williams ventured into the music industry when he recorded a jazz LP produced by Prestige Records entitled Let 's Misbehave, on which he sang several swing standards. The album, which was a commercial success at the time, made Williams eligible for an appearance in the legendary Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever (1983).
Williams voiced Lando Calrissian in the video game Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast and Star Wars Battlefront as well as the spin - off Star Wars Battlefront: Elite Squadron (however, the Battlefront appearances were archive footage and his voice - appearance in Elite Squadron is left uncredited or unknown). He also played a live - action character, GDI Director Redmond Boyle, in the game Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, which was released in March 2007. This made him the second former Star Wars actor to appear in a Command & Conquer game, with the first being James Earl Jones as GDI General James Solomon in Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun. Williams voiced Lando Calrissian in 2015 's Star Wars: Battlefront for the DLC pack Bespin. In the 2016 game Let It Die, Williams voices Colonel Jackson, who acts as the 2nd major boss players face.
In 2008, Williams reprised his role as Lando Calrissian to appear in a video on Funny or Die in a mock political ad defending himself for leader of the Star Wars galaxy against vicious attack ads from Emperor Palpatine. Williams is currently a cast member of Diary of a Single Mom, a web based original series directed by award - winning filmmaker Robert Townsend. The series debuted on PIC.tv in 2009.
Before he began acting, Williams attended the National Academy of Fine Arts and Design in New York. In the late 1980s, he resumed painting. Some of his work can be seen at his online gallery BDW World Art. He has had solo exhibitions in various galleries around the United States, and his work hangs in the National Portrait Gallery, the Smithsonian Institution and the Schomburg Museum. The covers of the Thelonious Monk Competition programs since 1990 are by him.
Williams has been married three times. His first marriage was to Audrey Sellers in 1959. They were divorced some years later, after which he apparently became quite depressed: "(...) there was a period when I was very despondent, broke, depressed, my first marriage was on the rocks. '' They have a son, Corey Williams.
In 1968, Williams married model and actress Marlene Clark in Hawaii. Their marriage lasted only two years and they divorced in 1971.
He married Teruko Nakagami on December 27, 1972. She brought a daughter, Miyako (b. 1962), from her previous marriage to musician Wayne Shorter. They have a daughter Hanako (b. 1973). They filed for divorce in 1993, but were reported to have reconciled in 1997.
Williams was arrested on January 30, 1996 after allegedly beating his live - in girlfriend, whom the police did not identify. He was freed from custody the following day after posting a US $50,000 bail. Williams stated through his attorney that he expected to be fully exonerated of the charges. The Los Angeles city attorney 's office filed misdemeanor charges of spousal battery and dissuading a witness against Williams. The woman, identified only as "Patricia '', later stated the incident was her fault and that she hoped the police would drop the case. In a plea bargain agreement to dismiss the charges, Williams was ordered to undergo 52 counseling sessions.
|
i am the major model of a modern major general lyrics | Major - General 's song - wikipedia
"I Am the Very Model of a Modern Major - General '' (often referred to as the "Major - General 's Song '' or "Modern Major - General 's Song '') is a patter song from Gilbert and Sullivan 's 1879 comic opera The Pirates of Penzance. It is perhaps the most famous song in Gilbert and Sullivan 's operas. It is sung by Major General Stanley at his first entrance, towards the end of Act I. The song satirises the idea of the "modern '' educated British Army officer of the latter 19th century. It is one of the most difficult patter songs to perform, due to the fast pace and tongue - twisting nature of the lyrics.
The song is replete with historical and cultural references, in which the Major - General describes his impressive and well - rounded education, but he says that his military knowledge has "only been brought down to the beginning of the century ''. The stage directions in the libretto state that at the end of each verse the Major - General is "bothered for a rhyme ''. Interpolated business occurs here, and in each case he finds a rhyme and finishes the verse with a flourish.
The character of Major - General Stanley was widely taken to be a caricature of the popular general Sir Garnet Wolseley. The biographer Michael Ainger, however, doubts that Gilbert intended a caricature of Wolseley, identifying instead General Henry Turner, uncle of Gilbert 's wife, as the pattern for the "modern Major - General ''. Gilbert disliked Turner, who, unlike the progressive Wolseley, was of the old school of officers. Nevertheless, in the original London production, George Grossmith imitated Wolseley 's mannerisms and appearance, particularly his large moustache, and the audience recognised the allusion. Wolseley himself, according to his biographer, took no offence at the caricature and sometimes sang "I am the very model of a modern Major - General '' for the private amusement of his family and friends.
I am the very model of a modern Major - General, I 've information vegetable, animal, and mineral, I know the kings of England, and I quote the fights historical From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical; I 'm very well acquainted, too, with matters mathematical, I understand equations, both the simple and quadratical, About binomial theorem I 'm teeming with a lot o ' news, (bothered for a rhyme) With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse. I 'm very good at integral and differential calculus; I know the scientific names of beings animalculous: In short, in matters vegetable, animal, and mineral, I am the very model of a modern Major - General. I know our mythic history, King Arthur 's and Sir Caradoc 's; I answer hard acrostics, I 've a pretty taste for paradox, I quote in elegiacs all the crimes of Heliogabalus, In conics I can floor peculiarities parabolous; I can tell undoubted Raphaels from Gerard Dows and Zoffanies, I know the croaking chorus from The Frogs of Aristophanes! Then I can hum a fugue of which I 've heard the music 's din afore, (bothered for a rhyme) And whistle all the airs from that infernal nonsense Pinafore. Then I can write a washing bill in Babylonic cuneiform, And tell you ev'ry detail of Caractacus 's uniform: In short, in matters vegetable, animal, and mineral, I am the very model of a modern Major - General. In fact, when I know what is meant by "mamelon '' and "ravelin '', When I can tell at sight a Mauser rifle from a javelin, When such affairs as sorties and surprises I 'm more wary at, And when I know precisely what is meant by "commissariat '', When I have learnt what progress has been made in modern gunnery, When I know more of tactics than a novice in a nunnery -- In short, when I 've a smattering of elemental strategy -- (bothered for a rhyme) You 'll say a better Major - General has never sat a gee. For my military knowledge, though I 'm plucky and adventury, Has only been brought down to the beginning of the century; But still, in matters vegetable, animal, and mineral, I am the very model of a modern Major - General.
Notes:
The Pirate Movie, a 1982 modern musical parody of The Pirates of Penzance, features many songs from the opera, including this song. Contemporary references were introduced, as when the Major - General adds to the song "Man, I 'm older than The Beatles, but I 'm younger than The Rolling Stones. '' In the 1983 film Never Cry Wolf, the hero sings the song. Similarly, in the 2001 time - travel comedy Kate & Leopold, Leopold sings the song; however, the scene is anachronistic in that The Pirates of Penzance premiered in 1879, after Leopold had already left his own time of 1876. A nonsense pastiche of the song in 2017 film Despicable Me 3, sung by Minions, was uploaded to YouTube by Illumination Entertainment as a singalong challenge; the video has been viewed more than 15 million times.
The song, or parts of it, has been sung in numerous television programs. For example, The Muppet Show (season 3, episode 52) staged a duet of the song with guest host Gilda Radner and a 7 - foot - tall (2.1 m) talking carrot. Radner had requested a seven - foot - tall talking parrot, but Kermit had difficulty reading her handwriting. In a short cutaway from the 2012 Family Guy episode "Killer Queen '', Peter plays the Major - General in a community theater production and mumbles all through the opening verse of the song. The 2003 VeggieTales cartoon episode The Wonderful World of Auto - Tainment! features Archibald Asparagus singing the first verse of the song. In Season 2, Episode 13 of USA Network series In Plain Sight, "Let 's Get It Ahn '', WITSEC workers, Mary and Eleanor, sing along to the song while listening to it being played as hold music. In a Season 3 episode of Home Improvement, "Room for Change '' (1994), Al Borland, believing that he is in a sound - proof booth, belts out the first stanza but is heard by everyone.
Other examples of television renditions of the song include the Babylon 5 episode "Atonement '', sung by Marcus Cole to irritate fellow passenger Dr. Franklin; The Wind In The Willows episode "A Producer 's Lot '' (Series 3, Episode 11) sung by Mole (Richard Pearson); the Married... with Children episode "Peggy and the Pirates '' (Season 7, Episode 18); the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Disaster ''; two episodes of Frasier, including "Fathers and Sons '', where Martin joins in the song, singing, "With many awful facts about the scary hippopotamus! ''; the Mad About You episode "Moody Blues '' (Season 6, Episode 5); and the "Deep Space Homer '' episode of The Simpsons. Sometimes the song is used in an audition situation. For example, in the Two and a Half Men episode "And the Plot Moistens '' (Season 3, Episode 21), Alan sings the first verse of the song to persuade Jake to join the school musical. Similarly, in season 2 of Slings & Arrows, Richard Smith - Jones uses the song to audition for the festival 's musical. In the pilot episode of 90210, Annie Wilson sings the beginning of the song in a flash back of her old school performance. The song is sung by Brick Breeland in season 1 of Hart of Dixie in episode 19, "Destiny & Denial ''.
Parodies or pastiches of the song have been sung in a number of television programs. For example, the computer - animated series ReBoot ended its third season (Episode 39: "End Prog '') with a recap of the entire season, set to the song 's tune. The Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip episode "The Cold Open '' (2006), the cast of Studio 60 opens with a parody: "We 'll be the very model of a modern network TV show; we hope that you do n't mind that our producer was caught doing blow ''. In Doctor Who and the Pirates, the Doctor (played by Colin Baker) sings, "I am the very model of a Gallifreyan buccaneer ''. Other songs, from Pirates, Pinafore and Ruddigore, are parodied. When he hosted Saturday Night Live, David Hyde Pierce 's monologue was a parody of the song. In the Animaniacs short "H.M.S. Yakko '', Yakko sings "I am the Very Model of a Cartoon Individual ''. In a 2011 GEICO commercial, a couple that wants to save money, but still listen to musicals, finds a roommate, dressed as the Major General, who awkwardly begins the song while dancing on a coffee table.
The song has been widely parodied and pastiched, including by Tom Lehrer 's "Elements Song '', "The Unix Sysadmin Song '', written for the book The Unix Companion by Harley Hahn, which replaces the military references with Unix trivia and one featured in comic No. 1052 on the webcomic xkcd in 2012. This comic then became the subject of numerous musical adaptations. "The Elements '' inspired the "Boy Scout Merit Badge Song '', listing all the merit badges that can be earned from the Boy Scouts of America In the video games Mass Effect 2 and Mass Effect 3, the character Dr. Mordin Solus sings a short pastiche version ("I am the very model of a scientist Salarian ''). In the 2013 animated video documentary Bronies: The Extremely Unexpected Adult Fans of My Little Pony, John de Lancie and Tara Strong speak a pastiche titled "Let 's Go and Meet the Bronies '', which separately received over 1.8 million views on YouTube.
On the last night of The Proms in 2000, the outgoing conductor, Sir Andrew Davis, sang a pastiche of the song celebrating the festival. When Derek Pattinson retired as Secretary - General of the General Synod of the Church of England in 1990, a choir sang a variation on the Major - General 's Song, with the line "He was the very model of a Secretary - General '', in a meeting of the General Synod. In 2010, a parody version of the song was posted as an op - ed piece in the Richmond Times - Dispatch mocking actions of the Attorney General of Virginia, Ken Cuccinelli. In 2010, Ron Butler released a YouTube video pastiche of the song, in character as President Obama, that received more than 1.8 million views. Florida gubernatorial candidate Michael E. Arth released a YouTube video in 2010 of him singing "I am the Very Model of a Pragmatic Humanitarian '' while using placards as Bob Dylan did in Dont Look Back. A 2015 YouTube parody satirizing county clerk Kim Davis called "The Modern Fundamentalist '' was distributed by media outlets.
The character George Washington, in the song "Right Hand Man '' from the 2015 musical Hamilton by Lin - Manuel Miranda, refers to himself with irony as "The model of a modern major general '', which he rhymes with "men are all '' and "pedestal ''. Miranda commented: "I always felt like ' mineral ' was n't the best possible rhyme. ''
Notes
Sources
Parodies:
|
the mau mau movement would be most appropriately classified as being a movement | Mau Mau uprising - wikipedia
British Empire
Civilian Victims of Mau Mau:
The Mau Mau Uprising (1952 -- 60), also the Mau Mau Rebellion, the Kenya Emergency, and the Mau Mau Revolt, was a war in British Kenya. The Mau Mau groups of people, politically dominated by the Kikuyu people, fought against the white European settlers in Kenya and the British Army, e.g. the local Kenya Regiment (British, auxiliaries, and pro -- British Kikuyu people).
The capture of rebel leader Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 signalled the defeat of the Mau Mau, and ended the British military campaign. The Mau Mau failed to capture widespread public support, partly due to the British policy of divide and rule, and the movement remained internally divided, despite attempts to unify its various strands. The British, meanwhile, could draw upon the strategy and tactics they developed in putting down another rebellion in Malaya.
The uprising created a rift between the European colonial community in Kenya and the metropole, but also resulted in violent divisions within the Kikuyu community. The financial cost of the uprising to the former colony amounted to £ 55 million.
The origin of the term Mau Mau is uncertain. According to some members of Mau Mau, they never referred to themselves as such, instead preferring the military title Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA). Some publications, such as Fred Majdalany 's State of Emergency: The Full Story of Mau Mau, claim it was an anagram of Uma Uma (which means "get out get out '') and was a military codeword based on a secret language - game Kikuyu boys used to play at the time of their circumcision. Majdalany goes on to state that the British simply used the name as a label for the Kikuyu ethnic community without assigning any specific definition.
As the movement progressed, a Swahili backronym was adopted: "Mzungu Aende Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru '' meaning "Let the foreigner go back abroad, let the African regain independence ''. J.M. Kariuki, a member of Mau Mau who was detained during the conflict, postulates that the British preferred to use the term Mau Mau instead of KLFA in an attempt to deny the Mau Mau rebellion international legitimacy. Kariuki also wrote that the term Mau Mau was adopted by the rebellion in order to counter what they regarded as colonial propaganda.
The primary British interest in Kenya was land, which, observed the British East Africa Commission of 1925, constituted "some of the richest agricultural soils in the world, mostly in districts where the elevation and climate make it possible for Europeans to reside permanently. '' Though declared a colony in 1920, the formal British colonial presence in Kenya began with a proclamation on 1 July 1895, in which Kenya was claimed as a British protectorate.
Even before 1895, however, Britain 's presence in Kenya was marked by dispossession and violence. In 1894, British MP Sir Charles Dilke had observed in the House of Commons, "The only person who has up to the present time benefited from our enterprise in the heart of Africa has been Mr. Hiram Maxim ''. During the period in which Kenya 's interior was being forcibly opened up for British settlement, there was plenty of conflict and British troops carried out atrocities against the native population.
The one - sided nature of fighting in Kenya led Winston Churchill to express concern in 1908 about how it would look if word got out:
160 Gusii have now been killed outright without any further casualties on our side... It looks like a butchery. If the H. of C. gets hold of it, all our plans in E.A.P. will be under a cloud. Surely it can not be necessary to go on killing these defenceless people on such an enormous scale.
Kenyan opposition to British imperialism existed from the start of the British occupation, an early example of which was the Kikuyu opposition of 1880 to 1900. In military terms, none of the armed uprisings during the beginning of British colonialism in Kenya were successful.
Opposition to British colonialism in Kenya continued post-1895: the Nandi Resistance of 1895 -- 1905; the Giriama Uprising of 1913 -- 1914; the women 's revolt against forced labour in Murang'a in 1947; and the Kolloa Affray of 1950. Nor did Kenyan protest end with the Mau Mau uprising; in the years that followed, a series of successful non-violent boycotts were carried out.
The Mau Mau rebellion can be regarded as a militant culmination of years of oppressive colonial rule and resistance to it, with its specific roots found in three episodes of Kikuyu history between 1920 and 1940. The British presence exacerbated existing disharmony and instability in Kikuyu society. The Kikuyu in the nineteenth century were expanding and colonising new territory and already internally divided between wealthy land - owning families and landless ones, the latter dependent on the former in a variety of ways.
A feature of all settler societies during the colonial period was the ability of European settlers to obtain for themselves a disproportionate share in land ownership. Kenya was no exception, with the first settlers arriving in 1902 as part of Governor Charles Eliot 's plan to have a settler economy pay for the recently completed Uganda Railway. The success of this settler economy would depend heavily on the availability of land, labour and capital, and so, over the next three decades, the colonial government and settlers consolidated their control over Kenyan land, and ' encouraged ' native Kenyans to become wage labourers.
Through a series of expropriations, the colony 's government seized about 7,000,000 acres (28,000 km; 11,000 sq mi) of land, some of it in the especially fertile hilly regions of Central and Rift Valley Provinces, areas later known as the White Highlands due to the exclusively European - owned farmland there. "In particular, '' the British government 's 1925 East Africa Commission noted, "the treatment of the Giriama tribe (from the coastal regions) was very bad. This tribe was moved backwards and forwards so as to secure for the Crown areas which could be granted to Europeans. ''
Coupled with an increasing native Kenyan population, the land expropriation became an increasingly bitter point of contention. The Kikuyu, who lived in the Kiambu, Nyeri and Murang'a counties of Central Province, were one of the ethnic groups most affected by the colonial government 's land expropriation and European settlement; by 1933, they had had over 109.5 square miles (284 km) of their potentially highly valuable land alienated. In terms of lost acreage, the Masai and Nandi people were the biggest losers of land. The Kikuyu did mount a legal challenge to the expropriation of their land, but a Kenya High Court decision of 1921 reaffirmed its legality.
The colonial government and white farmers also wanted cheap labour which, for a period, the government acquired from native Kenyans through force. Confiscating the land itself helped to create a pool of wage labourers, but the colony introduced measures that forced more native Kenyans to submit to wage labour: the introduction of the Hut and Poll Taxes (1901 and 1910 respectively); the establishment of reserves for each ethnic group, which isolated ethnic groups and often exacerbated overcrowding; the discouragement of native Kenyans ' growing cash crops; the Masters and Servants Ordinance (1906) and an identification pass known as the kipande (1918) to control the movement of labour and to curb desertion; and the exemption of wage labourers from forced labour and other compulsory, detested tasks such as conscription.
Native Kenyan labourers were in one of three categories: squatter, contract, or casual. By the end of WWI, squatters had become well established on European farms and plantations in Kenya, with Kikuyu squatters comprising the majority of agricultural workers on settler plantations. An unintended consequence of colonial rule, the squatters were targeted from 1918 onwards by a series of Resident Native Labourers Ordinances -- criticised by at least some MPs -- which progressively curtailed squatter rights and subordinated native Kenyan farming to that of the settlers. The Ordinance of 1939 finally eliminated squatters ' remaining tenancy rights, and permitted settlers to demand 270 days ' labour from any squatters on their land. and, after WWII, the situation for squatters deteriorated rapidly, a situation the squatters resisted fiercely.
In the early 1920s, though, despite the presence of 100,000 squatters and tens of thousands more wage labourers, there was still not enough native Kenyan labour available to satisfy the settlers ' needs. The colonial government duly tightened the measures to force more Kenyans to become low - paid wage - labourers on settler farms.
The colonial government used the measures brought in as part of its land expropriation and labour ' encouragement ' efforts to craft the third plank of its growth strategy for its settler economy: subordinating African farming to that of the Europeans. Nairobi also assisted the settlers with rail and road networks, subsidies on freight charges, agricultural and veterinary services, and credit and loan facilities. The near - total neglect of native farming during the first two decades of European settlement was noted by the East Africa Commission.
The resentment of colonial rule would not have been decreased by the wanting provision of medical services for native Kenyans, nor by the fact that in 1923, for example, "the maximum amount that could be considered to have been spent on services provided exclusively for the benefit of the native population was slightly over one - quarter of the taxes paid by them ''. The tax burden on Europeans in the early 1920s, meanwhile, was very light. Interwar infrastructure - development was also largely paid for by the indigenous population.
Kenyan employees were often poorly treated by their European employers -- sometimes even beaten to death by them -- with some settlers arguing that native Kenyans "were as children and should be treated as such ''. Some settlers flogged their servants for petty offences. To make matters even worse, native Kenyan workers were poorly served by colonial labour - legislation and a prejudiced legal - system. The vast majority of Kenyan employees ' violations of labour legislation were settled with "rough justice '' meted out by their employers. Most colonial magistrates appear to have been unconcerned by the illegal practice of settler - administered flogging; indeed, during the 1920s, flogging was the magisterial punishment - of - choice for native Kenyan convicts. The principle of punitive sanctions against workers was not removed from the Kenyan labour statutes until the 1950s.
Until the mid-1930s, the two primary complaints were low native Kenyan wages and the requirement to carry an identity document, the kipande. From the early 1930s, however, two others began to come to prominence: effective and elected African - political - representation, and land. The British response to this clamour for agrarian reform came in the early 1930s when they set up the Carter Land Commission. The Commission reported in 1934, but its conclusions, recommendations and concessions to Kenyans were so conservative that any chance of a peaceful resolution to native Kenyan land - hunger was ended.
In Nyanza, for example, the Commission restricted 1,029,422 native Kenyans to 7,114 square miles (18,430 km), while granting 16,700 square miles (43,000 km) to 17,000 Europeans. By the 1930s, and for the Kikuyu in particular, land had become the number one grievance concerning colonial rule, the situation so acute by 1948 that 1,250,000 Kikuyu had ownership of 2,000 square miles (5,200 km), while 30,000 British settlers owned 12,000 square miles (31,000 km), abeit most of it not on traditional Kikuku land.
As a result of the situation in the highlands and growing job opportunities in the cities, thousands of Kikuyu migrated into cities in search of work, contributing to the doubling of Nairobi 's population between 1938 and 1952. At the same time, there was a small, but growing, class of Kikuyu landowners who consolidated Kikuyu landholdings and forged ties with the colonial administration, leading to an economic rift within the Kikuyu.
Around 1943, residents of Olenguruone radicalised the traditional Kikuyu practice of oathing, and extended oathing to women and children. By the mid-1950s, 90 % of Kikuyu, Embu and Meru were oathed.
The first attempt to form a countrywide political party occurred on 1 October 1944. This fledgling organisation was called the Kenya African Study Union (so named to mask its anti-colonial politics); its inaugural chairman was Harry Thuku, who soon resigned his chairmanship. There is dispute over Thuku 's reason for leaving KASU: Bethwell Ogot states that Thuku "found the responsibility too heavy ''; David Anderson states that "he walked out in disgust '' as the militant section of KASU took the initiative. KASU changed its name to the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1946.
By the late 1940s, the Kikuyu were a deeply divided people, increasingly in conflict among themselves as well as with the colonial political and economic order.
The failure of the KAU to attain any significant reforms or redress of grievances from the colonial authorities shifted the political initiative to younger and more militant figures within the native Kenyan trade union movement, among the squatters on the settler estates in the Rift Valley and in KAU branches in Nairobi and the Kikuyu districts of central province.
The contemporary, colonial view saw Mau Mau as a savage, violent, and depraved tribal cult, an expression of unrestrained emotion rather than reason. Mau Mau was "perverted tribalism '' that sought to take the Kikuyu people back to "the bad old days '' before British rule. Some think this characterisation reflected the British refusal to attend to those social and economic grievances of the Kikuyu that stemmed from colonial rule.
The official British explanation of the revolt did not include the insights of agrarian and agricultural experts, of economists and historians, or even of Europeans who had spent a long period living amongst the Kikuyu such as Louis Leakey. Not for the first time, the British instead relied on the purported insights of the ethnopsychiatrist; with Mau Mau, it fell to Dr. John Colin Carothers to perform the desired analysis. This ethnopsychiatric analysis guided British psychological warfare, which painted Mau Mau as "an irrational force of evil, dominated by bestial impulses and influenced by world communism '', and the later official study of the uprising, the Corfield Report.
The psychological war became of critical importance to military and civilian leaders, who waged it in the time - honoured colonial fashion of divide and rule, always trying to "emphasise that there was in effect a civil war, and that the struggle was not black versus white '', attempting to isolate Mau Mau from the Kikuyu, and the Kikuyu from the rest of the colony 's population and the world outside. In driving a wedge between Mau Mau and the Kikuyu generally, these propaganda efforts essentially played no role, though they could apparently claim an important contribution to the isolation of Mau Mau from the non-Kikuyu sections of the population.
By the mid-1960s, the view of Mau Mau as simply irrational atavists was being challenged by memoirs of former members and leaders that portrayed Mau Mau as an essential, if radical, component of African nationalism in Kenya, and by academic studies that analysed the movement as a modern and nationalist response to the unfairness and oppression of colonial domination (though such studies downplayed the specifically Kikuyu nature of the movement).
There continues to be vigorous debate within Kenyan society and among the academic community within and without Kenya regarding the nature of Mau Mau and its aims, as well as the response to and effects of the uprising. Nevertheless, partly because as many Kikuyu fought against Mau Mau on the side of the colonial government as joined them in rebellion, the conflict is now often regarded in academic circles as an intra-Kikuyu civil war, a characterisation that remains extremely unpopular in Kenya. Kenyatta described the conflict in his memoirs as a civil war rather than a rebellion. The reason that the revolt was essentially limited to the Kikuyu people was, in part, that they had suffered the most as result of the negative aspects of British colonialism.
Wunyabari O. Maloba regards the rise of the Mau Mau movement as "without doubt, one of the most important events in recent African history. '' David Anderson, however, considers Maloba 's and similar work to be the product of "swallowing too readily the propaganda of the Mau Mau war '', noting the similarity between such analysis and the "simplistic '' earlier studies of Mau Mau. This earlier work cast the Mau Mau war in strictly bipolar terms, "as conflicts between anti-colonial nationalists and colonial collaborators ''. Caroline Elkins ' 2005 study, Imperial Reckoning, has met similar criticism, as well as being criticised for sensationalism.
Broadly speaking, throughout Kikuyu history, there have been two traditions: moderate - conservative and radical. Despite the differences between them, there has been a continuous debate and dialogue between these traditions, leading to a great political awareness among the Kikuyu. By 1950, these differences, and the impact of colonial rule, had given rise to three native Kenyan political blocks: conservative, moderate nationalist and militant nationalist. It has also been argued that Mau Mau was not explicitly national, either intellectually or operationally.
Bruce Berman argues that, "While Mau Mau was clearly not a tribal atavism seeking a return to the past, the answer to the question of ' was it nationalism? ' must be yes and no. '' As the Mau Mau rebellion wore on, the violence forced the spectrum of opinion within the Kikuyu, Embu and Meru to polarise and harden into the two distinct camps of loyalist and Mau Mau. This neat division between loyalists and Mau Mau was a product of the conflict, rather than a cause or catalyst of it, with the violence becoming less ambiguous over time, in a similar manner to other situations.
Contrary to British propaganda and western perceptions of the time, the Mau Mau attacks were mostly well organised and planned.
... the insurgents ' lack of heavy weaponry and the heavily entrenched police and Home Guard positions meant that Mau Mau attacks were restricted to nighttime and where loyalist positions were weak. When attacks did commence they were fast and brutal, as insurgents were easily able to identify loyalists because they were often local to those communities themselves. The Lari massacre was by comparison rather outstanding and in contrast to regular Mau Mau strikes which more often than not targeted only loyalists without such massive civilian casualties. "Even the attack upon Lari, in the view of the rebel commanders was strategic and specific. ''
The Mau Mau command, contrary to the Home Guard who were stigmatized as "the running dogs of British Imperialism '', were relatively well educated. General Gatunga had previously been a respected and well read Christian teacher in his local Kikuyu community. He was known to meticulously record his attacks in a series of five notebooks, which when executed were often swift and strategic, targeting loyalist community leaders he had previously known as a teacher.
Able to avoid the suspicion of the British home guards, women were able to move through colonial spaces and between Mau Mau hideouts and strongholds, to deliver vital supplies and services to guerilla fighters including food, ammunition, medical care, and of course, information.
Philip Mitchell retired as Kenya 's governor in summer 1952, having turned a blind eye to Mau Mau 's increasing activity. Through the summer of 1952, however, Colonial Secretary Oliver Lyttelton in London received a steady flow of reports from Acting Governor Henry Potter about the escalating seriousness of Mau Mau violence, but it was not until the later part of 1953 that British politicians began to accept that the rebellion was going to take some time to deal with. At first, the British discounted the Mau Mau rebellion because of their own technical and military superiority, which encouraged hopes for a quick victory.
The British army accepted the gravity of the uprising months before the politicians, but the army 's appeals to London and Nairobi initially fell on deaf ears. On 30 September 1952, Evelyn Baring arrived in Kenya to permanently take over from Potter; Baring was given no warning by Mitchell or the Colonial Office about the gathering maelstrom into which he was stepping.
On 3 October 1952, Mau Mau probably claimed their first European victim when they stabbed a woman to death near her home in Thika. Six days later, on 9 October, Senior Chief Waruhiu was shot dead in broad daylight in his car, which was an important blow against the colonial government. Waruhiu had been one of the strongest supporters of the British presence in Kenya. His assassination gave Baring the final impetus to request permission from the Colonial Office to declare a State of Emergency (see below).
Aside from military operations against Mau Mau fighters in the forests, the British attempt to defeat the movement broadly came in two stages: the first, relatively limited in scope, came during the period in which they had still failed to accept the seriousness of the revolt; the second came afterwards. During the first stage, the British tried to decapitate the movement by declaring a State of Emergency before arresting 180 alleged Mau Mau leaders (see Operation Jock Scott below) and subjecting six of them to a show trial (the Kapenguria Six); the second stage began in earnest in 1954, when they undertook a series of major economic, military and penal initiatives.
The second stage had three main planks: a large military - sweep of Nairobi leading to the internment of tens of thousands of the city 's suspected Mau Mau members and sympathisers (see Operation Anvil below); the enacting of major agrarian reform (the Swynnerton Plan); and the institution of a vast villagisation programme for more than a million rural Kikuyu (see below). In 2012, the UK government accepted that prisoners had suffered "torture and ill - treatment at the hands of the colonial administration ''.
The harshness of the British response was inflated by two factors. First, the settler government in Kenya was, even before the insurgency, probably the most openly racist one in the British empire, with the settlers ' violent prejudice attended by an uncompromising determination to retain their grip on power and half - submerged fears that, as a tiny minority, they could be overwhelmed by the indigenous population. Some settlers felt that "(a) good sound system of compulsory labour would do more to raise the nigger in five years than all the millions that have been sunk in missionary efforts for the last fifty '', and its representatives were so keen on aggressive action that George Erskine referred to them as "the White Mau Mau ''. Second, the brutality of Mau Mau attacks on civilians made it easy for the movement 's opponents -- including native Kenyan and loyalist security forces -- to adopt a totally dehumanised view of Mau Mau adherents.
A variety of persuasive techniques were initiated by the colonial authorities to punish and break Mau Mau 's support: Baring ordered punitive communal - labour, collective fines and other collective punishments, and further confiscation of land and property. By early 1954, tens of thousands of head of livestock had been taken, and were allegedly never returned. Detailed accounts of the policy of seizing livestock from Kenyans suspected of supporting Mau Mau rebels were finally released in April 2012.
On 20 October 1952, Governor Baring signed an order declaring a State of Emergency. Early the next morning, Operation Jock Scott was launched: the British carried out a mass - arrest of Jomo Kenyatta and 180 other alleged Mau Mau leaders within Nairobi. Jock Scott did not decapitate the movement 's leadership as hoped, since news of the impending operation was leaked. Thus, while the moderates on the wanted list awaited capture, the real militants, such as Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge (both later principal leaders of Mau Mau 's forest armies), fled to the forests.
The day after the round up, another prominent loyalist chief, Nderi, was hacked to pieces, and a series of gruesome murders against settlers were committed throughout the months that followed. The violent and random nature of British tactics during the months after Jock Scott served merely to alienate ordinary Kikuyu and drive many of the wavering majority into Mau Mau 's arms.
Three battalions of the King 's African Rifles were recalled from Uganda, Tanganyika and Mauritius, giving the regiment five battalions in all in Kenya, a total of 3,000 native Kenyan troops. To placate settler opinion, one battalion of British troops, from the Lancashire Fusiliers, was also flown in from Egypt to Nairobi on the first day of Operation Jock Scott.
In November 1952, Baring requested assistance from the Security Service. For the next year, the Service 's A.M. MacDonald would reorganise the Special Branch of the Kenya Police, promote collaboration with Special Branches in adjacent territories, and oversee coordination of all intelligence activity "to secure the intelligence Government requires ''.
In January 1953, six of the most prominent detainees from Jock Scott, including Kenyatta, were put on trial, primarily to justify the declaration of the Emergency to critics in London. The trial itself was claimed to have featured a suborned lead defence - witness, a bribed judge, and other serious violations of the right to a fair trial.
Native Kenyan political activity was permitted to resume at the end of the military phase of the Emergency.
The onset of the Emergency led hundreds, and eventually thousands, of Mau Mau adherents to flee to the forests, where a decentralised leadership had already begun setting up platoons. The primary zones of Mau Mau military strength were the Aberdares and the forests around Mount Kenya, whilst a passive support - wing was fostered outside these areas. Militarily, the British defeated Mau Mau in four years (1952 -- 56) using a more expansive version of "coercion through exemplary force ''. In May 1953, the decision was made to send General George Erskine to oversee the restoration of order in the colony.
By September 1953, the British knew the leading personalities in Mau Mau, the capture and 68 hour interrogation of General China on 15 January the following year provided a massive intelligence boost on the forest fighters. Erskine 's arrival did not immediately herald a fundamental change in strategy, thus the continual pressure on the gangs remained, but he created more mobile formations that delivered what he termed "special treatment '' to an area. Once gangs had been driven out and eliminated, loyalist forces and police were then to take over the area, with military support brought in thereafter only to conduct any required pacification operations. After their successful dispersion and containment, Erskine went after the forest fighters ' source of supplies, money and recruits, i.e. the native Kenyan population of Nairobi. This took the form of Operation Anvil, which commenced on 24 April 1954.
By 1954, Nairobi was regarded as the nerve centre of Mau Mau operations. Anvil was the ambitious attempt to eliminate Mau Mau 's presence within Nairobi in one fell swoop. 25,000 members of British security forces under the control of General George Erskine were deployed as Nairobi was sealed off and underwent a sector - by - sector purge. All native Kenyans were taken to temporary barbed - wire enclosures, whereafter those who were not Kikuyu, Embu or Meru were released; those who were remained in detention for screening.
Whilst the operation itself was conducted by Europeans, most suspected members of Mau Mau were picked out of groups of the Kikuyu - Embu - Meru detainees by a native Kenyan informer. Male suspects were then taken off for further screening, primarily at Langata Screening Camp, whilst women and children were readied for ' repatriation ' to the reserves (many of those slated for deportation had never set foot in the reserves before). Anvil lasted for two weeks, after which the capital had been cleared of all but certifiably loyal Kikuyu; 20,000 Mau Mau suspects had been taken to Langata, and 30,000 more had been deported to the reserves.
For an extended period of time, the chief British weapon against the forest fighters was air power. Between June 1953 and October 1955, the RAF provided a significant contribution to the conflict -- and, indeed, had to, for the army was preoccupied with providing security in the reserves until January 1955, and it was the only service capable of both psychologically influencing and inflicting considerable casualties on the Mau Mau fighters operating in the dense forests. Lack of timely and accurate intelligence meant bombing was rather haphazard, but almost 900 insurgents had been killed or wounded by air attack by June 1954, and it did cause forest gangs to disband, lower their morale, and induce their pronounced relocation from the forests to the reserves.
Contrary to that which is sometimes claimed, Lancaster bombers were not used during the Emergency, though Lincolns were. The latter flew their first mission on 18 November 1953 and remained in Kenya until 28 July 1955, dropping nearly 6 million bombs. They and other aircraft, such as blimps, were also deployed for reconnaissance, as well as in the propaganda war, conducting large - scale leaflet - drops.
After the Lari massacre, for example, British planes dropped leaflets showing graphic pictures of the Kikuyu women and children who had been hacked to death. Unlike the rather indiscriminate activities of British ground forces, the use of air power was more restrained (though there is disagreement on this point), and air attacks were initially permitted only in the forests. Operation Mushroom extended bombing beyond the forest limits in May 1954, and Churchill consented to its continuation in January 1955.
Baring knew the massive deportations to the already - overcrowded reserves could only make things worse. Refusing to give more land to the Kikuyu in the reserves, which could have been seen as a concession to Mau Mau, Baring turned instead in 1953 to Roger Swynnerton, Kenya 's assistant director of agriculture. The primary goal of the Swynnerton Plan was the creation of family holdings large enough to keep families self - sufficient in food and to enable them to practise alternate husbandry, which would generate a cash income.
The projected costs of the Swynnerton Plan were too high for the cash - strapped colonial government, so Baring tweaked repatriation and augmented the Swynnerton Plan with plans for a massive expansion of the Pipeline coupled with a system of work camps to make use of detainee labour. All Kikuyu employed for public works projects would now be employed on Swynnerton 's poor - relief programmes, as would many detainees in the work camps.
When the mass deportations of Kikuyu to the reserves began in 1953, Baring and Erskine ordered all Mau Mau suspects to be screened. Of the scores of screening camps which sprang up, only fifteen were officially sanctioned by the colonial government. Larger detention camps were divided into compounds. The screening centres were staffed by settlers who had been appointed temporary district - officers by Baring.
Thomas Askwith, the official tasked with designing the British ' detention and rehabilitation ' programme during the summer and autumn of 1953, termed his system the Pipeline. The British did not initially conceive of rehabilitating Mau Mau suspects through brute force and other ill - treatment -- Askwith 's final plan, submitted to Baring in October 1953, was intended as "a complete blueprint for winning the war against Mau Mau using socioeconomic and civic reform. '' What developed, however, has been described as a British gulag.
The Pipeline operated a white - grey - black classification system: ' whites ' were cooperative detainees, and were repatriated back to the reserves; ' greys ' had been oathed but were reasonably compliant, and were moved down the Pipeline to works camps in their local districts before release; and ' blacks ' were the so - called ' hard core ' of Mau Mau. These were moved up the Pipeline to special detention camps. Thus a detainee 's position in Pipeline was a straightforward reflection of how cooperative the Pipeline personnel deemed her or him to be. Cooperation was itself defined in terms of a detainee 's readiness to confess their Mau Mau oath. Detainees were screened and re-screened for confessions and intelligence, then re-classified accordingly.
A detainee 's journey between two locations along the Pipeline could sometimes last days. During transit, there was frequently little or no food and water provided, and seldom any sanitation. Once in camp, talking was forbidden outside the detainees ' accommodation huts, though improvised communication was rife. Such communication included propaganda and disinformation, which went by such names as the Kinongo Times, designed to encourage fellow detainees not to give up hope and so to minimise the number of those who confessed their oath and cooperated with camp authorities. Forced labour was performed by detainees on projects like the thirty - seven - mile - long South Yatta irrigation furrow. Family outside and other considerations led many detainees to confess.
During the first year after Operation Anvil, colonial authorities had little success in forcing detainees to cooperate. Camps and compounds were overcrowded, forced - labour systems were not yet perfected, screening teams were not fully coordinated, and the use of torture was not yet systematised. This failure was partly due to the lack of manpower and resources, as well as the vast numbers of detainees. Officials could scarcely process them all, let alone get them to confess their oaths. Assessing the situation in the summer of 1955, Alan Lennox - Boyd wrote of his "fear that the net figure of detainees may still be rising. If so the outlook is grim. '' Black markets flourished during this period, with the native Kenyan guards helping to facilitate trading. It was possible for detainees to bribe guards in order to obtain items or stay punishment.
By late 1955, however, the Pipeline had become a fully operational, well - organised system. Guards were regularly shifted around the Pipeline too in order to prevent relationships developing with detainees and so undercut the black markets, and inducements and punishments became better at discouraging fraternising with the enemy. The grinding nature of the improved detention and interrogation regimen began to produce results. Most detainees confessed, and the system produced ever greater numbers of spies and informers within the camps, while others switched sides in a more open, official fashion, leaving detention behind to take an active role in interrogations, even sometimes administering beatings.
The most famous example of side - switching was Peter Muigai Kenyatta -- Jomo Kenyatta 's son -- who, after confessing, joined screeners at Athi River Camp, later travelling throughout the Pipeline to assist in interrogations. Suspected informers and spies within a camp were treated in the time - honoured Mau Mau fashion: the preferred method of execution was strangulation then mutilation: "It was just like in the days before our detention '', explained one Mau Mau member later. "We did not have our own jails to hold an informant in, so we would strangle him and then cut his tongue out. '' The end of 1955 also saw screeners being given a freer hand in interrogation, and harsher conditions than straightforward confession were imposed on detainees before they were deemed ' cooperative ' and eligible for final release.
While oathing, for practical reasons, within the Pipeline was reduced to an absolute minimum, as many new initiates as possible were oathed. A newcomer who refused to take the oath often faced the same fate as a recalcitrant outside the camps: they were murdered. "The detainees would strangle them with their blankets or, using blades fashioned from the corrugated - iron roofs of some of the barracks, would slit their throats '', writes Elkins. The camp authorities ' preferred method of capital punishment was public hanging. Commandants were told to clamp down hard on intra-camp oathing, with several commandants hanging anyone suspected of administering oaths.
Even as the Pipeline became more sophisticated, detainees still organised themselves within it, setting up committees and selecting leaders for their camps, as well as deciding on their own "rules to live by ''. Perhaps the most famous compound leader was Josiah Mwangi Kariuki. Punishments for violating the "rules to live by '' could be severe.
European missionaries and native Kenyan Christians played their part by visiting camps to evangelise and encourage compliance with the colonial authorities, providing intelligence, and sometimes even assisting in interrogation. Detainees regarded such preachers with nothing but contempt.
from Kenya 's Director of Medical Services, 18 May 1954
The lack of decent sanitation in the camps meant that epidemics of diseases such as typhoid swept through them. Official medical reports detailing the shortcomings of the camps and their recommendations were ignored, and the conditions being endured by detainees were lied about and denied. A British rehabilitation officer found in 1954 that detainees from Manyani were in "shocking health '', many of them suffering from malnutrition, while Langata and GilGil were eventually closed in April 1955 because, as the colonial government put it, "they were unfit to hold Kikuyu... for medical epidemiological reasons ''.
While the Pipeline was primarily designed for adult males, a few thousand women and young girls were detained at an all - women camp at Kamiti, as well as a number of unaccompanied young children. Dozens of babies were born to women in captivity: "We really do need these cloths for the children as it is impossible to keep them clean and tidy while dressed on dirty pieces of sacking and blanket '', wrote one colonial officer. Wamumu Camp was set up solely for all the unaccompanied boys in the Pipeline, though hundreds, maybe thousands, of boys moved around the adult parts of the Pipeline.
There were originally two types of works camps envisioned by Baring: the first type were based in Kikuyu districts with the stated purpose of achieving the Swynnerton Plan; the second were punitive camps, designed for the 30,000 Mau Mau suspects who were deemed unfit to return to the reserves. These forced - labour camps provided a much needed source of labour to continue the colony 's infrastructure development.
Colonial officers also saw the second sort of works camps as a way of ensuring that any confession was legitimate and as a final opportunity to extract intelligence. Probably the worst works camp to have been sent to was the one run out of Embakasi Prison, for Embakasi was responsible for the Embakasi Airport, the construction of which was demanded to be finished before the Emergency came to an end. The airport was a massive project with an unquenchable thirst for labour, and the time pressures ensured the detainees ' forced labour was especially hard.
If military operations in the forests and Operation Anvil were the first two phases of Mau Mau 's defeat, Erskine expressed the need and his desire for a third and final phase: cut off all the militants ' support in the reserves. The means to this terminal end was originally suggested by the man brought in by the colonial government to an ethnopsychiatric ' diagnosis ' of the uprising, JC Carothers: he advocated a Kenyan version of the villagisation programmes that the British were already using in places like Malaya.
So it was that in June 1954, the War Council took the decision to undertake a full - scale forced - resettlement programme of Kiambu, Nyeri, Murang'a and Embu Districts to cut off Mau Mau 's supply lines. Within eighteen months, 1,050,899 Kikuyu in the reserves were inside 804 villages consisting of some 230,000 huts. The government termed them "protected villages '', purportedly to be built along "the same lines as the villages in the North of England '', though the term was actually a "euphemism () for the fact that hundreds of thousands of civilians were corralled, often against their will, into settlements behind barbed - wire fences and watch towers. ''
While some of these villages were to protect loyalist Kikuyu, "most were little more than concentration camps to punish Mau Mau sympathizers. '' The villagisation programme was the coup de grâce for Mau Mau. By the end of the following summer, Lieutenant General Lathbury no longer needed Lincoln bombers for raids because of a lack of targets, and, by late 1955, Lathbury felt so sure of final victory that he reduced army forces to almost pre-Mau Mau levels.
He noted, however, that the British should have "no illusions about the future. Mau Mau has not been cured: it has been suppressed. The thousands who have spent a long time in detention must have been embittered by it. Nationalism is still a very potent force and the African will pursue his aim by other means. Kenya is in for a very tricky political future. ''
The government 's public relations officer, Granville Roberts, presented villagisation as a good opportunity for rehabilitation, particularly of women and children, but it was, in fact, first and foremost designed to break Mau Mau and protect loyalist Kikuyu, a fact reflected in the extremely limited resources made available to the Rehabilitation and Community Development Department. Refusal to move could be punished with the destruction of property and livestock, and the roofs were usually ripped off of homes whose occupants demonstrated reluctance. Villagisation also solved the practical and financial problems associated with a further, massive expansion of the Pipeline programme, and the removal of people from their land hugely assisted the enaction of Swynnerton Plan.
The villages were surrounded by deep, spike - bottomed trenches and barbed wire, and the villagers themselves were watched over by members of the Home Guard, often neighbours and relatives. In short, rewards or collective punishments such as curfews could be served much more readily after villagisation, and this quickly broke Mau Mau 's passive wing. Though there were degrees of difference between the villages, the overall conditions engendered by villagisation meant that, by early 1955, districts began reporting starvation and malnutrition. One provincial commissioner blamed child hunger on parents deliberately withholding food, saying the latter were aware of the "propaganda value of apparent malnutrition ''.
The Red Cross helped mitigate the food shortages, but even they were told to prioritise loyalist areas. The Baring government 's medical department issued reports about "the alarming number of deaths occurring amongst children in the ' punitive ' villages '', and the "political '' prioritisation of Red Cross relief.
One of the colony 's ministers blamed the "bad spots '' in Central Province on the mothers of the children for "not realis (ing) the great importance of proteins '', and one former missionary reported that it "was terribly pitiful how many of the children and the older Kikuyu were dying. They were so emaciated and so very susceptible to any kind of disease that came along ''. Of the 50,000 deaths which John Blacker attributed to the Emergency, half were children under the age of ten.
The lack of food did not just affect the children, of course. The Overseas Branch of the British Red Cross commented on the "women who, from progressive undernourishment, had been unable to carry on with their work ''.
Disease prevention was not helped by the colony 's policy of returning sick detainees to receive treatment in the reserves, though the reserves ' medical services were virtually non-existent, as Baring himself noted after a tour of some villages in June 1956.
Kenyans were granted nearly all of the demands made by the KAU in 1951.
On 18 January 1955, the Governor - General of Kenya, Evelyn Baring, offered an amnesty to Mau Mau activists. The offer was that they would not face prosecution for previous offences, but may still be detained. European settlers were appalled at the leniency of the offer. On 10 June 1955 with no response forthcoming, the offer of amnesty to the Mau Mau was revoked.
In June 1956, a programme of land reform increased the land holdings of the Kikuyu.. This was coupled with a relaxation of the ban on native Kenyans growing coffee, a primary cash crop.
In the cities the colonial authorities decided to dispel tensions by raising urban wages, thereby strengthening the hand of moderate union organisations like the KFRTU. By 1956, the British had granted direct election of native Kenyan members of the Legislative Assembly, followed shortly thereafter by an increase in the number of local seats to fourteen. A Parliamentary conference in January 1960 indicated that the British would accept "one person -- one vote '' majority rule.
The uprising was, in David Anderson 's words, "a story of atrocity and excess on both sides, a dirty war from which no one emerged with much pride, and certainly no glory. '' Historian Daniel Goldhagen describes the campaign against the Mau Mau as an example of eliminationism, though this verdict has been fiercely criticised.
The total number of deaths attributable to the Emergency has been a source of dispute: Caroline Elkins claims it is "tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands ''. Elkins numbers have been challenged by the British demographer John Blacker, who demonstrated in detail that her numbers were overestimated, explaining that Elkins ' figure of 300,000 deaths "implies that perhaps half of the adult male population would have been wiped out -- yet the censuses of 1962 and 1969 show no evidence of this -- the age - sex pyramids for the Kikuyu districts do not even show indentations. ''
His study dealt directly with Elkins ' claim that "somewhere between 130,000 and 300,000 Kikuyu are unaccounted for '' at the 1962 census, and was read by both David Anderson and John Lonsdale prior to publication. Half of Blacker 's own estimate of 50,000 comprises children under the age of ten. David Elstein has noted that leading authorities on Africa have taken issue with parts of Elkins ' study, in particular her mortality figures: "The senior British historian of Kenya, John Lonsdale, whom Elkins thanks profusely in her book as ' the most gifted scholar I know ', warned her to place no reliance on anecdotal sources, and regards her statistical analysis -- for which she cites him as one of three advisors -- as ' frankly incredible '. ''
The British possibly killed in excess of 20,000 Mau Mau militants, but in some ways more notable is the smaller number of Mau Mau suspects dealt with by capital punishment: by the end of the Emergency, the total was 1,090. At no other time or place in the British empire was capital punishment dispensed so liberally -- the total is more than double the number executed by the French in Algeria.
War crimes have been broadly defined by the Nuremberg principles as "violations of the laws or customs of war, '' which includes massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, mutilation, torture, and murder of detainees and prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.
The Chuka Massacre, which happened in Chuka, Kenya, was perpetrated by members of the King 's African Rifles B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the Mau Mau uprising. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on 13 June 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. The people executed belonged to the Kikuyu Home Guard -- a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight the guerrillas. Nobody ever stood trial for the massacre.
In order to fight the Mau Mau insurgency during the conflict, British troops suspended civil liberties in Kenya. In response to the rebellion, many Kikuyu were relocated. Between 320,000 - 450,000 of them were moved into concentration camps. Most of the remainder - more than a million - were held in "enclosed villages ''. Although some were Mau Mau guerillas, many were victims of collective punishment that colonial authorities imposed on large areas of the country. Thousands suffered beatings and sexual assaults during "screenings '' intended to extract information about the Mau Mau threat. Later, prisoners suffered even worse mistreatment in an attempt to force them to renounce their allegiance to the insurgency and to obey commands. Significant numbers were murdered. Prisoners were questioned with the help of "slicing off ears, boring holes in eardrums, flogging until death, pouring paraffin over suspects who were then set alight, and burning eardrums with lit cigarettes ''. Castration by British troops and denying access to medical aid to the detainees were also widespread and common. Among the detainees who suffered severe mistreatment was Hussein Onyango Obama, the grandfather of Barack Obama, the former President of the United States. According to his widow, British soldiers forced pins into his fingernails and buttocks and squeezed his testicles between metal rods and two others were castrated.
In June 1957, Eric Griffith - Jones, the attorney general of the British administration in Kenya, wrote to the governor, Evelyn Baring, 1st Baron Howick of Glendale, detailing the way the regime of abuse at the colony 's detention camps was being subtly altered. He said that the mistreatment of the detainees is "distressingly reminiscent of conditions in Nazi Germany or Communist Russia ''. Despite this, he said that in order for abuse to remain legal, Mau Mau suspects must be beaten mainly on their upper body, "vulnerable parts of the body should not be struck, particularly the spleen, liver or kidneys '', and it was important that "those who administer violence... should remain collected, balanced and dispassionate ''. He also reminded the governor that "If we are going to sin, '' he wrote, "we must sin quietly. ''
The Hola Massacre was an incident during the conflict in Kenya against British colonial rule at a colonial detention camp in Hola, Kenya. By January 1959, the camp had a population of 506 detainees, of whom 127 were held in a secluded "closed camp ''. This more remote camp near Garissa, eastern Kenya, was reserved for the most uncooperative of the detainees. They often refused, even when threats of force were made, to join in the colonial "rehabilitation process '' or perform manual labour or obey colonial orders. The camp commandant outlined a plan that would force 88 of the detainees to bend to work. On 3 March 1959, the camp commandant put this plan into action -- as a result, 11 detainees were clubbed to death by guards. 77 surviving detainees sustained serious permanent injuries. The British government accepts that the colonial administration tortured detainees, but denies liability.
Mau Mau militants were guilty of numerous war crimes. The most notorious was their attack on the settlement of Lari, on the night of 25 -- 26 March 1953, in which they herded Kikuyu men, women and children into huts and set fire to them, hacking down with machetes anyone who attempted escape, before throwing them back into the burning huts. The attack at Lari was so extreme that "African policemen who saw the bodies of the victims... were physically sick and said ' These people are animals. If I see one now I shall shoot with the greatest eagerness ' '', and it "even shocked many Mau Mau supporters, some of whom would subsequently try to excuse the attack as ' a mistake ' ''.
A retaliatory massacre was immediately perpetrated by native Kenyan security forces who were partially overseen by British commanders. Official estimates place the death toll from the first Lari massacre at 74, and the second at 150, though neither of these figures account for those who ' disappeared '. Whatever the actual number of victims, "(t) he grim truth was that, for every person who died in Lari 's first massacre, at least two more were killed in retaliation in the second. ''
Aside from the Lari massacres, Kikuyu were also tortured, mutilated and murdered by Mau Mau on many other occasions. Mau Mau racked up 1,819 murders of their fellow native Kenyans, though again this number excludes the many additional hundreds who ' disappeared ', whose bodies were never found. Thirty - two European and twenty - six Asian civilians were also murdered by Mau Mau militants, with similar numbers wounded. The most well known European victim was Michael Ruck, aged six, who was hacked to death with pangas along with his parents, Roger and Esme, and one of the Rucks ' farm workers, Muthura Nagahu, who had tried to help the family. Newspapers in Kenya and abroad published graphic murder details, including images of young Michael with bloodied teddy bears and trains strewn on his bedroom floor.
In 1952, the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used by members of Mau Mau to kill cattle in an incident of biological warfare.
Although Mau Mau was effectively crushed by the end of 1956, it was not until the First Lancaster House Conference, in January 1960, that native Kenyan majority rule was established and the period of colonial transition to independence initiated. Before the conference, it was anticipated by both native Kenyan and European leaders that Kenya was set for a European - dominated multi-racial government.
There is continuing debate about Mau Mau 's and the rebellion 's effects on decolonisation and on Kenya after independence. Regarding decolonisation, the most common view is that Kenya 's independence came about as a result of the British government 's deciding that a continuance of colonial rule would entail a greater use of force than that which the British public would tolerate. Nissimi argues, though, that such a view fails to "acknowledge the time that elapsed until the rebellion 's influence actually took effect (and does not) explain why the same liberal tendencies failed to stop the dirty war the British conducted against the Mau Mau in Kenya while it was raging on. '' Others contend that, as the 1950s progressed, nationalist intransigence increasingly rendered official plans for political development irrelevant, meaning that after the mid-1950s British policy increasingly accepted Kenyan nationalism and moved to co-opt its leaders and organisations into collaboration.
It has been argued that the conflict helped set the stage for Kenyan independence in December 1963, or at least secured the prospect of Black - majority rule once the British left. However, this is disputed and other sources downplay the contribution of Mau Mau to decolonisation.
On 12 September 2015, the British government unveiled a Mau Mau memorial statue in Nairobi 's Uhuru Park that it had funded "as a symbol of reconciliation between the British government, the Mau Mau, and all those who suffered ''. This followed a June 2013 decision by Britain to compensate more than 5,000 Kenyans it tortured and abused during the Mau Mau insurgency.
In 1999, a collection of former fighters calling themselves the Mau Mau Original Group announced they would attempt a £ 5 billion claim against the UK on behalf of hundreds of thousands of Kenyans for ill - treatment they said they suffered during the rebellion, though nothing came of it. In November 2002, the Mau Mau Trust -- a welfare group for former members of the movement -- announced it would attempt to sue the British government for widespread human rights violations it said were committed against its members. Until September 2003, the Mau Mau movement was banned.
Once the ban was removed, former Mau Mau members who had been castrated or otherwise tortured were supported by the Kenya Human Rights Commission, in particular by the Commission 's George Morara, in their attempt to take on the British government; their lawyers had amassed 6,000 depositions regarding human rights abuses by late 2002. 42 potential claimants were interviewed from whom five were chosen to prosecute a test case; one of the five, Susan Ciong'ombe Ngondi, has since died. The remaining four test claimants are: Ndiku Mutua, who was castrated; Paulo Muoka Nzili, who was castrated; Jane Muthoni Mara, who was subjected to sexual assault that included having bottles filled with boiling water pushed up her vagina; and Wambugu Wa Nyingi, who survived the Hola massacre.
Ben Macintyre of The Times said of the legal case: "Opponents of these proceedings have pointed out, rightly, that the Mau Mau was a brutal terrorist force, guilty of the most dreadful atrocities. Yet only one of the claimants is of that stamp -- Mr Nzili. He has admitted taking the Mau Mau oath and said that all he did was to ferry food to the fighters in the forest. None has been accused, let alone convicted, of any crime. ''
Upon publication of Caroline Elkins ' Imperial Reckoning in 2005, Kenya called for an apology from the UK for atrocities committed during the 1950s. The British government claimed the issue was the responsibility of the Kenyan government on the grounds of "state succession '' for former colonies, relying on an obscure legal precedent relating to Patagonian toothfish and the declaration of martial law in Jamaica in 1860.
In July 2011, "George Morara strode down the corridor and into a crowded little room (in Nairobi) where 30 elderly Kenyans sat hunched together around a table clutching cups of hot tea and sharing plates of biscuits. ' I have good news from London, ' he announced. ' We have won the first part of the battle! ' At once the room erupted in cheers. '' The good news was that a British judge had ruled that the Kenyans could sue the British government for their torture. Morara said that, if the first test cases succeeded, perhaps 30,000 others would file similar complaints of torture. Explaining his decision, Mr Justice McCombe said the claimants had an "arguable case '', and added:
It may well be thought strange, or perhaps even dishonourable, that a legal system which will not in any circumstances admit into its proceedings evidence obtained by torture should yet refuse to entertain a claim against the Government in its own jurisdiction for that Government 's allegedly negligent failure to prevent torture which it had the means to prevent. Furthermore, resort to technicality... to rule such a claim out of court appears particularly misplaced.
A Times editorial noted with satisfaction that "Mr Justice McCombe told the FCO, in effect, to get lost... Though the arguments against reopening very old wounds are seductive, they fail morally. There are living claimants and it most certainly was not their fault that the documentary evidence that seems to support their claims was for so long ' lost ' in the governmental filing system. ''
During the course of the Mau Mau legal battle in London, a large amount of what was stated to be formerly lost Foreign Office archival material was finally brought to light, while yet more was discovered to be missing. The files, known as migrated archives, provided details of British human rights abuses (torture, rape, execution) in its former colonies during the final stages of empire, including during Mau Mau, and even after decolonisation.
Regarding the Mau Mau Uprising, the records included confirmation of "the extent of the violence inflicted on suspected Mau Mau rebels '' in British detention camps documented in Caroline Elkins ' study. Numerous allegations of murder and rape by British military personnel are recorded in the files, including an incident where a native Kenyan baby was "burnt to death '', the "defilement of a young girl '', and a soldier in Royal Irish Fusiliers who killed "in cold blood two people who had been his captives for over 12 hours ''. Baring himself was aware of the "extreme brutality '' of the sometimes - lethal torture meted out -- which included "most drastic '' beatings, solitary confinement, starvation, castration, whipping, burning, rape, sodomy, and forceful insertion of objects into orifices -- but took no action. Baring 's inaction was despite the urging of people like Arthur Young, Commissioner of Police for Kenya for less than eight months of 1954 before he resigned in protest, that "the horror of some of the (camps) should be investigated without delay ''. In February 1956, a provincial commissioner in Kenya, "Monkey '' Johnson, wrote to Attorney General Reginald Manningham - Buller urging him to block any enquiry into the methods used against Mau Mau: "It would now appear that each and every one of us, from the Governor downwards, may be in danger of removal from public service by a commission of enquiry as a result of enquiries made by the CID. '' The April 2012 release also included detailed accounts of the policy of seizing livestock from Kenyans suspected of supporting Mau Mau rebels.
Commenting on the papers, David Anderson stated that the "documents were hidden away to protect the guilty '', and "that the extent of abuse now being revealed is truly disturbing. '' "Everything that could happen did happen. Allegations about beatings and violence were widespread. Basically you could get away with murder. It was systematic '', Anderson said. An example of this impunity is the case of eight colonial officials accused of having prisoners tortured to death going unpunished even after their actions were reported to London. Huw Bennett of King 's College London, who had worked with Anderson on the Chuka Massacre, said in a witness statement to the court that the new documents "considerably strengthen '' the knowledge that the British Army were "intimately involved '' with the colonial security forces, whom they knew were "systematically abusing and torturing detainees in screening centres and detention camps ''. In April 2011, lawyers for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office continued to maintain that there was no such policy. As early as November 1952, however, military reports noted that "(t) he Army has been used for carrying out certain functions that properly belonged to the Police, eg. searching of huts and screening of Africans '', and British soldiers arrested and transferred Mau Mau suspects to camps where they were beaten and tortured until they confessed. Bennett said that "the British Army retained ultimate operational control over all security forces throughout the Emergency '', and that its military intelligence operation worked "hand in glove '' with the Kenyan Special Branch "including in screening and interrogations in centres and detention camps ''.
The Kenyan government sent a letter to Hague insisting that the UK government was legally liable for the atrocities. The Foreign Office, however, reaffirmed its position that it was not, in fact, liable for colonial atrocities, and argued that the documents had not "disappeared '' as part of a cover up. Nearly ten years before, in late 2002, as the BBC aired a documentary detailing British human rights abuses committed during the rebellion and 6,000 depositions had been taken for the legal case, former district colonial officer John Nottingham had expressed concern that compensation be paid soon, since most victims were in their 80s and would soon pass away. He told the BBC: "What went on in the Kenya camps and villages was brutal, savage torture. It is time that the mockery of justice that was perpetrated in this country at that time, should be, must be righted. I feel ashamed to have come from a Britain that did what it did here (in Kenya). ''
Thirteen boxes of "top secret '' Kenya files are still missing.
In October 2012, Mr Justice McCombe granted the surviving elderly test claimants the right to sue the UK for damages. The UK government then opted for what the claimants ' lawyers called the "morally repugnant '' decision to appeal McCombe 's ruling. In May 2013, it was reported that the appeal was on hold while the UK government held compensation negotiations with the claimants.
Members of Mau Mau are currently recognised by the Kenyan Government as freedom - independence heroes and heroines who sacrificed their lives in order to free Kenyans from colonial rule. Since 2010, Mashujaa Day (Heroes Day) has been marked annually on 20 October (the same day Baring signed the Emergency order). According to the Kenyan Government, Mashujaa Day will be a time for Kenyans to remember and honour Mau Mau and other Kenyans who participated in the independence struggle. Mashujaa Day will replace Kenyatta Day; the latter has until now also been held on 20 October. In 2001, the Kenyan Government announced that important Mau Mau sites were to be turned into national monuments.
This official celebration of Mau Mau is in marked contrast to a post-colonial norm of Kenyan governments rejection of the Mau Mau as a symbol of national liberation. Such a turnabout has attracted criticism of government manipulation of the Mau Mau uprising for political ends.
It is often argued that Mau Mau was suppressed as a subject for public discussion in Kenya during the periods under Kenyatta and Daniel arap Moi because of the key positions and influential presence of some loyalists in government, business and other elite sectors of Kenyan society post-1963. Unsurprisingly, during this same period opposition groups tactically embraced the Mau Mau rebellion. The Mau Mau 's politicisation within Kenya appears to continue up to the present.
Insurgency:
General:
The name Kenya Land and Freedom Army is sometimes heard in connection with Mau Mau. KLFA is not simply another name for Mau Mau: it was the name that Dedan Kimathi used for a coordinating body which he tried to set up for Mau Mau. It was also the name of another militant group that sprang up briefly in the spring of 1960; the group was broken up during a brief operation from 26 March to 30 April. Between 1895 and 1920, Kenya was formally known as British East Africa Protectorate; between 1920 and 1963, as Kenya Colony and Protectorate. "Squatter or resident labourers are those who reside with their families on European farms usually for the purpose of work for the owners... Contract labourers are those who sign a contract of service before a magistrate, for periods varying from three to twelve months. Casual labourers leave their reserves to engage themselves to European employers for any period from one day upwards. '' In return for his services, a squatter was entitled to use some of the settler 's land for cultivation and grazing. Contract and casual workers are together referred to as migratory labourers, in distinction to the permanent presence of the squatters on farms. The phenomenon of squatters arose in response to the complementary difficulties of Europeans in finding labourers and of Africans in gaining access to arable and grazing land. During the Emergency, screening was the term used by colonial authorities to mean the interrogation of a Mau Mau suspect. The alleged member or sympathiser of Mau Mau would be interrogated in order to obtain an admission of guilt -- specifically, a confession that they had taken the Mau Mau oath -- as well as for intelligence.
|
how did the brazilian wax get its name | Bikini waxing - Wikipedia
Bikini waxing is the removal of pubic hair using a special wax, which can be hot or cold, that adheres to hairs and pulls them out when the wax is removed quickly from the skin, usually with a cloth strip. While the practice is mainly associated with women, male waxing is sometimes done to remove men 's pubic hair.
A bikini line is the area of the upper leg and inner thigh in which pubic hair grows that is normally not covered by the bottom part of a swimsuit. In some cultures, visible pubic hair in this region is disliked and / or considered embarrassing and so it is sometimes removed. However, some people remove pubic hair that will not be exposed for reasons like aesthetics, personal grooming and hygiene, culture, religion or fashion.
Pubic hair can be removed in a number of ways, such as waxing, shaving, sugaring, electrolysis, laser hair removal or with chemical depilatory creams. Waxing involves applying melted, usually hot, wax to the pubic hair that an individual would like to remove. The wax, which adheres to the hair as it hardens, is then covered with small strips of cloth. When the wax hardens sufficiently, the cloth is pulled off quickly, removing the hair from its roots as the wax is pulled away. Waxing can be performed on oneself privately using a home kit or by a cosmetologist at a salon or spa.
If a person has never been waxed before, or has not been waxed for a long time, it may be necessary to trim the pubic hair using scissors or an electric razor prior to waxing. A patch test is recommended, usually on the upper thigh, to test for allergies or skin sensitivities to the ingredients in the wax. Sometimes a hair growth inhibitor is applied after waxing, which slows the regrowth of hair if applied daily for an extended period of time.
It is common to apply an antiseptic cleaner and powder to the area prior to waxing. Wax is applied with a spatula in the direction of hair growth the size of a strip about 2 inches (5.1 cm) wide and 4 inches (10 cm) long. When the wax is set but still pliable, the wax strips are pulled away against the direction of hair growth while keeping the skin taut. The strip is ideally pulled off as swiftly as possible.
The pubic area is one of the most sensitive areas in the body and during the procedure special attention must be paid to avoid irritation. Pain directly resulting from the procedure can be slight or severe and can continue from several seconds to several minutes. Some people experience less pain during subsequent treatments. It can be helpful to take a mild anti-inflammatory medication (such as ibuprofen) an hour or so before waxing to reduce potential pain from the waxing. Products such as topical anesthetics are available to lessen the pain involved. A bikini wax during pregnancy is generally more painful, due to increased sensitivity. The type of wax used for bikini lines is often made from a mixture of beeswax and tall oil rather than the more common synthetic waxes used for waxing regular leg hair. Beeswax is considered stronger and more effective at removing the thicker and coarser pubic hair.
Sometimes bumps or in - grown hair can result from waxing. Isolated hairs can be removed with tweezers or electrolysis. Discomfort following the procedure generally lasts two to five days or less. Application of egg oil for a few days post-waxing can help moisturize the skin and reduce inflammation, pain or growth of bacteria. With repeated removal over time, pubic hair becomes weaker and grows more slowly, leading to easier removal with less pain and less frequent waxing.
Some people modify their pubic hair either to fit in with societal trends or simply as an expression of their own style or lifestyle, while others object to any styling or do not practice it because of cost considerations.
Pubic hair may be styled into several basic styles which are often referred to by different names. The three major types are described below. Anthropologist Desmond Morris has identified other waxing styles:
"Natural '' (also known as "au natural '' or "bush '') refers to pubic hair that has not been removed, trimmed or styled at all. "Trimmed '' or "cut '' refers to pubic hair that has been shortened, but not completely removed other than shaving the inner thighs. Some women trim, but keep hair on their labia, while removing the pubic hair on the mons pubis. Salons often use their own unique names for common types of waxing, for example referring to a Brazilian with a "landing strip '' as a "Mohican '' or a "Hollywood '' as "Full Monty ''.
American waxing is the removal of only the pubic hair that is exposed by a swimsuit, depending on the style of the swimsuit. For a bikini, it would be hair at the top of the thighs and under the navel. It is also known as a "basic bikini wax '', "triangle '', or "bikini line '', as it involves waxing hair from the sides to form a triangle so that pubic hair can not be seen while wearing a swimsuit. Bikini bottoms or underwear are usually worn while getting an American wax. A normal American waxing job takes about 20 to 30 minutes to complete.
French waxing (sometimes called a landing strip or a partial Brazilian wax) leaves a vertical strip of pubic hair about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) wide and 3 inches (7.6 cm) long just above the vulva. Hair around the anus area and labia may be removed. The landing strip wax has become popular with models who must wear garments of an extreme narrowness in the crotch region. To create the "landing strip '' (a line of hair) practitioners and clients prefer either lying face up or lying face down. Sometimes hard wax is used, though strip wax works as effectively.
Brazilian waxing is the removal of all pubic hair from the pelvic region, vulva, labia, perineum, and anus, while sometimes leaving a thin strip of hair on the mons pubis. It can be used by those who wear thong bikinis. Brazilian waxing is also known as a full Brazilian wax, full bikini wax, or the Hollywood wax. This style was first called the Brazilian wax by the J. Sisters salon in Manhattan, founded in 1987 by seven sisters named Padilha from Brazil.
Brazilian waxing is more controversial than other types of waxing. Like all waxing, it can be a physically painful experience during and after waxing. Some believe it is more unpleasant to receive cunnilingus from a bearded partner after getting a Brazilian wax. American actress - model Lisa Barbuscia commented negatively on her first experience getting a Brazilian at a Los Angeles salon popular with porn stars: "It was so painful I collapsed. I only fainted, but I was nearly carted off to hospital and I have vowed never to try it again. '' Some critics of the procedure believe that Brazilian waxing can contribute to making an adult woman look underage, claiming that this may be one reason for its popularity in the sex industry. There is also a health risk involved if it is not done properly, as well as a risk of infection if done on a person with a weakened immune system.
In a 2016 the Journal of the American Medical Association published a study in which it was found that out of 3,316 American women surveyed, 84 % reported a history of lifetime pubic hair grooming, with 59 % reporting that the primary motivations for grooming were for hygienic purposes.
Bikini waxing has been credited with a significant global reduction in cases of pubic lice. However, the medical community has also seen a recent increase in folliculitis, or infection around the hair follicle, in women who wax or shave their bikini areas. Some of these infections can develop into more serious abscesses that require incision with a scalpel, drainage of the abscess, and antibiotics. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of folliculitis.
In Middle Eastern societies, removal of the female body hair has been considered proper hygiene, necessitated by local customs, for many centuries. In Islam, this is known as an act of fitrah. According to ethnologist F. Fawcett, writing in 1901, he had observed the removal of body hair, including pubic hair about the vulva, as a custom of women from the Hindu Nair caste.
In Western societies, removal of female body hair (except for head hair, eyelashes and eyebrows) has traditionally been considered appropriate when it was visible. Visible pubic hair of women continues to be widely culturally disapproved and considered embarrassing, and so is at times removed.
In relation to pubic hair, with the reduction in the size of swimsuits, especially since the coming into fashion and popularity of the bikini since 1946, and the elimination of the skirt on swimsuits, the styling of pubic hair has also come into vogue. The practice to remove more pubic hair continued with the popularity or fashion of even briefer swimwear, such as the thong, which exposed the buttocks.
Changes in lingerie styles also encouraged the removal of pubic hair, and the nude crotch -- i. e., the total removal of pubic hair, such as in a full Brazilian or the Sphinx style -- became considered by many to be erotic and glamorous. A nude crotch is considered by some to be more youthful looking. According to Tschachler, Devine and Draxlbauer, removal of all visible body hair has come to be seen as an important aspect of femininity.
|
who plays raul de la riva en velvet | Asier Etxeandia - wikipedia
Asier Gómez Etxeandia (Bilbao, 27 June 1975) is a Spanish actor, whose work encompasses television, theatre and cinema.
Asier Etxeandia took his first acting course in a Biscayan school.
Asier Etxeandia left his native Basque Country and moved to Madrid when he was 20 years old. In Madrid he first worked as a sex shop assistant while also taking acting classes. In 1995, he debuted on TV as a contestant in the game show Uno para todas (Telecinco), presented by Goyo González. The production company Globomedia hired him for the first season of Un Paso Adelante, where he played Beni, a gay student who enrolls in a Performing Arts school to become an actor. Etxeandia left the series because he feared becoming typecast. In spite of this, he recognises that this role opened doors and got him his first friends in the business, among them actress Natalia Millán.
Natalia Millán thought of him for the adaptation of musical play Cabaret, that she was also going to star in, offering him the role of Master of Ceremonies. In this production he also worked with Manuel Flag and Emilio Alonso León.
In film he landed a role in Pedro Almodóvar 's Broken Embraces, a small role as a blind waiter that eventually was not included in the final cut, but which is included as additional content in the DVD release.
Prizes Goya
Fotogramas of Silver
Union of Actors
Prizes Max
Prizes Ercilla
Spanish film festival of Málaga
|
toto i guess it rains down in africa | Africa (Toto song) - wikipedia
Toto - Africa on YouTube
"Africa '' is a song by the American rock band Toto. It was included on their 1982 album Toto IV, and released as a single on September 30, 1982. It reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on February 5, 1983 (the band 's only number one there), and number three on the UK Singles Chart the same month. The song was written by the band 's keyboardist / vocalist David Paich and drummer Jeff Porcaro.
The initial idea and words for the song came from David Paich. Jeff Porcaro explains the idea behind the song: "a white boy is trying to write a song on Africa, but since he 's never been there, he can only tell what he 's seen on TV or remembers in the past. ''
Songwriter David Paich said:
At the beginning of the ' 80s I watched a late night documentary on TV about all the terrible death and suffering of the people in Africa. It both moved and appalled me, and the pictures just would n't leave my head. I tried to imagine how I 'd feel about if I was there and what I 'd do.
In 2015 Paich explained the song is about a man 's love of a continent: Africa, rather than just a personal romance.
Musically, the song took quite some time to assemble, as Paich and Porcaro explain:
On "Africa '' you hear a combination of marimba with GS 1. The kalimba is all done with the GS 1; it 's six tracks of GS 1 playing different rhythms. I wrote the song on CS - 80, so that plays the main part of the entire tune.
So when we were doing "Africa '' I set up a bass drum, snare drum and a hi - hat, and Lenny Castro set up right in front of me with a conga. We looked at each other and just started playing the basic groove... The backbeat is on 3, so it 's a half - time feel, and it 's 16th notes on the hi - hat. Lenny started playing a conga pattern. We played for five minutes on tape, no click, no nothing. We just played. And I was singing the bass line for ' Africa ' in my mind, so we had a relative tempo. Lenny and I went into the booth and listened back to the five minutes of that same boring pattern. We picked out the best two bars that we thought were grooving, and we marked those two bars on tape... Maybe it would have taken two minutes to program that in the Linn, and it took about half an hour to do this. But a Linn machine does n't feel like that!
Porcaro also acknowledged that he was influenced by the sounds created by fellow Los Angeles session musicians Milt Holland and Emil Richards in addition to the New York World 's Fair and a National Geographic Special.
The music video was directed by Steve Barron. In the video, a researcher in a library (portrayed by band member David Paich) tries to match a scrap of a picture of a shield to the book from which it was torn out. As he continues his search, a librarian (Jenny Douglas - McRae) working at a desk takes occasional notice of him, while natives in the surrounding jungle begin to close in on the library. When the researcher finds a book entitled Africa, the native throws a spear (the shield the native carries is the same as the one in the picture), toppling stacks of books. Africa falls open to the page from which the scrap was torn, but a lantern lands on it and sets it on fire, after which the librarian 's eyeglasses are shown falling to the floor. The scenes are intercut with shots of a spinning globe and the band performing atop a stack of giant hardcover books, in which Africa is the topmost.
This video also features Mike Porcaro on bass, replacing David Hungate, who had already left the band before the video was made.
In 2012, "Africa '' was listed by music magazine NME in 32nd place on its list of "50 Most Explosive Choruses ''.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In addition to the above, the song also reached number 1 on the New Zealand iTunes chart on May 15, 2013.
|
what happened to cheetah from the tarzan movies | Cheeta - wikipedia
Cheeta (sometimes billed as Cheetah, Cheta and Chita) is a chimpanzee character who appeared in numerous Hollywood Tarzan movies of the 1930s -- 1960s as well as the 1966 -- 1968 television series, as the ape sidekick of the title character, Tarzan. Cheeta has usually been characterized as male, but sometimes as female, and has been portrayed by chimpanzees of both sexes.
While the character of Cheeta is inextricably associated in the public mind with Tarzan, no chimpanzees appear in the original Tarzan novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs that inspired the films. The closest analog to Cheeta in the Burroughs novels is Tarzan 's monkey companion Nkima, who appears in several of the later books in the series.
Cheeta 's role in the Tarzan films and TV series is to provide comic relief, convey messages between Tarzan and his allies, and occasionally lead Tarzan 's other animal friends to the ape - man 's rescue.
The character of Cheeta was a composite role created through the use of numerous animal actors, over a dozen according to one source. According to journalist R.D. Rosen, "In each Tarzan movie, the Cheeta role (was) played by more than one chimp, depending on what talents the scene called for. '' Known and alleged performers of the role are given in the following table (see the comments following the table for the sources of the data).
More details about these performers:
Late in his life Tony Gentry, who had been the co-owner and trainer of the original Cheeta (Jiggs), made extravagant claims in regard to another chimpanzee he owned and its connection with the Cheeta role. This animal, known as both Cheeta and Jiggs IV, was falsely alleged by Gentry to have been the primary animal actor portraying Cheeta in the Tarzan movies over the years. He also greatly exaggerated the age of the animal to support this claim. For a number of years both before and after Gentry 's death this story passed unexamined and became a matter of general belief.
Tony Gentry made various claims regarding Cheeta 's (Jiggs IV) age, origins, and supposed movie roles. Some of these claims conflicted with each other.
In the usually related account, Gentry originally acquired the animal by purchase from Henry Trefflich, a New York animal importer and dealer. Cheeta was supposedly born in the wild in Liberia some months prior to 9 April 1932, which is celebrated as his birthday because it is the date he is said to have arrived in the United States, in New York City. Other accounts of Cheeta 's origins from Gentry include having found the animal himself in the Belgian Congo in 1932 or having bought him in Santa Monica about 1938 or in the late 1940s.
Gentry 's acquaintances and fellow animal trainers Hubert Wells, Stewart Raffill, and Cheryl Shawver have disputed all of these accounts, stating that "Tony got that chimp from Wally Ross... one of the managers of Pacific Ocean Park on the pier in Santa Monica '' when the park closed in 1967. According to them, Cheeta was only about 6 or 7 years old at that time, which would put his birthdate around 1960 or 1961 rather than 1932.
Gentry claimed Cheeta / Jiggs IV was the primary animal actor used in the role of Cheeta in the Tarzan movies. His first appearance as Cheeta is usually stated to have been in the second Johnny Weissmuller Tarzan film, Tarzan and His Mate (1934), uncredited as a young chimpanzee riding on the back of the older chimp (Jiggs) who originated the role. He was then allegedly cast in the role himself in the other Weissmuller Tarzans that followed, as well as the succeeding Lex Barker Tarzan films. Journalist R.D. Rosen, who investigated this story, counters that this animal in fact never appeared in any Tarzan film.
Besides his supposed role as Cheeta in the Tarzan films, Cheeta / Jiggs IV reputedly appeared as other chimpanzee characters in unrelated films, including Ramona the Chimp in Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla (1952) and Chee - Chee in Doctor Dolittle (1967) with Rex Harrison, supposedly his last role before retirement. However, according to Wells, Raffill and Shawver, as reported by R.D. Rosen, Cheeta never appeared in any movies; Rosen himself confirmed that the animal could not have been the Chee - Chee in the Dolittle film.
In 1991, whatever the truth of his origins and prior life, Cheeta / Jiggs IV was given by Gentry to his distant cousin Don Westfall, the current caretaker. Gentry died two years later. In Westfall 's care, Cheeta lived at a primate sanctuary called Creative Habitats and Enrichment for Endangered and Threatened Apes (or CHEETA) in Palm Springs, California, where he reportedly watched television, made abstract paintings which were sold to benefit primate - related charities, and often watched "his '' old films with his grandson, Jeeter. He also leafed through books and "played '' the piano.
His birthdays, calculated from the date of his supposed 1932 arrival in the United States, were regularly celebrated. In 2006, coinciding with his "74th '' birthday, Cheeta received an award for his supposed film career from the International Film Festival of Peniscola Comedy. Later that year, the 4 October 2006, edition of the Palm Springs newspaper, The Desert Sun, reported that he had received his first - ever visit from famed primatologist Jane Goodall the previous day. His "75th '' birthday was covered by National Geographic. His "76th '' birthday was celebrated on 9 April 2008, at his "Casa de Cheeta '' in Palm Springs at an event hosted by Dan Westfall and Diane Weissmuller, (Johnny Weissmuller, Jr. 's widow). The press and many Palm Springs celebrities attended.
On the basis of his fictitious history, Cheeta was cited by the Guinness Book of World Records as the world 's oldest non-human primate.
A literary agent was hired on his behalf for his necessarily ghost - written autobiography, Me Cheeta, published in the U.K. in October 2008. The American edition was published on March 3, 2009.
In March 1995 the character of Cheeta was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California Walk of Stars.
Since 2004 there have been unsuccessful attempts to secure a star for Cheeta on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and as of 2008 filmmaker Matt Devlen was continuing the effort. Attempting for the seventh time to get a sidewalk star, the handlers of Jiggs launched an online petition to get supporters to urge the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce to give a star in 2009. The petition was unsuccessful.
It has been said that the character of Chemistry, from the Doc Savage stories was inspired by Cheeta.
|
what is the meaning behind the daniel fast | Daniel Fast - wikipedia
The Daniel Fast is a spiritually motivated diet based on the Biblical Book of Daniel, and commonly refers to a 10 - or 21 - day abstinence from foods declared unclean by God in the Laws of Moses. The passage in Chapter 10: 2 - 3 may refer to a classical three week fast during a period of mourning; therefore, the modern Daniel Fast is most often followed for 21 days.
According to those who encourage this form of fasting, the aim is to refrain from eating what are described in Daniel as "royal foods '' including meats, leavened and sweet bread, and wine. Instead, the diet consists only of "pulses '' and water. "Pulses '' in this context is often taken as "food grown from seed '', including fruit, vegetables or lentils. "Vegetables '' is used instead of "pulses '' in some translations. However, it is not explicitly stated that the refraining from these foods by Daniel was a fast.
The Biblical narrative is set in Babylon, where Daniel, three friends, and fellow captives have been brought for education and military training. King Nebuchadnezzar II honors them by offering luxurious royal food, hoping to encourage their development. Daniel purposed in his heart that he would not defile himself with the portion of the king 's delicacies, which used meat ritually sacrificed to Babylonian gods. Daniel refuses to eat foods forbidden by God, and instead asks for pulses and water. The guard charged with their care expresses concern for their health, so Daniel requests a short test of the diet. For 10 days, they are permitted to eat just vegetables, and at the end, the guard is surprised at their good personal appearance and physical and mental health, compared to those who had indulged in the royal foods. Therefore, Daniel and his friends are permitted to eat whole plant foods for the duration of their training.
After continuing with the diet during three years of training, they are judged by the king to be mentally superior. "And in all matters of wisdom and understanding, that the king enquired of them, he found them ten times better than all the magicians and astrologers that were in all his realm. '' Although, the issue of fast is debatable. Daniel remained a vegetarian in Persia and Babylon as the meat were not slaughtered according to Mosaic Law and that royal officials were not familiar with Jewish dietary law.
In modern versions of the Daniel Fast, food choices may be limited to whole grains, fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, seeds and oil. The Daniel Fast prescribes the vegan diet in that it excludes the consumption of animal products. The diet also excludes processed foods, additives, preservatives, flavorings, sweeteners, caffeine, alcohol, and products made with white flours. Ellen G. White states that the example of Daniel demonstrates that "a strict compliance with the requirements of God is beneficial to the health of body and mind. ''
|
compiled computer language and an interpreted computer language | Interpreted language - wikipedia
An interpreted language is a type of programming language for which most of its implementations execute instructions directly and freely, without previously compiling a program into machine - language instructions. The interpreter executes the program directly, translating each statement into a sequence of one or more subroutines, and then into another language (often machine code).
The terms interpreted language and compiled language are not well defined because, in theory, any programming language can be either interpreted or compiled. In modern programming language implementation, it is increasingly popular for a platform to provide both options.
Interpreted languages can also be contrasted with machine languages. Functionally, both execution and interpretation mean the same thing -- fetching the next instruction / statement from the program and executing it. Although interpreted byte code is additionally identical to machine code in form and has an assembler representation, the term "interpreted '' is practically reserved for "software processed '' languages (by virtual machine or emulator) on top of the native (i.e. hardware) processor.
In principle, programs in many languages may be compiled or interpreted, emulated or executed natively, so this designation is applied solely based on common implementation practice, rather than representing an essential property of a language.
Many languages have been implemented using both compilers and interpreters, including BASIC, C, Lisp, Pascal, and Python. Java and C# are compiled into bytecode, the virtual - machine - friendly interpreted language. Lisp implementations can freely mix interpreted and compiled code.
In the early days of computing, language design was heavily influenced by the decision to use compiling or interpreting as a mode of execution. For example, Smalltalk (1980), which was designed to be interpreted at run - time, allows generic objects to dynamically interact with each other.
Initially, interpreted languages were compiled line - by - line; that is, each line was compiled as it was about to be executed, and if a loop or subroutine caused certain lines to be executed multiple times, they would be recompiled every time. This has become much less common. Most so - called interpreted languages use an intermediate representation, which combines compiling and interpreting.
Examples include:
The intermediate representation can be compiled once and for all (as in Java), each time before execution (as in Perl or Ruby), or each time a change in the source is detected before execution (as in Python).
Interpreting a language gives implementations some additional flexibility over compiled implementations. Features that are often easier to implement in interpreters than in compilers include:
Furthermore, source code can be read and copied, giving users more freedom.
Disadvantages of interpreted languages are:
Many languages are first compiled to bytecode. Ѕometimes, bytecode can also be compiled to a native binary using an AOT compiler or executed natively, by hardware processor.
|
rupaul's drag race all star season 3 episode 1 | RuPaul 's Drag Race All Stars (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of RuPaul 's Drag Race All Stars began airing on January 25, 2018. The season was announced in August 2017, and 9 of the 10 cast members were revealed during a VH1 television special titled "Exclusive Queen Ruveal, '' which aired on October 20, 2017. This season featured ten All Star contestants, selected from the show 's first season through to its ninth season, who competed to be inducted into the "Drag Race Hall of Fame ''.
As in the previous season, the top two queens in the challenge compete in a "Lip Sync for Your Legacy, '' with the winner of the lip sync earning $10,000 and choosing which of the bottom queens gets eliminated. A new twist on how the top queens of the season were chosen was revealed in the seasons last episode. The previously eliminated queens returned in the finale and voted for the top two out of the remaining top four finalists, from there on the two queens with the most votes advanced and the others were subsequently eliminated. The prizes for the winner of the competition are a one - year supply of Anastasia Beverly Hills cosmetics and a cash prize of $100,000.
The winner of the third season of RuPaul 's Drag Race All Stars was Trixie Mattel, with Kennedy Davenport being the runner - up.
The drag queens that competed are:
(Ages and names stated are at time of contest.)
Guest judges for this season include (in order of appearance):
Guests who appeared in episodes but did not judge on the main stage (in order of appearance):
Nine formerly eliminated queens from past seasons of RuPaul 's Drag Race enter the workroom to win a spot in the Drag Race Hall of Fame, and also to win a cash prize of $100,000. Upon entering the room, RuPaul introduces the final 10th queen, season one winner BeBe Zahara Benet, stating that he wants to showcase the contestant to a new generation of fans. For the episode 's maxi - challenge, each queen is to prepare a live talent presentation for the second All Star Variety Show. Upon judgement, BeBe Zahara Benet, Milk, and Trixie Mattel are deemed safe. During the critiques, Aja and BenDeLaCreme are selected as the top two all stars of the week. Contestants Shangela and Thorgy Thor receive positive reviews from the judges. Chi Chi DeVayne and Morgan McMichaels are placed in the bottom for their performances. Aja and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Nicki Minaj 's "Anaconda ''; BenDeLaCreme wins the lip sync and eliminates Morgan McMichaels.
In episode two, the nine remaining queens are assigned female musicians to embody in the Divas Lip Sync Live battle, a tribute act in the form of a live medley of RuPaul songs. Aja performs as Amy Winehouse, BeBe Zahara Benet as Diana Ross, BenDeLaCreme as Julie Andrews, Chi Chi DeVayne as Patti LaBelle, Kennedy Davenport as Janet Jackson, Milk as Celine Dion, Shangela as Mariah Carey, Trixie Mattel as Dolly Parton, and Thorgy Thor as Stevie Nicks. The runway theme on the main stage is "RuDemption, '' a theme for which each contestant recreates a look from their original season. Upon judgement, Aja, Milk, and Trixie Mattel are deemed safe. During the critiques, BeBe Zahara Benet, BenDaLeCreme, and Shangela receive positive feedback on their performances and runway looks, with the latter two winning the challenge. Chi Chi DeVayne, Kennedy Davenport and Thorgy Thor are all criticized for their performances, while their runway looks receive praise. DeVayne is declared safe from the bottom two. Shangela and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to The Pointer Sisters ' "Jump (For My Love). '' Shangela wins the lip sync and eliminates Thorgy Thor.
The eight remaining queens are each assigned a personality by RuPaul for The Bitchelor, a satire based on the show The Bachelor. Aja plays the Needy Girl, BeBe Zahara Benet the Shy Virgin, BenDeLaCreme the Cougar, Chi Chi DeVayne and Shangela a polyamorous couple, Kennedy Davenport the Party Girl, Milk the Stalker, and Trixie Mattel the Fake Bitch. Jeffrey Bowyer - Chapman participates as the main love interest of the show. The main - stage runway theme is "Wigs on Wigs on Wigs ''. Upon judgement, Benet and Shangela are both deemed safe. BenDeLaCreme, Davenport and Mattel are praised for their performances and looks, with the former two contestants winning the challenge. Aja, Chi Chi DeVayne, and Milk are placed in the bottom three. Davenport and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Lorde 's "Green Light. '' Davenport wins the lip sync and eliminates Milk.
The seven remaining queens prepare for the Snatch Game, where each contestant picks a celebrity to impersonate. Aja appears as Crystal LaBeija, BeBe Zahara Benet as Grace Jones, BenDeLaCreme as Paul Lynde, Chi Chi DeVayne as Maya Angelou, Kennedy Davenport as Phaedra Parks, Shangela as Jenifer Lewis and Trixie Mattel as RuPaul. Guest judge Kristin Chenoweth partakes in the challenge, playing herself. The runway theme on the main stage is "Flower Power. '' Upon judgement, BenDeLaCreme and Shangela are deemed the winners of the challenge. Aja and Benet receive positive remarks for their runway looks, though reviews are divided on Benet 's Snatch Game performance. Both are ultimately declared safe. DeVayne, Davenport and Mattel are placed in the bottom three. Shangela and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl. '' The lip sync is declared a tie, and both contestants eliminate DeVayne.
The six remaining queens participate in a mini-challenge where they dress up in "Quick Drag '' and model in an Andy Warhol - inspired photoshoot. Aja wins the challenge, receiving a year 's supply of burgers from Hamburger Mary 's and a cash tip of $2,000. For the main challenge, each contestant is asked to prepare two runway looks for the Pop Art Ball: one inspired by Warhol 's Campbell 's Soup Cans and a second inspired by Studio 54. Additionally, each contestant has to record a voice - over narrative to be played during her runway presentation. During the judges ' critiques, Aja and Shangela are criticized for both of their runway looks, and they fall into the bottom two. BeBe Zahara Benet and Trixie Mattel are both commended for their runway looks, winning the challenge. BenDeLaCreme and Kennedy Davenport attract mixed commentary but are ultimately declared safe. Benet and Mattel lip - sync against each other to Diana Ross 's "The Boss ''. Benet wins the lip sync and eliminates Aja. At the end of the episode, RuPaul brings previous winners Chad Michaels and Alaska back onto the main stage, and they reveal three queens in cloaks that will be returning for the next episode.
RuPaul reintroduces all the eliminated queens to the competition. Everyone is tasked with writing and performing original lyrics to audition for RuPaul 's new all - star supergroup, The Kitty Girls. The queens are split equally into two teams: the eliminated queens on one team, and the remaining queens on the other. Each member creates a character to perform: Benet appears as Jungle Kitty, BenDeLaCreme as Goth Kitty, Davenport as Diva Kitty, Shangela as Sparkle Kitty, and Mattel as IQ Kitty. On the opposite team, Aja appears as Lil ' Banjee, DeVayne as Cajun Kitty, Milk as Milky Kitty, McMichaels as Bimbo Kitty, and Thor as Cardio Kitty.
During the judges ' critiques, Benet and BenDeLaCreme are praised for their performances, and they are deemed the top two contestants. Davenport, Shangela and Mattel are placed in the bottom three. Benet and BenDeLaCreme are instructed to eliminate one of the bottom queens and to select an eliminated contestant to return to the competition. Benet and BenDeLaCreme lip - sync against each other to Deborah Cox 's "Nobody 's Supposed To Be Here, '' and the latter wins. BenDeLaCreme chooses McMichaels to return to the competition and subsequently eliminates herself, making her the second queen to leave the competition voluntarily. Upon the episode 's premiere, critics deemed her move one of the most controversial and "unthinkable '' moments on the show.
The five remaining queens are asked to act in a trailer for a movie titled My Best Squirrelfriend 's Dragsmaids Wedding Trip, comedically portraying Academy Award - winning female characters. Morgan McMichaels is tasked with handing out roles to each contestant: Bebe Zahara Benet plays The Queen (The Queen), Kennedy Davenport plays La La (La La Land), McMichaels plays Beige Swan (Black Swan), Shangela plays Actavia (The Help / Hidden Figures), and Trixie Mattel plays Sharon Frokovich (Erin Brockovich). The runway theme for the episode is "Red for Filth. '' During critiques, Shangela 's and Mattel 's performances and looks are praised, and they are chosen as the top two contestants. Although Benet, Davenport and McMichaels receive compliments for their runway looks, all three are placed in the bottom three. Shangela and Mattel lip - sync against each other to RuPaul 's "Freaky Money. '' Shangela wins the lip sync and chooses to eliminate McMichaels.
The final four queens were asked to write, sing and dance in an ambitious production number to RuPaul 's song "Kitty Girl. '' Choreographer Todrick Hall accompanied the girls choreography, but also revealed that the entire music video would be shot in one - take throughout the backstage of RuPaul 's Drag Race, including the runway The music video opens with Kennedy Davenport, and follows with Shangela, Bebe Zahara Benet and Trixie Mattel; the judges, and eliminated contestants, all appeared as cameo to the video. During the critiques, all four queens were given positive comments about their performances and runway looks. RuPaul reveals that each eliminated queen gets to vote two contestants to enter the top two spots, whereas each remaining contestant got the chance to plead why they deserved to be in the top positions. Subsequently, the four remaining queens were asked to change costumes for the lip - sync to Miley Cyrus 's "Wrecking Ball ''. After deliberation, eliminated contestant Morgan McMichaels announces Davenport and Mattel as the top two All - Stars, effectively eliminating both Benet and Shangela. After the lip - sync, RuPaul announces Mattel as the season three winner, and earns a spot in the Drag Race Hall of Fame.
On February 15, 2018, the series production company World of Wonder filed a lawsuit against an anonymous leaker using the alias RealityTVLeaks. According to the lawsuit, RealityTVLeaks posted several visuals from the season on various social media websites such as Reddit, Twitter, and Instagram before each episode 's airing -- including runway themes, challenges, episode titles, and eliminated queens. Additionally, a producer from the show stated that the leaker removed "information identifying (World of Wonder) as the copyright owner and author '' before adding "misleading copyright management information falsely identifying (the defendants) as the copyright owners and authors. '' World of Wonder launched the suit because of the defendant 's "unlawful theft and public dissemination of episodes of the popular and critically - acclaimed reality television show, '' and the production company confirmed it is seeking damages of $300,000, including $150,000 for each infringed episode and $25,000 per violation of "actual damages '' and defendants ' profits.
Although a ratings success, the season was not critically well received, following the high bar set by All Stars 2. Vulture, in writing a summation review, described the season as "truly one of the roughest seasons of the show ever. After a stellar, jaw - unhingingly good All Stars 2, this season felt more like an embarrassing cousin you brought to gay happy hour who wears double polos ''. The A.V. Club similarly described the season as disappointing; in their final review of the season, they wrote, "I should be celebrating the crowning of a new queen in the Drag Race hall of fame, but Drag Race All Stars season three has left me feeling totally underwhelmed and wondering, What 's the point? ''
Vulture did however make the point that although the season did not live up to expectations, "even at its worst, it 's still one of one the best, if not the best goddamn reality competition show on television ''.
|
where is the cast of i love lucy | I Love Lucy - wikipedia
I Love Lucy is an American television sitcom starring Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, and William Frawley. The black - and - white series originally ran from October 15, 1951 to May 6, 1957 on CBS. After the series ended in 1957, a modified version continued for three more seasons with 13 one - hour specials; it ran from 1957 to 1960. It was first known as The Lucille Ball - Desi Arnaz Show and later in reruns as The Lucy -- Desi Comedy Hour.
The show, which was the first scripted television program to be shot on 35 mm film in front of a studio audience, won five Emmy Awards and received numerous nominations.
I Love Lucy was the most watched show in the United States in four of its six seasons, and it was the first to end its run at the top of the Nielsen ratings (an accomplishment later matched only by The Andy Griffith Show in 1968 and Seinfeld in 1998). The show is still syndicated in dozens of languages across the world and remains popular with an American audience of 40 million each year. A colorized version of its Christmas episode attracted more than 8 million viewers when CBS aired it in prime time in 2013 -- 62 years after the show premiered.
I Love Lucy is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms in history. In 2012, it was voted the ' Best TV Show of All Time ' in a survey conducted by ABC News and People Magazine.
Originally set in an apartment building in New York City, I Love Lucy centers on Lucy Ricardo (Lucille Ball) and her singer / bandleader husband Ricky Ricardo (Desi Arnaz), along with their best friends and landlords Fred Mertz (William Frawley) and Ethel Mertz (Vivian Vance). During the second season, Lucy and Ricky have a son named Ricky Ricardo Jr. ("Little Ricky ''), whose birth was timed to coincide with Ball 's real - life delivery of her son Desi Arnaz Jr.
Lucy is naïve and ambitious, with an undeserved zeal for stardom and a knack for getting herself and her husband into trouble whenever Lucy yearns to make it in show business. The Ricardos ' best friends, Fred and Ethel, are former vaudevillians and this only strengthens Lucy 's resolve to prove herself as a performer. Unfortunately, she has few marketable performance skills. She does not seem to be able to carry a tune or play anything other than off - key renditions of songs such as "Glow Worm '' on the saxophone, and many of her performances devolve into disaster. However, to say she is completely without talent would be untrue, as on occasion, she is shown to be a good dancer and a competent singer. She is also at least twice offered contracts by television or film companies -- first in "The Audition '' when she replaces an injured clown in Ricky 's act, and later in Hollywood when she dances for a studio benefit using a rubber Ricky dummy as her dancing partner.
The show provided Ball ample opportunity to display her considerable skill at clowning and physical comedy. Character development was not a major focus of early sitcoms, so little was offered about her life before the show. A few episodes mentioned that she was born in Jamestown, New York (Lucille Ball 's real - life home town), later corrected to West Jamestown, that she graduated from Jamestown High School, that her maiden name was "McGillicuddy '' (indicating a Scottish or Irish ethnicity at least on her father 's side, though she once mentioned her grandmother was Swedish; there are sizable Irish and Swedish communities in Jamestown), and that she met Ricky on a boat cruise with her friend from an agency she once worked for. Her family was absent, other than occasional appearances by her scatter - brained mother (Kathryn Card), who could never get Ricky 's name right. Lucy also exhibited many traits that were standard for female comedians at the time, including being secretive about her age and true hair color, and being careless with money, along with being somewhat materialistic, insisting on buying new dresses and hats for every occasion and telling old friends that she and Ricky were wealthy. She was also depicted as a devoted housewife and attentive mother.
Lucy 's husband, Ricky Ricardo, is an up - and - coming Cuban American singer and bandleader with an excitable personality. His patience is frequently tested by his wife 's antics trying to get into showbiz, and exorbitant spending on clothes or furniture. When exasperated, he often reverts to speaking rapidly in Spanish. As with Lucy, not much is revealed about his past or family. Ricky 's mother (played by actress Mary Emery) appears in two episodes; in another Lucy mentions that he has five brothers. Ricky also mentions that he had been "practically raised '' by his uncle Alberto (who was seen during a family visit to Cuba), and that he had attended the University of Havana.
An extended flashback segment in the 1957 episode "Lucy Takes a Cruise to Havana '' of The Lucille Ball -- Desi Arnaz Show filled in numerous details of how Lucy and Ricky met and how Ricky came to the United States. The story, at least insofar as related to newspaper columnist Hedda Hopper, is that the couple met in Havana when Lucy and the Mertzes vacationed there in 1940. Despite his being a university graduate, proficient in English, Ricky is portrayed as a driver of a horse - drawn cab who waits for fares at a pier where tourists arrive by ship. Ricky is hired to serve as one of Lucy 's tour guides and the two fall in love. Having coincidentally also met popular singer Rudy Vallée on the cruise ship, Lucy arranges an audition for Ricky who is hired to be in Vallée 's orchestra, thus allowing him to immigrate to the United States on the very ship on which Lucy and the Mertzes were returning. Lucy later states that Ricky played for Vallée only one night before being traded to Xavier Cugat 's orchestra.
Lucy is usually found with her sidekick and best friend Ethel Mertz. A former model from Albuquerque, New Mexico, Ethel tries to relive her glory days in vaudeville. Ricky is more inclined to include Ethel in performances at his nightclub because, unlike Lucy, she can actually sing and dance rather well.
Ethel 's husband Fred served in World War I, and lived through the Great Depression. He is very stingy with money and is an irascible, no - nonsense type. However, he also shows that he can be a soft touch, especially when it comes to Little Ricky. Fred can also sing and dance and often performs duets with Ethel.
The Manhattan building they all lived in before their move to Westport, Connecticut, was addressed at a fictional 623 East 68th Street, at first in apartment 4A, then moving to the larger apartment 3B (subsequently re-designated 3D; the Mertzes ' apartment is then numbered 3B), on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. In actuality, the addresses go up only to the 500s before the street terminates at the East River.
Gale Gordon and Bea Benaderet, supporting cast members on My Favorite Husband, were originally approached for the roles of Fred and Ethel, but neither could accept owing to previous commitments. Gordon did appear as a guest star in three episodes, playing Ricky 's boss, Mr. Littlefield, in two episodes, and later in an hour - long episode as a civil court judge. Gordon was a veteran from the classic radio days in which he perfected the role of the exasperated character, as in Fibber McGee and Molly and Our Miss Brooks. He would go on to co-star with Ball in all of her post -- I Love Lucy series (The Lucy Show, Here 's Lucy and Life with Lucy). Benaderet was a guest star in one episode as elderly Miss Lewis, a neighbor of the Ricardos.
Barbara Pepper (later featured as Doris Ziffel in the series Green Acres) was also considered to play Ethel, but Pepper had been drinking very heavily after the death of her husband, Craig W. Reynolds. Her friendship with Ball dated back to the film Roman Scandals, in which both appeared as Goldwyn Girls. She did, however, turn up in at least nine episodes of I Love Lucy in bit parts.
Many of the characters ' names were after Lucille Ball 's family members or close friends; for example, Marion Strong was one of her best friends and roommate for a time in New York, and also set Lucy and Desi up on their first date. Lillian Appleby was a teacher of Lucy 's when she was in an amateur production on the stage. Pauline Lopus was a childhood friend, Fred was also her brother and grandfather 's name. Lucy and Desi had a business manager by the name of Mr. Andrew Hickox, and in the first episode of season 4, called "The Business Manager '' Lucy and Ricky hire a man named Mr. Hickox.
Lucille Ball had come to Hollywood after a successful stint as a New York model. She was chosen by Sam Goldwyn to be one of sixteen Goldwyn Girls to co-star in the picture Roman Scandals (1933) with film star Eddie Cantor. Enthusiastic and hard - working Ball had been able to secure film work briefly at the Samuel Goldwyn Studio and Columbia Pictures and then eventually at RKO Radio Pictures. It was at RKO that Ball received steady film work, first as an extra and bit player and eventually working her way up to co-starring roles in feature films and starring roles in second rate B pictures, collectively earning her the nickname "Queen of the B 's ''. During her run at RKO, Ball gained the reputation for doing physical comedy and stunts that most other actresses avoided, keeping her steadily employed. In 1940, Lucy met Desi Arnaz, a Cuban bandleader who had just come off a successful run in the 1939 -- 40 Broadway show Too Many Girls. RKO had bought the film rights to the show and cast Ball as Arnaz 's love interest in the picture. The duo began a whirlwind courtship leading to their elopement to Connecticut in November 1940. Despite being madly in love, however, their careers kept them separated, with Lucy 's film work keeping her anchored in Hollywood, while Desi 's nightclub engagements with his orchestra kept him on the road.
Despite steadily working in pictures, Lucy 's movie career never advanced to the level of a headlining feature - film actress; nevertheless she remained popular with movie audiences. After receiving critical acclaim for her starring role in the 1942 Damon Runyon film The Big Street (with Henry Fonda), Ball came to the attention of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, which bought out her contract. It was at MGM that Ball, who had been a blonde, dyed her hair red to complement the Technicolor features that MGM had planned to use her in. MGM used Ball in a variety of films, but it was her work with funny man Red Skelton in the 1942 film DuBarry Was a Lady that brought Ball 's physical comedy into the forefront, earning her the reputation as "that crazy redhead '', as Ricky would later call her. Nonetheless, Ball 's striking beauty was in sharp contrast to physical antics she did in her films; thus, MGM tried to use her in an array of different film genres that did little to highlight her skills. Given their difficulties in casting her, MGM chose not to renew her contract when it expired in 1946.
Ball began working as a free - lancer in films and also began to explore other venues. Before and during World War II, Lucy had made several notable and successful guest appearances on several radio programs, among them Jack Haley 's radio show and bandleader Kay Kyser 's radio program. These appearances brought Lucy to the attention of CBS, which in 1948 enlisted Ball to star in one of two new half - hour situation comedies in development, Our Miss Brooks and My Favorite Husband. Choosing the latter, Lucy portrayed Liz Cugat (later anglicized to Cooper), the frustrated and scheming housewife of a Minneapolis banker, played originally by actor Lee Bowman in the series pilot, and later by actor Richard Denning. Based on the novel Mr. and Mrs. Cugat by Isabel Scott Rorick, My Favorite Husband was produced by Jess Oppenheimer, and written by Oppenheimer, plus scribes Madelyn Pugh and Bob Carroll Jr... Premiering on July 23, 1948 and sponsored by General Foods, Husband became a hit for CBS. During the run of the radio program Lucy appeared in two feature films with Bob Hope, Sorrowful Jones in 1949, and Fancy Pants in 1950. Both films were box office and critical successes, further cementing Ball 's reputation as a top notch first - rate comedian. They also showed her continuing popularity with audiences, enticing CBS to further use her skills.
In 1950, CBS asked Ball to take My Favorite Husband to television with co-star Richard Denning. She, however, saw a television show as a great opportunity to work with Desi as it would keep them both in Hollywood, and perhaps save their shaky marriage. Lucy insisted that Desi play her husband, much to the dismay of CBS, which was reluctant because Arnaz was Cuban. Network executives believed that audiences would not believe the marriage between an all - American girl and a Latin man. To prove CBS wrong, the couple developed a vaudeville act, written by Carroll and Pugh, that they took on the road with Arnaz 's orchestra. The act was a hit and convinced CBS executive Harry Ackerman that a Ball - Arnaz pairing would be a worthwhile venture. At the same time, rival networks NBC, ABC, and DuMont were showing interest in a Ball - Arnaz series, which Ackerman used to convince CBS to sign the duo.
A pilot was ordered and kinescoped in Hollywood in March 1951, which coincided with Lucy 's first pregnancy, and the ending of Husband, which aired its last radio show on March 31, 1951. Ball and Arnaz used the same radio team of Oppenheimer, Pugh, and Carroll to create the television series that was named I Love Lucy. After showing the pilot to several advertising agencies, at first with not much luck, CBS was able to sell the series to the Milton H. Biow agency, which was able to convince one of their clients, cigarette giant Philip Morris, to sponsor the show.
During the spring and summer of 1951, I Love Lucy moved into production. Oppenheimer, Pugh, and Carroll began fine - tuning the premise of the show and writing the series ' first scripts. The trio had the good graces of having a backlog of storylines from My Favorite Husband to adapt for use on television. In addition, the series ' ensemble cast and crew were assembled. Desi Arnaz retained his orchestra, which was used in the series musical numbers and to score the show 's background and transitional music. Arnaz 's childhood friend Marco Rizo arranged the music and played the piano for the show, while Wilbur Hatch was used to conduct the orchestra. Two problems arose, however, after Philip Morris signed on to sponsor the show, that would ultimately change the fate of I Love Lucy.
Lucy and Desi had originally decided that the series would air on a biweekly basis, much like The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show. Philip Morris, however, was insistent that the show air weekly, thus diminishing the possibility of Lucy continuing her film career alongside a television show. Another problem lay in the fact that Philip Morris wanted the series to originate from New York rather than Hollywood. At the time, most television shows were produced from New York with live broadcasts of the show airing for eastern and Midwest audiences. West Coast viewers were able to view live programs only through low - quality kinescopes, which derived their images by using a 35 mm or 16 mm film camera to record the show from a television monitor. As videotape had not yet been developed, kinescopes seemed to be the only practical means to allow a live show to reach television markets on the West Coast. Complicating matters was that kinescopes were not available for immediate re-broadcast as in 1951 no coast - to - coast cable system was yet in service. Shows had to be sent to Hollywood, which delayed their airings for West Coast audiences by nearly a week. The process operated in the reverse for the few programs that originated live in Hollywood, such as The Ed Wynn Show, thus making blurry kinescopes of these shows the only available print for eastern audiences. Most sponsors, including Philip Morris, found this to be undesirable as most of the television audience lived east of the Mississippi at the time.
Although the pilot had been made as a kinescope, for the series itself, the process was rejected. Owing to the impending birth of their first child, both Lucy and Desi insisted on staying in Hollywood and producing the show on film, something a few Hollywood - based series had begun to do. Both CBS and Philip Morris initially balked at the idea, because of the higher cost that filming the show would incur, yet acquiesced only after the couple offered to take a $1,000 a week pay cut in order to cover the additional expense. In exchange, Lucy and Desi demanded, and were given, 80 % ownership in the I Love Lucy films (the other 20 % went to producer Jess Oppenheimer who then gave 5 % to writer Madelyn Pugh and 5 % to writer Bob Carroll Jr.). Shooting the show on film, however, would require that Lucy and Desi become responsible for producing the series themselves. Union agreements at the time stipulated that any production filmed in a studio use film studio employees. CBS staff were television and radio employees and thus fell under different union agreements. Thus, Arnaz reorganized the company he created to manage his orchestra bookings and used it as the corporation that would produce the I Love Lucy shows. The company was named Desilu, from the combination of both their first names "Desi '' and "Lucille ''.
Though some television series were already being filmed in Hollywood, most used the single - camera format familiar from movies, with a laugh track added to comedies to simulate audience response. Arnaz and I Love Lucy creator Jess Oppenheimer decided, however, that Lucy needed to work in front of an audience to create the kind of comic energy she had displayed on radio. The idea of a film studio that could accommodate an audience was a new one for the time, as fire safety regulations made it difficult to allow an audience in a studio. Arnaz and Oppenheimer were lucky enough to find the financially struggling General Service Studios located on Las Palmas Avenue in Hollywood. Studio owner Jimmy Nasser was eager to accommodate the Desilu company and allowed them, with financial backing of CBS, to renovate two of his studios so that they could accommodate an audience and be in compliance with local fire laws.
Another component to filming the show came when it was decided to use three 35 mm film cameras to simultaneously film the show. The idea had been pioneered by Ralph Edwards on the game show Truth or Consequences, and had subsequently been used on Amos ' n ' Andy as a way to save money, though Amos n ' Andy did not use an audience. Edwards 's assistant Al Simon was hired by Desilu to help perfect the new technique for the series. The process lent itself to the Lucy production as it eliminated the problem of requiring an audience to view and react to a scene three or four times in order for all necessary shots to be filmed. Multiple cameras would also allow scenes to be performed in sequence, as a play would be, which was unusual at the time for filmed series. Retakes were rare and dialogue mistakes were often played off for the sake of continuity.
Ball and Arnaz enlisted the services of Karl Freund, a cinematographer who had worked on such films as Metropolis (1927), Dracula (1931), and The Good Earth (1937), as well as directing The Mummy (1932), to be the series cinematographer. Although at first Freund did not want anything to do with television, it was the personal plea of the couple that convinced him to take the job.
Freund was instrumental in developing a way to uniformly light the set so that each of the three cameras would pick up the same quality of image. Freund noted that a typical episode (20 -- 22 min.) was shot in about 60 minutes, with one constant concern being the shades - of - gray contrast in the final print, as each stage of transmission and broadcast would exaggerate the contrast. Among other non-standard techniques used in filming the show, cans of paint (in shades ranging from white to medium - gray) were kept on set to "paint out '' inappropriate shadows and disguise lighting flaws. Freund also pioneered "flat lighting, '' in which everything is brightly lit to eliminate shadows and the need for endless relighting.
Audience reactions were live, thus creating a far more authentic laugh than the canned laughter used on most filmed sitcoms of the time. Regular audience members were sometimes heard from episode to episode, and Arnaz 's distinctive laugh could be heard in the background during scenes in which he did not perform, as well as Ball 's mother, DeDe, whose distinctive "Uh Oh '' could be heard in many of the episodes. In later years, CBS would devise a laugh track from several I Love Lucy audiences and use them for canned laughter on shows done without a live audience.
I Love Lucy 's pioneering use of three cameras led to it becoming the standard technique for the production of most sitcoms filmed in front of an audience. Single - camera setups remained the technique of choice for sitcoms that did not use audiences. This led to an unexpected benefit for Desilu during the series 's second season when it was discovered that Lucy was pregnant. Not being able to fulfill the show 's 39 - episode commitment, both Desi and Jess Oppenheimer decided to rebroadcast popular episodes of the series 's first season to help give Lucy the necessary rest she needed after she gave birth, effectively allowing fewer episodes to be filmed that season. Unexpectedly the rebroadcasts proved to be ratings winners, effectively giving birth to the rerun, which would later lead to the profitable development of the rerun syndication market. It also became the first television program to introduce English and Spanish.
The show 's original opening and commercial bumpers were animated caricatures of Lucy and Desi. They were designed and animated by MGM character designer and future "Flintstones '' cartoonist, Gene Hazelton (1917 - 2005) and were produced secretly under a contract producer William Hanna had secured privately. The program sponsor, Phillip Morris cigarettes was incorporated into many of these sequences, so when I Love Lucy went into repeats, they were replaced by the now familiar heart logo. However Gene Hazelton 's original animation survives, and can be seen in the DVD boxed set as originally presented.
Desilu Productions, jointly owned by Ball and Arnaz, would gradually expand to produce and lease studio space for many other shows. For seasons 1 and 2 (1951 -- 1953), Desilu rented space and filmed I Love Lucy at General Service Studios, which eventually became known as Hollywood Center Studios. In 1953, it leased the Motion Picture Center at 846 Cahuenga Blvd. in Hollywood, renaming it Desilu Studios, to shoot seasons 3 -- 6 (1953 -- 1957) of I Love Lucy. After 1956, it became known as Desilu - Cahuenga Studios to avoid confusion with other acquired Desilu locations. In an effort to keep up with the studio 's growth, and need for additional sound stages, Desi and Lucy purchased RKO Radio Pictures from General Tire in 1957 for over $6 million, effectively owning the studio where they had started as contract players. Desilu acquired RKO 's two studio complexes located on Gower Street in Hollywood, and in Culver City (now part of the Paramount lot and Culver Studios respectively), along with the Culver City back lot nicknamed "Forty Acres ''. The sale was achieved by the duo selling their ownership of the once - thought - worthless I Love Lucy films back to CBS for over four million dollars.
In 1962, two years after their marriage dissolved, Lucy bought out Desi 's shares of Desilu, becoming the studio 's sole owner. She eventually sold off Desilu in 1967 to Gulf + Western, owners of Paramount Pictures. After the sale, Desilu - Cahuenga became a private production company and was known as Ren - Mar Studios till 2010, when it was acquired by the Red Digital Cinema Camera Company and renamed Red Studios -- Hollywood.
As with My Favorite Husband, Lucy writers decided that the Ricardos needed an older couple to play off of. While performing in Husband, veteran character actors Gale Gordon and Bea Benaderet had played Rudolph and Iris Atterbury, an older, more financially stable couple as Mr. Atterbury had been George Cooper 's boss. Ball had initially wanted both actors to reprise their roles on television; however, both were unavailable at the time the show went into production as Benaderet was already playing Blanche Morton on The Burns and Allen Show, and Gordon was under contract by CBS to play Mr. Conklin on the radio and television versions of Our Miss Brooks.
Casting the Mertzes, as they were now called (the surname taken from a doctor that Lucy scriptwriter Madelyn Pugh knew as a child in Indianapolis), proved to be a challenge. Ball had initially wanted character actor James Gleason, with whom she appeared in Columbia Pictures film Miss Grant Takes Richmond (1949), to play Fred Mertz. However, Gleason wanted nearly $3,500 per episode to play the role, a price that was far too high to sustain.
Sixty - four - year - old William Frawley, a seasoned vaudevillian and movie character actor with nearly 100 film credits to his name, was a long shot to play Fred Mertz and only came into consideration after he telephoned Ball personally to ask if there was a role for him on her new show. Ball, who had only briefly known Frawley from her days at RKO, suggested him to both Arnaz and CBS. The network objected to the idea of casting Frawley, fearing that his excessive drinking -- which was well known in Hollywood -- would interfere with a commitment to a live show. Arnaz nonetheless liked Frawley and lobbied hard for him to have the role, even to the point of having Lucy scribes re-tailor the role of Fred Mertz to be a less financially successful and more curmudgeonly (in contrast to Gale Gordon 's Mr. Atterbury) character to fit Frawley 's persona. CBS relented only after Arnaz contractually bound Frawley to complete sobriety during the production of the show, and reportedly told the veteran actor that if he ever appeared on - set more than once in an intoxicated state he would be fired. Not once during Lucy 's nine seasons did Frawley 's drinking ever interfere with his performance, and over time Arnaz became one of Frawley 's few close friends.
Casting the Ethel Mertz character was also some work. One choice was actress Barbara Pepper, who was a close friend of Ball 's. The two had a long history together, as Pepper had been of the Goldwyn Girls who came to Hollywood with Lucy in 1933. Pepper was favored by Lucy herself; however, CBS refused on the grounds that Pepper suffered from a drinking problem too, which was far more severe than Frawley 's. Nonetheless Pepper did appear in several bit parts during the run of the show.
Vivian Vance became a consideration on the recommendation of Lucy director Marc Daniels. Daniels had worked with Vance in New York on Broadway in the early 1940s. Vance had already been a successful stage star performing on Broadway for nearly 20 years in a variety of plays, and in addition, after relocating to Hollywood in the late 1940s, had two film roles to her credit. Nonetheless, by 1951, she was still a relatively unknown actress in Hollywood. Vance was performing in a revival of the play The Voice of the Turtle in La Jolla, California. Arnaz and Jess Oppenheimer went to see her in the play and hired her on the spot. Vance was reluctant about giving up her film and stage work for a television show, yet was convinced by Daniels that it would be a big break in her career. Ball, however, had many misgivings about hiring Vance, who was younger and far more attractive than the concept of Ethel as an older, somewhat homely woman. Ball was also a believer in the Hollywood adage at the time that there should be only one pretty woman on the set and Ball, being the star of the show, was it. Arnaz, however, was impressed by Vance 's work and hired her. The decision was then made to dress Vance in frumpier clothing to tone down her attractiveness. Ball and Vance 's relationship during the series ' early beginnings were lukewarm at best. Eventually realizing that Vance was no threat and was very professional, Ball began to warm to her. In 1954, Vance would become the first actress to win an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress. Vance and Ball would develop a lifelong close friendship. Ball would go on to ask Vance to co-star in Ball 's new series The Lucy Show after the end of I Love Lucy.
Vance and Frawley 's off - screen relationship was less successful. In spite of this, they were always professional and exhibited exceptional chemistry while performing on the show. In fact, their acrimonious personal relationship may have helped their onscreen marriage be that much funnier. Frawley derisively described Vance 's appearance as "a sack of doorknobs. '' It was reported that Vance, who was 22 years younger than Frawley, was not really keen on the idea that her character Ethel was married to a man that was old enough to be her father. Vance also complained that Frawley 's song - and - dance skills were not what they once were. Frawley and Vance would have an adversarial relationship during the entire run of the show.
In 1957, I Love Lucy was re-tailored into an hour - long show originally titled The Lucille Ball - Desi Arnaz Show that was to be part of an anthology series called the Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse. The hour - long Lucy - Desi show was to alternate on a monthly basis with other hour long Playhouse shows. The new series put a much heavier emphasis on big name guest stars as being part of the plot and although the Mertz characters continued into the new series, their roles became somewhat diminished. Although a lighter workload was welcomed by Frawley, Vance came to somewhat resent the change. Arnaz, in an effort to please Vance, for whom he had much respect, proposed doing a spin - off from I Love Lucy called The Mertzes. Seeing a lucrative opportunity and the chance to star in his own show, Frawley was enthused. Vance, however, declined for a number of reasons, the biggest factor being that she felt she and Frawley could barely work together on the ensemble show they were doing at the time, so it would be much less likely the two could work together on their own series. Vance also felt that the Mertz characters would not be as successful without the Ricardos to play - off each other, and despite being her biggest success, she was becoming interested in playing more glamorous roles rather than Ethel. In fact, during the thirteen - episode run of the Lucy - Desi hour - long shows, Vance was given a lot more latitude to look more attractive as Ethel Mertz, something she was denied during the run of the I Love Lucy episodes. Frawley 's resentment of Vance intensified after she declined to do the spin - off show and the two rarely talked to each other outside of their characters ' dialogue with one another.
Just before filming the show, Lucy and Desi learned that Lucy was once again pregnant (after multiple miscarriages earlier in their marriage) with their first child, Lucie Arnaz. They filmed the original pilot while Lucy was "showing '', but did not include any references to the pregnancy in the episode. This was because CBS thought that talk of pregnancy might be in bad taste and because an ad agency told Desi not to show a pregnant woman.
Later, during the second season, Lucy was pregnant again with second child Desi Arnaz Jr., and this time the pregnancy was incorporated into the series ' storyline. (Contrary to popular belief, Lucy 's pregnancy was not television 's first on - screen pregnancy, a distinction belonging to Mary Kay on the late 1940s sitcom Mary Kay and Johnny.)
CBS would not allow I Love Lucy to use the word "pregnant '', so "expecting '' was used instead. In addition, sponsor Philip Morris made the request that Lucy not be seen smoking during the pregnancy episodes. The episode "Lucy Is Enceinte '' first aired on December 8, 1952 ("enceinte '' being French for "expecting '' or "pregnant ''). One week later, on December 15, 1952, the episode titled "Pregnant Women Are Unpredictable '' was aired (although the show never displayed episode titles on the air). The episode in which Lucy gives birth, "Lucy Goes to the Hospital '', first aired on January 19, 1953, which was the day before the inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower as President of the United States. To increase the publicity of this episode, the original air date was chosen to coincide with Lucille Ball 's real - life delivery of Desi Jr. by Caesarean section. "Lucy Goes to the Hospital '' was watched by more people than any other television program up to that time, with 71.7 % of all American television sets tuned in, topping the 67.7 rating for the inauguration coverage the following morning.
Unlike some programs that advance the age of a newborn over a short period of time, I Love Lucy at first allowed the Little Ricky character to grow up in real time. America saw Little Ricky as an infant in the 1952 -- 53 season and a toddler from 1953 to 1956. However, for the 1956 - 57 season, Little Ricky suddenly aged by two years, becoming a young school - age boy from 1956 to 1960. Five actors played the role, two sets of twins and later Keith Thibodeaux, whose stage name when playing Ricky Ricardo Jr. was Richard Keith. (In the Superman episode, Little Ricky is mentioned as being five years old but it had been less than four years since the birth - of - Little - Ricky episode.)
Jess Oppenheimer stated in his memoir, Laughs, Luck... and Lucy: How I Came to Create the Most Popular Sitcom of All Time, that the initial plan was to match the sex of the Ricardo baby with Lucille Ball 's real baby, inserting one of two alternate endings into the broadcast print at the very last minute. When logistical difficulties convinced Oppenheimer to abandon this plan, he advised Desi that as head writer, he would have Lucy Ricardo give birth to a boy. Desi agreed, telling Oppenheimer that Lucy had given him one girl, and might give him another -- this might be his only chance to get a son. When the baby was born, Desi immediately called Oppenheimer and told him, "Lucy followed your script. Ai n't she something? '', to which Oppenheimer replied "Terrific! That makes me the greatest writer in the world! ''
I Love Lucy aired Mondays from 9: 00 to 9: 30 PM ET on CBS for its entire first run. Each year during its summer hiatus its timeslot was occupied by various summer replacement series. Beginning in April 1955 CBS added reruns from the show 's early years to its early evening weekend schedule. This would be the first of several occasions when I Love Lucy reruns would become part of CBS 's evening, prime time, and (later on) daytime schedules.
In fall 1967, CBS began offering the series in off - network syndication; As of August 2017, the reruns air on the Hallmark Channel and Me - TV networks, and scores of television stations in the U.S. and around the world, including Fox 's KTTV / KCOP in Los Angeles, one of the few stations / duopolies outside of the Me - TV affiliate group that air the show daily.
In addition, CBS has run numerous specials, including a succession of annual specials which feature episodes which have been newly colorized.
The episode "Lucy Goes to the Hospital '', which first aired on Monday, January 19, 1953, garnered a record 71.7 rating, meaning 71.7 % of all households with television sets at the time were tuned in to view the program. That record is surpassed only by Elvis Presley 's first of three appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show, which aired on September 9, 1956 (82.6 % rating). The overall rating of 67.3 for the entire 1952 season of I Love Lucy continues to be the highest average rating for any single season of a TV show.
The opening familiar to most viewers, featuring the credits superimposed over a "heart on satin '' image, was created specifically for the 1959 -- 67 CBS daytime network rebroadcasts, and subsequent syndication. As originally broadcast, the episodes opened with animated matchstick figures of Arnaz and Ball making reference to whoever the particular episode 's sponsor was. These sequences were created by the animation team of William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, who declined screen credit because they were technically under exclusive contract to MGM at the time.
The original sponsor was cigarette maker Philip Morris, so the program opened with a cartoon of Lucy and Ricky climbing down a pack of Philip Morris cigarettes. In the early episodes, Lucy and Ricky, as well as Ethel and Fred on occasion, were shown smoking Philip Morris cigarettes. Lucy even went so far as to parody Johnny Roventini 's image as the Philip Morris "bellhop '' in the May 5, 1952, episode, "Lucy Does a TV Commercial ''. Since the original sponsor references were no longer appropriate when the shows went into syndication, a new opening was needed, which resulted in the classic "heart on satin '' opening. Other sponsors, whose products appeared during the original openings, were Procter & Gamble for Cheer and Lilt Home Permanent (1954 -- 57), General Foods for Sanka (1955 -- 57), Ford Motor Company (1957 -- 58), and Westinghouse company (1958 -- 60).
The original openings, with the sponsor names edited out, were revived on TV Land showings, with a TV Land logo superimposed to obscure the original sponsor 's logo. However, this has led some people to believe that the restored introduction was created specifically for TV Land as an example of kitsch.
The animated openings, along with the middle commercial introductory animations, are included, fully restored, in the DVDs. However, the openings are listed as special features within the disks with the "heart on satin '' image opening the actual episodes.
The title music was written by Eliot Daniel as an instrumental. Lyrics were written by Harold Adamson, who was nominated five times for an Oscar. The lyrics to "I Love Lucy '' were sung by Desi Arnaz in the episode "Lucy 's Last Birthday '':
I love Lucy and she loves me. We 're as happy as two can be. Sometimes we quarrel but then How we love making up again. Lucy kisses like no one can. She 's my missus and I 'm her man, And life is heaven you see, ' Cause I love Lucy, Yes I love Lucy, and Lucy loves me!
"I Love Lucy '' sung by Desi Arnaz with Paul Weston and the Norman Luboff Choir was released as the B - side of "There 's A Brand New Baby (At Our House) '' by Columbia Records (catalog number 39937) in 1953. The song was covered by Michael Franks on the album Dragonfly Summer (1993). In 1977, the Wilton Place Street Band had a Top 40 hit with a disco version of the theme, "Disco Lucy ''.
There was some thought about creating an I Love Lucy radio show to run in conjunction with the television series as was being done at the time with the CBS hit show Our Miss Brooks. On February 27, 1952, a sample I Love Lucy radio show was produced, but it never aired. This was a pilot episode, created by editing the soundtrack of the television episode "Breaking the Lease '', with added Arnaz narration (in character as Ricky Ricardo). It included commercials for Philip Morris, which sponsored the television series. While it never aired on radio at the time in the 1950s (Philip Morris eventually sponsored a radio edition of My Little Margie instead), copies of this radio pilot episode have been circulating among "old time radio '' collectors for years, and this radio pilot episode has aired in more recent decades on numerous local radio stations that air some "old time radio '' programming.
Ball and Arnaz authorized various types of I Love Lucy merchandise. Beginning in November 1952, I Love Lucy dolls, manufactured by the American Character Doll Company, were sold. Adult - size I Love Lucy pajamas and a bedroom set were also produced; all of these items appeared on the show.
I Love Lucy doll
I Love Lucy bedroom set
I Love Lucy pajamas
Dell Comics published 35 issues of an I Love Lucy comic book between 1954 and 1962 including two try - out Four Color issues (# 535 and # 559). King Features syndicated a comic strip (credited to "Bob Lawrence '' but actually written by Lawrence Nadel and drawn by Bob Oksner) from 1952 to 1955. Eternity Comics in the early 1990s issued comic books that reprinted the strip and Dell comic book series.
After the conclusion of the sixth season of I Love Lucy, the Arnazes decided to cut down on the number of episodes that were filmed. Instead, they extended I Love Lucy to 60 minutes, with a guest star each episode. They renamed the show The Lucille Ball - Desi Arnaz Show, also known as The Lucy - Desi Comedy Hour. Thirteen hour - long episodes aired from 1957 to 1960. The main cast, Lucille Ball, Desi Arnaz, Vivian Vance, William Frawley and Little Ricky / Richard Keith (birth name Keith Thibodeaux) were all in the show. The Lucy - Desi Comedy Hour is available on DVD, released as I Love Lucy: The Final Seasons 7, 8, & 9. On March 2, Desi 's birthday, 1960, the day after the last hour - long episode was filmed, Lucille Ball filed for divorce from Desi Arnaz. It made that playful, yet passionate kiss at the end of the final episode, which aired April 1, "Lucy Meets the Moustache '', all the more poignant, as the world already knew that this storied Hollywood marriage was all but over, and also lent extra meaning to the use of the song "That 's All '' (performed by guest star Edie Adams) in that episode.
As already mentioned, Vance and Frawley were offered a chance to take their characters to their own spin - off series. Frawley was willing, but Vance refused to ever work with Frawley again since the two did not get along. Frawley did appear once more with Lucille Ball -- in an episode of The Lucy Show in 1965, which did not include Vance (who by then had ceased to be a regular on that show). However, this was his last screen appearance with his longtime friend. He died in Hollywood on March 3, 1966, of a heart attack at age 79.
In 1962, Ball began a six - year run with The Lucy Show, followed immediately in 1968 by six more years on a third sitcom, Here 's Lucy, finally ending her regular appearances on CBS in 1974. Both The Lucy Show and Here 's Lucy included Vance as recurring characters named Viv (Vivian Bagley Bunson on The Lucy Show and Vivian Jones on Here 's Lucy), so named because she was tired of being recognized on the street and addressed as Ethel. Vance was a regular during the first three seasons of The Lucy Show but continued to make guest appearances through the years on The Lucy Show, and on Here 's Lucy. In 1977, Vance and Ball were reunited one last time in the CBS special, Lucy Calls the President, which co-starred Gale Gordon.
In 1986, Ball tried another sitcom, Life with Lucy. The series debuted on ABC to very high ratings, landing in Nielsen 's top 20 for that week. Its ratings quickly declined, however, and resulted in a cancellation after eight episodes.
In 1989, the never - seen pilot episode was discovered and revealed in a CBS television special, hosted by Lucie Arnaz, becoming the highest rated program of the season.
I Love Lucy continues to be held in high esteem by television critics, and remains perennially popular. For instance, it was one of the first American programs seen on British television -- which became more open to commerce with the September 1955 launch of ITV, a commercial network that aired the series; in 1982, the launch of a second terrestrial TV station devoted to advertising funded broadcasting (Channel 4) saw the show introduced to a new generation of fans in the UK, with the Channel 4 network repeating the program several times between 1983 and 1994. As of January 2015, meanwhile, it remains the longest - running program to air continuously in the Los Angeles area, almost 60 years after production ended. However, the series is currently aired on KTTV on weekends and now KCOP on weekdays because both stations are a duopoly, of which KTTV had given up the CBS affiliation several months before I Love Lucy premiered. In the US, reruns have aired nationally on TBS (1980s -- 1990s), Nick at Nite (1994 -- 2001) and TV Land (2001 -- 2008) in addition to local channels. TV Land ended its run of the series by giving viewers the opportunity to vote on the show 's top 25 greatest episodes on December 31, 2008 through the network 's website. This is particularly notable because, unlike some shows to which a cable channel is given exclusive rights to maximize ratings, Lucy has been consistently -- and successfully -- broadcast on multiple channels simultaneously. Hallmark Channel is now the home for I Love Lucy in the United States, with the show having moved to the network on January 2, 2009, while the national version of Weigel Broadcasting 's MeTV digital subchannel network has carried the program since its debut in December 15, 2010, depending on the market (in markets where another station holds the rights, The Lucy Show is substituted). The show is seen on Fox Classics in Australia.
The Lucille Ball - Desi Arnaz Center in Jamestown, New York is a museum memorializing Lucy and I Love Lucy, including replicas of the NYC apartment set (located in the Desilu Playhouse facility in the Rapaport Center).
On May 4, 2003, CBS aired a television movie titled Lucy that portrayed the life of Lucille Ball, and during the I Love Lucy days, showed clips of I Love Lucy episodes. Numerous clips were remade, most notably "Lucy Does a TV Commercial '', "Lucy Is Enceinte '', and "Job Switching ''. Near the end of the movie, there are a selection of TV Guide covers in the hallway showing I Love Lucy franchises on their cover. Also, there was a close up of a New York Post article that tells the birth of Little Ricky.
In 2012, Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote retrospectively:
I Love Lucy (...) is one of the two foundational texts of American TV comedy, along with The Honeymooners. The series is legitimately the most influential in TV history, pioneering so many innovations and normalizing so many others that it would be easy to write an appreciation of simply, say, the show 's accidental invention of the TV rerun.
Several classic episodes of I Love Lucy have been colorized. Star and producer Desi Arnaz had expressed interest in airing the show in color as early as 1955, but the cost of such a presentation was prohibitive at the time.
The first episode to be colorized was the Christmas special. This special episode had been feared "lost '' for many years, as it was not included in the regular syndication package with the rest of the series. A copy was discovered in 1989 in the CBS vaults, and was aired by CBS during December of that year in its original black - and - white format. In 1990, this episode was again aired in the days prior to Christmas, but this time the framing sequence was in color, while the clips from earlier episodes remained in black and white. The special performed surprisingly well in the ratings during both years, and aired on CBS each December through 1994.
In 2007, as the "Complete Series '' DVD set was being prepared for release, DVD producer Gregg Oppenheimer decided to have the episode "Lucy Goes to Scotland '' digitally colorized, making it the first I Love Lucy episode to be fully colorized. Four years later, Time Life released the "Lucy 's Italian Movie '' episode for the first time in full color as part of their "Essential ' I Love Lucy ' '' collection.
To date, the colorized "Lucy in Scotland '' episode has never aired on television, but that episode, along with the Christmas special and "Lucy 's Italian Movie, '' have been packaged together on the 2013 "I Love Lucy Colorized Christmas '' DVD. In 2014, Target Corporation stores sold an exclusive version of this DVD that also included "Job Switching ''.
On December 20, 2013, CBS revived an annual holiday tradition when it re-aired the Christmas special for the first time in nearly two decades. The Christmas special 's framing sequence was re-colorized at this time. The network paired this special with the color version of "Lucy 's Italian Movie '' episode. This special attracted 8.7 million people. Nearly a year later, on December 7, 2014, the Christmas special was again aired on CBS, but this time paired with the popular episode "Job Switching, '' which was newly colorized for that broadcast. That episode appeared on the "I Love Lucy: The Ultimate Season 2 '' Blu - ray edition on August 4, 2015. CBS aired the Christmas special again on December 23, 2015, with the flashback scenes being colorized for the first time, and with a colorized "Lucy Does a TV Commercial '' replacing "Job Switching. '' It is currently unknown if these will also be added to a new DVD. CBS next aired the Christmas special on December 2, 2016. This time the Christmas episode was paired with the newly colorized "Lucy Gets in Pictures. ''. On December 22, 2017 the Christmas episode was aired again, followed by a newly - colorized episode, "The Fashion Show. ''
On May 17, 2015 CBS began a new springtime tradition when it aired two newly colorized episodes in an "I Love Lucy Superstar Special. '' The special consisted of "L.A. at Last '' and "Lucy and Superman '' and attracted 6.4 million viewers. A DVD of this special was released on October 4, 2016. A second "Superstar Special '' containing the newly colorized two - part episode "Lucy Visits Grauman 's '' and "Lucy and John Wayne, '' aired May 20, 2016. and was released on DVD on January 17, 2017. A third "Superstar Special '' aired on May 19, 2017. It featured two more newly colorized Hollywood - based episodes: "The Dancing Star '' featuring Van Johnson, and "Harpo Marx. ''
Beginning in the summer of 2001, Columbia House Television began releasing I Love Lucy on DVD in chronological order. They began that summer with the pilot and the first three episodes on a single DVD. Every six weeks, another volume of four episodes would be released on DVD in chronological order. During the summer of 2002, each DVD would contain between five and seven episodes on a single DVD. They continued to release the series very slowly and would not even begin to release any season 2 episodes until the middle of 2002. By the spring of 2003, the third season on DVD began to be released with about six episodes released every six weeks to mail order subscribers. All these DVDs have the identical features as the DVDs eventually released in the season box sets in retail.
By the fall of 2003, season four episodes began to be offered by mail. By the spring of 2004 season five DVDs with about six episodes each began to be released gradually. Columbia House ended the distribution of these mail order DVDs in the Winter of 2005. They began releasing complete season sets in the Summer of 2004 every few months. They stated that Columbia House Subscribers would get these episodes through mail before releasing any box sets with the same episodes. They finally ended gradual subscriptions in 2005, several months before season 5 became available in retail. Columbia House then began to make season box sets available instead of these single volumes.
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all six seasons of I Love Lucy on DVD in Region 1, as well as all 13 episodes of The Lucy and Desi Comedy Hour (as I Love Lucy: The Final Seasons -- 7, 8, & 9). Bonus features include rare on - set color footage and the "Desilu / Westinghouse '' promotional film, as well as deleted scenes, original openings and interstitials (before they were altered or replaced for syndication) and on - air flubs. These DVDs offered identical features and identical content to the mail order single sets formerly available until 2005.
In December 2013, the first high - definition release of I Love Lucy was announced, with the Blu - ray edition of the first season, scheduled for May 5, 2014. The Second Season Ultimate Blu - ray was released on August 4, 2015.
The DVD releases feature the syndicated heart opening, and offer the original broadcast openings as bonus features. Season 6 allows viewers to choose whether to watch the episodes with the original opening or the syndicated opening. The TV Land openings are not on these DVDs.
Initially, the first season was offered in volumes, with four episodes per disc. After the success of releasing seasons 2, 3, and 4 in slimpacks, the first season was re-released as a seven disc set, requiring new discs to be mastered and printed to include more episodes per disc so there would be fewer discs in the set. For the complete series box set, the first season would be redone again, this time to six DVDs, retaining all bonus features. The individual volume discs for the first season are still in print, but are rare for lack of shelf space and because the slimpacks are more popular. In 2012, all season sets were reissued in slipcovered clear standard - sized amaray DVD cases, with season 1 being the 6 - disc version as opposed to the 7 - disc version.
Episodes feature English closed - captioning, but only Spanish subtitles.
In Australia and the UK, the first three seasons were finally released in Region 2 & Region 4 on August 3, 2010 by CBS, distributed by Paramount. Season 1 includes the pilot and all 35 Season 1 episodes in a 7 - disc set. Season 2 includes all 31 Season 2 episodes in a 5 - disc set. Season 3 includes all 31 Season 3 episodes in a 5 - disc set. Season 2 and 3 are in a slimline pack. All three seasons have been restored and digitally remastered. All episodes appear in order of their original air dates, although it states that some episodes may be edited from their original network versions. It is unknown if the remaining seasons will be released individually. A complete series box set titled I Love Lucy: Complete Collection was scheduled for release on 6 April 2016 and in the UK on 30 May 2016. This collection contains 34 DVDs with all six seasons of I Love Lucy and all 13 episodes of The Lucy - Desi Comedy Hour.
|
what is the meaning of iron man by black sabbath | Iron Man (song) - wikipedia
"Iron Man '' is a song by British rock band Black Sabbath. It is taken from their second studio album, Paranoid, released in 1970. It was later included on their initial greatest hits compilation We Sold Our Soul for Rock ' n ' Roll (1976), as well as all subsequent greatest hits compilations; The single version was included on the Greatest Hits 1970 -- 1978 album.
Upon hearing the main guitar riff for the first time, vocalist Ozzy Osbourne remarked that it sounded "like a big iron bloke walking about ''. The title became "Iron Man '', with Geezer Butler writing the lyrics around the title.
Butler wrote the lyrics as the story of a man who time travels into the future, and sees the apocalypse. In the process of returning to the present, he is turned into steel by a magnetic field. He is rendered mute, unable verbally to warn people of his time in the future and of the impending destruction. His attempts to communicate are ignored and mocked. This causes Iron Man to become angry, and drives his revenge on mankind, causing the destruction seen in his vision.
|
when does alex karev leave grey's anatomy | Alex Karev - wikipedia
Alexander "Alex '' Michael Karev, M.D. is a fictional character on the ABC television series Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actor Justin Chambers. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. Karev eventually obtained the position of resident, later becoming a pediatric surgical fellow. His relationships with colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), and George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) formed a focal point of the series.
The character is initially disliked by his fellow interns, and is often accused of being brusque and dismissive with his patients and co-workers. As a resident, Karev 's negative attitude, temper and rudeness has occasionally earned the ire of the attendings, with former neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery requesting him on her service as punishment for his rudeness to her and neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, amongst others, throwing him out of their service for his inappropriate comments about patients. He demonstrates profound skill for the specialty which prompts praise from Montgomery and contributes to Karev 's interest in pediatric surgery for the rest of the series. As the character developed, he displayed more empathy for patients and is shown to have a gift for connecting with young children, despite his repeated claims to dislike them.
Although Karev and Stevens had an on - off romantic history in previous seasons, it was not until the fifth season that the two formed a lasting relationship. Despite Stevens ' advanced skin cancer, the two marry. Justin Chambers commented on his character 's inability to tell Stevens that he loves her in the beginning of their relationship, saying that Karev has difficulty expressing himself. Though Stevens departs in season 6, series creator Shonda Rhimes has said that she would like the chance to create closure for both Karev and Stevens. Rhimes later retracted her comments and stated that she has no plans to ever re-approach Izzie 's storyline again. In the ninth season, Karev befriends intern Jo Wilson. They begin a relationship in the tenth season until their break - up in the twelfth season. However, they get back together again and marry in the fourteenth season. In the fifteenth season opener, Alex becomes interim chief of Grey Sloan Memorial after Miranda Bailey takes a stress sabbatical.
His mother had a mental illness, and his father was often absent, as well as often becoming violent towards Alex and his mother. Alex began wrestling in high school, and eventually physically confronted his father - after this, his father did not return. Alex has a younger brother, Aaron, and a younger sister, Amber; they were all placed in foster care for 5 years. Though Aaron and Amber only had a few foster families, Alex went through 17 foster families in 5 years before he reunited with his siblings. It is revealed in later seasons that Aaron was diagnosed with schizophrenia and tried to kill Amber. Alex was present when Aaron had to be committed to a psychiatric ward.
Alex secured a position in the surgical residency program at Seattle Grace Hospital after graduating from the University of Iowa. He initially makes a poor impression on his fellow interns meeting fellow interns Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight), and Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) whom he later taunts when he discovers she used to be a lingerie model. After initial disagreements, Alex reveals to Izzie that his father was a heroin addict who used to beat his mother. He became a wrestler so he could defend his mother, and attended university on a wrestling scholarship. He and Izzie begin a friendship. At the end of the first season, George contracts syphilis from Alex through nurse Olivia Harper, causing animosity between the two.
Alex asks Izzie out on a date, but he is thrown by the news that he has failed his medical board exams. Izzie is offended since he pays no attention to her during their date and so informs him that she no longer wants to go out with him. He later freezes during an emergency operation, needing George to take over from him. Alex 's relationship with Izzie is damaged when he experiences erectile dysfunction with her. He goes on to sleep with Olivia again, and is caught by Izzie and they break up. After retaking his exams, Alex manages a pass, and reunites with Izzie after a bomb scare in the hospital. They break up again, however, when Izzie falls for cardiothoracic patient Denny Duquette.
Alex helps Izzie recover from Denny 's death and advances Izzie but Izzie backs away since she is still in the process of getting over her loss and they remain friends. Alex spends a period of time working under neonatal surgeon Dr. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh), and though he is later released to work for plastic surgeon Dr. Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), he finds his interest returning to Addison 's firm. Addison is attracted to Alex, and the two share a kiss and later sleep together. In the aftermath of a ferry accident, Alex rescues a pregnant woman (Elizabeth Reaser) who awakes with amnesia, and grows close to Alex as he helps her forging an identity for herself, picking out the name Ava. After she gives birth to her daughter, Ava 's memory eventually returns, although she tries to hide it from Alex as she had recently left a bad marriage. He convinces her to tell him her true identity, and she reveals herself to be Rebecca Pope. Alex turns her down after realizing she 's married, feeling that he is not good enough for her.
Rebecca returns and she and Alex sleep together before she goes back to her husband. Alex has a brief relationship with intern Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), but chooses to be with Rebecca when she returns and tells him she is pregnant. After Rebecca attempted suicide, Izzie convinces Alex to admit her for psychiatric help due to Rebecca 's hallucinations of her pregnancy. Alex later breaks down in Izzie 's arms, and the two kiss.
Later in their relationship, Izzie begins hallucinating about Denny, and uncovers the fact she has metastatic melanoma (Stage IV) with an estimated chance of 5 % survival. It is revealed that Izzie 's hallucinations of Denny are, in fact, caused by her tumor. Alex is shocked by the news, but finds the strength to stay by her side. Izzie plans a wedding for Meredith and Derek, but when Derek finds Izzie has another inoperable tumor in her brain, they give the wedding to Izzie and Alex, who marry in front of all their friends. Izzie debates whether or not she should undergo a risky surgery to remove her tumor and Alex supports her, but eventually insists that she should have the surgery. Alex performs CPR on Izzie after she flatlines.
Izzie regains a heartbeat but is soon fired leaving Alex a Dear John letter and no clue as to her whereabouts. She later returns to the hospital and says to Alex, thinking he had a hand in getting her fired, that she could not forgive him for talking to the Chief. Alex says he could not forgive her either for not giving him the benefit of the doubt and leaving without talking to him first. Alex re-kindles an old flame with Lexie. Alex seems to have recently found that his calling is actually Peds and not Plastics as he had decided in the earlier seasons. Seeing Alex 's ability to handle child patients, Dr. Arizona Robbins shows an interest in mentoring him for that specialization. Alex 's brother Aaron comes to Seattle Grace for surgery, and lots of painful memories resurface because of this. Meredith discovers Alex, along with Aaron and their sister Amber, had been in foster care for five years when their mother could not take care of them. Alex is also served with divorce papers from Izzie. Alex is shot in the hospital by a deceased patient 's husband, but survives with the help of Lexie and Mark. While undergoing treatment, he mistakes Lexie for Izzie.
Following the shooting, Lexie has a mental breakdown in front of Alex and he walks away. Dr. Bailey bars Alex from surgery until he has the bullet removed, which he later allows her to do. Alex realizes that his passion lies in Pediatric Surgery. He is further shown to be excellent with children, comforting with a young patient while growing her a new trachea. He immediately gets on the wrong side of new Pediatric attending Stark while Arizona is on leave. Alex then attempts to sleep with virgin April Kepner after visiting his mom in Iowa when his brother was diagnosed schizophrenia. Alex and Meredith perform an emergent surgery on a young boy by themselves during the night shift, dealing with the angry fallout from Stark (who would not answer his pager) but gaining the wordless approval of the Chief. Alex is thrilled when Arizona returns from Africa and hopes she will come to work for the hospital again. In the meantime, Alex falls for the new OBGYN attending, Lucy Fields, and they start a relationship after she kisses him. Alex finds out about Meredith sabotaging her Alzheimer 's clinical trial and rats her out in attempt to get Chief Resident.
The adoption counselor takes away Zola, the child Meredith wanted to adopt. Realizing his mistake, Alex apologizes to Meredith who forgives him shortly after. As the end of the fifth year of residency is near, the surgical residents, including Alex, prepare for their board exams for the different fellowships they plan on joining. Though Alex is late for his exam because he had to treat a patient, he ends up passing. Dr. Webber tells him that Johns Hopkins Hospital, which has the top program in the country, has been very impressed with him and has decided to create a position in pediatrics surgery for him and accepts the position. After finding out his decision, his current boss, Dr. Arizona Robbins, yells at him and takes his place on a plane that later crashes.
Following the rescue of his colleagues, Robbins ' health deteriorates and amputates her leg. He extends his stay at Seattle Grace until a replacement for Robbins is found, but when he learns that the replacement will send the exchange program to UCLA, he decides not to leave. Karev buys Meredith 's old house from her, and Cristina becomes his roommate. Karev forms a friendship with new intern, Jo Wilson that eventually develops into romantic feelings towards each other. Alex admits his love for Jo, and the two kiss and become a couple.
Alex 's estranged father, Jimmy, who he has n't seen in 18 years, is admitted to the ER as a patient. After being discharged, Jimmy plays with his band at a bar, and Alex spends several nights watching his father perform onstage. Unknowing that Alex is his son, Jimmy confides in Alex that he had another family that he has n't seen in years. This made Alex upset and he punched Jimmy at the bar. Once returning home, Alex unleashes his hurt and anger on Jo for having encouraged him to reconnect with his father. His father returns suffering from symptoms of withdrawal and hallucinations of the past where more is revealed about Alex 's childhood. Jimmy tells Alex he knows that he is his son and Alex yells at his dad stating that "I WAS THE DAD ''. His dad later goes into cardiac arrest and is brought into surgery, fate unknown. Alex kisses Jo at April 's wedding wanting to start a family with her. That night his dad died, due to a mistake by intern, Shane Ross, and Alex is upset. He punches Ross and is later comforted by Meredith.
Upon the completion of his fellowship in Pediatric Surgery, Alex is given an offer to work at Dr. Oliver Lebackes ' private practice office, claiming that he will have more flexible hours and "a big fat paycheck ''. Alex takes this offer happily. Robbins is initially angered by this decision and thinks that Alex is choosing money over substance. Eventually she realizes that he has become a wonderful surgeon and that she is happy to see him go. He later discovers that he is n't happy working at the private practice and expresses a desire to return full - time to Grey Sloan. When Cristina leaves for Switzerland, she leaves Alex her share of the board, including her seat.
Alex is fired by Dr. Lebackes when Maggie Pierce accidentally reveals to him that Karev was thinking about leaving the job. Webber recommended Bailey to fill Yang 's board seat after she left, so Bailey and Alex fight over the chair. They both make presentations to the board and eventually Bailey wins, with a unanimous vote in her favor. He is hired back as an attending Peds surgeon and takes over full - time as Arizona pursues a fellowship with Dr. Herman. Alex continues to date Jo and his friendship with Meredith grows stronger than ever, with him taking on the role of her new person. When Derek dies and Meredith runs away, Alex is upset by her leaving without telling him where she went and calls her everyday. Eventually she calls him, tells him she is okay, and to stop calling. When she goes into labor and gives birth to Ellis Shepherd, Alex goes to see her since he is her emergency contact. He brings Meredith and her kids back to her house. She asks to move back in with him in her old house. Alex sells Meredith back the house and he and Jo rent a loft.
Alex and Jo continue to struggle with their relationship. Alex wants to settle down, marry Jo, and have kids. However, Jo continues to resist. When Karev proposes to her, Jo tells him she ca n't marry him, so he breaks up with her. Later, Alex realizes that he misses Jo and gets her back. They seem to be doing well for some time, until Alex brings up marriage again and the two fight, as Jo still continues to argue that she can not marry him. Alex storms out, leaving their relationship uncertain. During Owen and Amelia 's wedding, Alex realizes that even though she wo n't marry him, he loves Jo and goes back to her again. However, when he arrives at their loft, he finds Jo highly intoxicated, wearing nothing but her bra and underwear, and surgical intern, Andrew Deluca lying on top of her. Alex assumes that Deluca was attempting to take advantage of Jo while she was inebriated and is filled with rage. He beats Deluca to a pulp with his bare hands.
Andrew is badly injured, with his face bruised beyond recognition. He is unconscious and on the verge of dying. Alex realizes what he 's done and quickly rushes Deluca to the hospital. There, the doctors call the police as they struggle to save Andrew and discover who did this to him. Alex lies to everyone and says that he found Andrew in this state and brought him to Grey Sloan. However, Ben Warren is suspicious of Karev. Meredith also quickly realizes that Alex was in fact the one who beat Deluca. She covers for him and the two continue to lie to everyone in the hospital about Alex 's actions. Soon, Karev learns that Andrew was n't doing anything wrong and that he had beaten up a good guy. Meredith decides that even though she loves Alex, she needs to turn him in. She goes to Bailey and tells her the truth. But, when the two rush to the police they find Alex being arrested for aggravated assault, as he had turned himself in. He is taken to jail and Meredith bails him out. While they wait for a trial, Bailey suspends Alex as an attending and makes him work in the clinic. Eventually, Jo finally tells Alex that the reason she could n't marry Alex is because she is already married. Her husband is abusive and so she ran away and changed her name to Jo Wilson so that he would n't find her. Alex realizes that when Jo is called to the stand as a witness in the trial, this information about her past and lack of records under the name Jo Wilson may be revealed, and when the information goes public, her husband may find her. To keep her safe, he decides to take the plea deal without a trial, ensuring that he goes to jail for 2 years. However, when Alex tells Meredith this, she begs him not to and tells him that she ca n't lose him too because she 's already lost everyone else important in her life. Alex struggles to decide whether or not to take the plea deal.
Meredith searches for Alex 's case online, to find that the trial had been put off indefinitely. She assumes that he took the plea, and began calling and visiting various local jails to find him. After a full day of searching without finding him, she goes home to sleep, and discovers him sleeping in her bed. He explains he slept there all day. He explains that during his meeting with the D.A. Deluca came in and dropped all charges. Alex was then free to continue being Alex.
After returning to work, Alex and Jo try to ignore each other and eventually build up a tolerance of sorts towards each other. Deluca and Alex continue to be at odds, especially when he becomes closer to Jo. However, nothing comes of it and they both keep their distance. At the end of the season, Alex hires an investigator to look for Jo 's abusive husband. The investigator finds him and tells Alex that he will be at a conference. Meredith tells him it 's a horrible idea and that he should n't go, especially considering Jo does n't know about the situation. Alex flies out to the conference with the intention of telling him to get out of her life, no matter the means. When he meets him, Alex decides against confronting him over Jo, avoiding exposing her current identity and location and potentially stopping himself from assaulting someone yet again. He returns to Seattle, leaving the convention early.
At the start of season 14, Alex and Jo start to warm to each other. Jo tells Deluca that she is still in love with Alex. Because Stephanie has left the hospital after an explosion that almost killed her, Jo turns to Warren to confide in. After she tells him her true feelings about whole situation with Alex, Warren tells him that Jo is scared that he might hurt her. Alex goes to Jo and tells her that he could never abuse her like her husband did because he dealt with the same trauma as a kid as his father was abusive. He then tells her that he found her husband. Jo is taken back by this but when Alex tells her that he did n't kill or injure him in anyway, she is relieved and finally trusts him again. They then restart their relationship and Jo is now encouraged to file for divorce against her abusive husband.
The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) characterized Karev as "honest '', "always tells it like it is '', while also citing his mouth, his punctuality and him being a "smart - ass '' as his weaknesses. Shonda Rhimes said of Karev: "I love that we have a character who can do something wonderful but still be a selfish cranky ass about it. Alex gets to be complex in ways most characters do n't because even though he 's got a moral code, his moral code is totally twisted and dark. But he 's essentially good -- deep down inside. '' Carolina Paiz, one of the writers of the series, wrote: "He has so much going on inside... you think you 've got him figured out but then he just reveals this whole other side to him. ''
"He is superficial sleazeball who turns out to be a nice guy and a talented doctor with an amazing bedside manner, as well as the budding love interest of Katherine Heigl 's character Isobel. '' DVD Verdict wrote of the character 's development in the fourth season: "Love him, hate him, or both, Karev speaks his mind, rough edges and all. But ultimately his cold heart seems to be softened by his blossoming relationship with Jane Doe / Ava / Rebecca. '' Rhimes felt that the 100th episode during which Karev marries Stevens showed how he had grown up: "Look at him. Standing at the altar and saying those vows like a man. (...) He 's become a man who can step up. And I love him for it. ''
Analyzing Alex Karev, Rachel Simon called him "underrated; '' she pointed out that Alex 's personal growth never seems to get acknowledged, as "Alex begins Grey 's as an arrogant, obnoxious intern who pushes away anyone who tries to care about him. He breaks Izzie 's heart 1,000 times, and then acts surprised when she falls for someone else. He sleeps with any girl who will have him, insults everyone who does n't, and generally enjoys being the hospital asshole. Yet, over the course of 10 seasons Alex has evolved, slowly and realistically, into a genuinely good person whose faults do n't miraculously disappear, but take a backseat to much better qualities. ''
Former television columnist for The Star - Ledger Alan Sepinwall disapproved of Karev 's flirt with Addison as "he should take interest in a woman 's speciality and respect his boss without getting in her pants. '' Reviewing the fifth season, Chris Monfette of IGN wrote: "Alex, who 'd become simply the cast 's angry outcast, was uplifted as his relationship with Izzie became more and more substantial, and his bedside scenes with her toward the end were some of his character 's best material yet. ''
On his career path as a Pediatric Surgeon Examiner wrote, "Despite his rough exterior, Alex has a certain child - like innocence and need for acceptance. He is keen in recognizing these traits in kids, as well. He reaches out to kids on many levels. '' and added, "Alex has major trust issues. Maybe it was the constant beatings from his father. Or, his mother 's mental illness. Or, being shuffled through 17 foster homes over a 5 year period. Who would n't have issues with a childhood like that? ''
Specific
General
|
paul mccartney and wings venus and mars rock show | Venus and Mars / Rock Show - wikipedia
"Venus and Mars / Rock Show '' is a medley of two songs written by Paul and Linda McCartney and originally performed by Wings that make up the first two songs of the album Venus and Mars. The single was released in the United States on 27 October 1975 and in the United Kingdom on 28 November 1975. The B - side was "Magneto and Titanium Man '', another track from the album. The single version is considerably shorter than the album version of the songs; in the single "Rock Show '' is cut by more than 3 minutes and "Venus and Mars '' is cut by a few seconds. "Venus and Mars / Rock Show '' peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US, but did not chart on the UK singles chart, the first McCartney penned single to do so. In the book The Rough Guide to the Beatles, Chris Ingham praised both songs, describing "Venus and Mars '' as "atmospheric '' and "Rock Show '' as "barnstorming ''.
"Venus and Mars '' is an acoustic, folk - like song representing the perspective of a concertgoer waiting for the show to start. Originally when the song was released fans believed the title referred to Paul and Linda. Paul has denied this, stating that the song "is about an imaginary friend who 's got a girlfriend who 's the kind of person who asks what your sign is before they say hello. That 's it: ' A good friend of mine studies the stars. ' In fact, in the first verse it 's ' a good friend of mine follows the stars, ' so it could be ambiguous: a groupie or an astrologer. '' The song is in the key of D major.
"Rock Show '' is a harder arena rock song. The chorus of "Rock Show '' mentions concerts at Amsterdam 's Concertgebouw, New York 's Madison Square Garden, and Los Angeles ' Hollywood Bowl. The verses include musical references such as "Silly Willy with the Philly band '' and Jimmy Page 's guitar, and the Rainbow Theatre. In addition to the normal Wings line - up, Allen Toussaint played piano on this song. "Rock Show '' is in the key of A major. A major is the dominant key of D major, the key of "Venus and Mars ''.
"Venus and Mars ''
"Rock Show ''
Hand Bells are only played on the album version (Credits from 2014 Deluxe Venus and Mars Remaster)
"Venus and Mars '' also has a reprise that appears on the Venus and Mars album, which serves to open the second side of the LP record. The reprise incorporates some science fiction lyrics and sound effects, reflecting McCartney 's reading Isaac Asimov at the time the song was recorded.
The single version of the medley was released on the History disc of the 2 - disc compilation Wingspan: Hits and History. Both songs are also included on the live album Wings Over America, combined in a medley with "Jet ''.
In 2014 the medley was covered by Kiss on The Art of McCartney covers album.
|
when does the old 10 euro note cease to be legal tender | 10 euro note - wikipedia
First series: hologram stripe with perforations, reflective glossy stripe, EURion constellation, watermarks, raised printing, microprinting, ultraviolet ink, security thread, matted surface, see - through number, barcodes and serial number
The ten euro note (€ 10) is the second - lowest value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro (in its cash form) in 2002. The note is used in the 23 countries which have it as their sole currency (with 22 legally adopting it); with a population of about 332 million. In September 2011, there were approximately 2,005,149,600 ten euro banknotes in circulation around the eurozone.
It is the second - smallest note measuring 127x67 mm with a pink colour scheme. The ten euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in Romanesque architecture (between the 11th and 12th centuries). The ten euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks, invisible ink, holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity.
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999, when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe. For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency, only used in accountancy. Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002, when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12, such as the Italian lira and the German mark.
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia joined on 1 January 2014. and Lithuania joined on 1 January 2015.
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever.
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank, Wim Duisenberg, who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean - Claude Trichet, whose signature appears on issues from November 2003. Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank, incumbent Mario Draghi.
A new series, similar to the current one, was released on 23 September 2014. The European Central Bank will, in due time, announce when banknotes from the first series lose legal tender status.
The first series issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union: Cyprus is not depicted on those notes as the map does not extend far enough east; Malta is also missing as it does not meet the first series ' minimum size for depiction.
Since the European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years after each issue, a second series (Europa series) of banknotes was already in preparation in 2012. New production and anti-counterfeiting techniques are employed on the new notes, but the design is of the same theme and similar colours of the current series; bridges and arches. However, they are recognisable as a new series.
The ten euro note is the second smallest at 127 millimetres (5.0 in) × 67 millimetres (2.6 in) with a red colour scheme. All bank notes depict bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style; the ten euro note shows the Romanesque era (between the 11th and 12th centuries). Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments, for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era.
Like all euro notes, it contains the denomination, the EU flag, the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages, a depiction of EU territories overseas, the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below.
As a lower value note, the security features of the ten euro note are not as high as the other denominations, however, it is protected by:
The European Central Bank is closely monitoring the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes. It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity throughout the euro area.
In January 2018, there were 2,359,096,495 € 10 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone. for € 23,590,964,950.
This is a net number, i.e. the number of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem central banks, without further distinction as to who is holding the currency issued, thus also including the stocks held by credit institutions.
Besides the date of the introduction of the first set to January 2002, the publication of figures is more significant through the maximum number of banknotes raised each year. The number is higher the end of the year, except for this note in 2002.
The figures are as follows (Nov. 3, 2017):
On September 2014, a new ' Europe ' series was issued.
The first series of notes were issued in conjunction with those for a few weeks in the series ' Europe ' until existing stocks are exhausted, then gradually withdrawn from circulation. Both series thus run parallel but the proportion tends inevitably to a sharp decrease in the first series.
The latest figures provided by the ECB are the following:
Legally, both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes. In practice, only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes. The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations.
There are several communities of people at European level, most of which is EuroBillTracker, that, as a hobby, it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands, to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled. The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread, like from where and to where they travel in general, follow it up, like where a ticket has been seen in particular, and generate statistics and rankings, for example, in which countries there are more tickets. EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016, worth more than € 2.897 billion.
|
who was eliminated from american grit season 2 | American Grit - wikipedia
American Grit is an American reality television series that premiered on Fox on April 14, 2016. The series stars WWE wrestler John Cena. Fox ordered ten episodes for the first season of the competition series. On July 29, 2016, Fox renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on Sunday, June 11, 2017.
Competitors are divided into four teams of four, each led by a military veteran who is designated as the team 's Cadre and compete in a series of Team Challenges. All members of the winning team are safe from elimination and advance to the next round, while a member of each losing team is chosen to participate in an Elimination Challenge. The elimination continues until one contestant quits, fails the challenge, or becomes physically unable to continue, at which point he or she is eliminated from the competition. Eliminated competitors ring a ship 's bell on the site before departing, after the tradition of Navy SEAL trainees "ringing out '' if they choose to withdraw from the program. In the finale, the remaining competitors take part in an elimination challenge that concludes with a winner being named and receiving a $250,000 cash prize.
Filmed at the foothills of Mount Rainier in Eatonville, Washington, the first season focuses on "pushing teams to the brink '' and features sixteen contestants with a variety of fitness backgrounds. Competitors who lose during Team Challenges, called "Evolutions '', are selected by their own Cadre to participate in the Elimination Challenge. As long as a team has at least two members, a contestant can not be sent to two consecutive Elimination Challenges. The Elimination Challenge begins with an obstacle course, called "The Circus '', followed by an endurance test. The obstacle course remains constant, but the endurance test differs in each episode. The endurance test begins once all three participants have completed the obstacle course, with the first - and second - place finishers receiving an advantage over the third - place finisher, and concludes with the elimination of one competitor. As a team - based competition, all surviving members of the last remaining team are eligible to win. The season was won by Clare Painter and Mark Bouquin of Team Noah.
Taking place in Hampton Island, Georgia in a location referred to as "Camp Grit '', the second season focuses on "helping competitors find their grit '' and features contestants with various issues "who either have lost their grit or never had it ''. Seventeen competitors appear at the start of the competition, one of whom is eliminated before the teams are formed. The Cadre of the winning team chooses the members of the losing teams who will be sent to the Elimination Challenge and consecutive appearances are allowed. Only an endurance test is featured in the Elimination Challenge and no advantages are provided to its participants. Depending on the Elimination Challenge, it concludes with one or two contestants being eliminated. The competition eventually becomes contestant - based, with all remaining competitors ultimately competing against each other and only one winner being named. Winning the second season was Gigi Gustin of Team Grady.
The contestants of Season 1 range in age from 22 to 54.
The second season contains 17 contestants, ranging in age from 20 to 48.
^ Note 1 George was originally on Team Grady, but later became a member of Team Burk.
Sixteen competitors are split into teams of four. Led by the Cadre, four retired military members, the teams face the Evolution, which challenges their team skills. Team Noah wins the Evolution, an obstacle course where a log must be carried through holes in walls, carried over three miles, and placed in a locked hole. The other three teams pick Chris (Tee), Goldie (Rorke), and Jim (Nick). The three must hold a rope weighted with a sandbag. Chris drops the bag first, and rings out.
After Chris ' departure, the members of Team Tee find themselves one person down. The Evolution involves collecting a raft after climbing over a wall. They must row across a cold lake. Once on the other side, the teams must get a paddle back across the lake, either by opening a locked box, or by bringing the 100 - pound lockbox. Team Noah wins again, followed by Team Tee. Tee sends Brooke to the Circus competition, Nick send KJoy, and Rorke sends Haze. Haze sets the record for the fastest time in the Circus. The endurance test is to do ten burpees, then submerge themselves in ice water. After many cycles of doing this, Brooke passes out and is eliminated.
The teams are challenged to move a full camp and set it up exactly the way they found it. Tee 's group, being two members down, finds an advantage because they only have to set up two tents, while the other teams set up four. After packing the equipment into big suitcases, the teams must swim across the lake, build a wheelbarrow, and take all the wheelbarrow parts to the new campsite. Team Noah wins, followed by Team Tee, in the closest finish so far in the season. Tee sends Tony to the Circus, Rorke sends Marc, and Nick sends Cam. The endurance test is to stand on a wooden post, then switch to a higher and narrower post fifteen minutes later. Marc falls off while transitioning to the third and final post, and is eliminated.
The teams must find and remember eight pictures to put on a board. Team Noah wins once again, extending the winning streak to four. In the Circus, Ivette must go because Tony went the previous week. Nick sends Maria, and Rorke sends Haze (who was the only person to previously face the Circus). Ivette arrives first after rolling over and passing Haze. The endurance portion is to hold onto a band of a pole, then switching to a lower band after 20 minutes. Maria is eliminated after slipping while adjusting back to the higher post.
The teams must show survival skills by setting up a tent, purifying water, and making fire tall enough to ignite two flares. Cena then reveals there are two paths: a longer one with easier steps, and a shorter one with harder, longer steps. Team Nick breaks Team Noah 's winning streak, by finishing first. In the Circus, Tony is forced to enter, Rorke chooses Mario, and Noah chooses Lisa. The endurance portion is to run laps between logs in under twenty seconds. The time shortens to 15 seconds after the fifteenth lap, and 10 seconds after the twentieth lap. After lap 25, Lisa is unable to touch the log in under ten seconds. She rings out and leaves.
The Evolution involves the teams using supplies to build bridges across various obstacles strewn across a 60 - foot long field without their feet touching the ground. If a member 's feet touch the ground, they must restart that portion of the obstacle. Team Noah wins the event and regains their confidence. They win a weightlifting workout with Cena as a reward. For the Circus, Team Tee is forced to send Ivette, Team Rorke sends Goldie, and Team Nick sends Jim. The endurance portion involves squatting to fit inside of a three - foot by five - foot frame while balancing a small cylinder on a plank. The first person to drop the cylinder or leave the frame is eliminated. Eventually, Ivette 's cylinder falls, and she rings out and leaves.
All the teams receive land navigation compasses, and most teams struggle to learn to use them, but Mark from Team Noah has land nav experience and teaches the rest of the team how to use the device. Early the next morning, the teams are all blindfolded and taken to an unknown location in the woods. From there, they must use the compass and gear they are supplied to locate a checkpoint, solve a navigation problem at the checkpoint to get a map, then carry their gear to the finish. In a close finish, Team Noah wins again and is rewarded with massages. Rorke gives his team gifts of custom ammo shells to help inspire them. At the Circus, Tony is forced to go, while Rorke sends Mario and Nick sends KJoy. The endurance challenge involves carrying sandbags uphill and over a set of steps, and they must move at a constant pace. If a contestant stops or slows down too much, they will be eliminated. After over an hour of this endurance, KJoy can not go any further and she quits, ringing out and going home.
At base camp, the teams are told the winners of the next Evolution will win visits from their loved ones. The Evolution involves one team member building a barricade with various materials in thirty minutes around a bunker with flags inside it. After thirty minutes, another team member must attempt to breach an opponent 's bunker with a pair of pliers and retrieve their flag. Tony, on his own, barely beats out Mario and wins immunity and a visit from his family. Cam and Haze have a date and Nick is concerned that Haze is playing with Cam 's emotions. Tony surprises Haze by sacrificing his reward so that she can visit her father instead. For the Circus, Nick chooses Cam, Rorke chooses Goldie, and Noah chooses Mark. Cena reveals that for this Circus, the military Cadre can not assist. The endurance challenge involves stilts held together at the top with chains and three sets of increasingly smaller footholds on them. The contestants must climb the stilts and switch to the higher and narrower footholds at Cena 's signal. After 45 minutes of this endurance, Cam slips and falls, and he is forced to ring out and go home.
The Evolution involves obstacles over a five mile course: a tire shuffle, freeing a tire from a puzzle, crawling through a mud pit, and solving another tire puzzle, while each time grabbing a tire and carrying it back to a post at the start / finish line, and teams with multiple members must travel together. Tony wins his second Evolution in a row, guaranteeing him a spot in the finals. The Cadre each bring in a guest military member to give inspirational stories to their teams. Jim is forced to go to the Circus, while Noah sends Mark and Rorke sends Mario, which means by default that Clare and Haze are automatically in the finals, while Mark and Goldie are also automatically in due to being exempt from the Circus this week. The endurance trial involves a ladder that contestants must constantly climb down, under, up, and over within one minute. At the top of the ladder is a button which must be pressed, and the contestants must wait for all other contestants to press the button before the next cycle begins. In a rain - soaked Circus, Mario finishes the course first, but after over 71 rotations, he forgets to hit the button and is eliminated, ringing out and going home. Cena then reveals that the remaining contestants have only 30 minutes to gear up and get ready for the next challenge.
The contestants must cross a suspended traverse line hand - over-hand that spans over a 125 - foot high waterfall, and for teams with multiple members, the average time of the team will be what counts, with the winning team earning an advantage in the final Circus. Team Noah wins this challenge. Cena explains that the final Circus has been expanded, and he spends some time thanking the remaining contestants before bringing in their family members for a visit. Cena explains that all seven remaining contestants must run the tougher Circus twice, with a fifteen - minute endurance in between the two runs. The endurance involves a rope suspended from a pole with two knots tied into it. After the first run, contestants must hold on via the top knot, and after the second run, they must hold on via the bottom knot. Contestants will be eliminated one after another until one team remains and the remaining members of that team will be the winners. Team Noah 's advantage is a one - minute head start in the first run, which they use to gain the advantage in the first endurance. All teams make it through to the second run, and Tony from Team Tee finishes it first, Jim from Team Nick finishes second, Team Noah is third, and Team Rorke finishes fourth. Haze drops out in seventh place, David finishes in sixth, Goldie drops out in fifth and eliminates Team Rorke. Jim drops out next in fourth and eliminates Team Nick. After over 90 minutes of endurance, Tony drops out in third place eliminating Team Tee, and giving the win and the $250,000 prize to both Clare and Mark from Team Noah.
At the new location known as Camp Grit, John Cena and the new Cadre meet the 17 new competitors. Cena tells them that there are only 16 beds in the cabin, and that one contestant will go home before the team challenges start. The contestants race around a lake to claim one of the beds. The next day, the contestants are hung upside down over a lake, and the first person to give up will be eliminated. After over 30 minutes of the players being repeatedly dunked in the lake, no one gives up, and Cena ends the contest with no one eliminated. On day three, the contestants must spin a beach ball over their heads until the Cadre pick them for a team and only 16 players will be on the teams. Eventually, Heather is not chosen for a team and she is eliminated.
The four teams must complete a relay race where they must pass through a gate and get a flag then plant the flags at the finish line. In addition, when a gate is reached, one of the team members must complete a task of either putting on a shock collar, drinking a liquefied alligator tail, or stripping naked. Team Burk wins the race, but Cena tells them they will not be immune unless the fourth member who did not complete a task has their head shaved. Melanie agrees to have her head shaved and thus Team Burk wins immunity and Burk gets to choose one member of the other three teams for the Elimination Challenge. He chooses Nathalie, George, and Gill. The Elimination Challenge has the contestants hold a bar while standing inside a frame suspended over the lake. Every 15 minutes, the frame will be tilted forward. The first person to drop will be eliminated. Nathalie drops out first, ending her day.
The Team Challenge has the four teams blindfolded and in a canoe race where they must navigate a series of gates while being led by one member designated as team captain who is able to see. Team Grady wins the race and Grady chooses the other three team captains, Gill, Janessa, and Hannah, for the Elimination Challenge. In this challenge, the contestants have a set of four wheels slightly separate from one another which they must constantly keep spinning. The first contestant to have a wheel stop spinning is eliminated. After over an hour of endurance, one of Gill 's wheels stops turning and she is eliminated.
Cena advises the contestants that this week will have a double elimination. The Team Challenge has the members tethered together at the waist by a rope and they must complete a muddy race through a swamp. Team Grady wins the challenge, but Hannah from Team Burke is injured. She receives medical attention and is okay the next day. Grady selects Carla, Shermon, and Will for the Elimination Challenge. This challenge has the contestants balance on a platform while holding a ball over their heads suspended over the lake. When the ball is let go, it will swing into a bell to signal the elimination of that contestant. After an hour, Will loses control of the ball and is eliminated. After three hours, Shermon loses control of the ball and is also eliminated.
The Team Challenge has the members releasing triangle - shaped puzzle pieces that must be placed on stakes to spell out the words love, money, or power. If the winning team spells love, they win a visit from their families, while spelling money wins the team $1,000 each, and spelling power gives the team the ability to move members around. Team Chloe wins by spelling out love, and they earn a visit from their families. Chloe chooses Carla, Herman, and Melanie for the Elimination Challenge. In this challenge, there is an hourglass filled with sand which will slowly drain out. The competitors must repeatedly cross a balance beam and refill the sand using either a small bag or a larger bucket with holes in it. They also have one bucket of sand near the hourglass for a single use. The contestant whose hourglass drains out first is eliminated. Eventually, Melanie 's hourglass empties and she is sent home.
Cena tells the Cadre that they will not be beside their team for the challenge. The challenge tasks each individual to pick whether they would choose to do something for the team (worth more points) or something personally for themselves (worth less points). Team Burk wins and also gets the reward to steal someone from another team, while Carla secures a safety which grants her next week free of elimination. Chris, having won the reward for his team, takes George from Grady 's team. Burk sends Janessa, Scarlett, and Herman to the Elimination Challenge, which is a double elimination this week. The challenge is to hold on to an outcrop on a 45 ° slope with water running down it. Scarlett slides into the water and has to ring out, while an hour later, Janessa does too. Cena then reveals if all of one Cadre 's team has rung out, the Cadre too must ring out.
This week 's challenge looks nearly identical to the last Elimination Challenge in that there is a 45 ° slope with water running down it and a handle at the top, but this time, the Cadre are the ones who will participate. Grady wins the challenge and his team selects Richard, Alison, and Chris for the Elimination Challenge. In this challenge, three floating balls are under ropes, and the contestants must balance on the balls while using the ropes to prevent floating away. The first one to drop will be eliminated. Richard falls quickly and is sent home.
For this week 's Team Challenge there is a rotating set of four basketball hoops on one end of a court, a pile of colored balls on another, and large bungee cords in the middle. The contestants must run with the bungee attached to them to grab a ball then shoot it into an opponent 's colored basket. The first three teams that have five balls in their baskets will go to elimination, which this week is another double elimination. Alison secures the win for Team Chloe. By default, Carla is sent to elimination while Allison selects George and Herman. In this challenge, the competitors are harnessed to an underwater pulley system which supports a box that holds 50 % of each competitor 's weight. They must hold on to a rope while in the water to support the box. The first two competitors to let go will both be eliminated. Carla drops out first, eliminating Team Riki altogether. After over 50 minutes, George loses his grip and is eliminated.
With Riki 's team being eliminated, Riki becomes the first - ever Cadre to ring out. Cena visits the contestants and shares with them a story with details about his life. For the Team Challenge, Cena quizzes the contestants about details of his story, and they must slide down a ramp into a mud pit to grab a tile with the correct answer, then return it to the start. The first team with four correct answers is safe from another double elimination. Team Grady wins the challenge. All members of the other teams must compete in the Elimination Challenge. This challenge has the contestants balance a weighted ball on a shelf while also balancing themselves on an unstable platform. After ten minutes, they must transition to another platform that is more unstable. The first two contestants to drop their balls will be eliminated. After about 36 minutes, Alison drops her ball, thus also eliminating Team Chloe. A few minutes later, Chris drops his ball and is also eliminated.
Cena tells the remaining contestants that they are now competing as individuals and their Cadre can no longer assist them. In the first challenge, the contestants have a puzzle where every piece is the face of a former contestant, and they must put them in the order that they were eliminated. Michael solves the puzzle first, and he gets to choose two other people to compete with him in the finals. He chooses Hannah and Gigi to move on, thus eliminating Herman.
For the final challenge, the contestants are suspended over the lake while holding on to a crossbar. They will be quizzed on facts that occurred during the course of the season, and must answer them by releasing either their left or right hand. Getting a wrong answer results in a penalty of holding the bar with one hand for three minutes. The last competitor to hold on will be the winner. After over an hour, Hannah loses her grip and is eliminated in third place. After over two hours, Cena runs out of trivia questions and forces the two contestants to hold on with one hand for the remainder. Michael loses his grip and is eliminated, making Gigi the winner of season two of American Grit and the $250,000 prize.
|
what does the lead singer of aha look like now | Morten Harket - wikipedia
Morten Harket (born 14 September 1959) is a Norwegian musician, best known as the lead singer of the synthpop / rock band A-ha, which released ten studio albums and topped the charts internationally after their breakthrough hit "Take On Me '' in 1985. A-ha disbanded in 2010 after they played their last gig in Oslo. In 2015, after each member pursued his own artistic path, A-ha reunited to produce a new album, Cast In Steel, and perform a world tour, kicking off at Rock in Rio in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on 27 September 2015. Harket has also released six solo albums. Before joining A-ha in 1982, Harket had appeared on the Oslo club scene as the singer for blues outfit Souldier Blue.
The trio, composed of lead vocalist Harket, guitarist Paul Waaktaar - Savoy (Pål Waaktaar until his marriage in 1994), and keyboardist Magne Furuholmen, formed on 14 September 1982, and left Norway for London in order to make a career in the music business. They chose the studio of musician, producer, and soon - to - be-manager, John Ratcliff, because it had a Space Invaders machine. Ratcliff introduced the band to his manager, Terry Slater, and, after a few meetings, A-ha had two managers. Slater and Ratcliff together formed T.J. Management. Ratcliff dealt with all the technical and musical aspects; Slater was the international business manager and liaison to Warner Brothers ' head office. The band says the name A-ha comes from a title Paul contemplated giving to a song; he was dithering between the title "A-ha '' and "A-hem ''. Morten was looking through Paul 's notebook, and came across the name, which he liked, and immediately decided that was the right name.
In 1984, A-ha released their first single, "Take On Me '', which became a hit only on the third attempt in 1985, after it had been re-recorded and accompanied by a music video directed by Steve Barron. The single 's international success helped A-ha's debut album Hunting High and Low to sell over 10 million copies worldwide. Their second studio album was Scoundrel Days, followed by Stay on These Roads and East of the Sun, West of the Moon. The band then issued the commercially disappointing Memorial Beach, after which the band went on hiatus.
Harket re-joined his colleagues in A-ha in 1998 to perform at the Nobel Peace Prize concert. Since 1998, A-ha has released four studio albums and several compilations. Their eighth studio album Analogue was released in 2005, and became a big hit worldwide, achieving Platinum certification in the UK. The band 's last studio album before their split, Foot of the Mountain, was released in the spring of 2009.
Harket held a note for 20.2 seconds in A-ha's 2000 song "Summer Moved On '', believed to be the longest note in UK chart history. The note held exceeds the chest voice note in Bill Withers ' famous song Lovely Day by 2.2 seconds.
In October 2009, A-ha announced that they would disband after a farewell tour in 2010. Tickets for A-ha's final concert at the Oslo Spektrum on 4 December 2010 sold out within 2 hours.
On 27 September 2015, A-ha reunited for a huge crowd assembled at Rock in Rio 2015 festival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which led to a reunion tour and the Cast in Steel album.
In June 2017 the band performed for MTV Unplugged in their homeland. The performance was released as a live album that September.
Paul Waaktaar - Savoy describes Harket as being "totally different from me. '' He recalls the band 's first visit to London together, during which Harket burned all his clothes and re-fashioned his wardrobe. "He has given me self - confidence, encourages me to talk to people, not to be afraid and to use the abilities I have. Morten is actually the only one in Norway who had as much ambition as I did. I guess we both have big egos. In a way, we 're each sitting in our own little world, while Mags is more down to earth. Mags often has to mediate between Morten and me... It 's good that we 're so different and still respect each other. The tension between us is creative. ''
Magne Furuholmen describes Harket as "together ''. Furuholmen says Harket "believes strongly in everything he does. This goes for the band too, and it rubs off on us. He has the courage of his own convictions and can not be shaken. He 's an expert at always getting the last word, whether he 's right or not. Morten is very loyal and he 's fair when it comes to giving people a chance, letting them show who they are and what they 're worth before judging them. ''
The three members of a-ha, Morten Harket, Magne Furuholmen and Paul Waaktaar - Savoy, were appointed Knights of the 1st Class of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav for their contribution to Norwegian music. The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav is granted as a reward for distinguished services to their country and humankind. The official ceremony took place on 6 November 2012.
Before Morten joined Pål and Magne, he was the lead singer of a soul band called "Souldier Blue ''. In 1993, Harket performed a cover of "Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You '' by Crewe / Gaudio on the Coneheads movie soundtrack in 1993. After A-ha went on a hiatus in 1994, Harket pursued a solo career, and has so far released six studio albums. Two of those albums were sung in Norwegian, but his 1995 album, Wild Seed, became more of an international success because of its English lyrics. Harket worked with Håvard Rem, a Norwegian poet, to write most of the songs. "A Kind of Christmas Card '' and "Spanish Steps '' were the most successful numbers. The rest were either easy listening songs, or more profound songs, such as "East Timor '' and "Brodsky Tune '' which had political messages in them.
Harket has collaborated in live performances and in studio recordings with several artists. Among them, Pakistan rock band Junoon on the song "Piya '', Hayley Westenra on "Children First ''. He has also performed and worked with many other Scandinavian artists such as Bjørn Eidsvåg, Silje Nergaard, Oslo Gospel Choir, Espen Lind, Elizabeth Norberg - Schulz and Carola Häggkvist. On A-ha recordings, Morten has sung with Graham Nash, Lissie, Alison Moyet, Ian McCulloch, Ingrid Helene Håvik and Anneli Drecker.
Harket released another solo album, Letter from Egypt, on 28 May 2008 via Universal Records Germany. In 2009 Harket created and performed the main theme of A Name is a Name, a film about Macedonia by Sigurjon Einarsson. In April 2012 Harket released his new solo album, Out of My Hands in both Norway and Germany, and on 14 May in the UK... In April 2014, Harket released his sixth album titled "Brother ''. He also composed a song with his cousin 's son, Blade Whitehead, for an annual music night.
In addition to the numerous A-ha and solo concerts, Harket has also performed on various other shows & concerts as solo artist and with A-ha. Some notable ones:
Morten Harket is known for his vocal range, which some sources have claimed spans five octaves, although Harket himself said in 2009, "I 've never counted, quite honestly ''. His voice is capable of "the greatest falsetto in the history of pop music EVER... '', according to NME 's Sylvia Patterson, to an "unyielding groan '' as described in Entertainment Weekly. Sound engineer Gerry Kitchingham, who worked with A-ha on "Take On Me '', described Harket as "an excellent singer '' with "this incredibly strong falsetto and almost choir - boyish clarity ''.
The son of Reidar, a chief physician at a hospital, and Henny, an economics teacher and brother to Gunvald, Håkon, Ingunn and Kjetil, Morten grew up in Asker in southern Norway. Early musical influences included Uriah Heep, Jimi Hendrix, Queen, Johnny Cash, Simon and Garfunkel, David Bowie, and James Brown. Morten 's father had contemplated becoming a classical pianist; Morten also took piano lessons for a while but lacked the discipline to practice. At the age of four he started writing music and playing piano.
Harket has three children with his ex-wife Camilla Malmqvist Harket, to whom he was married between 11 February 1989 and 1998: Jakob Oscar Martinus Malmqvist Harket (b. 14 May 1989), Jonathan Henning Adler Malmquist Harket (b. 30 December 1990), and Anna Katharina Tomine Malmquist Harket (b. 14 April 1993, she uses Tomine as her first name). Harket also has a daughter, Henny, (born 7 February 2003), with then - girlfriend Anne Mette Undlien. Harket has another daughter, Karmen Poppy, (born 7 September 2008), with Inez Andersson.
Along with fellow band member Magne Furuholmen, Harket supports English Premier League football club Stoke City.
|
when does dan get arrested for killing keith | Dan Scott - Wikipedia
Former
Daniel Robert "Dan '' Scott is a fictional character on the WB / CW television drama series One Tree Hill who is the primary antagonist for the first four seasons before becoming a tragic fallen antihero and is played by Paul Johansson. He is the father of Lucas Scott (by Karen Roe) and Nathan Scott (by Deborah Lee), the grandfather of James Lucas Scott and Lydia Bob Scott (via Nathan) and Sawyer Brooke Scott (via Lucas) and the uncle of Lily Roe Scott.
Every good story needs a villain Lucas. I 'm sorry but I 'm yours.
Dan grew up in Tree Hill, NC and attended Tree Hill High, where he was the star of the Ravens basketball team. Towards the end of senior year, Dan got his girlfriend Karen Roe pregnant, but abandoned her to take a basketball scholarship to North Carolina. At college he met Deb Lee, who also became pregnant by him. Dan returned to Tree Hill on the night his and Karen 's son Lucas was born but, on seeing Keith with Karen at the hospital, Dan left without Karen seeing him. Dan and Deb married and moved back to Tree Hill with their son Nathan. Dan tried to get joint custody of Lucas, but Karen refused and Dan gave up on trying to be part of Lucas 's life. He later became a successful car salesman having set up his own business with Deb 's money. Dan is a man with big dreams and expectations, especially regarding his son Nathan, but he does n't handle it very well when they 're not fulfilled.
Dan is a controlling father to Nathan, who is now the Ravens ' star player, but has nothing to do with Lucas. When Lucas joins the Ravens, Dan encourages Nathan to give his half - brother a hard time. Dan puts so much pressure on Nathan that Nathan takes drugs to enhance his basketball performance, leading to him collapsing on the court. When Deb finds out, she asks Dan for a divorce. When Dan 's parents come to town for Dan 's birthday, it is revealed that Dan 's father Royal put similar pressure on Dan and that Dan faked the extent of an injury he suffered in college in order to give up basketball. Dan also has an uneasy relationship with Keith, due to Keith 's continuing friendship with Karen. When Keith crashes the car he is driving with Lucas inside, Dan pulls Lucas from the car and saves his life, leading to a temporary truce with Karen. Keith is left in financial difficulty due to Lucas 's medical bills and Dan offers to buy Keith 's garage from him while Keith continues to run it. However, it soon becomes clear that Dan will be running the garage in his own way and Keith quits. After being rejected by Karen, Keith turns to Deb for comfort and they have a one - night stand. On walking in on them in bed together, Dan tells Keith that he is no longer his brother. Dan is about to sign his divorce papers to Deb when he suffers a heart attack. When Deb finds Dan on the floor, Dan tells her "you 'd better hope I die. ''
After his heart attack, Dan claims to be a changed person and tries to get closer to Lucas. Dan and Deb are united in their disapproval of Nathan 's marriage to Haley. Dan claims to have forgiven Deb and Keith for their fling and a guilty Deb allows Dan to live with her while he recovers. It becomes clear that the new Dan is an act when he lies to Deb after being given a clean bill of health and it is revealed that Keith 's new girlfriend Jules was actually hired by Dan to seduce his brother. On discovering that he has the same heart condition as Dan, Lucas agrees to move in with Dan on the conditions that Dan pays for Lucas 's medication and keeps this from Karen, and also that Dan leaves Keith and "Jules '' alone. Dan keeps his promises but Karen discovers the truth about Jules and threatens to tell Keith, leading to Jules leaving Keith at the altar. Dan is delighted at this result and, after knocking down the groom on the wedding cake, looks at Deb saying "one down, one to go ''. On discovering what Dan did, Keith confronts Dan at the dealership and attacks him. Before leaving town, Keith tells Dan that he has nothing left to lose, but Dan does. When Nathan and Haley 's marriage is in trouble, Dan is quick to pounce, and gets Nathan to sign annulment papers and move back in with him and Deb. However, Deb wants Dan out of their lives for good, especially after learning that Dan told Nathan that it is his fault that Deb is now addicted to pills. Lucas continues to live with Dan in order to bring down his father once and for all. He finds cash and an incriminating ledger in the attic of the dealership and discovers that Dan has been making money illegally by changing the amounts on bills and pocketing the extra cash. However, Dan has made Deb the co-owner of the dealership, meaning that she would be incriminated too. Dan then reveals he left the cash and ledger for Lucas to find as a test of Lucas 's loyalty, which Lucas failed, and so Dan severs all ties to Lucas, even cutting off his son 's heart medication. Dan also sabotages Karen 's relationship with her business lecturer Andy by walking into one of Andy 's classes and telling everyone that Andy is sleeping with Karen, which leads to Andy losing his job. Dan then tries to have Andy deported back to New Zealand. When Karen angrily confronts Dan at the dealership, Dan grabs her and forcefully kisses her, saying "is n't that was this is really about? '' At the end of the season Dan falls unconscious after drinking a poisoned bottle of whisky that was left for him with a note saying "for everything you 've done ''. The dealership is then set on fire with Dan inside.
Dan survives the fire, but the dealership is destroyed. Dan at first thinks it was Lucas who tried to kill him when he remembers seeing him in the fire, but it is revealed that Lucas saved him. Wanting access to the fire investigation, Dan runs for mayor of Tree Hill. His family - based campaign includes having Deb pretend to love him in exchange for a final divorce. This ploy works and Dan is elected mayor. As mayor, Dan gains access to CCTV showing Keith buying the whisky used to drug Dan, and when Keith returns to town Dan has him arrested on suspicion of his attempted murder. Although the police release Keith due to lack of evidence, Dan still believes that Keith was the perpetrator, and things become worse when Keith announces that he is going to marry Karen and adopt Lucas. One day at Tree Hill High, Jimmy Edwards takes a gun to school and fires it, causing a lock down. Keith persuades Dan as mayor to let him go into the school to talk to Jimmy, but Jimmy commits suicide by shooting himself in front of Keith. Dan then gets into the school, picks up the gun and shoots Keith, killing him. Jimmy gets the blame for Keith 's death as it is assumed that he shot Keith before turning the gun on himself. Dan convinces himself that Keith deserved what he got as he started the war with Dan. Nevertheless, Dan becomes haunted, seeing visions of Keith as a child everywhere, and this has a profound effect on him. Realizing he has to change his ways he tries to get closer to Nathan, telling his son that he is proud of him and that he loves him. Haley then gives Dan a second chance by inviting him to her and Nathan 's second wedding. At the ceremony Deb tells Dan that it was her, not Keith, who tried to kill him in the fire. Dan goes to Keith 's grave and breaks down. Dan then apologizes to Karen for how he treated her and Lucas and she reveals that she is pregnant with Keith 's child. Dan takes her in his arms promising to be there for her this time. He then goes home and discovers that someone has written "MURDERER '' on his wall.
Dan tries to make amends for Keith 's death by looking after Karen. However, he still sees messages everywhere calling him a murderer, and wonders if it is all in his head. Meanwhile, Nathan is in deep debt and asks Dan to help him. Dan refuses and Nathan goes to a loan shark, Daunte, instead. Daunte forces Nathan to shave points in a basketball game and then demands that Nathan lose the State Championship. On discovering the trouble that Nathan is in, Dan confronts Daunte and offers to pay him off, but Daunte gets Dan to back down by threatening Nathan, Lucas, the pregnant Haley and Karen. When the Ravens win the State Championship, Daunte runs Haley over and crashes into a construction site. Nathan pulls Daunte out of the car and beats him, before realizing he is dead. Dan takes the fall for Nathan and is arrested. Dan plans to plead guilty to Daunte 's murder in order to be punished for Keith 's death, but the coroner 's report shows that Daunte was already dead when Nathan pulled him out of the car. Dan is released and the experience brings him and Karen closer together, as Karen admires what Dan was willing to do for his son. Dan and Karen begin to come together romantically, attending the school prom together as chaperones, but Dan continues to receive text messages and notes accusing him of killing his brother. Dan discovers that the person sending the messages is Abby Brown, a student who witnessed the shooting. Dan then visits Abby and her mother and tries to explain why he killed Keith, saying "Karen was mine, she was supposed to be mine ''. Abby leaves Tree Hill for good, but not before telling Lucas what she knows. Lucas walks in on Dan and his mother kissing and attacks Dan, shouting that he killed Keith, but Karen refuses to believe him. Lucas then goes to the police, but Dan has got there first and told them that Lucas is just trying to sabotage Dan 's relationship with Karen. On learning from Haley that Deb has a gun, Lucas steals the gun and confronts Dan in front of Karen, causing her to collapse. Lucas fires a warning shot to make Dan leave, before rushing the unconscious Karen to hospital. After learning from Deb that Dan killed Keith, Nathan confronts Dan and tells him that he will never be a part of his grandson 's life. After Karen 's daughter is born by c - section, Dan visits his new niece in the hospital, before turning himself in to the police.
Two weeks later, a recovered Karen visits Dan in his cell and tells him that she has a daughter, Lily, who will never know her father because of Dan, before spitting at him. Dan is so distraught by this encounter that he tries to hang himself in his cell with his bedsheet. The sheet unravels after a few seconds, and Dan falls to the floor, left to agonize over what he has done.
Four and a half years later, Nathan visits Dan in prison, and tells him that he will never be like him. Nathan then tells Dan that Jamie found a picture of him once and Nathan told him that his grandfather was dead. Later, a prison guard tells Dan that Nathan left behind an envelope, which contains a picture of Jamie. A parole hearing is held for Dan and despite Lucas pleading with the board not to be fooled by Dan, he is released. Soon after, Dan goes to a store to buy a basketball for his grandson and ends up sleeping with the cashier later that night. At Lucas 's wedding, Dan sits outside in his car and is confronted by Haley, who tells him to stay away from the family. When Jamie is abducted during the ceremony by his evil nanny, Carrie, Dan saves him and threatens Carrie, telling her that he killed his brother and would have no problem doing the same to her. Dan then returns Jamie to Nathan and Haley 's house and is attacked by Lucas and Nathan. On Jamie 's 5th birthday Dan goes to drop off a gift and has a confrontation with Deb. After the party Nathan goes and tells Dan to stay away and Dan reveals he only has six months to live due to his HCM. However, after the man in front of him on the heart transplant list dies, he becomes number one. Excited, he leaves the hospital and helps an old man retrieve his cane before suddenly getting hit by a car. Ironically, seconds later his beeper goes off because a heart has been found for him.
When he wakes up from the accident, it is revealed that Carrie, Jamie 's former nanny, was the one who ran him over, as revenge for interfering with her taking Jamie as her son. He finds himself in a "hospital room '' but when he tries to escape (Carrie is torturing him) he discovers that he is not in a hospital room, but in her house, in a room which Carrie designed to confuse him by disguising it as a hospital room by putting medical equipment and painting the room, as well as adding hospital - style curtains. Carrie devises a plan to get Jamie by telling Haley that Dan is dying, so that she 'll bring Jamie to see him. Carrie goes after Jamie, then Haley too. Dan shoots Carrie once she attempts to kill Haley and Deb. Carrie wakes up later that night, and reminds Dan that he promised he 'd kill her if she came near his family again, prompting him to keep his word and shoot her again, this time killing her. As a result, Nathan and Haley let Dan see Jamie, but Nathan quickly reminds his father that he still hates him for killing his uncle. Unfortunately, Dan still finds himself without a heart transplant and has to wait longer. In the mean time, he tries to be a father to Nathan by advising him on his basketball and has a talk with Lucas about the day of the school shooting to help with the Ravens movie. His relationship with Jamie also grows and he finally has a blowout with Deb about Keith. When his heart transplant does come, the man who delivers it trips over a dog 's leash and the dog eats it. Dan ultimately loses all hope and attempts to drown himself at a beach. He then goes to tells Jamie goodbye. Jamie becomes upset and asks him who killed Keith; and Dan admits that he did it. Dan leaves Tree Hill, but not before saying some last words to Lucas and Nathan. At the end of the season we see Dan as a broken man. He hates his life and wants to die. To make amends he goes to visit Coach Durham to whom he confesses that when he looks back on his life it all went wrong when he refused to play at the state championship. He tells Coach Durham that he should be dead but he is n't and that he realizes "this is my hell ''. He has to see his family experience the happiest moments of their lives but he ca n't feel them. To this Coach Durham replies "you created that, Danny ''. Dan then turns a gun on himself but ca n't bring himself to pull the trigger. He then forces the gun into Coach Durham 's hand and begs the latter to shoot him. Later, after Dan cries in his arms, Durham adds, "there is still time for redemption, son ''. Nathan shows up and tells Dan that he has made it to the NBA. Later Peyton lets Dan hold his other grandchild, Sawyer Scott. At the end of the episode he tells the audience that when he looks in the mirror he sees that he was supposed to be someone else, but fell short of that person.
Fourteen months have passed since the season six finale, and Dan is now a motivational speaker. He has his own TV show called Scott Free Redemption. He has also written a book with the same title. It is then revealed that he is married to Rachel Gatina. Dan reached out to his son Nathan when he read about him and Renee Richardson, who he meets, asking her to speak on his show. Dan reveals that Renee Richardson was lying about Nathan 's alleged affair and exposes her on his show. It is also revealed that Dan did in fact have a heart transplant as he quotes Renee Richardson 's con as "Takes a Con to Know a Con. '' About a year earlier, Dan traveled to Mexico to have a heart transplant. His new wife Rachel Gatina paid with his money for a family to pull the life support plug on their young son. The heart was then given to Dan. Dan returns to Tree Hill and tries to ask forgiveness from Nathan. Nathan will not forgive Dan, but only "tolerate '' him for Jamie 's sake. Dan then meets Clay, who he shakes up (by throwing him in the ocean), telling him not to give up on being an agent. On the eve of Nathan and Haley 's departure, Rachel gets Dan to do a live broadcast from the school hallway where he killed Keith. Dan then runs into Jimmy 's mother, who tells him she will never be able to forgive him. So instead of reading his script, Dan talks about his life and tells his audience that there is no forgiveness for him, only what comes next. He gives everything that he has to charity as well as divorce papers to Rachel. As he is preparing to leave Tree Hill, Nathan meets up with him to tell him that he 's back with the Bobcats, and says thank you. He then says goodbye to Jamie.
Dan has moved to a diner, and reappears again when Quinn visits him to help her to kill Katie Ryan, and he convinces her not to do it. In the finale, Nathan visits him and gives him a photo of Lydia and a baseball from Jamie 's first game and Dan thinks that there is a chance for forgiveness.
Dan burns down his diner and returns to Tree Hill and asks Haley for a place to stay, initially resistant, she offers him money, but he says that he does n't want money. He moves into Nathan and Haley 's house, to the delight of Jamie, who is excited to spend time with him. Nathan tells him that he is going to Europe and that when he comes back he wants him to be gone. When Nathan does not return from Europe, Haley and Jamie blame Dan. He rents out the sound stage from Julian and uses it to find Nathan. Dan, Julian, and Chris Keller save Nathan. However, Dan is shot while rescuing Nathan and dies in the hospital surrounded by Nathan, Haley, Deb, Jamie and Lydia. When he dies, he sees a vision of his brother Keith, who brings him to the hallway where Dan shot Keith and he tells him that he forgives him. When Keith goes into the light, Dan asks him "I know where you 're going, but what about me? '' and Keith says "Do n't worry little brother, You 're my plus one. ''
|
who wrote the tiger who came to tea | The tiger Who Came to Tea - wikipedia
The Tiger Who Came to Tea is a short children 's story, first published in 1968, written and illustrated by Judith Kerr. The book concerns a girl called Sophie, her mother, and an anthropomorphised tiger who interrupts their afternoon tea. The book remains extremely popular more than forty years after it was first published, and a theatrical adaptation of the story has been produced.
The original artwork for the book is held by Seven Stories, a children 's literature centre in the UK.
A little girl named Sophie is having tea with her mother in their kitchen. Soon they are joined for tea by a tiger who drinks all the tea, eats all the food in the house and drinks everything, even draining the water from the taps. Then he leaves. Sophie 's father comes home and suggests that they all go out and have a lovely meal in a cafe. The following day Sophie and her mother go out to buy some more food, including a big tin of tiger food. But the tiger never returns.
Kerr spent her early years in Berlin just before the start of the Third Reich and her father was on a death list because of his opposition to the Nazis. Michael Rosen, also a children 's author, claims the tiger could be based on her memory of the past threat: something that could have disrupted her life as a young child and taken everything the family owned.
Judith knows about dangerous people who come to your house and take people away. She was told as a young child that her father could be grabbed at any moment by either the Gestapo or the SS - he was in great danger. So I do n't know whether Judith did it consciously or not - I would n't want to go there - but the point is he 's a jokey tiger, but he is a tiger. (Michael Rosen)
However, Kerr has stated more than once that the tiger represents nothing more than a tiger, and had nothing to do with the Nazis. Kerr first invented the story after visiting a zoo with her three - year - old daughter and told it many times before making it into a book. The book took a year to write and illustrate. The Tiger Who Came to Tea is one of the best selling children 's books of all time.
This book has been produced in Braille. It is also published in German with the title Ein Tiger kommt zum Tee. It has been adapted into Welsh, entitled Y Teigr a Ddaeth i De. In this version, the little girl is renamed Catrin. There is also a Japanese edition "お ちゃ の じ かん に きた とら '' (Ocha no Jikan ni Kita Tora).
The book has been adapted for stage with music by David Wood. The original production featured the actors Devon Black, Alan Atkins and Abbey Norman.
|
when does season 4 of peaky blinders take place | Peaky Blinders (TV series) - wikipedia
BBC Two (Series 1 - 4)
Peaky Blinders is an English television crime drama set in 1920s Birmingham, England in the aftermath of World War I. The series, which was created by Steven Knight and produced by Caryn Mandabach Productions, Screen Yorkshire and Tiger Aspect Productions, follows the exploits of the Shelby crime family. Screen Yorkshire provided funding for the production through the Yorkshire Content Fund. It was the first production to receive funding from the Yorkshire Content Fund, which in turn made certain the majority of the show was filmed in Yorkshire as part of the deal.
Cillian Murphy plays Tommy Shelby, the gang 's leader, and Sam Neill as Chester Campbell is a commissioned detective from Belfast who is tasked with suppressing the gang. The series creators have reused the name of Peaky Blinders, a 19th century urban youth gang who were active in the city from the 1890s and were believed to sew razor blades into their caps.
The first series aired on BBC Two on 13 September 2013 and ran for six episodes. The second series premiered on 2 October 2014. The third series premiered on 5 May 2016. On 26 May 2016, the BBC announced they had ordered a fourth and fifth series of the show. The fourth series premiered on 15 November 2017; after the series finale broadcast on 20 December 2017, it was announced that the fifth series will be broadcast in 2019.
In May 2018, after their Drama Series win at the BAFTA TV Awards, Knight confirmed his "ambition of making it a story of a family between two wars, and by ending it with the first air raid siren in Birmingham '', which was 25 June 1940. He also confirmed that it would take another three series (seven in total) to complete the story up to that point.
Peaky Blinders is a gangster family epic set in Birmingham, England in 1919, several months after the end of the First World War in November 1918. The story centres on the Peaky Blinders gang and their ambitious and highly cunning boss Tommy Shelby (played by Cillian Murphy). The gang comes to the attention of Chief Inspector Major Chester Campbell (played by Sam Neill), a detective in the Royal Irish Constabulary sent over by Winston Churchill from Belfast, where he had been sent to "clean up '' the city of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), communists, gangs and common criminals. Winston Churchill (played by Andy Nyman in series 1 and Richard McCabe in series 2) charged him with suppressing disorder and uprising in Birmingham and recovering a stolen cache of arms meant to be shipped to Libya. The series concludes on 3 December 1919 -- "Black Star Day '', the event where the Peaky Blinders plan to take over Billy Kimber 's betting pitches at the Worcester Races.
The second series sees the Shelby family expand their criminal organisation in the "South and North while maintaining a stronghold in their Birmingham heartland. '' It begins in 1921 and ends with a climax at Epsom racecourse on 31 May 1922 -- Derby Day.
Series three starts and ends in 1924 as it follows Tommy and his family enter an even more dangerous world as they once again expand, this time, internationally. Internet - based film and TV news company Screen Rant said:
Series three also features Paddy Considine as Father John Hughes; Alexander Siddig as Ruben Oliver, a painter whom Polly enlists to paint her portrait; Gaite Jansen as Russian Grand Duchess Tatiana Petrovna; and Kate Phillips as Linda Shelby, wife of Arthur.
Series four begins on Christmas Eve, 1925 and ends following the general strike of May 1926.
Peaky Blinders was created by Steven Knight, directed by Otto Bathurst, and produced by Katie Swinden. The writers are listed as Steven Knight, David Leland, Stephen Russell and Toby Finlay.
The series was filmed in Birmingham, Bradford, Dudley, Leeds, Liverpool and Port Sunlight. Railway sequences were filmed between Keighley and Damems, using carriages from the Ingrow Museum of Rail Travel (owned by Vintage Carriages Trust) and carriages owned by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Trust. Many of the scenes for the show were shot at the Black Country Living Museum.
Sam Neill enlisted the help of Northern Irish actors James Nesbitt and Liam Neeson to help him perfect a Northern Irish accent for the role of C.I. Campbell. In the end, he had to tone down the accent since the series is being marketed in the United States.
Controversially the production did not hire linguists to assist in the show, leading to the gypsies frequently speaking broken Romanian (as opposed to Romani) until series three.
A second series was commissioned shortly after the broadcast of the first and aired in the autumn of 2014. On 11 January 2014, auditions were held in Digbeth area of Birmingham (near where parts of the series are set) for white and mixed race teenage male extras, resulting in lengthy queues.
Shortly after the final episode of the second series, the show announced via its official Twitter account that it had been renewed for a third series. On 5 October 2015, the official Peaky Blinders Twitter account announced that filming had begun for series 3. Filming wrapped on 22 January 2016, after 78 days of shooting.
During the initial broadcast of series 3, BBC Two renewed Peaky Blinders for series 4 and 5. Both 4 and 5 will follow suit for six episodes each. Filming for series 4 started in March 2017 and premiered on 15 November 2017. Creator and writer Steven Knight will return to write every episode of series 4 and 5. Cillian Murphy has also confirmed his return for both series; the rest of the main cast are expected to return as well, and it was announced that Charlotte Riley is returning as May Carleton. Adrien Brody and Aidan Gillen have been cast as new characters. On 13 October 2017, it was confirmed that the show will not include The Weinstein Company or its logo in its credits from the fourth series onward, even though the company was formerly involved in the US distribution of the series.
Reception for Peaky Blinders has been largely positive, with notable praise for its writing, acting, visual style, and stylish cinematography. David Renshaw of The Guardian summarised the series as a "riveting, fast - paced tale of post-first world war Birmingham gangsters '', praising Murphy as the "ever - so - cool Tommy Shelby '' and the rest of the cast for their "powerful performances. '' Sarah Compton of The Telegraph gave the series a 4 / 5 rating, praising the show for its originality and "taking all of our expectations and confounding them. '' Alex Fletcher from Digital Spy believes that "Peaky Blinders has started as sharp as a dart, '' while Den of Geek called the series "the most intelligent, stylish and engrossing BBC drama in ages. '' Cult TV Times critic Hugh David said the show "warrants the billing '' by "managing to tick several ratings boxes -- period drama, gangster epic, film star leads -- yet go against the grain of those in the most interesting of ways. ''
The show has been particularly celebrated for its stylish cinematography and charismatic performances, as well as for casting an eye over a part of England and English history rarely explored on television. Historians have been divided over whether bringing characters and events from other decades into a 1920s story undermines claims to historical accuracy, or whether working - class life in the period is nevertheless depicted in a truthful and resonant way. Reviews for the second series have remained positive, with Ellen E. Jones of The Independent commenting that "Peaky Blinders can now boast several more big - name actors to supplement the sterling work of Cillian Murphy, Helen McCrory and Sam Neill '', referring to second series additions Tom Hardy and Noah Taylor.
Several critics have also favourably compared the show to US drama Boardwalk Empire, which shares the same themes and historical context. Show writer Steven Knight stated in an early interview: "Do you know -- and I 'm not just saying this -- but I 've never watched them. I 've never seen The Wire, I 've never seen Boardwalk Empire, I 've never seen any of them. '' When asked if he deliberately avoided watching these dramas, he responded: "It 's sort of deliberate in that I do n't really want to be looking at other people 's work because it does affect what you do inevitably. '' On 2 March 2016, Steven Knight told the Crime Scene Quarterly, "I 've had unsolicited communication from Michael Mann, the film director, from Dennis Lehane, Snoop Dogg -- he 's such a fan. And the late David Bowie was a huge fan -- more of that to come '' (strongly hinting Bowie 's involvement on Series 3). It was later confirmed that David Bowie 's music would be featured, and Leonard Cohen had also written a new song for series 3.
On 24 September 2014, it was announced that Netflix had acquired exclusive US distribution rights from the Weinstein Company and Endemol. The entirety of series 1 became available for streaming on 30 September 2014; series 2 launched in November 2014. Series 3 was made available 31 May 2016. Due to licensing restrictions, however, most of the show 's original soundtrack is not available on the Netflix - distributed version of the series.
|
events that happened in 2012 in the united states | 2012 in the United States - wikipedia
Events in the year 2012 in the United States.
))
|
when is the newest pokemon game coming out | Pokémon (video game series) - Wikipedia
Pokémon is a series of video games developed by Game Freak published by Nintendo as part of the Pokémon media franchise. Since the establishment of The Pokémon Company, Nintendo stopped to publish the series in Japan, only doing it overseas while the brand company of Pokémon publishes it in the country. First released in 1996 in Japan for the Game Boy, the main series of role - playing video games (RPGs), also referred as the "core series '' by their developers, has continued on each generation of Nintendo 's handhelds.
The games are commonly released in pairs, each with slight variations, with a remake of the games usually released a few years after the original versions for another console. While the main series consists of RPGs, spin - off games encompass other genres, such as action role - playing, puzzle, fighting, and digital pet games.
As of November 24, 2017, more than 300 million Pokémon games have been sold worldwide, across 76 titles. This makes Pokémon the second best - selling video game franchise, behind Nintendo 's own Mario franchise.
All of the licensed Pokémon properties overseen by The Pokémon Company are divided roughly by generation. These generations are roughly chronological divisions by release; when an official sequel in the main role - playing game series is released that features new Pokémon, characters, and possibly new gameplay concepts, that sequel is considered the start of a new generation of the franchise. The main games and their spin - offs, the anime, manga and trading card game are all updated with the new Pokémon properties each time a new generation begins. The franchise began its seventh generation with Pokémon Sun and Moon, which were released worldwide on November 18, 2016.
The original Pokémon games are Japanese role - playing video games (RPGs) with an element of strategy, and were created by Satoshi Tajiri for the Game Boy. These role - playing games, and their sequels, remakes, and English language translations, are still considered the "main '' ' Pokémon ' games, and the games with which most fans of the series are familiar.
The Pokémon series began with the release of Pocket Monsters Red and Green for the Game Boy in Japan. When these games proved extremely popular, an enhanced Blue version was released sometime after, and the Blue version was reprogrammed as Pokémon Red and Blue for international release. The original Green version was never released outside Japan. Afterwards, a second enhanced remake, Pokémon Yellow, was released to use the color palette of the Game Boy Color and more of a stylistic resemblance to the popular Pokémon anime. This first generation of games introduced the original 151 species of Pokémon (in National Pokédex order, encompassing all Pokémon from Bulbasaur to Mew), as well as the basic game concepts of capturing, training, battling and trading Pokémon with both computer and human players. These versions of the games take place within the fictional Kanto region, though the name "Kanto '' was not used until the second generation. Spin - off first - generation titles include Pokémon Pinball; an adaptation of the Pokémon Trading Card Game for Game Boy Color; an on - rails photography simulator for Nintendo 64 titled Pokémon Snap; a Nintendo 64 Pokémon - themed adaptation of Tetris Attack, Pokémon Puzzle League. A 3D Nintendo 64 incarnation of the handheld RPGs ' battle system, Pokémon Stadium; and a co-starring role for several species in the Nintendo 64 fighting game Super Smash Bros... At the Nintendo Space World in 2000, a game was revealed briefly with Meowth and Team Rocket singing a song. This was one of the earliest introductions of the Pokémon Togepi and Bellossom. This game was called Meowth 's Party, but was never turned into a playable game. Instead, the song / video was played at the end of one Pokémon episode, and a CD was made for retail in Japan for a limited time.
The second generation of Pokémon video games began in 1999 with the Japanese release of Pokémon Gold and Silver for the Game Boy Color, with Australia and North America getting the game in October 2000 and European release date of April 2001. Like the previous generation, an enhanced version titled Pokémon Crystal was later released.
This generation introduced 100 new species of Pokémon (starting with Chikorita and ending with Celebi), for a total of 251 Pokémon to collect, train, and battle. New gameplay features include a day - and - night system (reflecting the time of the day in the real world) which influences events in the game; full use of the Game Boy Color 's color palette; an improved interface and upgraded inventory system; better balance in the collection of Pokémon and their moves, statistics and equippable items (a new addition); the addition of two new Pokémon types (Dark and Steel) to better balance the strengths and weaknesses of each Pokémon; Pokémon breeding; and a new region named Johto. After exploring Johto, the player can travel east to explore the adjacent Kanto region.
Spin - off games in the second - generation include Pokémon Puzzle Challenge, the adaptation of Pokémon Puzzle League -- a puzzle game created by Zoppf industries -- made specifically for the Game Boy Color; the Nintendo 64 pet simulator Hey You, Pikachu!; the Pokémon Stadium sequel, Pokémon Stadium 2, for Nintendo 64; several Pokémon mini-games for the e-Reader; and a co-starring role for several Pokémon species in the Super Smash Bros. sequel Super Smash Bros. Melee for the GameCube. The Pokémon mini was a handheld game console released in December 2001 in Japan and 2002 in Europe and North America.
This generation started an unofficial tradition among even numbered generations, giving the Pokémon Eevee new type evolutions beyond the original three of the first generation.
Pokémon entered its third generation with the 2002 release of Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire for Game Boy Advance and continued with the Game Boy Advance remakes of Pokémon Red and Green, Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen (Red and Green representing the original Japanese first generation games; territories outside Japan instead saw releases of Red and Blue). An enhanced remake of Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire titled Pokémon Emerald followed after.
The third generation introduced 135 new Pokémon (starting with Treecko and ending with Deoxys) for a total of 386 species. It also features a more visually detailed environment compared to previous games, "natures '' which affect Pokémon stats, a new 2 - on - 2 Pokémon battling mechanic, a special ability system applying to each Pokémon in battle, the Pokémon Contest sub-game, the new region of Hoenn, the ability to select the protagonist 's gender and Secret Bases: customizable "rooms '' where the player can display items they have collected in game and battle against real friends. Secret Bases can be found in bushes, trees or small cave openings in landscapes by using the Pokémon move, Secret Power, which can be taught to virtually all pokémon. However, this generation also garnered some criticism for leaving out several gameplay features, including the day - and - night system introduced in the previous generation (which was removed due to internal - battery save problems), and it was also the first installment that encouraged the player to collect merely a selected assortment of the total number of Pokémon rather than every existing species (202 out of 386 species are catchable in the Ruby and Sapphire versions).
Third - generation spin - off titles include Pokémon Pinball: Ruby & Sapphire for Game Boy Advance; Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Blue Rescue Team and Red Rescue Team for Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS; Pokémon Dash, Pokémon Trozei! and Pokémon Ranger for Nintendo DS; Pokémon Channel and Pokémon Box: Ruby & Sapphire for GameCube; and two RPGs for the GameCube, consisting of the games Pokémon Colosseum and Pokémon XD: Gale of Darkness.
In 2006, Japan began the fourth generation of the franchise with the release of Pokémon Diamond and Pearl for Nintendo DS. The games were subsequently released in North America on April 22, 2007 and in Australia on June 21, 2007. The game was then later released in the UK and Europe on July 27, 2007. Other main series games in the fourth generation include Pokémon Platinum, a director 's cut version of Diamond and Pearl in the same vein as Pokémon Yellow, Crystal, and Emerald. It was released for the Nintendo DS in Japan on September 13, 2008, in North America on March 22, 2009, and in Australia and Europe on May 14, 2009 and May 22, 2009 respectively. It was also announced that the Generation II games Pokémon Gold and Silver would be remade for the Nintendo DS as Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver. First released in Japan on September 12, 2009, the games were later released to North America, Australia, and Europe during March 2010.
The fourth generation introduces another 107 new species of Pokémon (starting with Turtwig and ending with Arceus), bringing the number of Pokémon species to 493. This generation is the first to have 3D graphics in a main series game, although it is still a mixture of both 3D graphics and sprites. New gameplay concepts include a restructured move - classification system, online multiplayer trading and battling via Nintendo Wi - Fi Connection, the return (and expansion) of the second generation 's day - and - night system, the expansion of the third generation 's Pokémon Contests into "Super Contests '', and the new region of Sinnoh, which has an underground component for multiplayer gameplay in addition to the main overworld. Secret Bases also appear in Sinnoh but can only be created and housed in Sinnoh 's underground. HeartGold and SoulSilver also introduced the Pokéathlon to the Johto region, which consists of many Pokémon based sporting events making use of the stylus.
Spin - off games in the fourth generation include the Pokémon Stadium follow - up Pokémon Battle Revolution for Wii (which has Wi - Fi connectivity as well), Pokémon Ranger: Shadows of Almia and Pokémon Ranger: Guardian Signs for Nintendo DS, Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Explorers of Time and Explorers of Darkness and their sister game, Explorers of Sky all for the Nintendo DS, and a co-starring role for Pikachu, Jigglypuff, Lucario, and a Pokémon Trainer (who uses Squirtle, Ivysaur, and Charizard for fighting) in the 2008 Wii fighter Super Smash Bros. Brawl.
The fifth generation of Pokémon began on September 18, 2010 with the release of Pokémon Black and White in Japan. They were then released in North America, Europe, and Australia in March 2011. They were released on the Nintendo DS, the same console as its predecessing generation.
The games take place in the Unova region. New features include the C - Gear, a feature where players can use Wi - Fi options and customizations; two new battle methods ("Triple Battles '', where three Pokémon are sent out at once, and Rotation Battles, where three Pokémon are also sent out at the same time, but the trainer can switch one Pokémon out of the three that are present); "Battle Tests '', where trainers battle each other to see who has stronger Pokémon; the Pokémon Musicals (similar to Pokémon Contests), which have trainers use their Pokémon to dance in a theater with other Pokémon; and the ability to never waste Technical Machines (TMs), even when found the first time.
This generation introduced a total of 156 new Pokémon (beginning with Victini and ending with Genesect), the most of any generation so far. It was also the first generation where the first new Pokémon in National Pokédex order (Victini) is not a starter. It also introduced another new feature, the seasons, from which two Pokémon (Deerling and Sawsbuck) represent them. Unlike previous generations, which would introduce some species of Pokémon that were evolutionary relatives of older - generation Pokémon, the fifth generation 's selection was all - original, in an attempt to make the primary versions feel like a brand - new game.
The other main series games, and the additions to Black and White, titled Pokémon Black 2 and White 2, are direct sequels. They take place in the Unova region two years later, and were released in Japan on June 23, 2012 and in North America, Australia, and Europe in October of that year for Nintendo DS. They are somewhat different of their predecessors; there are different protagonist trainers, and many of the other important characters have changed as well. The games also introduced a new feature, the "Pokémon World Tournament '', where trainers can battle gym leaders and champions from older regions, including Unova. The games also broke the tradition of releasing a third version as the addition to the primary versions.
Spin - off fifth generation games include sequels Pokémon Rumble Blast and Pokémon Mystery Dungeon: Gates to Infinity for Nintendo 3DS, PokéPark 2: Wonders Beyond for Wii, and Pokémon Rumble U for Wii U, a downloadable game. Others include Learn with Pokémon: Typing Adventure (a typing game) and Pokémon Conquest (a crossover game) for Nintendo DS, and downloadable reference applications Pokédex 3D, Pokédex 3D Pro (for Nintendo 3DS), and Pokédex for iOS (for iOS devices), which allows players to view information of Pokémon species while they have 3D models.
On December 24, 2012, Japanese magazine Nintendo Dream posted a greetings card sent out by Game Freak. In the card, Junichi Masuda exclaimed that during 2013, they intend to further evolve the world of Pokémon. On December 29, 2012, a new Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 commercial aired in Japan, and ending with a message, informing Pokémon fans that the latest news would be announced on January 8, 2013. On January 4, 2013, both the Japanese and English official Pokémon website confirmed that an announcement would be made on January 8. On January 7, 2013, the official Japanese website explained that the Nintendo president, Satoru Iwata would hold a 10 - minute "Pokémon Direct '' video conference to announce the big Pokémon news. On January 8, 2013, Satoru Iwata announced the sixth generation of Pokémon, with the new paired games, Pokémon X and Y, which were released on the Nintendo 3DS on October 12, 2013 worldwide. The X and Y games are rendered in full 3D; however, only select parts of the game can be displayed in stereoscopic 3D. The video introduced the player characters, the starter Pokémon; Grass - type Chespin (Japanese: Harimaron (ハリマロン)), the Fire - type Fennekin (Japanese: Fokko (フォッコ)), and the Water - type Froakie (Japanese: Keromatsu (ケロマツ)), and two other Pokémon, not named until later; a bird - like Pokémon called Yveltal (イベルタル, Iberutaru) having a shape similar to the letter Y and a deer - like Pokémon called Xerneas (ゼルネアス, Zeruneasu) with X-shapes in its eyes. A month later, Sylveon (Japanese: Nymphia (ニンフィア, Ninfia)), a new evolved form of Eevee belonging to the games ' new Fairy Type was revealed.
This generation introduced a total of 72 new Pokémon, the new Fairy type, Mega Evolution, the Kalos region, Trainer customization, Super Training, and three new battle modes: Sky Battles, Horde Encounters, and Inverse Battle. This generation is also the first to be compatible with Pokémon Bank.
Greninja, the final evolved form of Froakie, would later go on to represent the sixth generation of Pokémon in the hit fighting game, Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
On May 7, 2014, Nintendo revealed the games Pokémon Omega Ruby and Alpha Sapphire in a teaser trailer, remakes of the third generation games Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire. They were released worldwide in November 2014.
On August 26, 2014, Pokkén Tournament was announced and was released on July 16, 2015 in Japanese arcades and was released on March 18, 2016 worldwide for Wii U. It was developed by Bandai Namco Entertainment. In July 2016, Niantic and Nintendo released a free - to - play AR game titled Pokémon Go which was released for Android and iOS devices.
During a Nintendo Direct presentation on February 26, 2016, two new Pokémon titles were announced, titled Pokémon Sun and Moon. The games were released on November 18, 2016 in Japan, North America and Australia, and in Europe on November 23, 2016. The games were the first since the second generation to be backwards - compatible with other titles, including Pokémon X and Y; Pokémon Omega Ruby and Alpha Sapphire; and the Virtual Console re-releases of Pokémon Red, Blue and Yellow. On June 6, 2017, Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon were announced. The two games offer new additions to the story of Pokémon Sun and Moon, including new features, and was released worldwide on November 17, 2017.
In total, this generation introduced 84 new Pokémon, Alolan forms, trials, Z - moves, Poké Pelago and Festival Plaza. It was also the first one to introduce Pokémon mid-generation, with three new Pokémon making their debut in Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon.
On May 29, 2018, it was announced that two new Pokémon games in the main Pokémon franchise, Pokémon: Let 's Go, Pikachu! and Pokémon: Let 's Go, Eevee!, were going to be released on November 16, 2018. They are remakes of Pokémon Yellow and planned for release on Nintendo Switch and will feature gameplay mechanics borrowed from Pokémon GO.
During E3 2017, Nintendo and The Pokémon Company announced that Game Freak was developing a new core Pokémon RPG set to release for the Nintendo Switch in "2018 or later. '' The game will be the eighth generation of Pokémon.
Along with the announcement of Pokémon: Let 's Go, Pikachu! and Pokémon: Let 's Go, Eevee! it was confirmed that another core Pokémon RPG will be released in late 2019. Later it was clarified that the 2019 game was the one mentioned during E3 2017, not the Let 's Go games. Game director Junichi Masuda stated that it will also "follow in the tradition of Pokémon X and Y and Pokémon Sun and Moon ''. The CEO of The Pokémon Company, Tsunekazu Ishihara, also confirmed that the upcoming core title will not have influences from Pokémon Go like Let 's Go, Pikachu! and Let 's Go, Eevee! will have.
One of the consistent aspects of most "Pokémon '' games -- spanning from Pokémon Red and Blue on the Game Boy to the Nintendo 3DS games Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon -- is the choice of one of three different Pokémon at the start of the player 's adventures; these three are often labeled "starter Pokémon ''. Players can choose a Grass - type, a Fire - type, or a Water - type, Pokémon indigenous to that particular region. For example, in Pokémon Red and Blue, the player has the choice of starting with Bulbasaur, Charmander, or Squirtle. The exception to this rule is Pokémon Yellow, where players are given a Pikachu, an Electric - type mouse Pokémon, famous for being the mascot of the Pokémon media franchise; unique to Pokémon Yellow, the three starter Pokémon from Red and Blue can be obtained during the quest by a single player.
Another consistent aspect is that the player 's rival will always choose the type that has a type advantage over the player 's chosen Pokémon as his or her starter Pokémon (excluding Sun and Moon). For instance, if the player picks the Fire - type Charmander, the rival will always pick the Water - type Squirtle. This does not affect the first battle between the rivals, as they can only use Normal - type attacks at this point, meaning that they can not exploit weaknesses. The exception to this is again Pokémon Yellow, in which the rival picks Eevee, a Normal - type Pokémon with multiple evolutions. Sun and Moon also is an exception is this rule, as the rival picks the starter weak toward the player 's starter, with the Pokémon that has the type advantage going to a trainer in the Champion battle.
However, in Pokémon Black and White, there are two rivals; one picks the Pokémon with a type advantage over the player 's chosen Pokémon, while the other chooses the Pokémon with the type disadvantage. In Pokémon Diamond, Pearl and Platinum, another Trainer chooses the Pokémon with a type disadvantage to the player 's chosen Pokémon, but never battles the player; instead, this character battles alongside the player as a tag partner in certain situations.
The situation is similar in Pokémon X and Y, but there are four rivals. Two of them receive the starter Pokémon in an arrangement similar to Pokémon Black and White, but the other two have completely different Pokémon.
Several Pokémon PC games were released for Microsoft Windows and Macintosh. Games from the franchise were also released exclusively in Japan for Sega consoles Pico and Advanced Pico Beena. Pokémon are also in Mario Artist: Paint Studio for Nintendo 64DD as pasteable stickers, and they also appear in Picross NP Vol. 1 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.
In the Super Smash Bros. series, Pikachu, Ivysaur, Squirtle, Charizard, Jigglypuff, Pichu, Mewtwo, Lucario, and Greninja have been playable characters. Pikachu and Jigglypuff are introduced in Super Smash Bros., and are also featured in Super Smash Bros. Melee for the GameCube, alongside Pichu and Mewtwo. In Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Mewtwo and Pichu are not featured as playable characters, although Squirtle, Ivysaur, and Charizard make their first playable appearances as part of the Pokémon Trainer character, while Lucario appears as a separate character. Greninja made its first appearance in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U, Charizard is a standalone character, and Mewtwo returns as a downloadable content character. Rayquaza is featured as a boss enemy in Super Smash Bros. Brawl. The series features Poké Balls as items, which, when used by a player, make a random Pokémon appear including Piplup, Bonsly, and Munchlax, with various effects on the game, and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U have Master Balls, which function like Poké Balls but only summon a rare Pokémon (like Mew, Palkia, and Genesect) or Goldeen. Several Pokémon also appear as stage hazards / in stages, including Rayquaza, Ho - Oh and Manaphy.
The series has sold over 279 million units (inclusive of spin - off titles; 210 million for the mainline Pokémon games) as of February 29, 2016, giving it the distinction of being one of the best - selling video game series in history. Guinness World Records awarded the Pokémon series eight records in Guinness World Records: Gamer 's Edition 2008, including "Most Successful RPG Series of All Time '', "Game Series With the Most Spin - Off Movies '' and "Most Photosensitive Epileptic Seizures Caused by a TV Show ''. The Pokémon video game series is the basis of the Pokémon franchise, which includes the Pokémon anime, the Pokémon Trading Card Game, the Pokémon manga, and various toys. The anime series has run for over 900 episodes, accompanied by 19 feature films, with a twentieth in production. The trading card game and its expansion sets have grown to around 3,000 unique cards in total, and continue to draw a healthy player base to its official international tournaments. The extent of global toy and merchandise sales since 1996 cover such broad markets and high quantities that they are simply beyond estimation.
IGN ranked Pokémon as the 17th greatest desired game series: "the basic gameplay premise boasts solid, addictive play mechanics, and several of the handheld RPGs deserve to be in every gamer 's collection. GamesRadar listed Pokémon as the No. 1 Nintendo game "not made by Nintendo '', stating that having to catch each Pokémon made the games addictive.
|
what happened in the last episode of wizards of waverly place | Wizards of Waverly Place (season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth and final season of Wizards of Waverly Place aired on Disney Channel from November 12, 2010 to January 6, 2012. The Russo children, Alex (Selena Gomez), Justin (David Henrie), and Max Russo (Jake T. Austin) continue to compete to become the leading wizard in their magical family and begin to make difficult decisions about their futures. Maria Canals Barrera and David DeLuise co-star as their parents and Jennifer Stone co-stars as Alex 's best friend, Harper Finkle. This is the second season of the series to be broadcast in high - definition.
Season 4 of the series features a revamped opening sequence with clips from past seasons. The opening sequence takes place in the wizard lair at the Russo home. Footage of Alex (Selena Gomez) and Justin Russo (David Henrie) is shown in the Crystal replay ball from the season premiere "Alex Tells the World ''. Then, a spell book opens and footage of Max Russo (Jake T. Austin) and Harper Finkle (Jennifer Stone) appear. After that, footage of Theresa (Maria Canals Barrera) and Jerry Russo (David DeLuise) are shown in a cauldron. After the footage is played, Alex transports them to Times Square, with Alex waving her wand to reveal the title logo and the name of the creator. The theme song Everything Is Not What It Seems has also been remixed and sung by Selena Gomez for the fourth season of the show.
Alex and Justin are sent back to level one in the wizard competition after "exposing '' wizardry in "Alex Tells the World '', leaving Max as the most expected to become the family wizard. In "Alex Gives Up '', Alex quits the competition, but eventually decides to stay in the competition in "Journey to the Center of Mason '' to be with Mason. Before then, Harper tries to get Alex to enjoy life without wizardry. Meanwhile, Justin tries to tutor a class of delinquent wizards.
In the episode, "Three Maxes and a Little Lady '', Alex and Justin accidentally turn Max into a little girl, Maxine, portrayed by Bailee Madison. She ends up making Alex jealous when their father prefers Maxine over Alex. Maxine remains until "Back to Max ''. In the episode "Everything 's Rosie for Justin '', Justin falls in love with Rosie, a guardian angel, but at the end of "Dancing with Angels '' she becomes an Angel of Darkness. In "Zeke Finds Out '', the Russos finally reveal to Zeke that they are wizards. In "Wizard of the Year '', Alex is crowned Wizard of the Year for saving the world from the angels of darkness, and is reinstated in the Wizards Competition. In "Justin 's Back In '', Justin is reinstated in the Wizard Competition, after his class of delinquent wizards passes.
Meanwhile, Alex 's relationship with Mason is jeopardized again when a beast tamer, Chase Riprock, falls in love with Alex and Mason gets jealous. This results in Alex breaking up with Mason. Alex, Justin and Max then save the world from being destroyed by an asteroid. Later, Alex and Harper move into an apartment building with a secret 13th floor for wizards and other creatures in the wizard world. However, it turns out to be a trap made by Gorog to capture the wizards who live in the same floor to make them join the dark side and rule the wizard world. He is defeated and destroyed by Alex, Justin and Max who were using the Power of Three. During this, Alex and Mason get back together and, after a long time, Justin finally gets back together with Juliet.
Finally, in the hour - long series finale, Alex, Justin, and Max compete in the family wizard competition. Alex wins and gains full wizardry; Justin becomes a full wizard as well when Professor Crumbs reveals he is retiring as headmaster of WizTech and passes the position to Justin. Jerry also decides to pass down the Waverly Sub Station to Max one day since he is the only child who is not a wizard anymore. The series ends with hugging and Alex saying that they are all happy.
Guest stars and recurring cast include: Gregg Sulkin as Mason Greybeck, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, David Barrera as Carlos Cucuy, Samantha Boscarino as Lisa Cucuy, Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Bridgit Mendler as Juliet van Heusen, Daniel Samonas as Dean Moriarty, Bailee Madison as Maxine Russo, Shane Harper as Fidel, Dan Benson as Zeke Beakerman, John Rubinstein as Gorog, Andy Kindler as Chancellor Tootietootie, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Leven Rambin as Rosie, China Anne McClain as Tina, Kari Wahlgren as Helen, Cameron Sanders as Nelvis, Josh Sussman as Hugh Normous, Jackie Evancho as Herself, McKaley Miller as Talia, Valente Rodriguez as Muy Macho, and Nick Roux as Chase Riprock.
The Russos and Mason finally make it back home, but their wizard powers are still gone. While the family wants to stay quiet, Alex believes that they should take action, so she reveals that they are wizards to reporters and tells them that a group of wizards are being held captive by the government. As she urges them to spread the word, Professor Crumbs appears and tells her that everything that had happened was a test that she failed miserably and orders her to Wizard Court for exposing wizardry to the world. Justin is also ordered to attend because he exposed magic to Agent Lamwood, who was a creation from Professor Crumbs ' mind. The judges rule Alex and Justin guilty, and Professor Crumbs sentences them both to be demoted to level one in the Family Wizard Competition, making them behind Max by two levels. Meanwhile, Max sets up traps in the Sub Station for the "government '', but ends up falling for one of them.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Alex decides to give up the wizard competition to spend more time with Mason and thinks that it does not matter since Max is all the way in the lead, but Chancellor Tootietootie tells Alex that non-wizards and werewolves can not date, because the werewolf always eats the human. Max 's picture on the front of Future Wizards magazine attracts the daughter of a family of Cucuys (mythical Latino monster) and they invite him to a dinner party on their yacht. Alex comes up with a scheme to invite Chancellor Tootietootie to the Cucuy party in hopes of getting him to appeal the law against werewolves and mortals dating. Lisa Cucuy finds out that Mason is a werewolf and decides that she wants him instead of Max. Alex gets jealous when Lisa flirts with Mason, so Alex says embarrassing things about Mason to everyone on the yacht so that he will be mad enough to turn into a werewolf. Carlos and Julie Cucuy jump off the boat as Cucuys are scared of werewolves. Jerry jumps off after them. Alex tells Lisa that she can get off the boat the easy way or her way. Once Lisa jumps off the boat, Chancellor Tootietootie says that their case will not be appealed as by Mason turning into a werewolf proved his point that they are dangerous. In the end, Alex and Mason have to break up to be friends and Harper finishes writing her first novel based on the werewolf - wizard relationship. Jerry tries to get Harper to help him out of the water but accidentally grabs her just finished novel, which causes him to fall back into the water. Meanwhile, Justin tutors a class of delinquent wizards in an attempt to gain a level to re-enter the Wizard Competition.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Harper tries teaching Alex how to live without magic, but the strain of taking responsibility for her actions instead of using magic causes a disagreement between the two best friends when Alex gets in big trouble for crashing Mr. Laritate 's car. As punishment, Alex has to clean the school 's garbage cans. Mr. Laritate forgives Alex after seeing how the crash influenced her, and Alex realizes that she will be okay without magic. Wanting to thank Harper, Alex uses Mr. Laritate 's lucky life - saving hula girl figurine, Leilani, for luck, as Mr. Laritate does. During Harper 's driving test, Alex turns into the hula girl and guides Harper through the test, knowing that she might fail. In the end, Harper passes her test. Meanwhile, Jerry wants to pass on the wizard family robe to Max, but Justin has a hard time letting go of it.
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Julio Oscar Mechoso as DMV Instructor
After she finds out that she will lose her powers, Alex can no longer date Mason, so they decide to try being best friends instead. After watching a film at the theaters, Harper, Alex, and Mason go home, Dean, who was Alex 's Ex-Boyfriend comes and asks Alex to get back together with him. Mason gets jealous. When Dean brings a gift for Alex, Mason then asks what Alex 's relationship is with Dean, and Max tells him that Dean and Alex used to date, making Mason more jealous. Mason then turns into a werewolf and eats Dean. Alex, Justin, and Max come up with a solution to turn Justin 's toy Captain Jim Bob submarine big and go in it. They then shrink it and go into Mason 's mouth. While there, Alex, Max, and Justin see Mason 's thoughts, which are all of Alex. They get Dean out, and Alex, when Harper, Max, and Justin leave, Alex tells Dean that he was knocked out and the doctor 's solution was for them all to dress up as cows. Dean then gives her his offer once again: he wants to get back with her. Alex tells him ' no ', and then gets back together with Mason, with deciding to get back to the Wizard Competition.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Alex joins Justin 's wizard class to try to move up in the competition. Max joins a sophisticated wizard society. They suggest he move the wizard competition up and he moves it to a few days away. Max quits the society because he finds out that they are taking advantage of him. Alex and Justin transform into Max in an attempt to change the date of the family wizard competition back to its original date and succeed. In the end of the episode they accidentally turn Max indefinitely into a little girl.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Kari Wahlgren as Helen, Shane Harper as Fidel
With Max still a little girl, their parents pay more attention to Max (Maxine), and Alex becomes jealous. Justin takes Maxine to her (Max 's) karate class and Maxine kicks Justin 's butt. After the class, Alex decides to make Jerry 's favorite sandwich in order to win his love back, but Maxine comes along with Justin, announcing that she beat Justin in karate, and Jerry immediately falls for her cuteness again. More jealous than ever, Alex comes back with Justin to Maxine 's karate class with their parents, having a slight idea of knowing how to change Maxine back to Max. They cast spells on Maxine, Justin using the spell he used on Max that turned him into Maxine, and Alex using the reverse spell. Unfortunately, it only makes Maxine cuter, which makes her furious. Instead of going against the person she was supposed to, she demands that she kicks either Alex or Justin 's butt. Justin goes against her, but seeing that he would lose, Alex casts a spell on Justin to make him a karate master. Too fast for Maxine, Justin beats her, and Maxine is hurt (physically). Jerry and Theresa rush to her side, caring for Maxine more than they care that Justin beat Maxine in karate. Justin leaves, and Alex leaves after him, heartbroken. Back at home, Jerry tells Alex that he fell for Maxine because she reminded him of Alex when she was little and they bond again. Meanwhile, Zeke thinks the Russos hate him, but really it was just Harper 's alibi in order to keep him away from the Sub Station so as not to make him suspicious about Max 's disappearance and Maxine 's appearance.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Dan Benson as Zeke, Lanny Joon as Sensei
Justin and his delinquent class have a wizard wand dance assessment to do which will get them back in Wiztech. A new student named Rosie joins, whom Justin falls madly in love with to later find out that she is an Angel. Meanwhile, Jerry, Teresa, and Harper try to think of ideas of how to get more people to come to their restaurant. Harper makes cards which customers get hole punched each time they buy a sandwich; when you get 9 hole punches, they get a free sandwich. Contrary to the original purpose, one man punches his own card, demands a free sandwich, and then brings dozens of people into the restaurant, who also have pre-punched cards. Maxine uses her charming cuteness to convince the customers to not exploit her parents. Meanwhile, Justin kicks Rosie out of his class so that it does not fail the wizard dance assessment. Sympathizing, Alex gets Rosie to rejoin the class and puts a copycat spell on her so that Rosie can mimic Alex 's move and pass the class. The assessment ends in disaster when a squirrel - frog attaches itself to Alex 's foot, and Rosie reveals herself to be an angel. The class fails, but Justin starts dating Rosie.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Leven Rambin as Rosie, Diane Delano as Penny, Chris Coppola as Customer, Cameron Sanders as Nelvis
Justin and Rosie start dating but when their date gets ruined, they want a second date. Alex suggests an Angel Club in Los Angeles, but Rosie says that only Angels are allowed. Maxine will not tell their parents as long as Alex brings her back an Ozzy Osbourne stone. After Justin, Harper and Alex sneak in along with Rosie, Zeedrik asks them if they are angels and they say they are. Back at the sub shop, Theresa and Jerry question Maxine to find out where Justin, Alex and Harper are, and Maxine does not say, so they force her to join a Pageant in order for her to tell them where they are. Things get bad at the angel club when Alex and Harper can not fly, until Justin secretly pulls out his wand and gives Harper flying powers. Zeedrik still questions them by giving them a test to sing while playing the harp. Though Alex, Justin, and Harper fail to do so, they are accepted as "angels '' until the key - chain of Ozzy Osbourne 's star reverts to normal. Zeedrik believes they are really angels of darkness, causing everyone in the club to run off, even Rosie. Rosie comes back at the end of the episode to comfort Justin, but when they both look over the city, Rosie 's wings are shown to be black, the color of an angel of darkness ' wings, but Justin does not see because he is looking forward. Meanwhile, Maxine ends up winning the beauty pageant, making Jerry and Theresa celebrate.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Leven Rambin as Rosie, Ransford Doherty as Zeedrik
Rosie is an Angel of Darkness, and has been tricking Justin all along to make him evil. Alex finds out, with the help of Tina (a guardian angel in training trying to earn her wings) that Rosie is an Angel of Darkness. Justin crosses over to the dark side with Rosie, steals the "moral compass '', and gives it to Gorog, so Gorog can turn the compass from good to bad, so that the world will be covered in darkness and every human being will be corrupted. Rosie tries to get Justin to run away and save him, because Gorog wants to destroy him, but Justin refuses to leave, stating that he is no longer a wizard but an Angel of Darkness and breaks his wand in halves. Alex tries to convince Justin that he is a wizard, a good wizard and not an Angel of Darkness.
Meanwhile, Maxine is enrolled in Tribeca Prep, since she is participating in a "cousin exchange program. '' After her first day of school, Maxine laments that she has no friends, which leads Harper to insist Maxine have a slumber party (which is really what Harper wants because she has never had a slumber party), that eventually becomes a disaster. Tina reveals that Rosie was a good angel, and her teacher however, Gorog reached her before her transport arrived and corrupted her. Alex and Tina go to the Dark Realm to save Justin. Alex borrows a pair of wings from the guardian angels. Alex takes the Moral Compass and tries to turn it to good but Justin stops her and then Rosie used her good angel side and they fly up and when they land, Justin turns the compass to good. Tina and Alex take it and run. When Rosie and Justin kiss, Rosie turns into a good angel (with white wings), and Justin loses the dark wings.
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Bailee Madison as Maxine, Leven Rambin as Rosie, John Rubinstein as Gorog, China McClain as Tina, Amy Tolsky as Florence
Note: This is a one - hour special.
Justin invites Professor Crumbs to check on his delinquent wizards class, to see how their wizard training is progressing. During the conversation, Maxine interrupts, causing Alex and Justin to panic since they do not know how to explain "Maxine '', and they try to find a way to turn Maxine back to Max. Meanwhile, Harper takes a role in the school 's "Spirit of America '' play, only to be replaced by Maxine.
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, Bailee Madison as Maxine, Cameron Sanders as Nelvis, LJ Benet as Little Crumbs, Jackie Evancho as Choir Girl
When Alex gets bored of Zeke 's failing magic tricks, she decides to use magic to make Zeke 's tricks come true. Everything goes downhill when Zeke tells Harper he believes he is a wizard and is now booking a magic act at the sub station for a kid 's birthday party. Since Justin and Harper are tired of Alex ruining things all the time, they decide to leave everything up to her. Harper, not wanting to let Zeke make a fool of himself, tells Alex to tell Zeke the truth about wizards, but she is reluctant to, as exposing wizardry to another mortal could get her kicked out of the wizard competition forever if anyone finds out. Zeke goes on with his belief that he is a "wizard '', but he finds out Harper is keeping a secret from him so he breaks up with her. Alex realizes what a mess she created and on the day of Zeke 's magic act, she makes Harper disappear before she can expose wizardry to Zeke, which freaks him out. The Russos really are in deep waters when Zeke is going to saw Max in half with a real saw for his next act, so Justin takes matters into his own hands and freezes everyone except for himself and Zeke. Justin tells Zeke that he is a wizard, not Zeke, and that he did everything. Still not believing him, he flashes Zeke into their lair and unveils the secret to him. They go back outside and tell Harper and Alex who are fighting, that Zeke now knows about the existence of wizards, but he promises he will never tell anyone. Zeke and Harper reconcile their relationship and Alex and Harper apologize and make up with each other.
Guest stars: Dan Benson as Zeke, Maurice G. Smith as Big Mitch
When a former legendary Luchador "Muy Macho '' visits the Sub Station, Alex finds out that she was the reason why he quit lucha libre (wrestling), so she tries to make it up to him by arranging a lucha libre match with him and Jerry to restore his honor. Meanwhile, Zeke asks too many questions about wizardry, so Justin offers to grant him one magical wish if he promised he would stop questioning him about magic. Unfortunately, Zeke 's wish is to defeat Muy Macho in the match. Max pretends to like Talia 's hobbies, but does not enjoy them.
When Alex asks Mason if she can meet his parents, Mason shows his fake parents and she finds out soon after. She gets upset at Mason and demands him to take her to his real parents. Mason takes her to the Autumn Moon Feast (werewolf holiday) to meet his parents. Soon after that Alex finds out he told his parents that she is a werewolf and is frustrated. She uses a spell to change herself and Harper into werewolves. She tries to be the worst werewolf possible in front of Mason 's parents during the feast. In the end Mason 's parents like her as a werewolf and she says to him that they do not know the real her. She begins to leave and he says that he truly loves Alex to his parents and that she is a wizard. She changes back to a wizard and Mason turns back to human form. After the parents find out they try to eat her and Mason and Alex make a near escape. Meanwhile Max makes his parents ' food taste like kid food in order to make it taste good. Afterwards Jerry and Theresa eat it, and as a result they act like little kids. Justin thinks he will have to fix it but Max comments on how he does not need help, as he will be the future family wizard. Max uses another spell on cookies to make them older, but they turn into teenagers. Finally, Justin uses a spell on a pizza to turn them back into their regular selves.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
When Alex, Justin and Max win four tickets to the "Beast Bowl '', the tickets are delivered by Beast Tamer Chase Riprock, who begins flirting with Alex and invites the group for a pre-bowl tour. Alex invites Mason to go with them but he says he can not. During the tour, despite Chase 's warnings, Justin attempts to tame the beast so that Max can have his photo taken with the beast, but both are caught and banned from the event. Chase tries to kiss Alex but she rejects him and returns to the mortal world where she finds Mason coming out a hardware store. Mason is evasive about his plans, which involve making an anniversary present for Alex, so Alex returns to the Beast Bowl. Harper tells Mason that Chase likes Alex and urges him to surprise her with the gift at the Beast Bowl. Meanwhile, Justin and Max return to the Beast Bowl disguised as beast taming clowns where they allow the beast to escape and snatch Alex who throws the whip to Chase. Chase tames the beast who drops Alex and Mason is able to reveal his gift, which is a sculpture of himself and Alex. Alex and Mason leave together, with the sculpture.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest star: Nick Roux as Chase
Alex has been crowned Wizard of the Year after saving the world from dark angels, as well as being reinstated in the Wizard Competition, and a banquet honoring her achievement is hosted. With paparazzi in tow, Chase Riprock visits the lair to congratulate Alex. As he leaves, Keith Keith hounds them about being in a romantic relationship, to which Alex states she already has a boyfriend. Later, Mason and Alex watch his gossip segment, and to their horror, Keith Keith confirms that Chase and Alex are dating. For Alex winning Wizard of the Year, the Russo family must record a holographic video congratulating Alex. However, much to Justin 's displeasure, Justin 's video instead only contains him complaining about Alex. The night of the awards banquet, Mason stands Alex up, leaving her devastated. At the banquet, Chancellor TootieTootie tells Justin that his display of affection and pride for Alex may reinstate him into the competition, causing Justin to be frantic and do everything within his power to destroy the tape. Chase purposely invites himself to sit at the Russo 's table. However, Mason shows up late and sees Alex and Chase flirting together. A short battle ensues between Mason and Chase. Alex soon breaks up the fight, and is forced to choose either Mason or Chase. Appalled by both of their behaviors that evening, Alex chooses neither and breaks up with Mason.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
The Russos head to the beach on an extremely hot day, and Harper hopes to enjoy reading her book while at the beach. The Russos come across Zelzar, a fortune - telling machine. Jerry warns the kids about Zelzar -- he is from the wizard world, and a wizard 's fortune really comes true. After Max and Justin receive good fortunes, Alex decides to get a fortune despite her father 's warning. However, her fortune says, "Say good - bye to your life. '' Alex thinks nothing of it and proceeds to enjoy the day at the beach, but comes close to life - threatening situations multiple times. Alex, Justin, Max, and Harper make a compromise with Zelzar -- if they can extract him from the machine and let him enjoy a day at the beach, he will take back Alex 's fortune. Max replaces Zelzar, and Justin is forced to drive the beach - goers away from the machine (as Max gives out silly fortunes about his new facial hair); meanwhile, the girls help Zelzar fancy his day at the beach. In the end, Zelzar reveals that while he can not take away Alex 's fortune, he can give it to the next person. The next person happens to be a little girl, who gets Alex 's fortune. However, it is revealed that a man from Random Prize Giveaway shows up, saying: "Say good - bye to your life because we 're randomly giving you one million dollars! ''
When it is announced that a huge asteroid is hurtling towards the earth, the Russos decide to hide in the wizard world, but Alex, Justin, and Max change their minds and go into space to destroy the asteroid. Meanwhile, Alex finds out that she is not graduating high school, but when a small part of the asteroid hits the school, she gets a chance to graduate.
Justin 's class of delinquent wizards has completed their studies, which means they are eligible to rejoin WizTech if they all pass their final evaluation. When they all fail, Alex suspects something is not right. The truth soon uncovered -- the class had actually passed, but the historian who checked the exams was revealed to be evil, and had lied about the exam scores. He tries to attack Justin 's class, so Justin must stop the historian, and save Alex. but one of the students in the class is able to stop him by pulling the most powerful wand in the wizard world out of a crystal ball and using it. This means that he is actually the descendant of a famous wizard who had previously been thought to have no living descendants. Justin 's class is revealed to have passed the final exam, so they are readmitted into WizTech and Justin is officially back in the family wizard competition. Meanwhile, Jerry and Theresa realize that they never saved any of Max 's childhood accomplishments, so they try to recreate them with the help of Harper. During the credits, it is revealed that Max had kept his favorite memories all along.
Special guest star: Tim Conway as Cragmont
Alex and Harper decide to do a puppet show to raise money for a new apartment and Zeke and Justin help them. But Alex forgets to write the lines for the show. Harper gets mad and decides to do a show of her own and makes her puppets act like the way Alex treats her. Alex makes Justin and Zeke puppets for her show and steals Harper 's crowd which makes Harper upset. Then Alex apologizes to Harper using the puppets. Meanwhile, Talia 's parents meet Theresa and Jerry for the first time, but it does not go well. Justin puts a spell on Talia 's parents to forget they ever meet Theresa and Jerry. They meet again, but this time they end up watching a 16 - hour play together.
Special guest star: Joely Fisher as Meg Robinson
Harper and Zeke spend so much time together that Alex decides to make a Harper - clone. Justin comes with lots of different ideas to save money in the sub-shop and Max starts a fast - food restaurant in the wizard world.
Guest star: Dan Benson as Zeke
Alex and Harper receive a flyer for a hotel. They meet the hotel 's owner, Dexter, who sells them Apartment 13B, which belongs to a floor for non-humans. They rent it, but Harper is forced to use a training wand that can only open things. Later at their apartment, they realize Mason lives on the floor. Mason will stop at nothing to win Alex back; Alex tells him she does not want a boyfriend, but Mason is relentless. That night, Alex and Harper throw a party, where the whole floor comes, including Felix. Mason goes to the party and uses Harper 's wand to open Alex 's heart. However, she flirts with an ugly giant. Mason tries again, but makes Alex opens her heart to Felix. Meanwhile, Theresa and Jerry trick Justin into going to Alex 's apartment to drive him out of the house. When Justin arrives, he fixes Mason 's mistakes by resetting Harper 's wand and it is revealed that despite his actions, he misses Alex. Alex, freed from Mason 's spell, is angry at Mason, and Mason, deflated, leaves. Outside their door, Dexter turns into Gorog when no one is looking. He wants revenge. Max appears in the apartment, and when Harper and Alex kick him out, he encounters Gorog, who gives him a flyer for a free camp. Max accepts.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest stars: John Rubinstein as Gorog, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Christopher Douglas Reed as Ogre
Alex and Harper have trouble paying the apartment bills, so Dexter recommends getting a roommate. Alex and Harper find a wealthy ghost named Lucy, who they let move in. Meanwhile, Justin orders a robot to help Zeke at the sub station, as Justin is busy studying for the wizard competition. The robot is lost in transit, but Dexter (Gorog in disguise) makes an evil robot to spy on Justin to pass information to Gorog. While Zeke and the robot are working, the robot asks him about Justin and the wizard competition, which confuses Zeke because no one had talked about it in front of the robot. Later that night, Lucy starts crying and explains that her boyfriend Donny had disappeared sixty years prior in a plane accident. Alex tries to set Lucy up with Justin, but he makes matters worse. Later, Lucy meets Mason and they go out on a long date, which makes Alex jealous. Meanwhile, the robot again asks Zeke about the wizard world and Zeke realizes that the robot might have a secret agenda. He tells Justin, who simply does not believe him and is ignorant of the situation because of his intensive studying. Because of her jealousy, Alex helps Lucy locate Donny, who had been stranded on an island in the Bermuda Triangle. They soon reconnect, but not after Alex realizes that she can not get back home, due to heavy magnetic currents interfering with her magic. Mason goes to save Alex after he finds out that she had left for the Bermuda Triangle. The robot attacks Justin and Zeke after they find him scanning the spell book. Mason and Alex manage to get off of the island using the Bermuda shorts given to them by Justin. The robot is shown giving Gorog the spell he needed that he got from the Russos.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest stars: Dan Benson as Zeke, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Josh Sussman as Hugh Normous, Linsey Godfrey as Lucy, Travis Caldwell as Donny, Michael Carbonaro as Robot
Note: This is part 2 of a 4 - part arc.
Alex and Harper are going to their apartment when they run into Mr. Laritate, who also lives in the hotel. Felix tells Justin he broke his wand and Justin informs him that it 's fake, because he saw batteries in it. He concludes that someone stole Felix 's wand. Dexter is showing a zombie to the hall for magical creatures while he introduces them to Alex and Harper. Mason, who will stubbornly not stop asking Alex on a date, meets them in the elevator. When Alex ignores him, Mason messes with the buttons so he can spend more time with her and they land on the second floor. Justin tells Jerry that Felix lost his wand and Jerry tells them to use the abracadoobler wand app and Felix realizes that his wand is around the area. Meanwhile, because Mason messed with the buttons, all the humans have discovered the mysterious thirteenth floor. Alex lies and tells the humans that they accidentally got into a secret open house floor for the people in the hotel. Mr. Laritate, after all the other humans left, discovers the thirteenth floor too and sees Alex, Harper, and Mason. Mr. Laritate sees the zombie, Alex explains this is a haunted house, but Mr. Laritate does not believe them. The zombie bites Mr. Laritate and turns him into a zombie. They take him to their apartment while Alex looks for a spell to turn Mr. Laritate human again. Mr. Laritate runs away and Alex, Harper, and Mason suspect he went to the substation. Professor Crumbs questions Felix, who reveals the 13th floor to them, and Crumbs denies the existence of a "13th floor '', so they go to investigate. At Waverly Place they 're throwing a festival while Alex tells Jerry what happened. Alex and Mason, trying to sneak the zombie into the substation, are forced into dance. They then, after Harper causes a distraction, take Laritate to the substation and give him a medicine from the wizard world that turns Laritate human. He remembers nothing and goes outside to dance. Alex kisses him on the cheek, and Mason suggests they just be friends. Alex gets back together with Mason. Crumbs tells Felix the floor should not exist. Harper, Mason, and Alex return to the thirteenth floor. Justin tells them that the floor does not exist. Crumbs thinks that there is evil going on. Dexter then comes with dark angel wings and it is revealed he stole Felix 's his wand. Dexter tricks Felix into turning to the dark side in return for the wand. Felix casts a spell that traps them all on the floor. Back at Waverly Place, Mr. Laritate is dancing while Jerry is selling chili, when Mr. Laritate gets one and gets water to get "the burn '' out of his mouth.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Regan Burns as Everett, Jane Carr as Martha St. Claire
Note: This is part 3 of a 4 - part arc.
The wizards of 13th floor come out and Alex explains Dexter 's evil. Dexter reveals himself as Gorog, and that he is trying to rebuild his army of darkness. Felix uses a spell that makes all the wizards from the 13th floor go with them, so they can make them all evil, all except Alex, Justin, and Harper, who are left behind. A trashcan tells them to go through it, however Alex ends up in the room again. Justin realizes only mortals can go through it. Alex convinces Harper into going through it, Harper then arrives in the wizard lair. Gorog takes the kidnapped wizards to his evil lair, where he plans to make them evil. He tricks Hugh Normous into becoming one of the evil wizards in his army. Professor Crumbs fakes becoming evil when Gorog plans on making him evil. Harper contacts Max and tells him about Gorog. Max arrives and suggests they look for spells in the wizard books. Gorog makes the wizard army to dig a hole to the atmosphere to the wizard world, so they can take over it. Gorog also tries to trick Mason into being one of the members in his army, but Mason refuses. Gorog tricks him into joining, however. Gorog then makes Felix send a black whole to suck Alex and Justin in it. Gorog gives the kidnapped wizards their wands so they can take over the wizard world, but Crumbs refuses to let them. Felix then gets rid of Crumbs on Gorog 's order. The black hole nearly sucks Alex and Justin when Crumbs arrives at the wizard lair. Max suggests they put a black hole in the wizard lair. Max goes in and rescues Alex and Justin. Crumbs tells them to use their magic to stop Gorog. They arrive at Gorog 's lair and attempt to destroy him, but Mason tries to convince Alex to join them. Gorog also reveals Juliet (young again), Justin 's ex-girlfriend, and she convinces Justin to join. Alex also surrenders, and Max is forced to as well, the three then use their combined magic to get rid of Gorog, and all the supernatural beings are freed from his influence. Juliet and Justin get back together. Alex tricks Harper into moving in the Russos ' basement by making her think all the wizards and supernatural creatures, with no home, are going to stay.
Special guest stars: Gregg Sulkin as Mason, Bridgit Mendler as Juliet van Heusen
Guest stars: Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, John Rubinstein as Gorog, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Josh Sussman as Hugh Normous, Christopher Douglas Reed as Ogre
Note: This is part 4 of a 4 - part arc.
The current landlord of the Russo 's building decides to sell the sub shop, evicting the Russos of the shop, as well as their apartment and lair, which contains their portal. Without the portal, the Russos will lose all contact with the Wizard world. So, the entire family (along with Harper) travel back to 1957 to stop Jerry 's father (the previous owner of the shop) from selling the shop to the landlord, so that they do not get evicted. Jerry 's father agrees not to sell the shop, and the Russos return to present day. However, they accidentally leave Harper behind when Harper is distracted by a woman with a poodle, and Harper suggests that the woman should put a picture of a poodle on her skirt, creating a poodle skirt, which were popular in the 1950s.
Back in present day, the Russos (who have not yet realized Harper 's absence) find the sub shop obsolete, boarded up, and empty, with the subway car and the lair missing, too. The Russos realized that they have messed with the fabric of time, and something they did while time - traveling in 1957 must have created a ripple effect, and affected present day.
While Alex suggests that they go back to 1957 to find out what they did wrong, Justin denies this, saying they should not solve the problem by doing exactly what caused the problem, however Theresa states that they will have to go back, when she realizes that they left Harper in 1957. The Russos return to 1957, where Jerry 's father reveals that he did not sell the restaurant to the landlord, however the restaurant failed to make enough business, and that he has been forced to close it. Justin realizes that when Jerry 's father lost the restaurant, he moved out of the building and since their family no longer lived in the building, the lair disappeared in present day. The Russos decide just to find Harper and go back to present day, and discover that Harper enrolled at Tribeca Prep as soon as they forgot her in 1957, as Harper did not want to ruin her perfect attendance record. Justin, Alex, and Max go to Tribeca Prep to retrieve Harper, while Jerry and Theresa wait at the sub shop, however Harper decides to stay in the past, as she finds new popularity in 1957 that she does not experience in present day. While at Tribeca, Max introduces the high - five to several students. Alex realizes that if they make the sub shop the 1957 high school hangout, the sub shop will get better business and will not have to close. However, no one has any fun at the sub shop that night as the jukebox is broken. Just as everyone is about to leave, Max plugs his MP3 player into the jukebox and Harper uses her popularity to get the students dancing and having fun at the shop, and the business at the sub shop peaks. The Russos return to the present day, where the lair and the sub shop are back, and Jerry owns the entire building, while the landlord is now the owner of a Janitor service, instead of the building, and the high - five is now called a "Max ''. Alex then remembers that they forgot Harper back in 1957 and they go back and get her. (the Russos accidentally end up in 1977 twice in the episode, thanks to Justin)
The episode begins on Waverly Place where Harper is reading a storybook to a group of children when Alex pushes her away. Alex explains that it 's a Wizard Storybook, a magical storybook that has the power of turning what the person reads real. Then Harper is teleported into the loft where Theresa, her evil (or "wicked '' as she referred) stepmother calls her Harperella (a combination of Harper and Cinderella) and forces her to do the chores.
Then her evil stepbrothers, Justin and Max come down and give her laundry to her wash. Later Harper is washing the Waverly Substation when Alex appears, as she is Harper 's fairy godmother. Alex explains to Harper that the fairy tale has to run as it 's supposed to before things can go back to the way they were and then vanishes. Then Max comes in and says that the prince charming has decided to use the Substation to be the ballroom for the royal party. Harper says that she can go to the party but her stepfamily laughs at her. Back in the loft Harper summons Alex, she uses a spell to transform Harper 's bookdress into a princess gown and glass bowls into glass slippers. They go down (through the door) into the street and Alex turns the hot dog stand into a carriage to take Harper to the party. There she dances with prince charming, Zeke. At the stroke of midnight she goes outside leaving her glass slipper behind.
Then, to both girls ' shock, Justin, Max and Zeke (with pig noses) rush inside the substation being chased by the big, bad wolf, Mason. Alex realizes that some pages are missing and Cinderella and three little pigs stories were blended together. The pig - turned boys and Harper rush into the loft being chased by Mason. While Alex finds the pages Harper has to keep Mason from eating Zeke (who built the straw house), Alex eventually finds the book pages in a drawer along with other book pages. Alex tries a page from Max 's favourite magic trick book then David Copperfield comes into the room and does some magic tricks which impresses Harper. But another page that Alex tried was from Justin 's science book and a caveman appeared, but the caveman has a thing for Harper. So when Harper is impressed by the magic trick he is jealous and tries to attack David Copperfield. Alex finds the right pages and the story goes back to Cinderella. Zeke Charming comes in and Theresa tries to wear the slipper but fails. Then Harper tries it and fits. She and Zeke go back to the royal party where they dance and then the story ends and the world is returned to its normality. Last but not least, Harper was back in the real world and she lived happily ever after. Finally, Alex planned that Harper and Zeke dance because they were great when they danced in romance, so they practiced but they were really bad. The ball dance is turned into a clogging dance.
Special guest stars: David Copperfield as himself, Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest star: Dan Benson as Zeke
During a dinner that Alex made for the family, Professor Crumbs visits to reveal that with this selfless act, the Russo children can finally have their family wizard competition. Round one of the competition is a trivia round, in which questions related to magic are asked. During this round, Harper and Zeke appear. Zeke has accidentally smelled a purple substance in the lair that caused him to turn purple. This causes a griffin to kidnap him and Harper. Alex, Justin and Max use their three time - outs to go and rescue their friends. They make it back, only to discover that they have been gone too long and have been disqualified from the competition. They all return home, where the lair disappears and they all lose their magic, thus becoming mortals. Justin and Max begin to hate Alex because of her insistence on saving Zeke and Harper resulting in them losing. Convinced that the loss of their powers has ruined the family, Jerry decides to sell the sub shop. The kids go for a day without magic, during which, slowly gaining back trust in each other as they reopen and run the shop. Suddenly, they are returned to the area of the Wizard Competition, where the host reveals that the griffin attack (which was actually meant for Professor Crumbs) and the weeks they went without magic were tests to test their family bond. They enter the final round of the competition, a massive labyrinth. The first out of the maze will win. Justin makes it out first and is declared the Family Wizard. However, he decides he can not accept this because Alex was about to get out first: Justin had been trapped by magical vines and Alex, near the exit, came back to help. Alex is thus declared the true family wizard. Professor Crumbs, proud of Justin 's integrity in telling the truth, declares that he is going to retire as Headmaster of Wiz - Tech and declares Justin the new headmaster, granting him full wizard powers. Considering Max is the only Russo child that does not get powers or becomes a full wizard, Jerry thus decides to one day pass down the sub shop to Max, which he happily accepts. It ends with the Russo family hugging and gathering together with Alex stating that they are all finally happy at the same time.
Special guest stars: Gregg Sulkin as Mason, Bridgit Mendler as Juliet van Heusen
Guest stars: Dan Benson as Zeke, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, Andy Kindler as Chancellor Tootietootie
|
in 1914 through 1915 the united states responded to a british naval blockade of germany by | Blockade of Germany - wikipedia
The Blockade of Germany, or the Blockade of Europe, occurred from 1914 to 1919. It was a prolonged naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers during and after World War I in an effort to restrict the maritime supply of goods to the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria - Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. It is considered one of the key elements in the eventual Allied victory in the war. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 claimed that 763,000 German civilians died from starvation and disease caused by the blockade up until the end of December 1918. An academic study done in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000.
Both the German Empire and the United Kingdom relied heavily on imports to feed their population and supply their war industry. Imports of foodstuffs and war material of all European belligerents came primarily from the Americas and had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean, thus Britain and Germany both aimed to blockade each other. The British had the Royal Navy which was superior in numbers and could operate throughout the British Empire, while the German Kaiserliche Marine surface fleet was mainly restricted to the German Bight, and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare to operate elsewhere.
Prior to World War I, a series of conferences were held at Whitehall in 1905 -- 1906 concerning military cooperation with France in the event of a war with Germany. The Director of Naval Intelligence -- Charles Ottley -- asserted that two of the Royal Navy ′ s functions in such a war would be the capture of German commercial shipping and the blockade of German ports. A blockade was considered useful for two reasons: it could force the enemy ′ s fleet to fight and it could also act as an economic weapon to destroy German commerce. It was not until 1908, however, that a blockade of Germany formally appeared in the Navy ′ s war plans and even then some officials were divided over how feasible it was. The plans remained in a state of constant change and revision until 1914, the Navy undecided over how best to operate such a blockade.
Meanwhile, Germany had made no plans to manage her wartime food supplies since in peacetime, she was able to produce some 80 % of her total consumption. Furthermore, overland imports from the Netherlands, Scandinavia and Romania would be unaffected by any naval blockade. However, the combined issues of conscription of farm labourers, the requisition of horses, poor weather, and the diversion of nitrogen from fertiliser manufacture into military explosives, all combined to cause a considerable drop in agricultural output.
The British -- with their overwhelming sea power -- established a naval blockade of Germany immediately on the outbreak of war in August 1914, issuing a comprehensive list of contraband that all but prohibited American trade with the Central powers, and in early November 1914 declared the North Sea to be a War Zone, with any ships entering the North Sea doing so at their own risk. The blockade was unusually restrictive in that even foodstuffs were considered "contraband of war ''. There were complaints about breaches of international law, however most neutral merchant vessels agreed to dock at British ports to be inspected and then escorted -- less any "illegal '' cargo destined for Germany -- through the British minefields to their destinations.
The Northern Patrol and Dover Patrol closed off access to the North Sea and the English Channel respectively.
The Germans regarded this as an illegal attempt to starve the German people into submission and wanted to retaliate in kind.
The blockade hurt American exports. economy. Under pressure especially from commercial interests wishing to profit from wartime trade with both sides, Washington government protested vigorously. Britain did not wish to antagonize the U.S. It set up a program to buy American cotton, guaranteeing the price stayed above peacetime levels and mollifying cotton planners. when American ships were stopped with contraband, the British purchased the entire cargo, and released the empty ship.
A memorandum to the British War Cabinet on 1 January 1917 stated that very few supplies were reaching Germany or its allies either via the North Sea or other areas such as Austria 's Adriatic ports (which had been subject to a French blockade since 1914).
The first official accounts of the blockade -- written by Professor A.C. Bell and Brigadier - General Sir James E. Edmonds, differed in their accounts of its effects upon German food supplies. Bell -- who employed German data -- argued that the blockade led to revolutionary uprisings in Germany and caused the collapse of the Kaiser ′ s administration. Edmonds, on the other hand, supported by Colonel Irwin L. Hunt (who was in charge of civil affairs in the American occupied zone of the Rhineland), held that food shortages were a post-armistice phenomenon caused solely by the disruptions of the German Revolution of 1918 -- 19.
More recent studies also disagree on the severity of the blockade ′ s impact on the affected populations at the time of the revolution and the armistice. Some hold that the blockade starved Germany and the Central Powers into defeat in 1918, but others maintain that while the German population did indeed go hungry as a result of the blockade, Germany ′ s rationing system kept all but a few from actually starving to death. German success against the Russians on the Eastern Front culminating in the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk gave Germany access to the resources of Poland and other eastern territories, which did much to counter the effects of the blockade. The armistice on 11 November was forced by events on the Western Front rather than any actions of the civilian population. Also Germany 's largest ally Austria - Hungary had already signed an armistice on 3 November 1918, exposing Germany to an invasion from the south.
Nevertheless, it is still accepted that the blockade made a large contribution to the outcome of the war; by 1915, Germany ′ s imports had already fallen by 55 % from their prewar levels and the exports were 53 % of what they were in 1914. Apart from leading to shortages in vital raw materials such as coal and non-ferrous metals, the blockade also deprived Germany of supplies of fertiliser that were vital to agriculture. This latter led to staples such as grain, potatoes, meat, and dairy products becoming so scarce by the end of 1916 that many people were obliged to instead consume ersatz products including Kriegsbrot ("war bread '') and powdered milk. The food shortages caused looting and riots, not only in Germany, but also in Vienna and Budapest. The food shortages got so bad that Austria - Hungary hijacked ships on the Danube that were meant to deliver food to Germany. Additionally, during the winter of 1916 to 1917, there was a failure of the potato crop, which resulted in the urban population having to subsist largely on Swedish turnips; this period became known as the Steckrübenwinter or Turnip Winter.
The German government made strong attempts to counter the effects of the blockade; the Hindenburg Programme of German economic mobilisation launched on 31 August 1916, was designed to raise productivity by the compulsory employment of all men between the ages of 17 and 60, and a complicated rationing system initially introduced in January 1915 aimed to ensure that a minimum nutritional need was met, with "war kitchens '' providing cheap mass meals to impoverished civilians in larger cities. All these schemes enjoyed only limited success, and the average daily diet of 1,000 calories was insufficient to maintain a good standard of health, resulting by 1917 in widespread disorders caused by malnutrition such as scurvy, tuberculosis, and dysentery.
German official statistics estimated 763,000 civilian malnutrition and disease deaths were caused by the blockade of Germany. This figure was disputed by a subsequent academic study that put the death toll at 424,000. The German official statistics came from a German government report published in December 1918 which estimated that the blockade was responsible for the deaths of 762,796 civilians, the report claimed that this figure did not include deaths due to the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918. The figures for the last six months of 1918 were estimated. Maurice Parmelle maintained that "it is very far from accurate to attribute to the blockade all of the excess deaths above pre-war mortality '', he believed that the German figures were "somewhat exaggerated ''. The German claims were made at the time when Germany was waging a propaganda campaign to end the Allied blockade of Germany after the armistice that lasted from November 1918 until June 1919. Also in 1919 Germany raised the issue of the Allied blockade to counter charges against the German use of submarine warfare.
In 1928 a German academic study sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace provided a thorough analysis of the German civilian deaths during the war. The study estimated 424,000 war related deaths of civilians over age 1 in Germany, not including Alsace - Lorraine, the authors attributed these civilian deaths over the pre war level primarily to food and fuel shortages in 1917 -- 1918. The study also estimated an additional 209,000 Spanish flu deaths in 1918 A study sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1940 estimated the German civilian death toll at over 600,000. Based on the above - mentioned German study of 1928 they maintained that "A thorough inquiry has led to the conclusion that the number of "civilian '' deaths traceable to the war was 424,000, to which number must be added about 200,000 deaths caused by the influenza epidemic ''
The blockade was maintained for eight months after the Armistice in November 1918, into the following year of 1919. According to the New Cambridge Modern History food imports into Germany were controlled by the Allies after the Armistice with Germany until Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. The total blockade was lifted on 17 January 1919 when the Allies allowed the importation of food under their supervision. The Allies requested that the German government send German merchant ships to Allied ports to transport food supplies. However the Germans considered the armistice a temporary cessation of the war and refused, believing that should fighting break out again the ships would be confiscated. The German government notified an American representative in Berlin that the shortage of food would not become critical until late spring. Food deliveries were delayed until March 1919 when the German government agreed to the restrictions imposed by the Allies. From March food imported from America in American ships arrived in Germany. The restrictions on food imports were finally lifted on 12 July 1919 after Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles.
C. Paul Vincent maintains that for the German people, these were the most devastating months of the blockade because "in the weeks and months following the armistice, Germany 's deplorable state further deteriorated. '' However, Sally Marks believes that the German accounts of a hunger blockade are a "myth ''. She points out that although the Germans had denied Belgium and northern France food during the war, leading to starvation, the Allies made no effort to deny Germany food. According to Marks the food situation in 1919 in Belgium, northern France and Poland was worse because the Germans had confiscated the harvest.
Not included in the German government 's December 1918 figure of 763,000 deaths are civilian famine related deaths during 1919. A recent academic study maintains that there is no statistical data for the death toll of the period immediately following the Armistice in November 1918. Dr. Max Rubner in an April 1919 article claimed that 100,000 German civilians had died due to the continuation blockade of Germany after the armistice. In the UK a Labour Party anti-war activist Robert Smillie issued a statement in June 1919 condemning continuation of the blockade, and claiming that 100,000 German civilians had died.
The impact on childhood can now be assessed using a newly discovered dataset based on heights and weights of nearly 600,000 German schoolchildren measured between 1914 and 1924. The data indicates they suffered severe malnutrition. Family class was a major factor -- the working - class children suffered the most. However, they were the quickest to recover after the war. Recovery to normality was made possible by massive food aid organized by the United States and other ex-enemies.
21.) Ibid., Note 2.
|
south park red hot catholic love full episode | Red Hot Catholic Love - wikipedia
"Red Hot Catholic Love '' is the 87th episode of the Comedy Central series South Park. It originally aired on July 3, 2002. It was selected # 2 of the "10 South Parks that Changed the World '', and was also part of "South Park 's Dirty Dozen. '' In the episode, Father Maxi travels to the Vatican to confront the growing problem of priests molesting children. Meanwhile, Cartman discovers that it is possible to crap out of your mouth.
The parents of South Park are a bit concerned when Father Maxi informs them about the Young Men 's Catholic Retreat and agree that they do not want their kids to go. They also decide to have a counselor talk to the boys to find out if the priest had been molesting them. The counselor, assuming the children were molested, asks, "Did Father Maxi, at any time, ever try to put something in your butt? '' Having never been abused by Father Maxi, the boys are completely baffled about the question 's meaning. Cartman has a "brilliant '' idea, reasoning she meant it could be possible that eating food through the rectum can cause defecation through the mouth. The other boys (especially Kyle) think it is stupid and disgusting, and Cartman bets him $20 it will work. While the counselor is questioning the boys, all the parents decide to become atheists, as the sexual molestation scandals have destroyed their faith in Catholicism and God.
Cartman ultimately does defecate out of his mouth, winning the bet and continually boasts the fact to Kyle, who becomes increasingly angered by it. News of this spreads, and it is concluded nationwide that this method of eating is much healthier than the traditional method (with the surgeon general basing that on "absolutely nothing ''). The adults of South Park immediately adopt the new method of eating, calling it interorectogestion and even start passing trash cans around at social situations to openly collect the waste (literally "spewing crap from their mouths ''), completely disregarding the previously long - held custom that defecation should occur in private.
Meanwhile, Maxi has gathered a meeting of Catholic priests in Colorado to discuss the problem of child molestation. Maxi is appalled by such behavior and wants it to cease entirely, but to Maxi 's horror, all of the other priests there have molested their altar. Maxi decides he has to go to the Vatican. Once there, he quickly finds the same: priests from all over the world (and from other worlds, specifically an alien race known as the Gelgameks) are molesting children and claim they need to continue the practice to receive gratification. They claim the "Holy Document of Vatican Law '' does not prohibit the behavior, so Maxi wants to change the canon law to outlaw sodomy, as well as to allow sex with women. The Cardinal tells him that the Document can not be changed as no one knows where it is. Maxi decides to try to find it.
Maxi searches through the lower levels of the Vatican, and goes through a gauntlet in the style of Pitfall! in order to reach the Holy Document. But the Pope says they must first consult the highest power. He summons the "Queen Spider '', which has for centuries been responsible for the pedophilia in the church, and declares that the Holy Document of Vatican Law can not be changed. Angered by this, Maxi finally snaps and tears the Document in two, and the building begins to crumble. Maxi stands in front of the ruins, and tells everyone that Catholicism is not about the Holy Document of Vatican Law, molestation, or Queen Spiders, but about being a good person. He says by clouding the moral lessons of the Bible with needless ceremony and so many literal translations, the Vatican has caused people to reject religion and argues that "when they have no mythology to live their lives by, they just start spewing a bunch of crap out of their mouths ''. The parents, watching this on TV, regain their faith in God, deciding to stop shoving food up their rectum and to start going to church again, wanting to owe God an apology.
In the DVD commentary for this episode, Stone and Parker refer to their irritation towards arguments from more socially liberal / atheistic / secular minded types of people, as well as from socially religious conservatives. The scene where the parents discuss atheism while crapping out their mouths is based on Parker 's annoyance with atheists. When Maxi searches for the Holy Document the scene is animated in the style of Pitfall!. Randy 's nightmare about the priest molesting the boys is done using footage from The Love Boat.
The Great Queen Spider was taken from the 1974 episode of Doctor Who: Planet of the Spiders: Part One (1974).
"Red Hot Catholic Love '', along with the sixteen other episodes from South Park 's sixth season, were released on a three - disc DVD set in the United States on October 11, 2005. The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode. IGN gave the season a rating of 9 / 10.
|
during which phase of the cardiac cycle does the first heart sound occur | Cardiac cycle - wikipedia
The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of mechanical and electrical events that repeats with every heartbeat. It includes the phase of relaxation diastole and the phase of contraction systole. Because the human heart is a four chambered organ, there are atrial systole, atrial diastole, ventricular systole and ventricular diastole. The frequency of the cardiac cycle is described by the heart rate, which is typically expressed as beats per minute. Each cycle of the heart, from the point of view of the ventricles and the status of their valves, involves a minimum of four major stages: Inflow phase, Isovolumetric contraction, outflow phase and Isovolumetric relaxation.
The first and the fourth stages, together constitute the "ventricular diastole '' stage, involve the movement of blood from the atria into the ventricles. Stages 2 and 3 involve the "ventricular systole '' i.e. the movement of blood from the ventricles to the pulmonary artery (in the case of the right ventricle) and the aorta (in the case of the left ventricle).
"Ventricular diastole, '' begins when the ventricles starts to relax. At this point, some blood of the previous cycle 's systole is still flowing out of the ventricles through the semilunar valves, due to the inertia of the moving blood column, which overcomes the higher pressure in the aorta / pulmonary trunk with respect to the pressure in the ventricles. This short lasting phase, called "protodiastole '' ends with the closure of the semilunar valves, producing the second heart sound (S). Now that both the AV valves and the semilunar valves are closed, the ventricles are now closed chambers. Hence, this phase is known as isovolumetric (also called isovolumic, isometric) relaxation phase. Then the atrioventricular (AV) valves (the mitral valve and the tricuspid valve) open, allowing blood to fill the ventricles. This ventricular inflow phase can be sub-divided into the ' first rapid filling phase ' as blood rushes in from the atria as a result of ventricular dilation; a phase of slow ventricular filling called ' Diastasis ', and the ' last rapid filling phase ' due to atrial contraction (systole).
As the ventricular systole begins, pressure within the ventricle rises and the AV valves close producing the ' first heart sound ' (S). The semilunar valves remain closed. The contracting ventricles become closed chambers again and this phase is termed as "isovolumic contraction ''. As the name implies, there is no change in volume, but intra-ventricular pressure rises. The outflow phase, "ventricular ejection, '' is when the intra-ventricular pressure has achieved a higher pressure than the blood in the aorta (or the pulmonary trunk), the corresponding semilunar valves open. Ejection phase begins.
Throughout the cardiac cycle, blood pressure increases and decreases. The cardiac cycle is coordinated by a series of electrical impulses that are produced by specialised pacemaker cells found within the sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular node. The cardiac muscle is composed of myocytes which initiate their own contraction without the help of external nerves (with the exception of modifying the heart rate due to metabolic demand). The duration of the cardiac cycle is the reciprocal of heart rate. Assuming a heart rate of 75 beats per minute, each cycle takes 0.8 seconds.
The heart is a four - chambered organ consisting of right and left halves. The upper two chambers, the left and right atria, are entry - points into the heart, while the lower two chambers, the left and right ventricles, are responsible for contractions that send the blood through the circulation. The circulation is split into the pulmonary and systemic circulation. The role of the right ventricle is to pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries. The role of the left ventricle is to pump newly oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta.
Cardiac muscle has automaticity, which means that it is self - excitable. The muscle contractions are generated by the muscle cell itself or are passed down by another set of specialized cardiomyocytes (cardiac muscle cells), called the ' junctional fibers '. This is in contrast with skeletal muscle, which requires nervous stimuli (either conscious or reflex) for excitation. The heart 's rhythmic contractions occur spontaneously, although the rate of contraction can be changed by nervous or hormonal influences. For example, stimulating the sympathetic nerve accelerates heart rate while stimulating the vagus nerve decelerates the heart rate.
The rhythmic sequence of contractions (sinus rhythm), is coordinated by the sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodes. The sinoatrial node, often known as the cardiac pacemaker, is located in the upper wall of the right atrium and is responsible for the wave of electrical stimulation that initiates atrial contraction by creating an action potential. Once the wave reaches the AV node, situated in the lower right atrium, it is delayed there before being conducted through the bundles of His and back up the Purkinje fibers, leading to a contraction of the ventricles. The delay at the AV node allows enough time for all of the blood in the atria to fill their respective ventricles. In the event of severe pathology, the AV node can also act as a pacemaker; this is usually not the case because its rate of spontaneous firing is considerably lower than that of the SA node and hence it is overridden.
The following is a summary of the cardiac cycle:
Atrial Systole: Coincides with the ' last rapid filling phase ' of ventricular diastole (ventricular filling)
Atrial systole is the contraction of the atrial syncytium of cardiac muscle cells of the left and right atria, following electrical stimulation. This conduction takes place via the gap junctions of the connecting intercalated discs. Normally, both atria contract at the same time. The term systole is synonymous with contraction (movement or shortening) of a muscle. Electrical systole is the electrical activity that stimulates the cardiac muscle of the heart chambers to make them contract. This is soon followed by mechanical systole, which is the mechanical contraction of the heart.
As the atria contract, the blood pressure in each atrium increases, forcing additional blood into the ventricles. The additional flow of blood is called atrial kick.
80 % of the blood flows passively down to the ventricles, so the atria do not have to contract a great amount.
Atrial kick is absent if there is loss of normal electrical conduction in the heart, such as during atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and complete heart block. Atrial kick is also different in character depending on the condition of the heart, such as stiff heart, which is found in patients with diastolic dysfunction.
Atrial systole, also known as auricular systole due to the contraction of the two auricles of the heart, takes approximately 0.1 seconds.
Electrical systole of the atria begins with the onset of the P wave on the ECG. The wave of depolarization that stimulates both atria to contract at the same time is due to the sinoatrial node which is located on the upper wall of the right atrium. The sinoatrial node can be detected by catheterization.
Ventricular systole is the contraction of the ventricular syncytium of cardiac muscle cells of the left and right ventricles, following electrical stimulation. This conduction takes place via the gap junctions of the connecting intercalated discs.
At the later part of the ejection phase, although the ventricular pressure falls below the aortic pressure, the aortic valve remains open because of the inertial energy of the ejected blood.
The graph of aortic pressure throughout the cardiac cycle displays a small dip (the "incisure '' or "dicrotic notch '') which coincides with the aortic valve closure. The dip in the graph is immediately followed by a brief rise (the "dicrotic wave '') then gradual decline. Just as the ventricles enter into diastole, the brief reversal of flow from the aorta back toward the left ventricle causes the aortic valves to shut. This results in the slight increase in aortic pressure caused by the elastic recoil of the semilunar valves and aorta.
The total volume of blood remaining in the ventricle just at the end of the ventricular contraction is called end - systolic volume (ESV).
Assuming a pulse of 72 beats per minutes, ventricular systole takes 0.3 seconds to complete.
The closing of the mitral and tricuspid valves (known together as the atrioventricular valves) at the beginning of ventricular systole cause the first part (the lubb) of the "lubb - dubb '' sound made by the heart as it beats. Formally, this sound is known as the first heart sound, or S. This first heart sound is created by the closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves and is actually a two component sound, M1, T1.
The second part (the dubb) of the "lubb - dubb '' (the second heart sound, or S), is caused by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves at the end of ventricular systole. As the left ventricle empties, its pressure falls below the pressure in the aorta, and the aortic valve closes. Similarly, as the pressure in the right ventricle falls below the pressure in the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary valve closes. The second heart sound is also two components, A2 and P2. The aortic valve closes earlier than the pulmonary valve and they are audibly separated from each other in the second heart sound. This "splitting '' of S2 is only audible during inhalation. However, some cardiac conduction abnormalities such as left bundle branch block (LBBB) allow the P2 sound to be heard before the A2 sound during expiration. With LBBB, inhalation brings A2 and P2 closer together where they can not be audibly distinguished.
In an electrocardiogram, electrical systole of the ventricles begins at the beginning of the QRS complex.
Cardiac diastole is the period of time when the heart relaxes after contraction in preparation for refilling with circulating blood. Ventricular diastole is when the ventricles are relaxing, while atrial diastole is when the atria are relaxing. Together they are known as complete cardiac diastole.
During ventricular diastole, the pressure in the (left and right) ventricles drops from the peak that it reaches in systole. When the pressure in the left ventricle drops to below the pressure in the left atrium, the mitral valve opens, and the left ventricle fills with blood that was accumulating in the left atrium. The isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) is the interval from the aortic component of the second heart sound, that is, closure of the aortic valve, to onset of filling by opening of the mitral valve. Likewise, when the pressure in the right ventricle drops below that in the right atrium, the tricuspid valve opens, and the right ventricle fills with blood that was accumulating in the right atrium. During diastole the pressure within the left ventricle is lower than that in aorta, allowing blood to circulate in the heart itself via the coronary arteries.
|
who won women's cricket world cup 2016 | 2017 Women 's Cricket World Cup - wikipedia
The 2017 Women 's Cricket World Cup was an international women 's cricket tournament that took place in England from 24 June to 23 July 2017. It was the eleventh edition of the Women 's Cricket World Cup, and the third to be held in England (after the 1973 and 1993 tournaments). The 2017 World Cup was the first in which all participating players were fully professional. Eight teams qualified to participate in the tournament. England won the final against India at Lord 's on 23 July by 9 runs.
The 2014 -- 16 ICC Women 's Championship, featuring the top eight ranked teams in women 's cricket, was the first phase of qualifying for the World Cup, with the top four teams qualifying automatically. The remaining four places were decided at the 2017 World Cup Qualifier, a ten - team event that was held in Sri Lanka in February 2017. This featured the bottom four teams from the ICC Women 's Championship and six other teams.
On 8 February 2016, the International Cricket Council (ICC) announced the five venues for the 2017 Women 's World Cup. Lord 's hosted the final, and other matches were played at the home grounds of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Somerset and Gloucestershire.
The captains of each team were announced on 21 April 2017, with the full squads named shortly after.
The ICC announced a panel of thirteen umpires and three match referees to officiate the tournament, including four female umpires, the highest number yet for an ICC global event. The four female umpires were drawn from the ICC 's International Umpires Development Panel and their male colleagues from the International Umpires Panel. Richie Richardson is a member of the Elite Match Referees Panel while Steve Bernard and David Jukes are on the Regional Match Referees Panel. Sue Redfern became the first woman to have played in a Women 's Cricket World Cup and then stand in a tournament as an umpire.
Umpires
Match Referees
On 8 February 2016, it was announced that in the Group Stage, eight sides will participate in a single - league format with each side playing the other once. This format was last used in the 2005 tournament. The top four sides following the conclusion of the league matches will progress to the semi-finals with the winners meeting at Lord 's on 23 July. Therefore, a total of 31 matches will be played during the 28 - day tournament. The full fixtures for the tournament were announced by the ICC on 8 March 2017, to coincide with International Women 's Day. Ahead of the group stage fixtures there were eight practice matches, played between 19 and 22 June 2017.
Teams tied on equal points in the group stage of the tournament were decided by number of wins, followed by net run rate. If both of those were still the same, then the head - to - head match between the two sides was used to determine who progresses to the semi-finals.
Qualified to Semi-finals
It was announced on 8 February 2016 that Lord 's would host the Final on 23 July 2017.
In May 2017, the ICC announced that 10 games will be shown live on television, while the remaining 21 matches will be streamed live via the ICC website. The 10 televised matches featured DRS for the first time in women 's cricket.
|
which of the following countries is not one of the east asian tigers | Four Asian Tigers - wikipedia
The Four Asian Tigers or Four Asian Dragons, are the wealthy high - tech industrialized developed countries of Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong (China) and South Korea which underwent rapid industrialization, technological innovation and development and also maintained exceptionally high growth rates (in excess of 7 - 8 percent a year) between the mid-1950s and early 1990s. These four countries invested heavily in their infrastructure as well as in developing the intellectual abilities of their human talent, fostering and retaining their educated population to help further develop and improve their respective countries. This policy turned out to be so effective that by the late 20th century, all four countries had developed into advanced and high - income industrialized developed countries, developing many different areas of advanced technology that give them a tremendous competitive advantage in the world. For example, all four countries have become top level global education centers with Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea and Hong Kong (China) high school students consistently outperforming all other countries in the world and achieving the highest top scores on international math and science exams such as the PISA exam and with Taiwan students winning multiple gold medals every year consistently at the International Biology Olympiad, International Linguistics Olympiad, International Physics Olympiad, International Earth Science Olympiad, International Mathematical Olympiad and International Chemistry Olympiad. Additionally, these four countries are home to some of the most prestigious top ranking universities in the world such as National Taiwan University, Seoul National University, National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University and University of Hong Kong. While Taiwan and South Korea invested in technological innovation and development, Hong Kong (China) and Singapore pursued a different path of finances and both became world - leading international financial centers. Inspired in part by Japan 's technological and economic success, two of the earliest countries to pursue a similar path of cutting edge science and technology development were Taiwan (which has the best and most technologically advanced top ranked medical care system in the world) and South Korea, which have both become advanced innovative world leaders in state of the art technologies including medical science, nanotechnology, computer technology, biotechnology, space technology (manned spacecraft & robots) industrial technology, military technology stealth technology robotics and information technology manufacturing. Both Taiwan and South Korea achieved this by promoting technological innovation, research and development, and export - oriented industrialization which turned an initially post-World War 2 poor agricultural economy into two thriving economic and technological superpowers on the same competitive level as Japan and the United States. Their economic success stories have served as role models for many developing countries, especially the Tiger Cub Economies.
A controversial World Bank report (see The East Asian Miracle 1993) credited neoliberal policies with the responsibility for the boom, including maintenance of export - led regimes, low taxes, and minimal welfare states; institutional analysis also states some state intervention was involved. However, many have argued that industrial policy had a much greater influence than the World Bank report suggested. The World Bank report itself acknowledged benefits from policies of the repression of the financial sector, such as state - imposed below - market interest rates for loans to specific exporting industries. Other important aspects include major government investments in education, non-democratic and relatively authoritarian political systems during the early years of development, high levels of U.S. bond holdings, and high public and private savings rates.
A period of liberalization did occur, and the first major setback experienced by the Tiger economies was the 1997 Asian financial crisis. While Singapore and Taiwan were relatively unscathed, Hong Kong came under intense speculative attacks against its stock market and currency necessitating unprecedented market interventions by the state Hong Kong Monetary Authority, and South Korea underwent a major stock market crash brought on by high levels of non-performing corporate loans. As a result, and in the years after the crisis, all four economies rebounded strongly. South Korea, the worst - hit of the Tigers, has managed to triple its GDP per capita in dollar terms since 1997.
Prior to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the growth of the Four Asian Tiger economies (commonly referred to as "the Asian Miracle '') has been attributed to export oriented policies and strong development policies. Unique to these economies were the sustained rapid growth and high levels of equal income distribution. A World Bank report suggests two development policies among others as sources for the Asian miracle: factor accumulation and macroeconomic management.
The Hong Kong economy was the first out of the four to undergo industrialization with the development of a textile industry in the 1950s. By the 1960s, manufacturing in the British colony had expanded and diversified to include clothing, electronics, and plastics for export orientation. Following Singapore 's independence from Malaysia, the Economic Development Board formulated and implemented national economic strategies to promote the country 's manufacturing sector. Industrial estates were set up and foreign investment was attracted to the country with tax incentives. Meanwhile, Taiwan and South Korea began to industrialize in the mid-1960s with heavy government involvement including initiatives and policies. Both countries pursued export - oriented industrialization as in Hong Kong and Singapore. The four countries were inspired by Japan 's evident success, and they collectively pursued the same goal by investing in the same categories: infrastructure and education. They also benefited from foreign trade advantages that sets them apart from other countries, most significantly economic support from the United States; part of this is manifested in the perforation of American electronic products in common households of the four tigers. The little tigers were all influenced by Confucian ideals which valued not individual ideals, but rather a society that was mutually dependent. This also caused a common goal that required group cooperation and sacrifice.
By the end of the 1960s, levels in physical and human capital in the four economies far exceeded other countries at similar levels of development. This subsequently led to a rapid growth in per capita income levels. While high investments were essential to their economic growth, the role of human capital was also important. Education in particular is cited as playing a major role in the Asian miracle. The levels of education enrollment in the Four Asian Tigers were higher than predicted given their level of income. By 1965, all four nations had achieved universal primary education. South Korea in particular had achieved a secondary education enrollment rate of 88 % by 1987. There was also a notable decrease in the gap between male and female enrollments during the Asian miracle. Overall these advances in education allowed for high levels of literacy and cognitive skills.
The creation of stable macroeconomic environments was the foundation upon which the Asian miracle was built. Each of the Four Asian Tiger states managed, to various degrees of success, three variables in: budget deficits, external debt and exchange rates. Each Tiger nation 's budget deficits were kept within the limits of their financial limits, as to not destabilize the macro-economy. South Korea in particular had deficits lower than the OECD average in the 1980s. External debt was non-existent for Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, as they did not borrow from abroad. Although South Korea was the exception to this - its debt to GNP ratio was quite high during the period 1980 - 1985, it was sustained by the country 's high level of exports. Exchange rates in the Four Asian Tiger nations had been changed from long - term fixed rate regimes to fixed - but - adjustable rate regimes with the occasional steep devaluation of managed floating rate regimes. This active exchange rate management allowed the 4 Tiger economies to avoid exchange rate appreciation and maintain a stable real exchange rate.
Export policies have been the de facto reason for the rise of these Four Asian Tiger economies. The approach taken has been different among the four nations. Hong Kong, and Singapore introduced trade regimes that were neoliberal in nature and encouraged free trade, while South Korea and Taiwan adopted mixed regimes that accommodated their own export industries. In Hong Kong and Singapore, due to small domestic markets, domestic prices were linked to international prices. South Korea and Taiwan introduced export incentives for the traded - goods sector. The governments of Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan also worked to promote specific exporting industries, which were termed as an export push strategy. All these policies helped these four nations to achieve a growth averaging 7.5 % each year for three decades and as such they achieved developed country status.
The 1997 Asian financial crisis affected all four Asian tiger economies. South Korea was hit the hardest as its foreign debt burdens swelled resulting in its currency falling between 35 - 50 %. By the beginning of 1997, the stock market in Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea also saw losses of at least 60 % in dollar terms. However, the Four Asian Tigers recovered from the 1997 crisis faster than other countries due to various economic advantages including their high savings rate (except South Korea) and their openness to trade.
The export - oriented tiger economies, which benefited from American consumption, were hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08. By the fourth quarter of 2008, the GDP of all four nations fell by an average annualized rate of around 15 %. Exports also fell by a 50 % annualized rate. Weak domestic demand also affected the recovery of these economies. In 2008, retail sales fell 3 % in Hong Kong, 6 % in Singapore and 11 % in Taiwan.
As the world recovers from the financial crisis, the Four Asian Tiger economies have also rebounded strongly. This is due in no small part to each country 's government fiscal stimulus measures. These fiscal packages accounted for more than 4 % of each country 's GDP in 2009. Another reason for the strong bounce back is the modest corporate and household debt in these four nations.
A recent article published in Applied Economics Letters by financial economist Mete Feridun of University of Greenwich Business School and his international colleagues investigates the causal relationship between financial development and economic growth for Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, China, India and Singapore for the period between 1979 and 2009, using Johansen cointegration tests and vector error correction models. The results suggest that in the case of Indonesia, Singapore, the Philippines, China and India financial development leads to economic growth, whereas in the case of Thailand there exists a bidirectional causality between these variables. The results further suggest that in the case of Malaysia, financial development does not seem to cause economic growth.
In 2013, the combined economy of the Four Asian Tigers constituted 3.81 % of the world 's economy with a total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 2,366 billion US dollars. The GDP in Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan was worth 274.01 billion, 297.94 billion, 1,304.55 billion and 489.21 billion US dollars respectively in 2013, which represented 0.44 %, 0.48 %, 2.10 % and 0.79 % of the world economy. (Source: tradingeconomics.com) Together, their combined economy is close to United Kingdom 's GDP of 4.07 % of the world 's economy.
The role of Confucianism has been used to explain the success of the Four Asian Tigers. This conclusion is similar to the Protestant work ethic theory promoted by German sociologist Max Weber in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. The culture of Confucianism is said to have been compatible with industrialization because it valued stability, hard work, and loyalty and respect towards authority figures. There is a significant influence of Confucianism on the corporate and political institutions of the Asian Tigers. Confucianism was taught in Singaporean schools until the 1990s. Confucian seminars were offered by South Korean companies like Hyundai for company management. Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew advocated Asian values as an alternative to the influence of Western culture in Asia. This theory was not without its critics. There was a lack of mainland Chinese economic success during the same time frame as the Four Tigers, and yet China was the birthplace of Confucianism. During the May Fourth Movement of 1919, Confucianism was blamed for China 's inability to compete with Western powers.
John Page, "The East Asian Miracle: Four Lessons for Development Policy ''. The World Bank. National Bureau of Economic Research. Vol. 9. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994).
"Troubled Tigers; Asian Economies ''. The Economist. Vol. 390. Issue 8616. (London, US: The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009)
|
who played david lockhart on days of our lives | Patrick Lockhart - wikipedia
Patrick Lockhart is a fictional character from the television drama Days of Our Lives, portrayed by Brody Hutzler from 2004 to 2007.
Patrick Lockhart grew up with his mother Bonnie, sister Mimi, and brother Connor on the streets (his father David had an on / off relationship with his mother). He spent most of his time protecting his family and being the man of the household. He also was a childhood conman. While unclear why, Patrick left Salem and may not have even finished high school.
Patrick made his dramatic re-entrance to Salem when Jennifer Deveraux literally ran into him with her car. They were both taken to the hospital and Jennifer felt guilty because Patrick had no insurance and no place to stay. He soon tricked Jennifer into paying his medical bills. She then offered him a home in her garage apartment, which he gratefully accepted.
Soon after, it became obvious that there was more to Patrick Lockhart than met the eye. Jennifer and all of her friends were shocked when they learned that his mother was housekeeper Bonnie Lockhart. Patrick continued to live in Jennifer 's garage apartment and took care of her throughout her difficult pregnancy, even mysteriously saving the baby with the help of an antique doubloon. It was soon revealed that Patrick had been doing dealings with some sort of mobster and had been hired to come to Salem to kill Jennifer, which since he had grown attached to her, he refused to do.
When Jennifer left to find Jack Deveraux, Patrick was determined to find her. He and Hope Brady took off in a cargo plane and followed Jennifer to the remote tropical island where Tony DiMera was holding all of the "victims '' of the Salem Stalker. Patrick and Hope 's plane was shot down in the ocean and the two swam to shore and found all of the "dead '' people of Salem. Not long after, they ended up in the jungle, where Patrick delivered Jennifer 's baby, Jack Jr. They ended up in Tony 's compound, where Patrick 's history as a DiMera operative became clear. He even helped DiMera keep some of the Salemites hostage. When push came to shove, however, he helped his new friends escape. It was around this time that Patrick 's beard fell right off his face.
Patrick returned to Salem, where he returned to his old life. He grew closer to Billie Reed and to Hope Brady, both of whom trusted him, but Bo Brady did not. He and Billie briefly hooked up, but they both seem interested in others, namely Bo & Jennifer. Patrick soon went to a place called Morgan Island and ran into Hope who had recently lost her son Zack. He comforted her and the two soon made love. While on the island Patrick admitted that he had been to the island before and that he had fallen in love with a woman named Alma Delgado and the two had plans to elope / wed and have a family. She was mysteriously gunned down before the two of them managed to run away. Patrick always felt guilty and that it was because of his dealings with the mob that had resulted in Alma 's death. But with a letter found by Hope from Alma to Patrick it revealed that it was Alma 's own mob dealings that had ended her life.
After returning to Salem he fell in love with Hope and tried to manipulate her into divorcing her husband. After Hope found out that she was pregnant Patrick bribed her doctor into changing test results to show that he was the father when Bo really was. Even with the test changes, Bo and Hope began to grow closer so Patrick tried to get Hope to go away with him. Hope soon learned that Patrick was working with EJ Wells and had committed many terrible crimes including being the gloved hand and murdering officer Eve Michaels. Soon after, Patrick kidnapped Hope and took her to an abandoned warehouse where he told her that he had only got close to her on Morgan Island because he was ordered to and that now he had been ordered by E.J. to kill her. Bo soon found them and when Patrick tried to leave with Hope, her water broke. Hope then delivered a baby girl that Patrick finally admitted it was Bo 's daughter. Patrick is currently in prison.
|
who sings tell me about the good old days | Good Old Days (Macklemore song) - wikipedia
"Good Old Days '' is a song by American rapper Macklemore, featuring American singer - songwriter Kesha. It was written by Macklemore, Kesha, Budo, Andrew Joslyn, Sam Wishkoski and Tyler Andrews, with lyrics written by Macklemore and Kesha and production handled by Budo. The song was originally released as a promotional single on September 19, 2017, from Macklemore 's second solo studio album, Gemini (2017). As of October 9, 2017, "Good Old Days '' has sold 48,000 digital copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan.
On January 18, 2017, Macklemore posted a photo of him and Kesha together on Instagram, hinting at an upcoming collaboration. The song first appeared in the track list of Gemini, which was unveiled on August 22, 2017. Macklemore spoke to Rolling Stone about collaborating with Kesha, saying: "Kesha, she is a great spirit. She is someone that I walked into the room and I immediately just caught a vibe with and became friends with pretty instantaneously... She 's a musician, she 's a writer, she 's someone that is not afraid to try ideas in the studio, not afraid to get vulnerable in front of people, not scared to go for the high note when she does n't know if she can hit it or not. She is a musician in every sense of the word, and she 's hilarious. '' He also revealed that Ryan Lewis facilitated the collaboration. When asked about how he reached out to Kesha, he said: "Well, Ryan had a session with her in Seattle. She was already here. They had already done ' Praying ' and they were working on a couple other records that I do n't think made her album. She had (an) off day and I hit Ryan and was like, ' Would you mind if I hit up Kesha? ' And he was like, ' Of course not. ' '' Kesha said of the song on Twitter: "My new song with Macklemore reminds me of being 16 chasing wild dreams not knowing those moments would be so precious. ''
Caitlin Kelley of Billboard deemed "Good Old Days '' a "mellow yet catchy pop song ''. Mark Braboy of Vibe praised Macklemore for showcasing "his best, introspectively rapping '', and Kesha providing "some soul - stirring vocals to make the song hit home ''. Madeline Roth of MTV News wrote that "the nostalgic track is a stripped - back affair ''. Alex Ungerman of Entertainment Tonight felt Kesha 's voice "soars over a piano ballad that is somehow both somber and uplifting in tone ''. Peter Berry of XXL thinks that the song is "fueled by piano, sentimentality and the sweet vocals of Kesha ''. Jon Powell of Respect. regarded the song as "a pop ballad-esque cut '' and "the perfect record for personal reflection and self - love ''. Derrick Rossignol of Uproxx called the song a "piano - led pop ballad '', and felt Kesha 's vocal is beautiful and powerful. Anya Crittenton of Gay Star News described the song as "an emotional tune '' that "features a simple piano and drum - filled melody ''. Aron A. of HotNewHipHop wrote: "Kesha handles the hook with her powerful vocals over a soft and simple piano progression ''. Lindsay Howard of Variance described the song as an "explicitly nostalgic cut ''.
On September 25, 2017, Macklemore performed "Good Old Days '' with Kesha on The Ellen DeGeneres Show. They gave their second televised performance of the song at the 2018 Billboard Music Awards on May 20, 2018.
Credits adapted from YouTube.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
what was populism what were its goals at the omaha platform of 1892 | Omaha Platform - wikipedia
The Omaha Platform was the party program adopted at the formative convention of the Populist (or People 's) Party held in Omaha, Nebraska on July 4, 1892.
The platform preamble was written by Ignatius L. Donnelly. The Omaha platform was seen as "The Second Declaration of Independence, '' as it called for reestablishing American liberty. The planks themselves represent the merger of the agrarian concerns of the Farmers ' Alliance with the free - currency monetarism of the Greenback Party while explicitly endorsing the goals of the largely urban Knights of Labor. In the words of Donnelly 's preamble, the convention was "(a) ssembled on the anniversary of the birthday of the nation, and filled with the spirit of the grand general and chieftain who established our independence, we seek to restore the government of the Republic to the hands of the plain people, with which class it originated. '' The Omaha Platform called for a wide range of social reforms, including a reduction in the working day, a "safe, sound, and flexible '' national currency, assistance to farmers with the financing of their labours, "fair and liberal pensions to ex-Union soldiers and sailors, '' the direct election of Senators, single - terms for Presidents and Vice-Presidents, "the legislative system known as the initiative and referendum, '' "the unperverted Australian of secret ballot system, '' the nationalization of the railroads, the telegraph, and the telephone systems, a postal savings, "a graduated income tax, '' and "the free and unlimited coinage of silver. '' In referencing the Omaha Platform, Senator George Norris of Nebraska suggested the wealth of the "super rich '' had to begin flowing "to all the people, from whom it was originally taken. ''
The Populist, or People 's, Party went on to capture 11 seats in the United States House of Representatives, several governors and the state legislatures of Kansas, Nebraska and North Carolina. 1892 Presidential nominee and former Greenbacker James B. Weaver received over a million popular votes, and won four states (Colorado, Kansas, Idaho, and Nevada) and 22 electoral votes. The Party 's legislative majorities were thereafter able to elect several United States Senators. Taken as a whole, the electoral accomplishments of the Populist Party represent the high water mark for a United States third party after the Civil War. In 1896, the Populists abandoned the Omaha Platform and endorsed Democratic nominee William Jennings Bryan on the basis of a single - plank free silver platform.
The first goal of the Omaha Platform was to increase the coinage of silver to gold at a 16: 1 ratio. The Omaha Platform suggested a federal loans system so that farmers could get the money they needed. The platform also called for the elimination of private banks. The platform required a system of federal storage facilities for the farmers ' crops. The objective was to allow the farmers to control the pricing of their products. The Omaha Platform made a special taxing system for them so that they would have to pay taxes depending on how much money they made. They also asked for an eight - hour workday and the direct election of senators, as opposed to them being elected by state legislatures. Those were the main goals of the Omaha Platform, all focused on helping rural and working - class Americans. They also made it so that farmers would only work 8 hours instead of 10 or more. After 1894, Populists emphasized the demand for free coinage of silver rather than other goals, such as state - run railroads.
The platform did not appeal to the more urban areas of the country where wage earners were working industrial jobs. The platform 's only clear attempt to appeal to northerners in the east was the clause mentioning pensions to ex-Union soldiers. The Populist Party dissolved before World War II as members were unable to meet in Omaha for the party 's semi-centennial celebration, and for the reason that many of the party 's values have been accepted by other, more dominant political parties.
|
duke dumont - i got u ft. jax jones | I Got U - wikipedia
"I Got U '' is a song by British record producer Duke Dumont, and features fellow record producer Jax Jones. It was released as the second single from his forthcoming debut studio album on 16 March 2014. The song topped the UK Singles Chart. It features on his EP EP1, which was released in North America. It also appears on the compilation album Now 87 and in the video game Forza Horizon 2.
The song interpolates vocals from session singer Kelli - Leigh 's performance of "My Love Is Your Love ''. Dumont was inspired by the original recording of that song by Whitney Houston, saying: "It 's one of my favourite Whitney songs, especially the latter Whitney period. ''
In April 2014, Dumont explained his process of making the song:
I tend to make summery songs in the winter and winter songs in the summer, I 'm like that typical British person that in the winter that moans that it 's too cold and in the summer I moan that it 's too hot, so the studio is my escapism. There was no master plan like ' hey I 'm a gon na make a summer song and then build a buzz around it in January ' -- there was n't much thought process to it!
It was released in the United Kingdom on 16 March 2014 on Blasé Boys Club and Virgin EMI Records. A remix EP was released on the same day containing remixes of the song by MK, Tensnake, Jonas Rathsman, Bondax and High Contrast.
The song was first aired on Annie Mac 's Radio 1 show on 6 December 2013. She replayed the record halfway through because she could n't get enough of it.
A music video was created for the single and was directed by Rémy Cayuela. Starring the model and actor Rique and New Zealand model Kylee Tan, the video was released on 19 February 2014, and was filmed in Thailand in locations between Bangkok and Phuket. Critical reception for it was positive; Capital Xtra noted that the video contained "all the experiences you 'd expect someone to have whilst travelling to that part of the globe, including beach parties, boat rides and bonfires ''. GQ magazine commended it for containing, in their words, "all the tropical trimmings: turquoise waters, infinity pools, freshly sliced watermelon, a beachside rave, bungee jumps, inquisitive monkeys and an abundance of models in neon two - pieces '' and noted that its only drawback is that it caused cravings for coconut drinks, an extended holiday and a game of beach volleyball.
Critical reception for the single was overwhelmingly positive. Robert Copsey praised the track for containing "all the summertime essentials: steel drums, Balearic synths and a myriad of earworm hooks '' and noted that its choice of sample was "brave '' but "sensitive enough that the essence of the original is n't lost ''. He also commended the vocal delivery of Kelli Leigh, describing it as "at times... hauntingly similar to Whitney 's ''. Lacy Kelly said that the song created a "calming vibe with a low steady beat, weaving piano between steel drums and Kelli Leigh 's beautiful voice ''. In addition, Beatsmedia. com 's William Michael called it "perfect for those laid back Balearic moments. Containing a cool laid back vibe, sweet piano chords and calypso rhythms "I Got U '' has summer vibes written all over it and it when that unmistakable Whitney vocal comes in that you know this is one special record indeed ". Jamieson Cox of Pitchfork called the song, "a blast of sunlight and warm, humid air, flecks of steel drum, vocal samples, and a joyous, radiant vocal take. ''
It reached number 16 on Belgium 's Ultratop charts and number 64 on the Netherlands ' MegaCharts. However, the song performed the best in the United Kingdom, topping their Official Charts.
Credits adapted from "I Got U '' CD single.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
who is the show the goldbergs based on | The Goldbergs (2013 TV series) - Wikipedia
The Goldbergs is an American television period sitcom that premiered on Tuesday, September 24, 2013, on ABC. The series was created by Adam F. Goldberg and stars Wendi McLendon - Covey, Jeff Garlin, Sean Giambrone, Troy Gentile, Hayley Orrantia, and George Segal. The show is produced by Goldberg, Seth Gordon, and Doug Robinson. It is based on Goldberg 's childhood and family in the 1980s, complete with a childhood version of himself. The fourth season premiered on September 21, 2016. In May 2017, ABC renewed the series for a fifth and sixth season. The fifth season premiered on September 27, 2017.
The Goldbergs is set in the 1980s in Jenkintown, Pennsylvania. The show is loosely based on the showrunner 's childhood, during which he videotaped events, many of which are reenacted throughout the program. It shows the reality of the ' 80s through a young boy 's eyes.
The series stars Jeff Garlin as patriarch Murray and Wendi McLendon - Covey as matriarch Beverly. Their two older children are Erica (Hayley Orrantia) and Barry (Troy Gentile). The youngest child, Adam (Sean Giambrone), documents his family life with his video camera. Beverly 's father, Albert "Pops '' Solomon (George Segal), is frequently around to provide advice or to help out his grandchildren (often behind his daughter 's back).
The present - day "Adult Adam '' (Patton Oswalt) narrates every episode as taking place in "1980 - something ''. The narrator takes creative liberties with the time frame, resulting in occasional anachronisms. For example, the second - season episode "Just Say No '' has references to both the Walter Mondale / Geraldine Ferraro presidential campaign (which took place in 1984) and the TV shows American Gladiators and America 's Funniest Home Videos (both of which debuted in 1989).
Many references to real - life Philadelphia - area businesses are made, including the Wawa Inc. convenience store chain, Gimbel 's department store, Willow Grove Park Mall, and Kremp 's Florist of Willow Grove, Pennsylvania.
The project originally received a script commitment from Fox in August 2011. After Adam Goldberg 's previous show, Breaking In, was canceled, he did not want to wait for another pilot season to arrive and moved it to ABC, who agreed to immediately produce it. On January 11, 2013, Wendi McLendon - Covey was cast as the pilot 's lead; later, Jeff Garlin and George Segal joined the cast.
The pilot episode was directed by Seth Gordon. On May 10, 2013, ABC picked up the show to series to air in the 2013 -- 14 American television season. It was later picked up for a full season order on November 1, 2013. The program is filmed on a series of stages at Sony Pictures Studios.
The show 's theme song, "Rewind, '' was written at Goldberg 's request by I Fight Dragons, his favorite band, specifically for the show. A soundtrack, featuring songs performed on the show by the cast members, was released on December 6, 2017.
The Goldbergs pilot received mixed reviews, averaging a score of 52 % on Metacritic based on reviews from 26 critics.
Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter called it "one of the rare freshman comedies to deliver '', giving credit to the show 's "outstanding writing '' and "strong cast ''. David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle said "you 'll immediately like everyone in the family and the jokes derive from credible situations ''.
Hank Stuever of The Washington Post said the show was "obnoxiously loud ''. David Hinckley of The New York Daily News said the show is "just awful ''. Tierney Bricker of E! News gave a more positive review, saying that the show is "like Modern Family mixed with A Christmas Story ''.
The Goldbergs was included in TV Guide 's 2013 Top Twenty "Best Shows of the Year '', along with The Hollywood Reporter and Today. In addition, SpoilerTV awarded The Goldbergs with the honor of Best Comedy of 2013 -- 2014.
The second season had a Rotten Tomatoes score of 100 % fresh with five reviews, and there were many calls from both critics and the public to renew the show for a third season. The show continued to be well received, with Entertainment Weekly calling the season two premiere "the best of any family comedy on TV in the way it eschews dysfunction for its more appropriate, real - world term: love ''.
After the series was renewed for season 3, ABC network chief Paul Lee stated that both he and ABC believed that the show will be around for "a long time ''.
The Goldbergs originally premiered on ABC on 24 September 2013. The pilot was made available on Hulu and ABC.com before it premiered on television.
In Australia, the show airs on the Seven Network. It has been broadcast in the United Kingdom on E4 since 20 April 2015, in Ireland on RTÉ2 since 19 October 2015 and in Turkey on DiziSmart since 2015. In France, the series began broadcasting since 17 October 2015 on Comedie+.
The show has been broadcasting on Neox TV channel in Spain since May 8, 2016 (2016 - 05 - 08). In India, the series is aired on Star World. In Germany, the series is aired on the Disney Channel since February 16, 2016. In Portugal, the series is aired on Fox Comedy.
The show went into syndication in September 2017 and began airing on local stations on September 11, Nick at Nite on September 18, Pop on September 24, and will also begin to air on TV Land.
In November 2016, it was first reported that ABC was developing a spinoff that would centre around recurring character Rick Mellor, played by Bryan Callen. On January 10, 2017, Wendi McClendon - Covey 's character was reported as appearing in the script in a guest appearance. The script was ordered to pilot on February 2, 2017..
On March 16, 2017, it was confirmed that Nia Long had been cast as the female lead in the role of Lucy Winston. At the same time it was confirmed that Tim Meadows would reprise his recurring role from The Goldbergs as Andre Glascott. Jay Chandrasekhar was also confirmed to direct.
On May 17, 2017, ABC passed on the spin - off, despite it reportedly testing very well - going as far to test better than the pilot of the original series. At the same time, Adam F. Goldberg revealed the title of the failed spin - off - "Schooled ''.
On January 8, 2018, it was announced that the pilot would air as a special episode of The Goldbergs on January 24, 2018. The pilot will air under the episode title The Goldbergs: 1990 - Something. Goldberg has expressed hope that the airing will prompt discussions with ABC that could lead to the series being picked up for the 2018 -- 19 TV season.
|
when does spike get the chip out of his head | The Killer in me - Wikipedia
"The Killer in Me '' is the 13th episode of the seventh and final season of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer.
Giles prepares to take all of the Potentials -- except Kennedy, who 's sick with the flu -- on a trip to the desert to meet the First Slayer. Buffy goes to check on Spike, who 's chained in the basement. They chat about the girls being gone and Spike 's decision to stay chained up until they know the First Evil is through with him. Suddenly, Spike begins to writhe in pain as his chip fires without provocation.
Buffy talks with Willow in the kitchen about Spike 's chip and what little they actually know about it. Willow then goes upstairs to bring Kennedy some tea. When Willow walks into the room, she finds that Kennedy is not actually sick, and is instead dressed for a "mission '' which she says requires Willow 's assistance. The mission turns out to be drinks at The Bronze. Back in the basement, Buffy checks on Spike again and they talk about the potential causes of the chip 's glitches. Buffy realizes that she is going to have to contact the people who implanted the chip in the first place: The Initiative. Buffy tries, but fails, to reach Riley Finn on the telephone; Spike 's chip continues to fire at random intervals.
Willow and Kennedy finish their drinks and then return to Revello Drive. Back in their room, Kennedy gives Willow an end - of - date kiss, with a surprising effect: Willow takes on the appearance of Warren Mears. Panicking, Willow rushes downstairs; on seeing her, the others recoil, partly because they know that the First Evil has appeared to Andrew as Warren. Buffy hits "Warren '', showing that "he '' can not be the First (who is incorporeal). When Willow threatens to tell some embarrassing old stories about Xander, the gang provisionally accept her claim.
Willow goes off to try to break the spell; Kennedy tags along. Spike 's chip fires again. Buffy and Spike go to the Initiative 's abandoned base to look for the painkilling drugs that were used on Spike during his captivity there three years before, when the chip was implanted, and for documentation on the chip.
Robson, a Watcher, telephones Buffy 's house from England and reports that Giles may have been killed by a Bringer (as seen in the ending of "Sleeper ''). The Scoobies become alarmed when none of them can remember seeing Giles touch anything since his return; no one has hugged him, nor seen him carry anything, and he is not driving the car to the desert. Xander, Anya, Dawn, and Andrew all go to the desert to find Giles and, in the case of danger, stop him from hurting the Potentials.
Willow and Kennedy go to meet with the Wiccan group at the University of California - Sunnydale, which now includes an apologetic and repentant Amy. Amy and Willow work together to break the glamour, but the spell brings forth another surprise: a burst of Warren from inside of Willow. Willow tries to run away as she realizes she 's not just looking like Warren, she 's becoming him. Kennedy tries to follow, but Willow puts up a magical barrier to keep her away. Buffy and Spike wander through the remains of the Initiative, finding many dead soldiers and demons ("Primeval '').
Inside the Initiative, Buffy and Spike are attacked by a demon. During the fray, Buffy is wounded by the demon and when Spike tries to help, his chip fires and renders him ineffectual. The demon grabs Spike and drags him off into the darkness. Kennedy returns to the lecture hall to find Amy packing up supplies; the rest of the group is gone. Amy comments on Kennedy 's concern for Willow, and draws Kennedy 's suspicion when she mentions that Kennedy is a Potential, a fact that neither Kennedy or Willow had mentioned.
Willow, increasingly dominated by the Warren persona, goes to buy a gun, of the same model that killed Tara and wounded Buffy ("Seeing Red ''). Out in the desert, Giles is tackled to the ground by Xander and the others. They are all pleased to find that he has a solid form and thus is not the First Evil -- nor dead.
Back at the abandoned Initiative facility, Buffy battles with and finally kills the demon that attacked her and Spike. As she crouches down by Spike to see if he is okay, lights turn on, revealing a group of soldiers. Their leader explains that Riley received Buffy 's message, and they are there to help Spike. An examination confirms that Spike 's chip is killing him. It is up to Buffy to decide whether to repair the chip or remove it.
Kennedy confronts Amy, accusing her of causing the "Warren '' problem. Amy reveals that she put a hex on Willow, whose effect is determined by the victim 's subconscious. She did it because Willow murdered a man and remained beloved -- crowning Amy 's envy of Willow 's relatively easy successes in magic. Amy then teleports Kennedy to the backyard of Buffy 's house, where Willow / Warren starts to reenact his attack on Buffy that resulted in Tara 's death, saying, "You killed her, you bitch! '' Kennedy talks Willow down, and Willow tearfully explains that when Kennedy kissed her she let go of Tara 's memory for a moment, making her truly dead. Kennedy tells Willow that it is just magic and that she finally understands. Kennedy kisses Willow again and the spell ends. The two go into the house together.
Each scene with Willow / Warren was filmed twice - once with Alyson Hannigan playing Willow and again with Adam Busch as Warren. Which actor performed the scene first depended upon how "Willow '' Warren was supposed to be. That is, when Willow first changes into Warren she acts more or less like Willow; in these early scenes Hannigan would act first so that Busch could somewhat mimic her performance. In later scenes when Warren 's personality is more prominent Busch would act first. Because of this decision to use both actors, filming the Willow scenes took much longer than usual.
In an interview with the BBC, Elizabeth Anne Allen says, "everything had to be so exact. '' She explains that if Alyson or Adam "gestured or moved their head differently from the other person, they had to do the take over again. So that one scene took us a day and a half to shoot. '' Anthony Stewart Head was not allowed to touch anything while onscreen for several episodes prior to this one, in order to set up the suspicion that Giles might actually be the First. According to the DVD commentary for this episode, this was apparently quite a pain for all involved. When asked why he set up this misdirection, Joss Whedon says it was "to make people wonder. Just to have a little fun in the sense of pulling a mystery... an exercise, something to spice things up. '' Whedon wanted to play off the "creepy '' idea that "we do n't know where the bad guy is, we do n't know where he 's coming from. Our trusted mentor could be the bad guy. '' In the DVD commentary, director David Solomon notes that Iyari Limon had to do a lot of kissing in this episode. He says she joked that her lips hurt after having to do long kisses with both Alyson Hannigan and Adam Busch.
|
mimo 802.11n devices use precoding and postcoding techniques like | IEEE 802.11 n - 2009 - wikipedia
IEEE 802.11 n - 2009, commonly shortened to 802.11 n, is a wireless - networking standard that uses multiple antennas to increase data rates. Sometimes referred to as MIMO, which stands for "multiple input and multiple output '', it is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 - 2007 wireless - networking standard. Its purpose is to improve network throughput over the two previous standards -- 802.11 a and 802.11 g -- with a significant increase in the maximum net data rate from 54 Mbit / s to 600 Mbit / s (slightly higher gross bit rate including for example error - correction codes, and slightly lower maximum throughput) with the use of four spatial streams at a channel width of 40 MHz. 802.11 n standardized support for multiple - input multiple - output, frame aggregation, and security improvements, among other features. It can be used in the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz frequency bands.
802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods. They are commonly used today in their 802.11 a, 802.11 b, 802.11 g, 802.11 n, and 802.11 ac versions to provide wireless connectivity in homes and businesses. Development of 802.11 n began in 2002, seven years before publication. The 802.11 n protocol is now Clause 20 of the published IEEE 802.11 - 2012 standard.
IEEE 802.11 n is an amendment to IEEE 802.11 - 2007 as amended by IEEE 802.11 k - 2008, IEEE 802.11 r - 2008, IEEE 802.11 y - 2008, and IEEE 802.11 w - 2009, and builds on previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple - input multiple - output (MIMO) and 40 MHz channels to the PHY (physical layer), and frame aggregation to the MAC layer.
MIMO is a technology that uses multiple antennas to coherently resolve more information than possible using a single antenna. One way it provides this is through Spatial Division Multiplexing (SDM), which spatially multiplexes multiple independent data streams, transferred simultaneously within one spectral channel of bandwidth. MIMO SDM can significantly increase data throughput as the number of resolved spatial data streams is increased. Each spatial stream requires a discrete antenna at both the transmitter and the receiver. In addition, MIMO technology requires a separate radio - frequency chain and analog - to - digital converter for each MIMO antenna, making it more expensive to implement than non-MIMO systems.
Channels operating with a width of 40 MHz are another feature incorporated into 802.11 n; this doubles the channel width from 20 MHz in previous 802.11 PHYs to transmit data, and provides twice the PHY data rate available over a single 20 MHz channel. It can be enabled in the 5 GHz mode, or within the 2.4 GHz mode if there is knowledge that it will not interfere with any other 802.11 or non-802.11 (such as Bluetooth) system using the same frequencies. The MIMO architecture, together with wider - bandwidth channels, offers increased physical transfer rate over 802.11 a (5 GHz) and 802.11 g (2.4 GHz).
The transmitter and receiver use precoding and postcoding techniques, respectively, to achieve the capacity of a MIMO link. Precoding includes spatial beamforming and spatial coding, where spatial beamforming improves the received signal quality at the decoding stage. Spatial coding can increase data throughput via spatial multiplexing and increase range by exploiting the spatial diversity, through techniques such as Alamouti coding.
The number of simultaneous data streams is limited by the minimum number of antennas in use on both sides of the link. However, the individual radios often further limit the number of spatial streams that may carry unique data. The a x b: c notation helps identify what a given radio is capable of. The first number (a) is the maximum number of transmit antennas or TX RF chains that can be used by the radio. The second number (b) is the maximum number of receive antennas or RX RF chains that can be used by the radio. The third number (c) is the maximum number of data spatial streams the radio can use. For example, a radio that can transmit on two antennas and receive on three, but can only send or receive two data streams would be 2 x 3: 2.
The 802.11 n draft allows up to 4 x 4: 4. Common configurations of 11n devices are 2 x 2: 2; 2 x 3: 2; and 3 x 2: 2. All three configurations have the same maximum throughputs and features, and differ only in the amount of diversity the antenna systems provide. In addition, a fourth configuration, 3 x 3: 3 is becoming common, which has a higher throughput, due to the additional data stream.
Assuming equal operating parameters to an 802.11 g network achieving 54 megabits per second (on a single 20 MHz channel with one antenna), an 802.11 n network can achieve 72 megabits per second (on a single 20 MHz channel with one antenna and 400 ns guard interval); 802.11 n 's speed may go up to 150 megabits per second if there are not other Bluetooth, microwave or Wi - Fi emissions in the neighborhood by using two 20 MHz channels in 40 MHz mode. If more antennas are used, then 802.11 n can go up to 288 megabits per second in 20 MHz mode with four antennas, or 600 megabits per second in 40 MHz mode with four antennas and 400 ns guard interval. Because the 2.4 GHz band is seriously congested in most urban areas, 802.11 n networks usually have more success in increasing data rate by utilizing more antennas in 20 MHz mode rather than by operating in the 40 MHz mode, as the 40 MHz mode requires a relatively free radio spectrum which is only available in rural areas away from cities. Thus, network engineers installing an 802.11 n network should strive to select routers and wireless clients with the most antennas possible (one, two, three or four as specified by the 802.11 n standard) and try to make sure that the network 's bandwidth will be satisfactory even on the 20 MHz mode.
Data rates up to 600 Mbit / s are achieved only with the maximum of four spatial streams using one 40 MHz - wide channel. Various modulation schemes and coding rates are defined by the standard and are represented by a Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) index value. The table below shows the relationships between the variables that allow for the maximum data rate. GI (Guard Interval): Timing between symbols.
20 MHz channel uses an FFT of 64, of which: 56 OFDM subcarriers, 52 are for data and 4 are pilot tones with a carrier separation of 0.3125 MHz (20 MHz / 64) (3.2 μs). Each of these subcarriers can be a BPSK, QPSK, 16 - QAM or 64 - QAM. The total bandwidth is 20 MHz with an occupied bandwidth of 17.8 MHz. Total symbol duration is 3.6 or 4 microseconds, which includes a guard interval of 0.4 or 0.8 microseconds.
PHY level data rate does not match user level throughput because of 802.11 protocol overheads, like the contention process, interframe spacing, PHY level headers (Preamble + PLCP) and acknowledgment frames. The main media access control (MAC) feature that provides a performance improvement is aggregation. Two types of aggregation are defined:
Frame aggregation is a process of packing multiple MSDUs or MPDUs together to reduce the overheads and average them over multiple frames, thereby increasing the user level data rate. A-MPDU aggregation requires the use of block acknowledgement or BlockAck, which was introduced in 802.11 e and has been optimized in 802.11 n.
When 802.11 g was released to share the band with existing 802.11 b devices, it provided ways of ensuring coexistence between legacy and successor devices. 802.11 n extends the coexistence management to protect its transmissions from legacy devices, which include 802.11 g, 802.11 b and 802.11 a. There are MAC and PHY level protection mechanisms as listed below:
To achieve maximum output, a pure 802.11 n 5 GHz network is recommended. The 5 GHz band has substantial capacity due to many non-overlapping radio channels and less radio interference as compared to the 2.4 GHz band. An 802.11 n - only network may be impractical for many users because they need to support legacy equipment that still is 802.11 b / g only. In a mixed - mode system, an optimal solution would be to use a dual - radio access point and place the 802.11 b / g traffic on the 2.4 GHz radio and the 802.11 n traffic on the 5 GHz radio. This setup assumes that all the 802.11 n clients are 5 GHz capable, which is not a requirement of the standard. Quite a few Wi - Fi - capable devices only support the 2.4 GHz and there is no practical way to upgrade them to support 5 GHz. Some enterprise - grade APs use band steering to send 802.11 n clients to the 5 GHz band, leaving the 2.4 GHz band for legacy clients. Band steering works by responding only to 5 GHz association requests and not the 2.4 GHz requests from dual - band clients.
The 2.4 GHz ISM band is fairly congested. With 802.11 n, there is the option to double the bandwidth per channel to 40 MHz which results in slightly more than double the data rate. However, when in 2.4 GHz, enabling this option takes up to 82 % of the unlicensed band. For example, channel 3 SCA (secondary channel above), also known as 3 + 7, reserves the first 9 out of the 11 channels available in North America.
The specification calls for requiring one primary 20 MHz channel as well as a secondary adjacent channel spaced ± 20 MHz away. The primary channel is used for communications with clients incapable of 40 MHz mode. When in 40 MHz mode, the center frequency is actually the mean of the primary and secondary channels.
Local regulations may restrict certain channels from operation. For example, Channels 12 and 13 are normally unavailable for use as either a primary or secondary channel in North America. For further information, see List of WLAN channels.
The Wi - Fi Alliance began certifying products based on IEEE 802.11 n draft 2.0 mid-2007. This certification program established a set of features and a level of interoperability across vendors supporting those features, thus providing one definition of ' draft n '. The baseline certification covers both 20 MHz and 40 MHz wide channels, and up to two spatial streams, for maximum throughputs of 144.4 Mbit / s for 20 MHz and 300 Mbit / s for 40 MHz (with short guard interval). A number of vendors in both the consumer and enterprise spaces have built products that have achieved this certification. The Wi - Fi Alliance certification program subsumed the previous industry consortium efforts to define 802.11 n, such as the now dormant Enhanced Wireless Consortium (EWC). The Alliance has upgraded its suite of compatibility tests for some enhancements that were finalized after draft 2.0. Furthermore, it has affirmed that all draft - n certified products remain compatible with the products conforming to the final standards. The Wi - Fi Alliance is investigating further work on certification of additional features of 802.11 n not covered by the baseline certification, including higher numbers of spatial streams (3 or 4), Greenfield Format, PSMP, implicit and explicit beamforming and space - time block coding.
The following are milestones in the development of 802.11 n:
|
the indus basin treaty was signed in karachi by | Indus waters treaty - wikipedia
The Indus Waters Treaty (English) or सिंधु जल संधि (Hindi) or "سندھ طاس معاہدہ '' (Urdu) is a water - sharing treaty between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by then Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and then President of Pakistan Ayub Khan.
According to this agreement, control over the water flowing in three "eastern '' rivers of India -- the Beas, the Ravi and the Sutlej with the mean flow of 33 MAF -- was given to India, while control over the water flowing in three "western '' rivers of India -- the Indus, the Chenab and the Jhelum with the mean flow of 136 MAF -- to Pakistan. More controversial, however, were the provisions on how the waters were to be shared. Since Pakistan 's rivers receive more water flow from India, the treaty allowed India to use western rivers water for limited irrigation use and unrestricted use for power generation, domestic, industrial and non consumptive uses such as navigation, floating of property, fish culture, etc. while laying down precise regulations for India to build projects. The preamble of the treaty declares that the objectives of the treaty are recognizing rights & obligations of each country in settlement of water use from the Indus rivers system in a spirit of goodwill, friendship and cooperation contrary to the fears of Pakistan that India could potentially create droughts and famines in Pakistan, especially at times of war since substantial water inflows of the Indus basin rivers are from India.
Since the ratification of the treaty in 1960, India and Pakistan have not engaged in any water wars. Most disagreements and disputes have been settled via legal procedures, provided for within the framework of the treaty. The treaty is considered to be one of the most successful water sharing endeavours in the world today, even though analysts acknowledge the need to update certain technical specifications and expand the scope of the document to include climate change. As per the provisions in the treaty, India can use only 20 % of the total water carried by the Indus rivers system while Pakistan can use the remaining 80 %.
The Indus system of rivers comprises three western rivers -- the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab -- and three eastern rivers -- the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi. The treaty, under Article 5.1, envisages the sharing of waters of the rivers Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab which join the Indus River on its left bank (eastern side) in Pakistan. According to this treaty, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, which constitute the eastern rivers, are allocated for exclusive use by India before they enter Pakistan. However, a transition period of 10 years was permitted in which India was bound to supply water to Pakistan from these rivers until Pakistan was able to build the canal system for utilization of waters of Jhelum, Chenab and the Indus itself, allocated to it under the treaty. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the western rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Indus. As Punjab was dependent on three eastern rivers too, India agreed to make fixed contribution of UK Pound Streling 62,060,000 / = (Pound Streling sixty two million and sixty thousand only) towards the cost of construction of new head - works and canal system for irrigation. India had to pay this amount in ten equal installments. allocated to it. The treaty resulted in partitioning of the rivers rather than sharing of their waters.
The countries agreed to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this purpose, treaty creates the Permanent Indus Commission, with a commissioner appointed by each country. It would follow the set procedure for adjudicating any future disputes arising over the allocation of waters. The Commission has survived three wars and provides an ongoing mechanism for consultation and conflict resolution through inspection, exchange of data and visits. The Commission is required to meet regularly to discuss potential disputes as well as cooperative arrangements for the development of the basin. Either party must notify the other of plans to construct any engineering works which would affect the other party and to provide data about such works. The annual inspections and exchange of data continue, unperturbed by tensions on the subcontinent. In cases of disagreement, Permanent Court of Arbitration or a neutral technical expert is called in for arbitration. Technical expert 's ruling was followed for clearing the Baglihar power plant and Permanent Court of Arbitration verdict was followed for clearing the Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plant.
The waters of the Indus basin begin in Tibet and the Himalayan mountains in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. They flow from the hills through the states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and Sindh, converging in Pakistan and emptying into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi. Where once there was only a narrow strip of irrigated land along these rivers, developments over the last century have created a large network of canals and storage facilities that provide water for more than 26 million acres (110,000 km), the largest irrigated area of any one river system in the world.
The partition of British India created a conflict over the plentiful waters of the Indus basin. The newly formed states were at odds over how to share and manage what was essentially a cohesive and unitary network of irrigation. Furthermore, the geography of partition was such that the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India. Pakistan felt its livelihood threatened by the prospect of Indian control over the tributaries that fed water into the Pakistani portion of the basin. Where India certainly had its own ambitions for the profitable development of the basin, Pakistan felt acutely threatened by a conflict over the main source of water for its cultivable land.
During the first years of partition, the waters of the Indus were apportioned by the Inter-Dominion Accord of May 4, 1948. This accord required India to release sufficient waters to the Pakistani regions of the basin in return for annual payments from the government of Pakistan. The accord was meant to meet immediate requirements and was followed by negotiations for a more permanent solution. However, neither side was willing to compromise their respective positions and negotiations reached a stalemate. From the Indian point of view, there was nothing that Pakistan could do to prevent India from any of the schemes to divert the flow of water in the rivers. Pakistan wanted to take the matter to the International Court of Justice, but India refused, arguing that the conflict required a bilateral resolution.
In this same year, David Lilienthal, formerly the chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, visited the region to write a series of articles for Collier 's magazine. Lilienthal had a keen interest in the subcontinent and was welcomed by the highest levels of both Indian and Pakistani governments. Although his visit was sponsored by Collier 's, Lilienthal was briefed by state department and executive branch officials, who hoped that Lilienthal could help bridge the gap between India and Pakistan and also gauge hostilities on the subcontinent. During the course of his visit, it became clear to Lilienthal that tensions between India and Pakistan were acute, but also unable to be erased with one sweeping gesture. He wrote in his journal:
India and Pakistan were on the verge of war over Kashmir. There seemed to be no possibility of negotiating this issue until tensions abated. One way to reduce hostility... would be to concentrate on other important issues where cooperation was possible. Progress in these areas would promote a sense of community between the two nations which might, in time, lead to a Kashmir settlement. Accordingly, I proposed that India and Pakistan work out a program jointly to develop and jointly to operate the Indus Basin river system, upon which both nations were dependent for irrigation water. With new dams and irrigation canals, the Indus and its tributaries could be made to yield the additional water each country needed for increased food production. In the article I had suggested that the World Bank might use its good offices to bring the parties to agreement, and help in the financing of an Indus Development program.
Lilienthal 's idea was well received by officials at the World Bank, and, subsequently, by the Indian and Pakistani governments. Eugene R. Black, then president of the World Bank, told Lilienthal that his proposal "makes good sense all round ''. Black wrote that the Bank was interested in the economic progress of the two countries and had been concerned that the Indus dispute could only be a serious handicap to this development. India 's previous objections to third party arbitration were remedied by the Bank 's insistence that it would not adjudicate the conflict but rather work as a conduit for agreement.
Black also made a distinction between the "functional '' and "political '' aspects of the Indus dispute. In his correspondence with Indian and Pakistan leaders, Black asserted that the Indus dispute could most realistically be solved if the functional aspects of disagreement were negotiated apart from political considerations. He envisioned a group that tackled the question of how best to utilize the waters of the Indus Basin, leaving aside questions of historic rights or allocations.
Black proposed a Working Party made up of Indian, Pakistani and World Bank engineers. The World Bank delegation would act as a consultative group, charged with offering suggestions and speeding dialogue. In his opening statement to the Working Party, Black spoke of why he was optimistic about the group 's success:
One aspect of Mr. Lilienthal 's proposal appealed to me from the first. I mean his insistence that the Indus problem is an engineering problem and should be dealt with by engineers. One of the strengths of the engineering profession is that, all over the world, engineers speak the same language and approach problems with common standards of judgment.
Black 's hopes for a quick resolution to the Indus dispute were premature. While the Bank had expected that the two sides would come to an agreement on the allocation of waters, neither India nor Pakistan seemed willing to compromise their positions. While Pakistan insisted on its historical right to waters of all the Indus tributaries and that half of West Punjab was under threat of desertification, the Indian side argued that the previous distribution of waters should not set future allocation. Instead, the Indian side set up a new basis of distribution, with the waters of the Western tributaries going to Pakistan and the Eastern tributaries to India. The substantive technical discussions that Black had hoped for were stymied by the political considerations he had expected to avoid.
The World Bank soon became frustrated with this lack of progress. What had originally been envisioned as a technical dispute that would quickly untangle itself started to seem intractable. India and Pakistan were unable to agree on the technical aspects of allocation, let alone the implementation of any agreed upon distribution of waters. Finally, in 1954, after nearly two years of negotiation, the World bank offered its own proposal, stepping beyond the limited role it had apportioned for itself and forcing the two sides to consider concrete plans for the future of the basin. The proposal offered India the three eastern tributaries of the basin and Pakistan the three western tributaries. Canals and storage dams were to be constructed to divert waters from the western rivers and replace the eastern river supply lost by Pakistan.
While the Indian side was amenable to the World Bank proposal, Pakistan found it unacceptable. The World Bank allocated the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan. This new distribution did not account for the historical usage of the Indus basin, or the fact that West Punjab 's Eastern districts could turn into desert, and repudiated Pakistan 's negotiating position. Where India had stood for a new system of allocation, Pakistan felt that its share of waters should be based on pre-partition distribution. The World Bank proposal was more in line with the Indian plan and this angered the Pakistani delegation. They threatened to withdraw from the Working Party, and negotiations verged on collapse.
However, neither side could afford the dissolution of talks. The Pakistani press met rumors of an end to negotiation with talk of increased hostilities; the government was ill - prepared to forego talks for a violent conflict with India and was forced to reconsider its position. India was also eager to settle the Indus issue; large development projects were put on hold by negotiations, and Indian leaders were eager to divert water for irrigation.
In December 1954, the two sides returned to the negotiating table. The World Bank proposal was transformed from a basis of settlement to a basis for negotiation and the talks continued, stop and go, for the next six years.
One of the last stumbling blocks to an agreement concerned financing for the construction of canals and storage facilities that would transfer water from the western rivers to Pakistan. This transfer was necessary to make up for the water Pakistan was giving up by ceding its rights to the eastern rivers. The World Bank initially planned for India to pay for these works, but India refused. The Bank responded with a plan for external financing. An Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement (Karachi, 19 September 1960); a treaty between Australia, Canada, West Germany, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IRDC) and Pakistan who agreed to provide a combination of funds and loans. This solution cleared the remaining stumbling blocks to agreement, and the Indus Waters Treaty was signed by the leaders of both countries on the same day in 1960. The grants and loans to Pakistan were extended in 1964 through a supplementary agreement.
Presently, the World Bank role in the treaty is limited to keep the dispute settlement process moving when a party / country is not cooperating to follow the arbitration procedure given in the treaty in case of a dispute.
From the rivers flowing in India, India got nearly 33 million acre feet (MAF) from eastern rivers whereas Pakistan got nearly 125 MAF from western rivers. However India can use the western river waters for irrigation up to 701,000 acres with new water storage capacity not exceeding 1.25 MAF and use the rivers for non run of river hydro power plants with storage not exceeding 1.6 MAF and nominal flood storage capacity of 0.75 MAF. These water allocations made to the Jammu and Kashmir state of India are meagre to meet its irrigation water requirements whereas the treaty permitted enough water to irrigate 80 % of the cultivated lands in the Indus river basin of Pakistan. The storage capacity permitted by the treaty for hydro power generation is less than the total annual silt that would accumulate in the reservoirs if the total hydro potential of the state was to be exploited fully. Pakistan is also losing additional benefits by not permitting moderate water storages in upstream J&K state whose water would be ultimately released to the Pakistan for its use and avoid few dams requirement in its territory. Ultimately, J&K state is bound to resort costly de-silting of its reservoirs to keep them operational. Whereas Pakistan is planning to build multi purpose water reservoirs with massive storage for impounding multi year inflows such as 4,500 MW Diamer - Bhasha Dam, 3,600 MW Kalabagh Dam, 600 MW Akhori Dam, Dasu Dam, Bunji Dam, Thakot dam, Patan dam, etc. projects with huge population resettlement. In case of any dam break, downstream areas in Pakistan as well as Kutch region in India would face unprecedented water deluge or submergence as these dams are located in high seismically - active zones.
In 2003 J&K state assembly passed a unanimous resolution for the abrogation of the treaty and again in June 2016, the Jammu and Kashmir assembly demanded for revision of the Indus Water Treaty. The legislators feel that the treaty trampled upon the rights of the people and treats the state of Jammu and Kashmir as a non-entity.
The treaty has not considered Gujarat state in India as part of the Indus river basin. The Indus river is entering the Great Rann of Kutch area and feeding in to Kori Creek during floods. At the time of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, the Great Rann of Kutch area was disputed territory between the two nations which was later settled in the year 1968 by sharing total disputed area in 9: 1 ratio between India and Pakistan. Without taking consent from India, Pakistan has constructed Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) project passing through the Great Rann of Kutch area with the assistance from the world bank. LBOD 's purpose is to bypass the saline and polluted water which is not fit for agriculture use to reach sea via Rann of Kutch area without passing through its Indus delta. Water released by the LBOD is enhancing the flooding in India and contaminating the quality of water bodies which are source of water to salt farms spread over vast area. The LBOD water is planned to join the sea via disputed Sir Creek but LBOD water is entering Indian territory due to many breaches in its left bank caused by floods Gujarat state of India being the lower most riparian part of Indus basin, Pakistan is bound to provide all the details of engineering works taken up by Pakistan to India as per the provisions of the treaty and shall not proceed with the project works till the disagreements are settled by arbitration process.
In aftermath of the 2016 Uri attack, India reviewed the treaty and its provisions and proposed several changes.
|
empire played the least prominent role in which of the following regions | Portuguese Empire - wikipedia
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Império Colonial Português), was one of the largest and longest - lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire of the Renaissance. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Portuguese Macau to China in 1999.
The first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe. Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418 -- 19, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown 's secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast.
Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the colonial trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth (1500 - 1800), when it accounted for about a fifth of Portugal 's per capita income.
When Philip II of Spain, I of Portugal, inherited the Portuguese crown in 1580, this began a 60 - year union between Spain and Portugal that has since been given the historiographic term of the Iberian Union. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain: the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to effectively defend its overstretched network of trading posts, and the empire began a long and gradual decline. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the second era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century, it broke away in 1822.
The third era represents the final stage of Portuguese colonialism after the independence of Brazil in the 1820s. By then, the colonial possessions had been reduced to forts and plantations along the African coastline (expanded inland during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century), Portuguese Timor, and enclaves in India (Portuguese India) and China (Portuguese Macau). The 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa.
Under António Salazar, the Second Portuguese Republic made some ill - fated attempts to cling on to its last remaining colonies. Under the ideology of Pluricontinentalism, the regime renamed its colonies "overseas provinces '' while retaining the system of forced labour, from which only a small indigenous elite was normally exempt. In 1961, Goa was annexed by India and Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá was annexed by Dahomey (now Benin). The Portuguese Colonial War in Africa lasted until the final overthrow of the regime in 1974. The so - called Carnation Revolution lead to the hasty decolonization of Portuguese Africa and the annexation of Portuguese Timor by Indonesia. Decolonization prompted the exodus of nearly all the Portuguese colonial settlers and many mixed - race people from the colonies. Portuguese Macau was returned to China in 1999. The only overseas possessions to remain under Portuguese rule, the Azores and Madeira, both had overwhelmingly Portuguese populations, and their constitutional status was subsequently changed from "overseas provinces '' to "autonomous regions ''.
The origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. After establishing itself as a separate kingdom in 1139, Portugal completed its reconquest of Moorish territory by reaching Algarve in 1249, but its independence continued to be threatened by neighbouring Castile until the signing of the Treaty of Ayllón in 1411.
Free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought by other European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and towards a military expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa. There were several probable motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate (in present - day Morocco). It offered the opportunity to continue the Christian crusade against Islam; to the military class, it promised glory on the battlefield and the spoils of war; and finally, it was also a chance to expand Portuguese trade and to address Portugal 's economic decline.
In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the terminal ports of the trans - Saharan gold and slave trades. The conquest was a military success, and marked one of the first steps in Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula, but it proved costly to defend against the Muslim forces that soon besieged it. The Portuguese were unable to use it as a base for further expansion into the hinterland, and the trans - Saharan caravans merely shifted their routes to bypass Ceuta and / or used alternative Muslim ports.
Although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. A key supporter of this policy was Infante Dom Henry the Navigator, who had been involved in the capture of Ceuta, and who took the lead role in promoting and financing Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrative spice trade and perhaps to join forces with the fabled Christian kingdom of Prester John that was rumoured to exist somewhere in the "Indies ''. Under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1419) and Azores (1427) were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal.
Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henry 's captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast. In 1443 Infante Dom Pedro, Henry 's brother and by then regent of the Kingdom, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be enforced by the papal bulls Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex (1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands. A major advance that accelerated this project was the introduction of the caravel in the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in Europe at the time. Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerly latitudes, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year. Senegal and Cape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445.
The first feitoria trade post overseas was established in 1445 on the island of Arguin, off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the business in the routes travelled in North Africa. In 1446, Álvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as present - day Sierra Leone, and the Gulf of Guinea was reached in the 1460s. The Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1456 and settled in 1462.
Expansion of sugarcane in Madeira started in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and (largely) Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt '' rare in Europe. Already cultivated in Algarve, the accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Slaves were used, and the proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10 % of the total population by the 16th century. By 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. By the 1490s Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar. The success of sugar merchants such as Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel the investment in future travels.
In 1469, after prince Henry 's death and as a result of meagre returns of the African explorations, King Afonso V granted the monopoly of trade in part of the Gulf of Guinea to merchant Fernão Gomes. Gomes, who had to explore 100 miles (160 km) of the coast each year for five years, discovered the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including São Tomé and Príncipe and found a thriving alluvial gold trade among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named Mina (the mine), where he established a trading post. Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew throughout a decade. In 1481, the recently crowned João II decided to build São Jorge da Mina in order to ensure the protection of this trade, which was held again as a royal monopoly. The Equator was crossed by navigators sponsored by Fernão Gomes in 1473 and the Congo River by Diogo Cão in 1482. It was during this expedition that the Portuguese first encountered the Kingdom of Kongo, with which it soon developed a rapport. During his 1485 -- 86 expedition, Cão continued to Cape Cross, in present - day Namibia, near the Tropic of Capricorn.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa, proving false the view that had existed since Ptolemy that the Indian Ocean was land - locked. Simultaneously Pêro da Covilhã, traveling secretly overland, had reached Ethiopia, suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be forthcoming.
As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series of padrões, stone crosses engraved with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims, and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, they engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the African seaborne slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the population.
In 1492 Christopher Columbus 's after - discovery for Spain of the New World, which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese. These were eventually settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Portuguese and the Spanish along a north - south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west of the Cape Verde islands. However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measure longitude, the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.
The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias 's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact taking place in secret during this time. Whether or not this was the case, the long - standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground - breaking voyage commanded by Vasco da Gama.
The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut (the capital of the native kingdom ruled by Zamorins (This city also known as Kozhikode) in south - western India in May 1498. The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 under Pedro Álvares Cabral. While following the same south - westerly route as Gama across the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil 's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line. Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant in pau - brasil, or brazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India. In 1502, to enforce its trade monopoly over a wide area of the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese Empire created the cartaz licensing system, granting merchant ships protection against pirates and rival states.
Profiting from the rivalry between the ruler of Kochi and the Zamorin of Calicut, the Portuguese were well - received and seen as allies, as they obtained a permit to build the fort Immanuel (Fort Kochi) and a trading post that were the first European settlement in India. They established a trading center at Tangasseri, Quilon (Coulão, Kollam) city in (1503) in 1502, which became the centre of trade in pepper, and after founding manufactories at Cochin (Cochim, Kochi) and Cannanore (Canonor, Kannur), built a factory at Quilon in 1503. In 1505 King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Francisco de Almeida first Viceroy of Portuguese India, establishing the Portuguese government in the east. That year the Portuguese also conquered Kannur, where they founded St. Angelo Fort, and Lourenço de Almeida arrived in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of cinnamon. Although Cankili I of Jaffna initially resisted contact with them, the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials soon after for their resistance to missionary activities as well as logistical reasons due to its proximity with Trincomalee harbour among other reasons. In the same year, Manuel I ordered Almeida to fortify the Portuguese fortresses in Kerala and within eastern Africa, as well as probe into the prospects of building forts in Sri Lanka and Malacca in response to growing hostilities with Muslims within those regions and threats from the Mamluk sultan.
A Portuguese fleet under the command of Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Socotra at the entrance of the Red Sea in 1506 and Muscat in 1507. Having failed to conquer Ormuz, they instead followed a strategy intended to close off commerce to and from the Indian Ocean. Madagascar was partly explored by Cunha, and Mauritius was discovered by Cunha whilst possibly being accompanied by Albuquerque. After the capture of Socotra, Cunha and Albuquerque operated separately. While Cunha traveled India and Portugal for trading purposes, Albuquerque went to India to take over as governor after Almeida 's three - year term ended. Almeida refused to turn over power and soon placed Albuquerque under house arrest, where he remained until 1509.
Although requested by Manuel I to further explore interests in Malacca and Sri Lanka, Almeida instead focused on western India, in particular the Sultanate of Gujarat due to his suspicions of traders from the region possessing more power. The Mamlûk Sultanate sultan Al - Ashraf Qansuh al - Ghawri along with the Gujarati sultanate attacked Portuguese forces in the harbor of Chaul, resulting in the death of Almeida 's son. In retaliation, the Portuguese fought and destroyed the Mamluks and Gujarati fleets in the sea Battle of Diu in 1509.
Along with Almeida 's initial attempts, Manuel I and his council in Lisbon had tried to distribute power in the Indian Ocean, creating three areas of jurisdiction: Albuquerque was sent to the Red Sea, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to South - east Asia, seeking an agreement with the Sultan of Malacca, and Jorge de Aguiar followed by Duarte de Lemos were sent to the area between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat. However, such posts were centralized by Afonso de Albuquerque after his succession and remained so in subsequent ruling.
By the end of 1509, Albuquerque became viceroy of the Portuguese India. In contrast to Almeida, Albuquerque was more concerned with strengthening the navy, as well as being more compliant with the interests of the kingdom. His first objective was to conquer Goa, due to its strategic location as a defensive fort positioned between Kerala and Gujarat, as well as its prominence for Arabian horse imports.
The initial capture of Goa from the Bijapur sultanate in 1510 was soon countered by the Bijapuris, but with the help of Hindu privateer Timoji, on November 25 of the same year it was recaptured. In Goa, Albuquerque began the first Portuguese mint in India in 1510. He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry local women, built a church in honor of St. Catherine (as it was recaptured on her feast day), and attempted to build rapport with the Hindus by protecting their temples and reducing their tax requirements. The Portuguese maintained friendly relations with the south Indian Emperors of the Vijayanagara Empire.
In April 1511 Albuquerque sailed to Malacca in Malaysia, the largest spice market of the period. Though the trade was largely dominated by the Gujurati, other groups such as the Turks, Persians, Armenians, Tamils and Abyssinians traded there. Albuquerque targeted Malacca to impede the Muslim and Venetian influence in the spice trade and increase that of Lisbon. By July 1511, Albuquerque had captured Malacca and sent Antonio de Abreu and Francisco Serrão (along with Ferdinand Magellan) to explore the Indonesian archipelago.
The Malacca peninsula became the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia. A strong gate, called the A Famosa, was erected to defend the city and still remains. Learning of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sent Duarte Fernandes on a diplomatic mission to the Kingdom of Siam (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations and trade between both kingdoms.
The Portuguese empire pushed further south and proceeded to discover Timor in 1512. Jorge de Meneses discovered New Guinea in 1526, naming it the "Island of the Papua ''. In 1517, João da Silveira commanded a fleet to Chittagong, and by 1528, the Portuguese had established a settlement in Chittagong. The Portuguese eventually based their center of operations along the Hugli River, where they encountered Muslims, Hindus, and Portuguese deserters known as Chatins.
Jorge Alvares was the first European to reach China by sea, while the Romans were the first overland via Asia Minor. He was also the first European to discover Hong Kong. In 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque, the Viceroy of the Estado da India, dispatched Italian Rafael Perestrello to sail to China in order to pioneer European trade relations with the nation.
In spite of initial harmony and excitement between the two cultures, difficulties began to arise shortly afterwards, including misunderstanding, bigotry, and even hostility. The Portuguese explorer Simão de Andrade incited poor relations with China due to his pirate activities, raiding Chinese shipping, attacking a Chinese official, and kidnappings of Chinese. He based himself at Tamao island in a fort. The Chinese claimed that Simão kidnapped Chinese boys and girls to be molested and cannibalized. The Chinese sent a squadron of junks against Portuguese caravels that succeeded in driving the Portuguese away and reclaiming Tamao. As a result, the Chinese posted an edict banning men with caucasian features from entering Canton, killing multiple Portuguese there, and driving the Portuguese back to sea.
After the Sultan of Bintan detained several Portuguese under Tomás Pires, the Chinese then executed 23 Portuguese and threw the rest into prison where they resided in squalid, sometimes fatal conditions. The Chinese then massacred Portuguese who resided at Ningbo and Fujian trading posts in 1545 and 1549, due to extensive and damaging raids by the Portuguese along the coast, which irritated the Chinese. Portuguese pirating was second to Japanese pirating by this period. However, they soon began to shield Chinese junks and a cautious trade began. In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle in Macau, creating a warehouse in the trade of goods between China, Japan, Goa and Europe.
Portuguese operations in Asia did not go unnoticed, and in 1521 Magellan arrived in the region and claimed the Philippines for Spain. In 1525, Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonize the Moluccas islands, claiming they were in his zone of the Treaty of Tordesillas, since there was no set limit to the east. The expedition of García Jofre de Loaísa reached the Moluccas, docking at Tidore. With the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate, conflict was inevitable, leading to nearly a decade of skirmishes. A resolution was reached with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, attributing the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.
The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf, contesting control of the spice trade with the Ajuran Empire and the Ottoman Empire. In 1515, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered the Huwala state of Hormuz at the head of the Persian Gulf, establishing it as a vassal state. Aden, however, resisted Albuquerque 's expedition in that same year and another attempt by Albuquerque 's successor Lopo Soares de Albergaria in 1516. In 1521 a force led by António Correia captured Bahrain, defeating the Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil. In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. With the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa since 1497, the island of Mozambique became a strategic port, and there was built Fort São Sebastião and a hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected the ships en route to Lisbon.
In 1534, Gujarat faced attack from the Mughals and the Rajput states of Chitor and Mandu. The Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchange Daman, Diu, Mumbai and Bassein. It also regulated the trade of Gujarati ships departing to the Red Sea and passing through Bassein to pay duties and allow the horse trade. After Mughal ruler Humayun had success against Bahadur, the latter signed another treaty with the Portuguese to confirm the provisions and allowed the fort to be built in Diu. Shortly afterward, Humayun turned his attention elsewhere, and the Gujarats allied with the Ottomans to regain control of Diu and lay siege to the fort. The two failed sieges of 1538 and 1546 put an end to Ottoman ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony in the region, as well as gaining superiority over the Mughals. However, the Ottomans fought off attacks from the Portuguese in the Red Sea and in the Sinai Peninsula in 1541, and in the northern region of the Persian Gulf in 1546 and 1552. Each entity ultimately had to respect the sphere of influence of the other, albeit unofficially.
After a series of prolonged contacts with Ethiopia, the Portuguese embassy made contact with the Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Kingdom led by Rodrigo de Lima in 1520. This coincided with the Portuguese search for Prester John, as they soon associated the kingdom as his land. The fear of Turkish advances within the Portuguese and Ethiopian sectors also played a role in their alliance. The Adal Sultanate defeated the Ethiopians in the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, and Islam spread further in the region. Portugal responded by aiding king Gelawdewos with Portuguese soldiers and muskets. Though the Ottomans responded with support of soldiers and muskets to the Adal Sultanate, after the death of the Adali sultan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al - Ghazi in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543, the joint Adal - Ottoman force retreated.
The Portuguese also made direct contact with the Kongolose vassal state Ndongo and its ruler Ngola Kiljuane in 1520, after the latter requested missionaries. Kongolese king Afonso I interfered with the process with denunciations, and later sent a Kongo mission to Ndongo after the latter had arrested the Portuguese mission that came. The growing official and unofficial slave trading with Ndongo strained relations between Kongo and the Portuguese, and even had Portuguese ambassadors from Sao Tome support Ndongo against the Kingdom of Kongo. However, when the Jaga attacked and conquered regions of Kongo in 1568, Portuguese assisted Kongo in their defeat. In response, the Kongo allowed the colonization of Luanda Island; Luanda was established by Paulo Dias de Novais in 1576 and soon became a slave port. De Novais ' subsequent alliance with Ndongo angered Luso - Africans who resented the influence from the Crown. In 1579, Ndongo ruler Ngola Kiluanje kia Ndamdi massacred Portuguese and Kongolese residents in the Ndongo capital Kabasa under the influence of Portuguese renegades. Both the Portuguese and Kongo fought against Ndongo, and off - and - on warfare between the Ndongo and Portugal would persist for decades.
In 1542, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Goa at the service of King John III of Portugal, in charge of an Apostolic Nunciature. At the same time Francisco Zeimoto, António Mota, and other traders arrived in Japan for the first time. According to Fernão Mendes Pinto, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at Tanegashima, where the locals were impressed by firearms, that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale. By 1570 the Portuguese bought part of a Japanese port where they founded a small part of the city of Nagasaki, and it became the major trading port in Japan in the triangular trade with China and Europe.
The Portuguese were soundly defeated in their attempt to capture wealthy Somali harbor cities on the Somali coast such as Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo and Hobyo by the powerful Somalis of the Ajuran Empire during the Battle of Barawa and Battle of Benadir.
Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia and Africa, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman Catholicism to Asia and Africa with mixed success.
Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Portuguese Crown, under the kings Manuel I, John III and Sebastian, also claimed territorial rights in North America (reached by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498). To that end, in 1499 and 1500, João Fernandes Lavrador explored Greenland and the north Atlantic coast of Canada, which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador '' on topographical maps of the period. Subsequently, in 1500 -- 1501 and 1502, the brothers Gaspar and Miguel Corte - Real explored what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, and Greenland, claiming these lands for Portugal. In 1506, King Manuel I created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters. Around 1521, João Álvares Fagundes was granted donatary rights to the inner islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and also created a settlement on Cape Breton Island to serve as a base for cod fishing. Pressure from natives and competing European fisheries prevented a permanent establishment and was abandoned five years later. Several attempts to establish settlements in Newfoundland over the next half - century also failed.
Within a few years after Cabral arrived from Brazil, competition came along from France. In 1503, an expedition under the command of Gonçalo Coelho reported French raids on the Brazilian coasts, and explorer Binot Paulmier de Gonneville traded for brazilwood after making contact in southern Brazil a year later. Expeditions sponsored by Francis I along the North American coast directly violated of the Treaty of Tordesilhas. By 1531, the French had stationed a trading post off of an island on the Brazilian coast.
The increase in brazilwood smuggling from the French led João III to press an effort to establish effective occupation of the territory. In 1531, a royal expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa and his brother Pero Lopes went to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create some of the first colonial towns -- among them São Vicente, in 1532. Sousa returned to Lisbon a year later to become governor of India and never returned to Brazil. The French attacks did cease to an extent after retaliation led to the Portuguese paying the French to stop attacking Portuguese ships throughout the Atlantic, but the attacks would continue to be a problem well into the 1560s.
Upon de Sousa 's arrival and success, fifteen latitudinal tracts, theoretically to span from the coast to the Tordesillas limit, were decreed by João III on 28 September 1532. The plot of the lands formed as a hereditary captaincies (Capitanias Hereditárias) to grantees rich enough to support settlement, as had been done successfully in Madeira and Cape Verde islands. Each captain - major was to build settlements, grant allotments and administer justice, being responsible for developing and taking the costs of colonization, although not being the owner: he could transmit it to offspring, but not sell it. Twelve recipients came from Portuguese gentry who become prominent in Africa and India and senior officials of the court, such as João de Barros.
Of the fifteen original captaincies, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. Both were dedicated to the crop of sugar cane, and the settlers managed to maintain alliances with Native Americans. The rise of the sugar industry came about because the Crown took the easiest sources of profit (brazilwood, spices, etc.), leaving settlers to come up with new revenue sources. The establishment of the sugar cane industry demanded intensive labor that would be met with Native American and, later, African slaves. Deeming the capitanias system ineffective, João III decided to centralize the government of the colony in order to "give help and assistance '' to grantees. In 1548 he created the first General Government, sending in Tomé de Sousa as first governor and selecting a capital at the Bay of All Saints, making it at the Captaincy of Bahia.
Tomé de Sousa built the capital of Brazil, Salvador, at the Bay of All Saints in 1549. Among de Sousa 's 1000 man expedition were soldiers, workers, and six Jesuits led by Manuel da Nóbrega. The Jesuits would have an essential role in the colonization of Brazil, including São Vicente, and São Paulo, the latter which Nóbrega co-founded. Along with the Jesuit missions later came disease among the natives, among them plague and smallpox. Subsequently, the French would resettle in Portuguese territory at Guanabara Bay, which would be called France Antarctique. While a Portuguese ambassador was sent to Paris to report the French intrusion, Joao III appointed Mem de Sá as new Brazilian governor general, and Sá left for Brazil in 1557. By 1560, Sá and his forces had expelled the combined Huguenot, Scottish Calvinist, and slave forces from France Antarctique, but left survivors after burning their fortifications and villages. These survivors would settle Gloria Bay, Flamengo Beach, and Parapapuã with the assistance of the Tamoio natives.
The Tamoio had been allied with the French since the settlement of France Antarctique, and despite the French loss in 1560, the Tamoio were still a threat. They launched two attacks in 1561 and 1564 (the latter event was assisting the French), and were nearly successful with each. By this time period, Manuel de Nóbrega, along with fellow Jesuit José de Anchieta, took part as members of attacks on the Tamoios and as spies for their resources. From 1565 through 1567 Mem de Sá and his forces eventually destroyed France Antarctique at Guanabara Bay. He and his nephew, Estácio de Sá, then established the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1567, after Mem de Sá proclaimed the area "São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro '' in 1565. By 1575, the Tamoios had been subdued and essentially were extinct, and by 1580 the government became more of a ouvidor general rather than the ouvidores.
In 1580, King Philip II of Spain invaded Portugal after a crisis of succession brought about by King Sebastian of Portugal 's death during a disastrous Portuguese attack on Alcácer Quibir in Morocco in 1578. At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was crowned Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires under Spanish Habsburg rule in a dynastic Iberian Union. At Tomar, Philip promised to keep the empires legally distinct, leaving the administration of the Portuguese Empire to Portuguese nationals, with a Viceroy of Portugal in Lisbon seeing to his interests. Philip even had the capital moved to Lisbon for a two - year period (1581 -- 83) due to it being the most important city in the Iberian peninsula. All the Portuguese colonies accepted the new state of affairs except for the Azores, which held out for António, a Portuguese rival claimant to the throne who had garnered the support of Catherine de Medici of France in exchange for the promise to cede Brazil. Spanish forces eventually captured the islands in 1583.
The Tordesillas boundary between Spanish and Portuguese control in South America was then increasingly ignored by the Portuguese, who pressed beyond it into the heart of Brazil, allowing them to expand the territory to the west. Exploratory missions were carried out both ordered by the government, the "entradas '' (entries), and by private initiative, the "bandeiras '' (flags), by the "bandeirantes ''. These expeditions lasted for years venturing into unmapped regions, initially to capture natives and force them into slavery, and later focusing on finding gold, silver and diamond mines.
However, the union meant that Spain dragged Portugal into its conflicts with England, France and the Dutch Republic, countries which were beginning to establish their own overseas empires. The primary threat came from the Dutch, who had been engaged in a struggle for independence against Spain since 1568. In 1581, the Seven Provinces gained independence from the Habsburg rule, leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil where Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production.
Spanish imperial trade networks now were opened to Portuguese merchants, which was particularly lucrative for Portuguese slave traders who could now sell slaves in Spanish America at a higher price than could be fetched in Brazil. In addition to this newly acquired access to the Spanish asientos, the Portuguese were able to solve their bullion shortage issues with access to the production of the silver mining in Peru and Mexico. Manila was also incorporated into the Macau - Nagasaki trading network, allowing Macanese of Portuguese descent to act as trading agents for Philippine Spaniards and use Spanish silver from the Americas in trade with China, and they later drew competition with the Dutch East India Company.
In 1592, during the war with Spain, an English fleet captured a large Portuguese carrack off the Azores, the Madre de Deus, which was loaded with 900 tons of merchandise from India and China estimated at half a million pounds (nearly half the size of English Treasury at the time). This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanized English interest in the region. That same year, Cornelis de Houtman was sent by Dutch merchants to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could about the Spice Islands.
The Dutch eventually realized the importance of Goa in breaking up the Portuguese empire in Asia. In 1583, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten (1563 -- 8 February 1611), formerly the Dutch secretary of the Archbishop of Goa, had acquired information while serving in that position that contained the location of secret Portuguese trade routes throughout Asia, including those to the East Indies and Japan. It was published in 1595; the text was then included in the larger volume published in 1596 under the title "Itinerario: voyage, ofte schipvaert van Jan Huygen van Linschoten naer Oost ofte Portugaels Indien, 1579 -- 1592, Volume 2, Issue 2, by Jan Huygen van Linschoten, Linschoten - Vereeniging (Hague, Netherlands) ''. Dutch and English interests used this new information, leading to their commercial expansion, including the foundation of the English East India Company in 1600, and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. These developments allowed the entry of chartered companies into the East Indies.
The Dutch took their fight overseas, attacking Spanish and Portuguese colonies and beginning the Dutch -- Portuguese War, which would last for over sixty years (1602 -- 1663). Other European nations, such as Protestant England, assisted the Dutch Empire in the war. The Dutch attained victories in Asia and Africa with assistance of various indigenous allies, eventually wrenching control of Malacca, Ceylon, and São Jorge da Mina. The Dutch also had regional control of the lucrative sugar - producing region of northeast Brazil as well as Luanda, but the Portuguese regained these territories after considerable struggle.
Meanwhile, in the Arabian Peninsula, the Portuguese also lost control of Ormuz by a joint alliance of the Safavids and the English in 1622, and Oman under the Al - Ya'arubs would capture Muscat in 1650. They would continue to use Muscat as a base for repetitive incursions within the Indian Ocean, including capturing Fort Jesus in 1698. In Ethiopia and Japan in the 1630s, the ousting of missionaries by local leaders severed influence in the respective regions.
The loss of colonies was one of the reasons that contributed to the end of the personal union with Spain. In 1640 John IV was proclaimed King of Portugal and the Portuguese Restoration War began. Even before the war 's final resolution, the crown established the Overseas Council, conceived in 1642 on the short - lived model of the Council of India (1604 - 1614), and established in 1643, it was the governing body for most of the Portuguese overseas empire. The exceptions were North Africa, Madeira, and the Azores. All correspondence concerning overseas possessions were funneled through the council. When the Portuguese court fled to Brazil in 1807, following the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia, Brazil was removed from the jurisdiction of the council. It made recommendations concerning personnel for the administrative, fiscal, and military, as well as bishops of overseas dioceses. A distinguished seventeenth - century member was Salvador de Sá.
In 1661 the Portuguese offered Bombay and Tangier to England as part of a dowry, and over the next hundred years the English gradually became the dominant trader in India, gradually excluding the trade of other powers. In 1668 Spain recognized the end of the Iberian Union and in exchange Portugal ceded Ceuta to the Spanish crown.
After the Portuguese were defeated by the Indian rulers Chimnaji Appa of the Maratha Empire and by Shivappa Nayaka of the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom and at the end of confrontations with the Dutch, Portugal was only able to cling onto Goa and several minor bases in India, and managed to regain territories in Brazil and Africa, but lost forever to prominence in Asia as trade was diverted through increasing numbers of English, Dutch and French trading posts. Thus, throughout the century, Brazil gained increasing importance to the empire, which exported Brazilwood and sugar.
In 1693, gold was discovered at Minas Gerais in Brazil. Major discoveries of gold and, later, diamonds in Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso and Goiás led to a "gold rush '', with a large influx of migrants. The village became the new economic center of the empire, with rapid settlement and some conflicts. This gold cycle led to the creation of an internal market and attracted a large number of immigrants. By 1739, at the apex of the mining boom, the population of Minas Gerais was somewhere between 200,000 and 250,000.
The gold rush considerably increased the revenue of the Portuguese crown, who charged a fifth of all the ore mined, or the "fifth ''. Diversion and smuggling were frequent, along with altercations between Paulistas (residents of São Paulo) and Emboabas (immigrants from Portugal and other regions in Brazil), so a whole set of bureaucratic controls began in 1710 with the captaincy of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. By 1718, São Paulo and Minas Gerais became two captaincies, with eight vilas created in the latter. The crown also restricted the diamond mining within its jurisdiction and to private contractors. In spite of gold galvanizing global trade, the plantation industry became the leading export for Brazil during this period; sugar constituted at 50 % of the exports (with gold at 46 %) in 1760.
Africans and Afro - Brazilians became the largest group of people in Minas Gerais. Slaves labeled as ' Minas ' and ' Angolas ' rose in high demand during the boom. The Akan within the ' Minas ' group had a reputation to have been experts in extrapolating gold in their native regions, and became the preferred group. In spite of the high death rate associated with the slaves involved in the mining industry, the owners that allowed slaves that extracted above the minimum amount of gold to keep the excesses, which in turn led to the possibility of manumission. Those that became free partook in artisan jobs such as cobblers, tailors, and blacksmiths. In spite of free blacks and mulattoes playing a large role in Minas Gerais, the number of them that received marginalization was greater there than in any other region in Brazil.
Gold discovered in Mato Grosso and Goiás sparked an interest to solidify the western borders of the colony. In the 1730s contact with Spanish outposts occurred more frequently, and the Spanish threatened to launch a military expedition in order to remove them. This failed to happen and by the 1750s the Portuguese were able to implant a political stronghold in the region.
In 1755 Lisbon suffered a catastrophic earthquake, which together with a subsequent tsunami killed between 40,000 -- 60,000 people out of a population of 275,000. This sharply checked Portuguese colonial ambitions in the late 18th century.
According to economic historians, Portugal 's colonial trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth, 1500 - 1800. Leonor Costa et al. conclude:
Unlike Spain, Portugal did not divide its colonial territory in America. The captaincies created there functioned under a centralized administration in Salvador, which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. The 18th century was marked by increasing centralization of royal power throughout the Portuguese empire. The Jesuits, who protected the natives against slavery, were brutally suppressed by the Marquis of Pombal, which led to the dissolution of the order in the region by 1759. Pombal wished to improve the status of the natives by declaring them free and increasing the mestizo population by encouraging intermarriage between them and the white population. Indigenous freedom decreased in contrast to its period under the Jesuits, and the response to intermarriage was lukewarm at best. The crown 's revenue from gold declined and plantation revenue increased by the time of Pombal, and he made provisions to improve each. Although he failed to spike the gold revenue, two short - term companies he established for the plantation economy drove a significant increase in production of cotton, rice, cacao, tobacco, sugar. Slave labor increased as well as involvement from the textile economy. The economic development as a whole was inspired by elements of the Enlightenment in mainland Europe. However, the diminished influence from states such as the United Kingdom increased the Kingdom 's dependence upon Brazil.
Encouraged by the example of the United States of America, which had won its independence from Britain, the colonial province of Minas Gerais attempted to achieve the same objective in 1789. However, the Inconfidência Mineira failed, its leaders were arrested, and of the participants in the insurrections, the one of lowest social position, Tiradentes, was hanged. Among the conspiracies led by the Afro - population was the Bahian revolt in 1798, led primarily by João de Deus do Nascimento. Inspired by the French Revolution, leaders proposed a society without slavery, food prices would be lowered, and trade restriction abolished. Impoverished social conditions and a high cost of living were among reasons of the revolt. Authorities diffused the plot before major action began; they executed four of the conspirators and exiled several others were exiled to the Atlantic Coast of Africa. Several more smaller - scale slave rebellions and revolts would occur from 1801 and 1816 and fears within Brazil were that it would become a "second Haiti ''.
In spite of the conspiracies, the rule of Portugal in Brazil was not under serious threat. Historian A.R. Disney states that the colonists did not until the transferring of the Kingdom in 1808 assert influence of policy changing due to direct contact, and historian Gabriel Paquette mentions that the threats in Brazil were largely unrealized in Portugal until 1808 because of effective policing and espionage. More revolts would occur after the arrival of the court.
In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal, and Dom João, Prince Regent in place of his mother, Dona Maria I, ordered the transfer of the royal court to Brazil. In 1815 Brazil was elevated to the status of Kingdom, the Portuguese state officially becoming the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves), and the capital was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, the only instance of a European country being ruled from one of its colonies. There was also the election of Brazilian representatives to the Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas (Portuguese Constitutional Courts), the Parliament that assembled in Lisbon in the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820.
Although the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to a growing desire for independence amongst Brazilians. In 1822, the son of Dom João VI, then prince - regent Dom Pedro I, proclaimed the independence of Brazil on September 7, 1822, and was crowned Emperor of the new Empire of Brazil. Unlike the Spanish colonies of South America, Brazil 's independence was achieved without significant bloodshed.
At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation - sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portugal pressed into the hinterland of Angola and Mozambique, and explorers Serpa Pinto, Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens were among the first Europeans to cross Africa west to east.
The project to connect the two colonies, the Pink Map, was the main objective of Portuguese policy in the 1880s. However, the idea was unacceptable to the British, who had their own aspirations of contiguous British territory running from Cairo to Cape Town. The British Ultimatum of 1890 was imposed upon King Carlos I of Portugal and the Pink Map came to an end.
The King 's reaction to the ultimatum was exploited by republicans. In 1908 King Carlos and Prince Luís Filipe were murdered in Lisbon. Luís Filipe 's brother, Manuel, became King Manuel II of Portugal. Two years later he was overthrown and Portugal became a republic.
In 1914, the German Empire formulated plans to usurp Angola from Portuguese control. Skirmishes between Portuguese and German soldiers ensued, resulting in reinforcements being sent from the mainland. The main objective of these soldiers was to recapture the Kionga Triangle, in northern Mozambique, the territory having been subjugated by Germany. In 1916, after Portugal interned German ships in Lisbon, Germany declared war on Portugal. Portugal followed suit, thus entering World War I. Early in the war, Portugal was involved mainly in supplying the Allies positioned in France. In 1916, there was only one attack on the Portuguese territory, in Madeira. In 1917, one of the actions taken by Portugal was to assist Britain in its timber industry, imperative to the war effort. Along with the Canadian Forestry Corps, Portuguese personnel established logging infrastructure in an area now referred to as the "Portuguese Fireplace ''. Throughout the year, Portugal dispatched contingents of troops to the Allied front in France. Midway in the year, Portugal suffered its first World War I casualty. Meanwhile, in Portuguese Africa, Portugal and the British fought numerous battles against the Germans in both Mozambique and Angola. Later in the year, U-boats entered Portuguese waters again and, once more, attacked Madeira, and sunk multiple Portuguese ships. Through the beginning of 1918, Portugal continued to fight along the Allied front against Germany, including participation in the infamous Battle of La Lys. As autumn approached, Germany found success in both Portuguese Africa, and against Portuguese vessels, sinking multiple ships. After nearly three years of fighting (from a Portuguese perspective), World War I ended, with an armistice being signed by Germany. At the Versailles Conference, Portugal regained control of all its lost territory, but did not retain possession (by the principle of uti possidetis) of territories gained during the war, except for Kionga, a port city in modern - day Tanzania.
Portuguese territories in Africa eventually included the modern nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea - Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique.
In the wake of World War II, decolonization movements began to gain momentum in the empires of the European powers. The ensuing Cold War also created instabilities among Portuguese overseas populations, as the United States and Soviet Union vied to increase their spheres of influence. Following the granting of independence to India by Britain in 1947, and the decision by France to allow its enclaves in India to be incorporated into the newly independent nation, pressure was placed on Portugal to do the same. This was resisted by António de Oliveira Salazar, who had taken power in 1933. Salazar rebuffed a request in 1950 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to return the enclaves, viewing them as integral parts of Portugal. The following year, the Portuguese constitution was amended to change the status of the colonies to overseas provinces. In 1954, a local uprising resulted in the overthrow of the Portuguese authorities in the Indian enclave of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The existence of the remaining Portuguese colonies in India became increasingly untenable and Nehru enjoyed the support of almost all the Indian domestic political parties as well as the Soviet Union and its allies. In 1961, shortly after an uprising against the Portuguese in Angola, Nehru ordered the Indian Army into Goa, Daman and Diu, which were quickly captured and formally annexed the following year. Salazar refused to recognize the transfer of sovereignty, believing the territories to be merely occupied. The Province of Goa continued to be represented in the Portuguese National Assembly until 1974.
The outbreak of violence in February 1961 in Angola was the beginning of the end of Portugal 's empire in Africa. Portuguese army officers in Angola held the view that it would be incapable of dealing militarily with an outbreak of guerilla warfare and therefore that negotiations should begin with the independence movements. However, Salazar publicly stated his determination to keep the empire intact, and by the end of the year, 50,000 troops had been stationed there. The same year, the tiny Portuguese fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá in Ouidah, a remnant of the West African slave trade, was annexed by the new government of Dahomey (now Benin) that had gained its independence from France. Unrest spread from Angola to Guinea, which rebelled in 1963, and Mozambique in 1964.
The rise of Soviet influence among the Movimento das Forças Armadas 's military (MFA) and working class, and the cost and unpopularity of the Portuguese Colonial War (1961 -- 1974), in which Portugal resisted to the emerging nationalist guerrilla movements in some of its African territories, eventually led to the collapse of the Estado Novo regime in 1974. Known as the "Carnation Revolution '', one of the first acts of the MFA - led government which then came into power -- the National Salvation Junta (Junta de Salvação Nacional) -- was to end the wars and negotiate Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal 's African territories (mostly from Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million Portuguese refugees -- the retornados. Portugal 's new ruling authorities also recognized Goa and other Portuguese India 's territories invaded by India 's military forces, as Indian territories. Benin 's claims over São João Baptista de Ajudá were accepted by Portugal in 1974.
According to one historian, Portuguese rulers were unwilling to meet the demands of their colonial subjects (unlike other European powers) in part because Portuguese elites believed that "Portugal lacked the means to conduct a successful "exit strategy '' (akin to the "neocolonial '' approach followed by the British, the French, or the Belgians) '' and in part due to the lack of "a free and open debate (in Salazar 's dictatorial state) on the costs of upholding an empire against the anti-colonial consensus that had prevailed in the United Nations since the early 1960s ''.
Civil wars in Angola and Mozambique promptly broke out, with incoming communist governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other communist countries) fighting against insurgent groups supported by nations like Zaire, South Africa, and the United States. East Timor also declared independence in 1975 by making an exodus of many Portuguese refugees to Portugal, which was also known as retornados. However, East Timor was almost immediately invaded by neighbouring Indonesia, which would later occupied it up until 1999. A United Nations - sponsored referendum resulted in a majority of East Timorese choosing independence, which was finally achieved in 2002.
In 1987, Portugal signed the Sino - Portuguese Joint Declaration with the People 's Republic of China to establish the process and conditions for the transfer of sovereignty of Macau, its last remaining colony. While this process was similar to the agreement between the United Kingdom and China two years earlier regarding Hong Kong, the Portuguese transfer to China was met with less resistance than that of Britain regarding Hong Kong, as Portugal had already recognized Macau as Chinese territory under Portuguese administration in 1979. Under the transfer agreement, Macau is to be governed under a one country, two systems policy, in which it will retain a high degree of autonomy and maintain its capitalist way of life for at least 50 years after the handover in 2049. The handover in 1999 officially marked the end of the Portuguese Empire and end of colonialism in Asia.
Presently, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) serves as the cultural and intergovernmental successor of the Empire.
Macau was returned to China on December 20, 1999, under the terms of an agreement negotiated between People 's Republic of China and Portugal twelve years earlier. Nevertheless, the Portuguese language remains co-official with Cantonese Chinese in Macau.
Currently, the Azores, Madeira, and Savage Islands are the only overseas territories that remain politically linked to Portugal. Although Portugal began the process of decolonizing East Timor in 1975, Macau during 1999 -- 2002 was sometimes considered Portugal 's last remaining colony, as the Indonesian invasion of East Timor was not justified by Portugal.
Eight of the former colonies of Portugal have Portuguese as their official language. Together with Portugal, they are now members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, which when combined total 10,742,000 km2, or 7.2 % of the Earth 's landmass (148 939 063 km2). There are six associate observers of the CPLP: Georgia, Japan, Mauritius, Namibia, Senegal, and Turkey. Moreover, twelve candidate countries or regions have applied for membership to the CPLP and are awaiting approval.
Today, Portuguese is one of the world 's major languages, ranked sixth overall with approximately 240 million speakers around the globe. It is the third most spoken language in the Americas, mainly due to Brazil, although there are also significant communities of lusophones in nations such as Canada, the USA and Venezuela. In addition, there are numerous Portuguese - based creole languages, including the one utilized by the Kristang people in Malacca.
For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to introduce the sweet orange in Europe, in several modern Indo - European languages the fruit has been named after them. Some examples are Albanian portokall, Bulgarian портокал (portokal), Greek πορτοκάλι (portokali), Macedonian портокал (portokal), Persian پرتقال (porteghal), and Romanian portocală. Related names can be found in other languages, such as Arabic البرتقال (bourtouqal), Georgian ფორთოხალი (p'ort'oxali), Turkish portakal and Amharic birtukan. Also, in southern Italian dialects (e.g., Neapolitan), an orange is portogallo or purtuallo, literally "(the) Portuguese (one) '', in contrast to standard Italian arancia.
In light of its international importance, Portugal and Brazil are leading a movement to include Portuguese as one of the official languages of the United Nations.
15th century
16th century
15th century
16th century
17th century
18th century
19th century
16th century
17th century
15th century
16th century Portuguese India
17th century Portuguese India
18th century Portuguese India
16th century
17th century
19th century Portuguese Macau
20th century Portuguese Macau
15th century (Atlantic islands)
16th century (Canada)
16th century
17th century
18th century
19th century
|
you made me so very happy brenda holloway | You 've Made Me So Very Happy - wikipedia
"You 've Made Me So Very Happy '' is a song written by Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Frank Wilson and Berry Gordy, and was released first as a single in 1967 by Brenda Holloway on the Tamla label. The song was later a huge hit for jazz - rock band Blood, Sweat & Tears in 1969, and became a Gold record.
By 1967, Brenda Holloway had been recording for Motown Records since 1964 and had struggled with Berry Gordy over control of her music, alleging that Gordy had forced her to sing Mary Wells ' "leftover tracks '' after the Motown singer left the label in 1964. Some of the songs in question included modest hits such as "When I 'm Gone '' and "Operator ''. Holloway was planning to release her long - awaited second album, Hurtin ' & Cryin, which had released "Just Look What You 've Done '' as the leading track, but for unknown reasons the record was shelved. Along with her sister Patrice, using music provided by Frank Wilson and with additional help from Gordy himself, Holloway co-wrote "You 've Made Me So Very Happy ''. Coincidentally, Holloway recorded the song after a breakup with a boyfriend.
Reaction to the song was stronger than Holloway 's previous offerings, rising to number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming Holloway 's third Top - 40 pop single. The song peaked at number 40 on the Billboard R&B singles chart. Shortly after the release of the song, Holloway left Motown and the song was eventually featured on the "second '' Holloway album, The Artistry of Brenda Holloway. After two more years singing background for acts such as Joe Cocker, Holloway retired to marry a preacher and have a family. Holloway would eventually return to music full - time by the mid-1990s. Meanwhile, Holloway 's song got a boost when the jazz - rock group Blood, Sweat & Tears covered it in 1969. The song became one of the group 's biggest hits, reaching number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States in April 1969 and number 35 in the United Kingdom in May of that year.
The song was also covered by fellow Motown acts such as Edwin Starr and Blinky on their 1969 duet album Just We Two, Chris Clark on her 1969 album CC Rides Again, The Temptations in 1970, The Miracles, also in 1970, and Diana Ross in 1994 on a Berry Gordy tribute album. Little - known Motown act The Hearts Of Stone also recorded a version for their 1970 album Stop The World - We Wanna Get On. Lou Rawls recorded the song and named his 18th album after it. Cher recorded the song in 1969 for her album 3614 Jackson Highway, but the track was left off the final track list. Bobbie Gentry included her rendition on her 1969 album Touch ' Em with Love as did Shirley Bassey on her 1976 album Love, Life and Feelings. It also been covered by pop musician Gloria Estefan; she included the song on her album Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me in 1994, which was a collection of covers that inspired her musical career. In 1977, Barry Williams performed the song on an episode of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour. In 2012, it was covered by Julian Ovenden on his debut album.
|
where is the commonwealth games going to be held | 2018 Commonwealth Games - Wikipedia
The 2018 Commonwealth Games, officially known as the XXI Commonwealth Games and commonly known as Gold Coast 2018, were an international multi-sport event for members of the Commonwealth that were held on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, between 4 and 15 April 2018. It was the fifth time Australia had hosted the Commonwealth Games and the first time a major multi-sport event achieved gender equality by having an equal number of events for males and female athletes.
More than 4,400 athletes including 300 para-athletes from 71 Commonwealth Games Associations took part in the event. The Gambia which withdrew its membership from the Commonwealth of Nations and Commonwealth Games Federation in 2013, was readmitted on 31 March 2018 and participated in the event. With 275 sets of medals, the games featured 19 Commonwealth sports, including beach volleyball, para triathlon and women 's rugby sevens. These sporting events took place at 14 venues in the host city, two venues in Brisbane and one venue each in Cairns and Townsville.
These were the first Commonwealth Games to take place under the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) presidency of Louise Martin, CBE. The host city Gold Coast was announced at the CGF General Assembly in Basseterre, Saint Kitts, on 11 November 2011. Gold Coast became the seventh Oceanian city and the first regional city to host the Commonwealth Games. These were the eighth games to be held in Oceania and the Southern Hemisphere.
The host nation Australia topped the medal table for the fourth time in the past five Commonwealth Games, winning the most golds (80) and most medals overall (198). England and India finished second and third respectively. Vanuatu, Cook Islands, Solomon Islands, British Virgin Islands and Dominica each won their first Commonwealth Games medals.
On 22 August 2008, the Premier of Queensland, Anna Bligh, officially launched Gold Coast City 's bid to host the Commonwealth Games in 2018. On 7 April 2009, the ABC reported a land exchange deal between Gold Coast City and State of Queensland for Carrara Stadium. According to Mayor Ron Clarke, the land would aid a potential bid for the 2018 Commonwealth Games. The land exchanged would be used as the site of an aquatics centre. In the same article, Mayor Clarke raised the question of the Australian Federal Government 's commitment to a 2018 Commonwealth Games bid in light of the Government 's support for Australia 's 2018 FIFA World Cup Finals bid. On 16 April 2009, Queensland Premier Anna Bligh told reporters that a successful Commonwealth Games bid by Gold Coast City could help the tourist strip win a role in hosting the World Cup.
"Some of the infrastructure that would be built for the Commonwealth Games will be useful for Gold Coast City to get a World Cup game out of the soccer World Cup if we 're successful as a nation, '' she said. However the decision on the venues for the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups were made eleven months prior to the bid decision for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, so the potential World Cup venues had already been chosen. On 3 June 2009, Gold Coast City was confirmed as Australia 's exclusive bidder vying for the 2018 Commonwealth Games. "Should a bid proceed, Gold Coast City will have the exclusive Australian rights to bid as host city for 2018, '' Bligh stated.
"Recently I met with the president and CEO of the Australian Commonwealth Games Association and we agreed to commission a full and comprehensive feasibility study into the potential for the 2018 Commonwealth Games, '' she said. "Under the stewardship of Queensland Events new chair, Geoff Dixon, that study is now well advanced. '' On 15 March 2010, it was announced that the Queensland Government will provide initial funding of A $11 million for the 2018 Commonwealth Games bid. The Premier of Queensland has indicated the Government 's support for the bid to the Australian Commonwealth Games Association. On 31 March 2010, the Australian Commonwealth Games Association officially launched the bid to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. In October 2011, Gold Coast City Mayor Ron Clarke stated that the games would provide a strong legacy for the city after the games have ended.
On 31 March 2010, a surprise bid was made for the 2018 Commonwealth Games by the Sri Lankan city of Hambantota. Hambantota was devastated by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, and is undergoing a major face lift. The first phase of the Port of Hambantota is nearing completion and it is funded by the government of China. The Mattala International Airport, which is the second international Airport of Sri Lanka is built close to Hambantota. A new Hambantota International Cricket Stadium had also been built, which had hosted matches in the 2011 Cricket World Cup.
On 10 November 2011, the Hambantota bidders claimed they had already secured enough votes to win the hosting rights. However, on 11 November it was officially announced Gold Coast City had won the rights to host the games.
The event was overseen by the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation (GOLDOC). The GOLDOC was formed in 2012 by the Government of Queensland. Its headquarters were located in Ashmore, a suburban region of Gold Coast. In February 2012, Mark Peters was appointed Chief Executive Officer of the GOLDOC. The Queensland Government Minister tasked with overseeing the Games was Kate Jones.
One of the key technical aspects of Gold Coast City 's successful bid was the fact that the city had 80 percent of the planned venues in place before the bidding deadline. The vast majority of venues were located within 20 - minutes driving time of the Athletes Village in Parkwood.
Carrara Stadium, located in the suburb of Carrara, was the main venue for Athletics, the opening ceremony and the closing ceremony. The seating capacity of the stadium was temporarily increased to 40,000 for the games by the installation of a large temporary North Stand.
The Gold Coast City Convention and Exhibition Centre, located in the suburb of Broadbeach, hosted Basketball, Netball (preliminaries) and Weightlifting events, also serving as the Main Media Centre and International Broadcast centre hosting over 3000 members of the worlds press. The Broadbeach Bowls Club hosted the Bowls competition.
The Hinze Dam, located in the suburb of Advancetown, was the location for the Mountain Bike competition. A new course was constructed to meet international competition requirements and temporary spectator seating for 2,000 spectators.
The newly built Coomera Sport and Leisure Centre hosted Gymnastics and Netball (finals). The existing sound stages of the Village Roadshow Studios complex in the suburb of Oxenford hosted the sports of Boxing, Table Tennis and Squash. During Games mode the venue was enhanced to provide for the International Sporting Federation technical venue requirements and provide spectator seating of 3,000 (boxing) and 3,200 (table tennis). The Gold Coast Hockey Centre hosted the men 's and women 's Hockey events during the games. The Southport Broadwater Parklands hosted Triathlon and athletic events. The Optus aquatic centre hosted the swimming and diving events.
Robina Stadium hosted the Rugby 7s competition and upgraded to meet World Rugby standards. The Elanora / Currumbin Valley area hosted the road racing elements of the cycling programme. Coolangatta Beachfront hosted the beach volleyball event.
Brisbane, along with the Gold Coast, forms part of the South East Queensland conurbation. Track Cycling was held at the Sleeman Sports Complex in the suburb of Chandler, where a new indoor cycling velodrome (Anna Meares Velodrome) was built. The Velodrome 's seat capacity was 4,000 during the games mode.
The Shooting disciplines were held at the Belmont Shooting Centre. In Tropical North Queensland, the Cairns Convention Centre and Townsville Entertainment Centre hosted the preliminary rounds of both the men 's and women 's basketball competitions.
The Queensland state government spent A $ 1.5 billion (US $ 1.2 billion) to deliver the event. Out of this, A $ 550 million (US $ 425 million) were spent on the procurement programme. Procurement of the security and security infrastructure included contracts for four prime suppliers which delivered around 4,200 security guards. A $ 34 million (US $ 26 million) were spent on the deployment of the armed forces to provide rapid - response squads, bomb detectors, offshore patrols and surveillance. A $ 657 million (US $ 509 million) were spent for the construction of the venues and the Games Village.
At a charity gala held on 4 November 2017, the medals for the games were officially unveiled. Australian Indigenous artist Delvene Cockatoo - Collins designed the medals, while they were produced by the Royal Australian Mint. The design of the medals was inspired by the coastline of Gold Coast along with Indigenous culture. Furthermore, Cockatoo - Collins mentioned, "the medal design represents soft sand lines which shift with every tide and wave, also symbolic of athletic achievement, The continual change of tide represents the evolution in athletes who are making their mark, Records are made and special moments of elation are celebrated ''. Approximately 1,500 medals were created to be distributed to the medallists and each measures approximately 63 millimetres in diameter. The medals weigh between 138 and 163 grams.
The 2018 Commonwealth Games Athletes Village was located on 59 hectares at Southport, Gold Coast. which provided accommodation and services to 6,600 athletes and officials in 1252 permanent dwellings. There are 1170 one and two bedroom apartments and 82 three bedroom townhouses which will serve as student accommodation to the nearby Griffith University. It offered services like laundry, refreshments and television and computer spaces and four residential pools. The village consisted a gym which was designed with guidance from the Australian Institute of Sport and equipment and the equipment were sponsored by Technogym. Adjoining the gym was the Athlete Recovery Area which provided services like plunge baths, including accessible baths, saunas, massage and consults from the Sports Medical personnel. The Main Dining served over 18,000 meals per day to the athletes during the games. The village also consisted of retail shops, Optus phone store, salon, bar and a games room which featured a number of arcade games, pool tables and game consoles.
The Gold Coast 2018 Queen 's Baton Relay was launched on Commonwealth Day, 13 March 2017, on the historic forecourt at Buckingham Palace, signalling the official countdown to the start of the Games. Accompanied by the Duke of Edinburgh and Prince Edward The Earl of Wessex, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II heralded the start of the relay by placing her ' message to the Commonwealth and its athletes ' into the distinctive loop - design Queen 's Baton which then set off on its journey around the globe. It traveled for 388 days, spending time in every nation and territory of the Commonwealth. The Gold Coast 2018 Queen 's Baton Relay was the longest in Commonwealth Games history. Covering 230,000 km over 388 days, the baton made its way through the six Commonwealth regions of Africa, the Americas, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia and Oceania.
The baton landed on Australian soil in December 2017 and then spent 100 days travelling through Australia, finishing its journey at the Opening Ceremony on 4 April 2018, where the message was removed from the Baton and read aloud by Charles, Prince of Wales.
During the games period, free public transportation within Queensland region was provided to ticket and accreditation holders. The free transportation services were available on local buses, train and Gold Coast light rail (G: link) services in Gold Coast and on TransLink and Qconnect bus services in Cairns and Townsville. The Gold Coast light rail system, connected a number of the key games venues including the Optus Aquatic Centre, Broadwater Parklands and the Gold Coast Convention & Exhibition Centre with the major accommodation centres of Surfers Paradise and Broadbeach and the Athletes Village at Parklands. An extension to the system was announced in October 2015, connecting the then current terminus at Gold Coast University Hospital to the railway line to Brisbane at Helensvale. The extension opened in December 2017, in time for the games.
The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority conducted an anti-doping drive in the months prior to the games, covering around 2500 tests of Australian athletes, as well as 500 tests against international athletes. Three Australians failed drug tests in this process, along with around 20 international athletes, subject to appeal. The Commonwealth Games Federation conducted in - competition testing and, matching protocol at the Olympic Games, launched a sample storage initiative to allow for future testing of samples up to ten years later, should detection technology improve.
The Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation (GOLDOC) delivered the event with a focus on sustainability under the guidance of the ISO 20121 event sustainability management system and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) framework Sustainability Reporting Standards. The GOLDOC received the Sustainability Award in the Australian Business Awards 2016 for focusing on sustainable practices and planning in the preparation of the games. The GOLDOC headquarters received the 4 Star Green Star -- Interiors PILOT rating from the Green Building Council of Australia. The new Anna Meares Velodrome, built specifically for the games, is the first velodrome in the world to have full LED broadcast - quality lighting that cuts energy consumption by up to 60 % and reduces running costs and carbon emissions.
There were 71 nations competing at 2018 Commonwealth Games. Maldives were scheduled to participate, but in October 2016 they withdrew from the Commonwealth. The Gambia returned to the Commonwealth Games after being readmitted as a Commonwealth Games Federation member on 31 March 2018.
The regulations stated that from the 26 approved sports administered by Commonwealth Governing Bodies, a minimum of ten core sports and maximum of seventeen sports must be included in any Commonwealth Games schedule. The approved sports included the 10 core sports: athletics, badminton, boxing, hockey, lawn bowls, netball (for women), rugby sevens, squash, swimming and weightlifting. Integrated disabled competitions were also scheduled for the Games in nine sports: swimming, athletics, cycling, table tennis, powerlifting and lawn bowls. Along with these events for the first time EAD events in triathlon were held, with the medals added to the final tally for each nation. A record 38 para events were contested at these games. On 8 March 2016, beach volleyball was announced as the 18th sport.
The program was broadly similar to that of the 2014 Commonwealth Games, with the major changes being the dropping of judo, the reintroduction of basketball, the debut of women 's rugby sevens and beach volleyball.
On 7 October 2016, it was announced seven new events for women were added to the sport program, meaning there are an equal number of events for men and women. This marks the first time in history that a major multi-sport event has equality in terms of events. In total 275 events in 18 sports are being contested.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport.
The opening ceremony was held at Carrara Stadium in the Gold Coast, Australia, between 20: 00 and 22: 40 AEST, on 4 April 2018. Tickets for the ceremony started at 100 Australian dollars with half price tickets available for children. The Head of the Commonwealth, Queen Elizabeth II, was represented by her son, Charles, Prince of Wales.
Following tradition, the host of the previous games, Scotland entered first, followed by the rest of the European countries competing. Following this, all countries paraded in alphabetical order from their respective regions. After the European countries entered, countries from Africa, the Americas, Asia, the Caribbean, and lastly Oceania marched in. The host nation of Australia entered last. Each nation was preceded by a placard bearer carrying a sign with the country 's name.
The closing ceremony was held at Carrara Stadium on Sunday 15 April and was produced by Jack Morton Worldwide at a cost of AU $30 million. Australian pop stars Guy Sebastian, Samantha Jade, Dami Im, Ricki Lee and The Veronicas were among the performers along with children 's entertainers, The Wiggles.
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, declared the Games closed and passed the Commonwealth Games flag to Birmingham, England which will host the 2022 Games.
Only the top ten successful nations are displayed here.
The ranking in this table is consistent with International Olympic Committee convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won (in this context, a "nation '' is an entity represented by a Commonwealth Games Association). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If nations are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by their three - letter country code. Australia tops the medal table rank with 80 gold, second England with 45 gold and third India with 26 gold.
* Host nation (Australia)
NEP Australia was the host broadcaster of the event. It produced high definition coverage of the event and delivered to the rights - holding broadcasters of other nations. In Australia, the games were broadcast live on three Seven Network channels - 7HD, 7TWO and 7Mate. In the United Kingdom, BBC provided Commonwealth Games coverage of more than 200 hours across BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Red Button, BBC Sport website, BBC iPlayer and BBC radio. ESPN provided the games coverage for viewers in the USA. Sony Pictures Networks India broadcast the games for the viewers in India on three channels - Sony Six, Sony Ten 2 in English and Sony Ten 3 in Hindi.
Flow Sports provided games coverage in the Caribbean countries such as Anguilla, Antigua & Barbuda, Aruba, The Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curacao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Kitts & Nevis, St. Martin, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Saint Lucia, Suriname, Trinidad & Tobago and Turks & Caicos. Flow Sports provided coverage of the event on Flow Sports 1, Flow Sports 2 and up to three additional "Flow Sports Extra '' channels.
The New Zealand government funded Pacific Cooperation Broadcasting Limited (PCBL) broadcast the event on Pasifika TV in the Oceanian countries such as Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu, Kiribati and Tuvalu.
The official motto for the 2018 Commonwealth Games was "Share the Dream ''. It was chosen to highlight the dreams and experience at the games that were shared by participants of the games, ranging from athletes to volunteers and the host country Australia to the world including the Commonwealth nations.
The emblem was launched on 4 April 2013, which marked exactly five years until its opening ceremony. It was unveiled at the Southport Broadwater Parklands. It was designed by the New South Wales based brand consultancy WiteKite. The emblem of the 2018 Commonwealth Games was a silhouette of the skyline and landscape of Gold Coast, the host city of the games. Nigel Chamier OAM, who served as the Chairman of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Corporation till the end of the games, said that it was the result of months of market research.
Borobi was named as the mascot of the 2018 Commonwealth Games in 2016. Borobi is a blue koala, with indigenous markings on its body. The term "borobi '' means koala in the Yugambeh language, spoken by the indigenous Yugambeh people of the Gold Coast and surrounding areas. The song ' ' Days of Gold ' ' composed by the Australian Duo band Busby Marou, which was released on 17 October 2014, was considered as the official song of the Mascot Borobi.
The official partners of the games were The Star Gold Coast, Griffith University, TAFE Queensland, Longines, Optus, Atos and Woolworths Supermarkets. Griffith University was also also the Creative Arts partner of the games and Presenting partner of the Gold Coast Marathon. TAFE Queensland was responsible for providing vocational education and training program for the volunteers of the games. Longines served as the official timekeeper of the games.
The official song of the 2018 Commonwealth Games ' ' Welcome to Earth ' ' was recorded by the Australian Singer Delta Goodrem. The song was performed for the first time by Goodrem during the opening ceremony of the games. The song was worldwide released on 5 April 2018 in Delta Goodrem 's official Youtube channel.
At least 13 athletes from four countries - Cameroon, Uganda, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone - absconded during or immediately after the Games. Some missed their competitions. Athletes regularly abscond during major sporting events, and many subsequently claim asylum in their host countries. Most hold nationalities that are deemed high - risk by immigration authorities and find it impossible to get visas outside of exceptional events, such as major games.
A month after the games ended, officals estimated that fifty athletes had remained in Australia illegally, with another 200 staying in the country on visas.
The organising committee decided to bring in the athletes before the start of the closing ceremony. This caused an uproar on social media as, contrary to public expectations, none of the athletes were shown entering the stadium during the ceremony. Broadcast rights holders Channel 7 complained on air about the decision and concluded that, "it has n't really lived up to expectations ''. Many spectators and athletes left during the ceremony, resulting in a half - empty stadium for much of the event. Following this, the ABC claimed that Channel 7 was briefed on the closing ceremony schedule, a claim which Channel 7 later refuted.
|
naval support facility indian head indian head md | Indian Head Naval Surface Warfare Center - wikipedia
Coordinates: 38 ° 35 ′ 18 '' N 77 ° 10 ′ 09 '' W / 38.58833 ° N 77.16917 ° W / 38.58833; - 77.16917
Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division (NSWC IHD) is a United States naval military installation in Charles County, Maryland, that is a NAVSEA Warfare Center (WFC) enterprise dedicated to energetics (i.e., explosives, propellants, pyrotechnics, reactive materials, and their application in propulsion systems and ordnance).
As a United States Department of Defense (DoD) Energetics Center, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Indian Head Division, is a critical component of the NAVSEA Warfare Center (WFC) enterprise. One of the WFC 's nine divisions, Indian Head 's mission is to research, develop, test, evaluate, and produce energetics (i.e., explosives, propellants, pyrotechnics, reactive materials, related chemicals and fuels and their application in propulsion systems and ordnance) and energetic systems for U.S. fighting forces.
As the largest DoD full - spectrum energetics facility, NSWC Indian Head employs a workforce of more than 1,900, of which more than 850 are scientists, engineers, and technicians that develop and sustain explosives, propellants, pyrotechnics, high - energy chemicals, and their application to warfighting systems. In addition, NSWC Indian Head has the largest concentration of Ph. D. 's working in Energetics in the WFC, including the highest number of synthetic chemists, detonation physicists, and formulation scientists dedicated to the energetics national competency.
The Division 's unique synergy and balanced capabilities address all aspects of energetics, including basic research, applied technology, technology demonstration, prototyping, engineering development, acquisition, low - rate production, in - service engineering / mishaps and failure investigations, surveillance, and demilitarization.
If the military experience problems with current weapon systems, or encounter new threats on the battlefield, Indian Head Division collaborates and provides the appropriate solution. As the U.S. Navy 's lead technical authority in the United States, NSWC Indian Head performs over 60 % of all Navy energetics workload, and has an unmatched record of 13 Navy - qualified explosives transitioned into 47 Navy, Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps weapons. Seventy - five percent of all explosives deployed in U.S. weapons were developed by NSWC Indian Head.
One of ten divisions of the NAVSEA Warfare Center Enterprise, the main site for NSWC IHD is located at Naval Support Facility Indian Head, a 3,500 - acre peninsula along the Potomac River in Southern Maryland. It also maintains operations in McAlester, OK; Colts Neck, NJ; Ogden, UT; Louisville, KY, and Picatinny, New Jersey.
|
what stage is america in the demographic transition model | Demographic transition - wikipedia
Demographic transition (DT) refers to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. The theory was proposed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson, who observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years. Most developed countries have completed the demographic transition and have low birth rates; most developing countries are in the process of this transition. The major (relative) exceptions are some poor countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and some Middle Eastern countries, which are poor or affected by government policy or civil strife, notably, Pakistan, Palestinian territories, Yemen, and Afghanistan.
The demographic transition model, in isolation, can be taken to predict that birth rates will continue to go down as societies grow increasingly wealthy; however, recent data contradicts this, suggesting that beyond a certain level of development birth rates increase again. In addition, in the very long term, the demographic transition should be reversed via evolutionary pressure for higher fertility and higher mortality.
The existence of some kind of demographic transition is widely accepted in the social sciences because of the well - established historical correlation linking dropping fertility to social and economic development. Scholars debate whether industrialization and higher incomes lead to lower population, or whether lower populations lead to industrialization and higher incomes. Scholars also debate to what extent various proposed and sometimes inter-related factors such as higher per - capita income, higher female income, lower mortality, old - age security, and rise of demand for human capital are involved.
The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson (1887 -- 1973). Adolphe Landry of France made similar observations on demographic patterns and population growth potential around 1934. In the 1940s and 1950s Frank W. Notestein developed a more formal theory of demographic transition. By 2009, the existence of a negative correlation between fertility and industrial development had become one of the most widely accepted findings in social science.
The transition involves four stages, or possibly five.
As with all models, this is an idealized picture of population change in these countries. The model is a generalization that applies to these countries as a group and may not accurately describe all individual cases. The extent to which it applies to less - developed societies today remains to be seen. Many countries such as China, Brazil and Thailand have passed through the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) very quickly due to fast social and economic change. Some countries, particularly African countries, appear to be stalled in the second stage due to stagnant development and the effect of AIDS.
In pre-industrial society, death rates and birth rates were both high, and fluctuated rapidly according to natural events, such as drought and disease, to produce a relatively constant and young population. Family planning and contraception were virtually nonexistent; therefore, birth rates were essentially only limited by the ability of women to bear children. Emigration depressed death rates in some special cases (for example, Europe and particularly the Eastern United States during the 19th century), but, overall, death rates tended to match birth rates, often exceeding 40 per 1000 per year. Children contributed to the economy of the household from an early age by carrying water, firewood, and messages, caring for younger siblings, sweeping, washing dishes, preparing food, and working in the fields. Raising a child cost little more than feeding him or her; there were no education or entertainment expenses. Thus, the total cost of raising children barely exceeded their contribution to the household. In addition, as they became adults they become a major input to the family business, mainly farming, and were the primary form of insurance for adults in old age. In India, an adult son was all that prevented a widow from falling into destitution. While death rates remained high there was no question as to the need for children, even if the means to prevent them had existed.
During this stage, the society evolves in accordance with Malthusian paradigm, with population essentially determined by the food supply. Any fluctuations in food supply (either positive, for example, due to technology improvements, or negative, due to droughts and pest invasions) tend to translate directly into population fluctuations. Famines resulting in significant mortality are frequent. Overall, population dynamics during stage one are comparable to those of animals living in the wild. According to Edward, Revocatus. (2016) This is the earlier stage of demographic transition in the world and also characterized by primary activities such as small fishing activities, farming practices, pastoralism and petty businesses.
This stage leads to a fall in death rates and an increase in population. The changes leading to this stage in Europe were initiated in the Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century and were initially quite slow. In the 20th century, the falls in death rates in developing countries tended to be substantially faster. Countries in this stage include Yemen, Afghanistan, the Palestinian territories, Bhutan and Laos and much of Sub-Saharan Africa (but do not include South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, Namibia, Kenya and Ghana, which have begun to move into stage 3).
The decline in the death rate is due initially to two factors:
A consequence of the decline in mortality in Stage Two is an increasingly rapid growth in population growth (a.k.a. "population explosion '') as the gap between deaths and births grows wider and wider. Note that this growth is not due to an increase in fertility (or birth rates) but to a decline in deaths. This change in population occurred in north - western Europe during the 19th century due to the Industrial Revolution. During the second half of the 20th century less - developed countries entered Stage Two, creating the worldwide rapid growth of number of living persons that has demographers concerned today. In this stage of DT, countries are vulnerable to become failed states in the absence of progressive governments.
Another characteristic of Stage Two of the demographic transition is a change in the age structure of the population. In Stage One, the majority of deaths are concentrated in the first 5 -- 10 years of life. Therefore, more than anything else, the decline in death rates in Stage Two entails the increasing survival of children and a growing population. Hence, the age structure of the population becomes increasingly youthful and start to have big families and more of these children enter the reproductive cycle of their lives while maintaining the high fertility rates of their parents. The bottom of the "age pyramid '' widens first where children, teenagers and infants are here, accelerating population growth rate. The age structure of such a population is illustrated by using an example from the Third World today.
In Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM), death rates are low and birth rates diminish, as a rule accordingly of enhanced economic conditions, an expansion in women 's status and education, and access to contraception. The decrease in birth rate fluctuates from nation to nation, as does the time span in which it is experienced. Stage Three moves the population towards stability through a decline in the birth rate. Several fertility factors contribute to this eventual decline, and are generally similar to those associated with sub-replacement fertility, although some are speculative:
The resulting changes in the age structure of the population include a decline in the youth dependency ratio and eventually population aging. The population structure becomes less triangular and more like an elongated balloon. During the period between the decline in youth dependency and rise in old age dependency there is a demographic window of opportunity that can potentially produce economic growth through an increase in the ratio of working age to dependent population; the demographic dividend.
However, unless factors such as those listed above are allowed to work, a society 's birth rates may not drop to a low level in due time, which means that the society can not proceed to stage Three and is locked in what is called a demographic trap.
Countries that have witnessed a fertility decline of over 50 % from their pre-transition levels include: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Panama, Jamaica, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Lebanon, South Africa, India, Saudi Arabia, and many Pacific islands.
Countries that have experienced a fertility decline of 25 - 50 % include: Guatemala, Tajikistan, Egypt, and Zimbabwe.
Countries that have experienced a fertility decline of less than 25 % include: Sudan, Niger, Afghanistan.
This occurs where birth and death rates are both low, leading to a total population stable. Death rates are low for a number of reasons, primarily lower rates of diseases and higher production of food. The birth rate is low because people have more opportunities to choose if they want children; this is made possible by improvements in contraception or women gaining more independence and work opportunities. The DTM is only a suggestion about the future population levels of a country, not a prediction.
Countries that are at this stage (Total Fertility Rate of < 2.5 in 1997) include: United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, the majority of Europe, Bahamas, Puerto Rico (US territory), Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil, Sri Lanka, South Korea, Singapore, Iran, China, Turkey, Thailand, and Mauritius.
The original Demographic Transition model has just four stages, but additional stages have been proposed. Both more - fertile and less - fertile futures have been claimed as a Stage Five.
Some countries have sub-replacement fertility (that is, below 2.1 - 2.2 children per woman). Replacement fertility is typically 2.1 - 2.2 because this replaces the two parents and boys are born more often than girls (somewhat 1.05 - 1.1 to 1) and adds population to compensate for deaths (i.e. members of the population who die without full reproducing, for example, in the age of 30 - 35, giving a birth just to one baby) with approx. 0.1 additional. Many European and East Asian countries now have higher death rates than birth rates. Population aging and population decline may eventually occur, assuming that the fertility rate does not change and sustained mass immigration does not occur.
In an article in the August 2009 issue of Nature, Myrskylä, Kohler and Francesco Billari argue that the previously negative relationship between "development '', as measured by the Human Development Index (HDI), and birth rates has become J - shaped. The HDI is a composite of life expectancy, income, and level of education. Development promotes fertility decline at HDI levels below 0.9 but further advances in HDI cause a small rebound in birth rate. In many countries with very high levels of development, fertility rates are now approaching two children per woman -- although there are exceptions, notably Germany, Italy and Japan.
In the current century, most developed countries have increased fertility. From the point of view of evolutionary biology, wealthier people having fewer children is unexpected, as natural selection would be expected to favor individuals who are willing and able to convert plentiful resources into plentiful fertile descendants. This may be the result of a departure from the environment of evolutionary adaptedness. Thus, from the perspective of evolutionary psychology, the modern environment is exerting evolutionary pressure for higher fertility.
Jane Falkingham of Southampton University has noted that "We 've actually got population projections wrong consistently over the last 50 years... we 've underestimated the improvements in mortality... but also we 've not been very good at spotting the trends in fertility. '' In 2004 a United Nations office published its guesses for global population in the year 2300; estimates ranged from a "low estimate '' of 2.3 billion (tending to - 0.32 % per year) to a "high estimate '' of 36.4 billion (tending to + 0.54 % per year), which were contrasted with a deliberately "unrealistic '' illustrative "constant fertility '' scenario of 134 trillion (obtained if 1995 - 2000 fertility rates stay constant into the far future). In stage 5 of the demographic transition, a country encounters misfortune as a whole this is because the death rate becomes higher than the birth rate. There will be a negative population growth rate which will have an impact on the country. This will take a generation or two before the population grows back up.
The decline in death rate and birth rate that occurs during the demographic transition may transform the age structure. When the death rate declines during the second stage of the transition, the result is primarily an increase in the child population. The reason being that when the death rate is high (stage one), the infant mortality rate is very high, often above 200 deaths per 1000 children born. When the death rate falls or improves, this may include lower infant mortality rate and increased child survival. Over time, as individuals with increased survival rates age, there may also be an increase in the number of older children, teenagers, and young adults. This implies that there is an increase in the fertile population proportion which, with constant fertility rates, may lead to an increase in the number of children born. This will further increase the growth of the child population. The second stage of the demographic transition, therefore, implies a rise in child dependency and creates a youth bulge in the population structure. As a population continues to move through the demographic transition into the third stage, fertility declines and the youth bulge prior to the decline ages out of child dependency into the working ages. This stage of the transition is often referred to as the golden age, and is typically when populations see the greatest advancements in living standards and economic development. However, further declines in both mortality and fertility will eventually result in an aging population, and a rise in the aged dependency ratio. An increase of the aged dependency ratio often indicates that a population has reached below replacement levels of fertility, and as result does not have enough people in the working ages to support the economy, and the growing dependent population.
Between 1750 and 1975 England experienced the transition from high levels of both mortality and fertility, to low levels. A major factor was the sharp decline in the death rate due to infectious diseases, which has fallen from about 11 per 1,000 to less than 1 per 1,000. By contrast, the death rate from other causes was 12 per 1,000 in 1850 and has not declined markedly. The agricultural revolution and the development of transport, initiated by the construction of canals, led to greater availability of food and coal, and enabled the Industrial Revolution to improve the standard of living. Scientific discoveries and medical breakthroughs did not, in general, contribute importantly to the early major decline in infectious disease mortality, and the decline in fertility occurred before efficient contraception became available.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, the Irish demographic status converged to the European norm. Mortality rose above the European Community average, and in 1991 Irish fertility fell to replacement level. The peculiarities of Ireland 's past demography and its recent rapid changes challenge established theory. The recent changes have mirrored inward changes in Irish society, with respect to family planning, women in the work force, the sharply declining power of the Catholic Church, and the emigration factor.
France displays real divergences from the standard model of Western demographic evolution. The uniqueness of the French case arises from its specific demographic history, its historic cultural values, and its internal regional dynamics. France 's demographic transition was unusual in that the mortality and the natality decreased at the same time, thus there was no demographic boom in the 19th century.
France 's demographic profile is similar to its European neighbors and to developed countries in general, yet it seems to be staving off the population decline of Western countries. With 62.9 million inhabitants in 2006, it was the second most populous country in the European Union, and it displayed a certain demographic dynamism, with a growth rate of 2.4 % between 2000 and 2005, above the European average. More than two - thirds of that growth can be ascribed to a natural increase resulting from high fertility and birthrates. In contrast, France is one of the developed nations whose migratory balance is rather weak, which is an original feature at the European level. Several interrelated reasons account for such singularities, in particular the impact of pro-family policies accompanied by greater unmarried households and out - of - wedlock births. These general demographic trends parallel equally important changes in regional demographics. Since 1982 the same significant tendencies have occurred throughout mainland France: demographic stagnation in the least - populated rural regions and industrial regions in the northeast, with strong growth in the southwest and along the Atlantic coast, plus dynamism in metropolitan areas. Shifts in population between regions account for most of the differences in growth. The varying demographic evolution regions can be analyzed though the filter of several parameters, including residential facilities, economic growth, and urban dynamism, which yield several distinct regional profiles. The distribution of the French population therefore seems increasingly defined not only by interregional mobility but also by the residential preferences of individual households. These challenges, linked to configurations of population and the dynamics of distribution, inevitably raise the issue of town and country planning. The most recent census figures show that an outpouring of the urban population means that fewer rural areas are continuing to register a negative migratory flow - two - thirds of rural communities have shown some since 2000. The spatial demographic expansion of large cities amplifies the process of peri-urbanization yet is also accompanied by movement of selective residential flow, social selection, and sociospatial segregation based on income.
McNicoll (2006) examines the common features behind the striking changes in health and fertility in East and Southeast Asia in the 1960s -- 1990 's, focusing on seven countries: Taiwan and South Korea ("tiger '' economies), Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia ("second wave '' countries), and China and Vietnam ("market - Leninist '' economies). Demographic change can be seen as a byproduct of social and economic development together with, in some cases, strong governmental pressures. The transition sequence entailed the establishment of an effective, typically authoritarian, system of local administration, providing a framework for promotion and service delivery in health, education, and family planning. Subsequent economic liberalization offered new opportunities for upward mobility -- and risks of backsliding --, accompanied by the erosion of social capital and the breakdown or privatization of service programs.
As of year 2013, India is in the later half of the third stage of the demographic transition, with a population of 1.23 billion. It is nearly 40 years behind in the demographic transition process compared to EU countries, Japan, etc. The present demographic transition stage of India along with its higher population base will yield rich demographic dividend in future decades.
Cha (2007) analyzes a panel data set to explore how industrial revolution, demographic transition, and human capital accumulation interacted in Korea from 1916 -- 38. Income growth and public investment in health caused mortality to fall, which suppressed fertility and promoted education. Industrialization, skill premium, and closing gender wage gap further induced parents to opt for child quality. Expanding demand for education was accommodated by an active public school building program. The interwar agricultural depression aggravated traditional income inequality, raising fertility and impeding the spread of mass schooling. Landlordism collapsed in the wake of de-colonization, and the consequent reduction in inequality accelerated human and physical capital accumulation, hence leading to growth in South Korea.
Campbell has studied the demography of 19th - century Madagascar in the light of demographic transition theory. Both supporters and critics of the theory hold to an intrinsic opposition between human and "natural '' factors, such as climate, famine, and disease, influencing demography. They also suppose a sharp chronological divide between the precolonial and colonial eras, arguing that whereas "natural '' demographic influences were of greater importance in the former period, human factors predominated thereafter. Campbell argues that in 19th - century Madagascar the human factor, in the form of the Merina state, was the predominant demographic influence. However, the impact of the state was felt through natural forces, and it varied over time. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Merina state policies stimulated agricultural production, which helped to create a larger and healthier population and laid the foundation for Merina military and economic expansion within Madagascar. From 1820, the cost of such expansionism led the state to increase its exploitation of forced labor at the expense of agricultural production and thus transformed it into a negative demographic force. Infertility and infant mortality, which were probably more significant influences on overall population levels than the adult mortality rate, increased from 1820 due to disease, malnutrition, and stress, all of which stemmed from state forced labor policies. Available estimates indicate little if any population growth for Madagascar between 1820 and 1895. The demographic "crisis '' in Africa, ascribed by critics of the demographic transition theory to the colonial era, stemmed in Madagascar from the policies of the imperial Merina regime, which in this sense formed a link to the French regime of the colonial era. Campbell thus questions the underlying assumptions governing the debate about historical demography in Africa and suggests that the demographic impact of political forces be reevaluated in terms of their changing interaction with "natural '' demographic influences.
Russia entered stage two of the transition in the 18th century, simultaneously with the rest of Europe, though the effect of transition remained limited to a modest decline in death rates and steady population growth. The population of Russia nearly quadrupled during the 19th century, from 30 million to 133 million, and continued to grow until the First World War and the turmoil that followed. Russia then quickly transitioned through stage three. Though fertility rates rebounded initially and almost reached 7 children / woman in the mid-1920s, they were depressed by the 1931 - 33 famine, crashed due to the Second World War in 1941, and only rebounded to a sustained level of 3 children / woman after the war. By 1970 Russia was firmly in stage four, with crude birth rates and crude death rates on the order of 15 / 1000 and 9 / 1000 respectively.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Russia underwent a unique demographic transition; observers call it a "demographic catastrophe '': the number of deaths exceeded the number of births, life expectancy fell sharply (especially for males) and the number of suicides increased. From 1992 through 2011, the number of deaths exceeded the number of births.
Greenwood and Seshadri (2002) show that from 1800 to 1940 there was a demographic shift from a mostly rural US population with high fertility, with an average of seven children born per white woman, to a minority (43 %) rural population with low fertility, with an average of two births per white woman. This shift resulted from technological progress. A sixfold increase in real wages made children more expensive in terms of forgone opportunities to work and increases in agricultural productivity reduced rural demand for labor, a substantial portion of which traditionally had been performed by children in farm families.
A simplification of the DTM theory proposes an initial decline in mortality followed by a later drop in fertility. The changing demographics of the U.S. in the last two centuries did not parallel this model. Beginning around 1800, there was a sharp fertility decline; at this time, an average woman usually produced seven births per lifetime, but by 1900 this number had dropped to nearly four. A mortality decline was not observed in the U.S. until almost 1900 -- a hundred years following the drop in fertility.
However, this late decline occurred from a very low initial level. During the 17th and 18th centuries, crude death rates in much of colonial North America ranged from 15 to 25 deaths per 1000 residents per year (levels of up to 40 per 1000 being typical during stages one and two). Life expectancy at birth was on the order of 40 and, in some places, reached 50, and a resident of 18th century Philadelphia who reached age 20 could have expected, on average, additional 40 years of life.
This phenomenon is explained by the pattern of colonization of the United States. Sparsely populated interior of the country allowed ample room to accommodate all the "excess '' people, counteracting mechanisms (spread of communicable diseases due to overcrowding, low real wages and insufficient calories per capita due to the limited amount of available agricultural land) which led to high mortality in the Old World. With low mortality but stage 1 birth rates, the United States necessarily experienced exponential population growth (from less than 4 million people in 1790, to 23 million in 1850, to 76 million in 1900.)
The only area where this pattern did not hold was the American South. High prevalence of deadly endemic diseases such as malaria kept mortality as high as 45 - 50 per 1000 residents per year in 18th century North Carolina. In New Orleans, mortality remained so high (mainly due to yellow fever) that the city was characterized as the "death capital of the United States '' - at the level of 50 per 1000 population or higher - well into the second half of the 19th century.
Today, the U.S. is recognized as having both low fertility and mortality rates. Specifically, birth rates stand at 14 per 1000 per year and death rates at 8 per 1000 per year.
It must be remembered that the DTM is only a model and can not necessarily predict the future. It does however give an indication of what the future birth and death rates may be for an underdeveloped country, together with the total population size. Most particularly, of course, the DTM makes no comment on change in population due to migration. It is not applicable for high levels of development, as it has been shown that after a HDI of 0.9 the fertility increases again.
DTM does not account for recent phenomena such as AIDS; in these areas HIV has become the leading source of mortality. Some trends in waterborne bacterial infant mortality are also disturbing in countries like Malawi, Sudan and Nigeria; for example, progress in the DTM clearly arrested and reversed between 1975 and 2005.
DTM assumes that population changes are induced by industrial changes and increased wealth, without taking into account the role of social change in determining birth rates, e.g., the education of women. In recent decades more work has been done on developing the social mechanisms behind it.
DTM assumes that the birth rate is independent of the death rate. Nevertheless, demographers maintain that there is no historical evidence for society - wide fertility rates rising significantly after high mortality events. Notably, some historic populations have taken many years to replace lives after events such as the Black Death.
Some have claimed that DTM does not explain the early fertility declines in much of Asia in the second half of the 20th century or the delays in fertility decline in parts of the Middle East. Nevertheless, the demographer John C Caldwell has suggested that the reason for the rapid decline in fertility in some developing countries compared to Western Europe, the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand is mainly due to government programs and a massive investment in education both by governments and parents.
The Second Demographic Transition (SDT) is a conceptual framework first formulated in 1986 by Ron Lesthaeghe and Dirk van de Kaa in a short article that was published in the Dutch sociology journal Mens en Maatschappij. SDT addressed the changes in the patterns of sexual and reproductive behavior which occurred in North America and Western Europe in the period from about 1963, when the birth control pill and other cheap effective contraceptive methods such as the IUD were adopted by the general population, to the present. Combined with the sexual revolution and the increased role of women in society and the workforce the resulting changes have profoundly affected the demographics of industrialized countries resulting in a sub-replacement fertility level.
The changes, increased numbers of women choosing to not marry or have children, increased cohabitation outside marriage, increased childbearing by single mothers, increased participation by women in higher education and professional careers, and other changes are associated with increased individualism and autonomy, particularly of women. Motivations have changed from traditional and economic ones to those of self - realization.
In 2015, Nicholas Eberstadt, political economist at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, described the Second Demographic Transition as one in which "long, stable marriages are out, and divorce or separation are in, along with serial cohabitation and increasingly contingent liaisons. ''
|
who's playing in the big ten championship game | 2017 Big Ten Football Championship game - wikipedia
The 2017 Big Ten Football Championship Game was played on December 2, 2017 at Lucas Oil Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana. The seventh annual Big Ten Football Championship Game, it determined the 2017 champion of the Big Ten Conference.
The 2017 Championship Game was the seventh in the Big Ten 's 122 - year history and the fourth to feature the conference 's East and West alignment. Last season, the Big Ten Championship Game featured the Penn State Nittany Lions, champions of the East Division and the Wisconsin Badgers, champions of the West Division.
The # 4 Wisconsin Badgers represented the West Division of the Big Ten for the second consecutive year and came into the game with a perfect 12 - win season. With a win, the Badgers would have all but secured a spot in the College Football Playoff. It was Wisconsin 's fifth appearance in the title game with other appearances coming in 2011, 2012, 2014 and 2016. Wisconsin is 2 - 3 in the game with their last wins coming in 2011 and 2012. They are 0 - 2 against the Buckeyes.
The # 8 Ohio State Buckeyes represented the East Division of the Big Ten and came into the game with an overall record of 10 - 2 and a conference record of 8 - 1. Their two losses came from # 2 Oklahoma and Iowa. It was the Buckeyes ' third appearance in the title game with the others coming in 2013 and 2014. Ohio State is 2 - 1 in the game including a 2 - 0 against Wisconsin.
|
what are flowers called that bloom every year | Biennial plant - wikipedia
A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. In the first year, the plant grows leaves, stems, and roots (vegetative structures), then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. Usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette. Many biennials require a cold treatment, or vernalization, before they will flower. During the next spring or summer, the stem of the biennial plant elongates greatly, or "bolts ''. This typically makes biennial vegetables such as spinach, fennel and lettuce unusable as food. The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies. There are far fewer biennials than either perennial plants or annual plants.
Under extreme climatic conditions, a biennial plant may complete its life cycle rapidly (e.g., in three months instead of two years). This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were vernalized before they were planted in the ground. This behavior leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas.
From a gardener 's perspective, a plant 's status as annual, biennial, or perennial often varies based on location or purpose. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits, or seeds need to be grown for two years. Biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown for just one year (and not grown on a second year to run to seed).
Examples of biennial plants are members of the onion family including leek, some members of the cabbage family, common mullein, parsley, fennel, Lunaria, silverbeet, Black - eyed Susan, Sweet William, colic weed, carrot, and some hollyhocks. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, for example, foxglove and stock.
|
how many times did kobe go to the playoffs | Kobe Bryant - Wikipedia
Kobe Bean Bryant (born August 23, 1978) is an American retired professional basketball player and businessman. He played his entire 20 - year career with the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He entered the NBA directly from high school and won five NBA championships with the Lakers. Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, 15 - time member of the All - NBA Team, and 12 - time member of the All - Defensive team. He led the NBA in scoring during two seasons, and ranks third on the league 's all - time regular season scoring and fourth on the all - time postseason scoring list. He holds the NBA record for the most seasons playing with one franchise for an entire career.
The son of former NBA player Joe Bryant, Kobe Bryant enjoyed a successful high school basketball career at Lower Merion High School in Pennsylvania, where he was recognized as the top high school basketball player in the country. He declared for the NBA draft upon graduation, and was selected with the 13th overall pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Charlotte Hornets, who traded him to the Lakers. As a rookie, Bryant earned himself a reputation as a high - flyer and a fan favorite by winning the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, and he was named an All - Star by his second season. Despite a feud between them, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal led the Lakers to three consecutive championships from 2000 to 2002.
In 2003, Bryant was accused of sexual assault in Colorado, but the charges were eventually dropped, and a civil suit was settled out of court. After the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals, O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat. Bryant became the cornerstone of the Lakers, and he led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. In 2006, he scored a career - high 81 points against the Toronto Raptors, the second most points scored in a single game in league history behind Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Bryant was awarded the regular season 's Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) in 2008. After losing in the 2008 NBA Finals, he led the Lakers to two consecutive championships in 2009 and 2010, earning the Finals MVP Award on both occasions. He continued to be among the top players in the league through 2013, when the 34 - year - old Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon. Although he recovered, his play was limited the following two years by season - ending injuries to his knee and shoulder, respectively. Citing his physical decline, he announced that he would be retiring after the 2015 -- 16 season.
At 34 years and 104 days of age, Bryant became the youngest player in league history to reach 30,000 career points. He became the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history on February 1, 2010, when he surpassed Jerry West. Following his second year in the league, Bryant was chosen to start every All - Star Game until his retirement for a record 18 consecutive appearances, and his four All - Star MVP Awards are tied for the most in NBA history. At the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics, he won gold medals as a member of the U.S. national team. Sporting News and TNT named Bryant the top NBA player of the 2000s.
Bryant was born in Philadelphia, as the youngest of three children and the only son of former NBA player Joe Bryant and Pamela Cox Bryant. He is also the maternal nephew of basketball player John "Chubby '' Cox. His parents named him after the famous beef of Kobe, Japan, which they saw on a restaurant menu. His middle name, Bean, is derived from his father 's nickname "Jellybean ''. Bryant was raised Roman Catholic. When Bryant was six, his father left the NBA and moved his family to Rieti in Italy to continue playing professional basketball. Bryant became accustomed to his new lifestyle and learned to speak fluent Italian. During summers, he would come back to the United States to play in a basketball summer league.
Bryant started playing basketball when he was 3 years old, and his favorite team growing up was the Lakers. Bryant 's grandfather would mail him videos of NBA games, which Bryant would study. At an early age, he also learned to play soccer and his favorite team was A.C. Milan. Upon Joe Bryant 's retirement from playing basketball in 1991, the Bryant family moved back to the United States.
Bryant earned national recognition during a spectacular high school career at Lower Merion High School located in Ardmore, in the Philadelphia suburb of Lower Merion. As a freshman, he played for the varsity basketball team. He became the first freshman in decades to start for Lower Merion 's varsity team, but the team finished with a 4 -- 20 record. The following three years, the Aces compiled a 77 -- 13 record, with Bryant playing all five positions. During his junior year, he averaged 31.1 points, 10.4 rebounds and 5.2 assists and was named Pennsylvania Player of the Year, attracting attention from college recruiters in the process. Duke, Michigan, North Carolina and Villanova were at the top of his list; however, when Kevin Garnett went in the first round of the 1995 NBA draft, he began considering going directly to the pros.
At Adidas ABCD camp, Bryant earned the 1995 senior MVP award, while playing alongside future NBA teammate Lamar Odom. While in high school, then 76ers coach John Lucas invited Bryant to work out and scrimmage with the team, where he played one - on - one with Jerry Stackhouse. In his senior year of high school, Bryant led the Aces to their first state championship in 53 years. During the run, he averaged 30.8 points, 12 rebounds, 6.5 assists, 4.0 steals, and 3.8 blocked shots in leading the Aces to a 31 -- 3 record. Bryant ended his high school career as Southeastern Pennsylvania 's all - time leading scorer at 2,883 points, surpassing both Wilt Chamberlain and Lionel Simmons.
Bryant received several awards for his performance his senior year including being named Naismith High School Player of the Year, Gatorade Men 's National Basketball Player of the Year, a McDonald 's All - American, and a USA Today All - USA First Team player. Bryant 's varsity coach, Greg Downer, commented that he was "a complete player who dominates '' and praised his work ethic, even as the team 's top player. In 1996, Bryant took R&B singer Brandy to his senior prom, though the two were, and remain, just friends. Ultimately, however, the 17 - year - old Bryant made the decision to go directly into the NBA, only the sixth player in NBA history to do so. Bryant 's news was met with a lot of publicity at a time when prep - to - pro NBA players were not very common (Garnett being the only exception in 20 years). His basketball skills and SAT score of 1080 would have ensured admission to any college he chose, but he did not officially visit any campuses. In 2012, Bryant was honored as one of the 35 Greatest McDonald 's All - Americans.
The first guard to ever be taken out of high school, Bryant was chosen as the 13th overall draft pick by the Charlotte Hornets in 1996. According to Arn Tellem, Bryant 's agent at the time, Bryant playing for the Charlotte Hornets was "an impossibility ''. However, Bill Branch, the Hornets ' head scout at the time, said that the Hornets agreed to trade their draft selection to the Los Angeles Lakers before picking Bryant. The teams agreed to the trade the day before the draft and the Lakers told the Hornets whom to select five minutes before the pick was made. Branch said that prior to the trade agreement, the Hornets never even considered drafting Bryant. Prior to the draft, Bryant had worked out in Los Angeles, where he scrimmaged against former Lakers players Larry Drew and Michael Cooper and, according to then - Laker manager Jerry West, "marched over these people ''. On July 1, 1996, West traded his starting center, Vlade Divac, to the Hornets in exchange for Bryant 's draft rights. Since he was still 17 at the time of the draft, his parents had to cosign his contract with the Lakers until he was able to sign his own when he turned 18 before the season began.
Bryant debuted in the Summer Pro League in Long Beach, California, scoring 25 points in front of a standing - room - only crowd. Defenders struggled to get in front of him, and his performance excited West and Lakers coach Del Harris. He scored 36 points in the finale, and finished with averages of 24.5 points and 5.3 rebounds in four game. As a rookie in 1996 -- 97, Bryant mostly came off the bench behind guards Eddie Jones and Nick Van Exel. At the time he became the youngest player ever to play in an NBA game (18 years, 72 days; a record since broken by Jermaine O'Neal and former teammate Andrew Bynum), and also became the youngest NBA starter ever (18 years, 158 days). Initially, Bryant played limited minutes, but as the season continued, he began to see some more playing time. By the end of the season, he averaged 15.5 minutes a game. During the All - Star weekend, Bryant participated in the Rookie Challenge and won the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, becoming the youngest dunk champion ever at the age of 18. Bryant 's performance throughout the year earned him a spot on the NBA All - Rookie Second Team with fellow bench teammate Travis Knight. The Lakers advanced to the Western Conference semifinals in the playoffs against the Utah Jazz, when Bryant was pressed into a lead role at the end of Game 5. Byron Scott missed the game with a sprained wrist, Robert Horry was ejected for fighting with the Utah 's Jeff Hornacek, and Shaquille O'Neal fouled out with 1: 46 remaining in the fourth quarter. Bryant shot four air balls at the end of the game; the Jazz won 98 -- 93 in overtime to eliminate the Lakers 4 -- 1. He first whiffed a game - winning 2 - point jump shot in the fourth quarter, and then misfired three three - point field goals in overtime, including two tying shots in the final minute. O'Neal commented that "(Bryant) was the only guy who had the guts at the time to take shots like that. ''
In Bryant 's second season, he received more playing time and began to show more of his abilities as a talented young guard. As a result, Bryant 's point averages more than doubled from 7.6 to 15.4 points per game. Bryant would see an increase in minutes when the Lakers "played small '', which would feature Bryant playing small forward alongside the guards he would usually back up. Bryant was the runner - up for the NBA 's Sixth Man of the Year Award, and through fan voting, he also became the youngest NBA All - Star starter in NBA history. He was joined by teammates O'Neal, Van Exel, and Jones, making it the first time since 1983 that four players on the same team were selected to play in the same All - Star Game. Bryant 's 15.4 points per game was the highest of any non-starter in the season.
The 1998 -- 99 season marked Bryant 's emergence as a premier guard in the league. With starting guards Van Exel and Jones traded, Bryant started every game for the lockout - shortened 50 - game season. During the season, Bryant signed a 6 - year contract extension worth $70 million. This kept him with the Lakers until the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Even at an early stage of his career, sportswriters were comparing his skills to those of Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson. The playoff results, however, were no better, as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the Western Conference Semifinals.
Bryant 's fortunes would soon change when Phil Jackson became coach for the Lakers in 1999. After years of steady improvement, Bryant became one of the premier shooting guards in the league, earning appearances in the league 's All - NBA, All - Star, and All - Defensive teams. The Lakers became championship contenders under Bryant and O'Neal, who formed a legendary center - guard combination. Jackson utilized the triangle offense he used to win six championships with the Chicago Bulls, which would help both Bryant and O'Neal rise to the elite class of the NBA. The three resulting championships won consecutively in 2000, 2001, and 2002 further proved such a fact.
Bryant started the 1999 -- 2000 season sidelined for six weeks due to an injury to his hand suffered during a preseason game against the Washington Wizards. With Bryant back and playing over 38 minutes a game, he saw an increase in all statistical categories in the 1999 -- 2000 season. This included leading the team in assists per game and steals per game. The duo of O'Neal and Bryant backed with a strong bench led to the Lakers winning 67 games, tied for fifth-most in NBA history. This followed with O'Neal winning the MVP and Bryant being named to the All - NBA Team Second Team and All - NBA Defensive Team for the first time in his career (the youngest player ever to receive defensive honors). While playing second fiddle to O'Neal in the playoffs, Bryant had some clutch performances including a 25 - point, 11 rebound, 7 assist, 4 block game in game 7 of the Western Conference finals against the Portland Trail Blazers. He also threw an alley - oop pass to O'Neal to clinch the game and the series. In the 2000 Finals against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant injured his ankle in the second quarter of Game 2 after landing on the Pacers ' Jalen Rose 's foot. Rose later admitted he placed his foot under Bryant intentionally. Bryant did not return to the game, and he also missed Game 3 due to the injury. In Game 4, Bryant scored 22 points in the second half, and led the team to an OT victory as O'Neal fouled out of the game. Bryant scored the winning shot to put the Lakers ahead 120 -- 118. With a 116 -- 111 Game 6 victory, the Lakers won their first championship since 1988.
Statistically, the 2000 -- 01 season saw Bryant perform similarly to the previous year, but he averaged 6 more points a game (28.5). It was also the year when disagreements between Bryant and O'Neal began to surface. Once again he led the team in assists with 5 per game. The Lakers however, only won 56 games, an 11 - game drop off from last year. The Lakers would respond by going 15 -- 1 in the playoffs. They easily swept the Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, and San Antonio Spurs to advance to the Finals, before losing their first game against the Philadelphia 76ers in OT. They would go on to win the next 4 games and bring their second championship to Los Angeles in as many seasons. During the playoffs, Bryant played heavy minutes which brought his stats up to 29.4 points, 7.3 rebounds, and 6.1 assists per game. In the playoffs, teammate O'Neal declared Bryant the best player in the league. Bryant ended up making the All NBA Second team and All NBA Defensive Team for the second year in a row. In addition, he was also voted to start in the NBA All - Star Game for the 3rd year in a row (no game in 1999).
In the 2001 -- 02 season, Bryant played 80 games for the first time in his career. He continued his all - round play by averaging 25.2 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.5 assists per game. He also had a career high 46.9 % shooting and once again led his team in assists. He claimed his first All - Star MVP trophy after a 31 - point performance in Philadelphia, when he was loudly booed by fans as they had throughout the game, stemming from his earlier comment to a 76ers heckler during the Finals that the Lakers were "going to cut your hearts out ''. While making the All - NBA Defensive team again, he was also promoted to the All - NBA First Team for the first time in his career. The Lakers won 58 games that year and finished second place in the Pacific Division behind in - state rival Sacramento Kings. Bryant was suspended one game after he punched Reggie Miller of the Indiana Pacers after the Lakers ' March 1, 2002 victory over the Pacers.
The road to the Finals would prove a lot tougher than the record run the Lakers had the previous year. While the Lakers swept the Blazers and defeated the Spurs 4 -- 1 in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Lakers did not have home court advantage against the Sacramento Kings. The series would stretch to 7 games, the first time this happened to the Lakers since the 2000 Western Conference Finals. However, the Lakers were able to beat their division rivals and make their third consecutive NBA Finals appearance. In the 2002 Finals against the New Jersey Nets, Bryant averaged 26.8 points, 51.4 % shooting, 5.8 rebounds, 5.3 assists per game, which included scoring a quarter of the teams points. At age 23, Bryant became the youngest player to win three championships. Bryant 's play was notable and praised for his performance in the 4th quarter of games, specifically the last 2 rounds of the playoffs. This cemented Bryant 's reputation as a "clutch player ''.
In the 2002 -- 03 season, Bryant set an NBA record for three - pointers on January 7, 2003, making 12 against the Seattle SuperSonics. He averaged 30 points per game and embarked on a historic run, posting 40 or more points in nine consecutive games while averaging 40.6 in the entire month of February. In addition, he averaged 6.9 rebounds, 5.9 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, all career highs to that point. Bryant was once again voted to both the All - NBA and All - Defensive 1st teams, and came in third place in voting for the MVP award. After finishing 50 -- 32 in the regular season, the Lakers floundered in the playoffs and lost in the Western Conference semi-finals to the eventual NBA champions San Antonio Spurs in six games.
In the following 2003 -- 04 season, the Lakers were able to acquire NBA All - Stars Karl Malone, and Gary Payton to make another push at the NBA Championship. Before the season began, Bryant was arrested for sexual assault. This caused Bryant to miss some games due to court appearances or attend court earlier in the day and travel to play games later in same day. In the final game of the regular season, the Lakers played the Portland Trail Blazers. Bryant made two buzzer beaters to win the game and the Pacific Division title. At the end of the fourth quarter, Bryant made a 3 - pointer with 1.1 seconds left to send it into overtime. The game eventually went to a second overtime, in which Bryant made another 3 - pointer as time expired to lift the Lakers past the Blazers, 105 -- 104.
With a starting lineup of O'Neal, Malone, Payton, and Bryant, the Lakers were able to reach the NBA Finals. However, they were upset in five games by the Detroit Pistons, who won their first championship since 1990. In that series, Bryant averaged 22.6 points per game and 4.4 assists. He shot 35.1 % from the field. Jackson 's contract as coach was not renewed, and Rudy Tomjanovich took over. O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant. The following day, Bryant declined an offer to sign with the Los Angeles Clippers and re-signed with the Lakers on a seven - year contract.
Bryant was closely scrutinized and criticized during the 2004 -- 05 season with his reputation badly damaged from all that had happened over the previous year. A particularly damaging salvo came when Jackson wrote The Last Season: A Team in Search of Its Soul. The book detailed the events of the Lakers ' tumultuous 2003 -- 04 season and has a number of criticisms of Bryant. In the book, Jackson called Bryant "un-coachable ''. Midway through the season, Tomjanovich suddenly resigned as Lakers coach, citing the recurrence of health problems and exhaustion. Without Tomjanovich, stewardship of the remainder of the Lakers ' season fell to career assistant coach Frank Hamblen. Bryant was the league 's second - leading scorer at 27.6 points per game, but he was surrounded by a subpar supporting cast, and the Lakers went 34 -- 48 and missed the playoffs for the first time in over a decade. The year signified a drop in Bryant 's overall status in the NBA, as he did not make the NBA All - Defensive Team and was also demoted to the All - NBA Third Team. During the season, Bryant also engaged in public feuds with Malone and Ray Allen.
The 2005 -- 06 NBA season would mark a crossroads in Bryant 's basketball career. Despite past differences with Bryant, Jackson returned to coach the Lakers. Bryant endorsed the move, and by all appearances, the two men worked together well the second time around, leading the Lakers back into the playoffs. Bryant 's individual scoring accomplishments posted resulted in the finest statistical season of his career. On December 20, 2005, Bryant scored 62 points in three quarters against the Dallas Mavericks. Entering the fourth quarter, Bryant outscored the entire Mavericks team 62 -- 61, the only time a player has done this through three quarters since the introduction of the shot clock. When the Lakers faced the Miami Heat on January 16, 2006, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal made headlines by engaging in handshakes and hugs before the game, signifying a change in the feud that had festered between them. A month later, at the 2006 NBA All - Star Game, the two were seen laughing together.
On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career - high 81 points in a 122 -- 104 victory against the Toronto Raptors. In addition to breaking the previous franchise record of 71 set by Elgin Baylor, Bryant 's 81 - point game was the second - highest point total in NBA history, surpassed only by Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot -- mostly from the outside -- in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points in Philadelphia 's 169 -- 147 win, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points. In that same month, Bryant also became the first player since 1964 to score 45 points or more in four consecutive games, joining Chamberlain and Baylor as the only players ever to do so. For the month of January, Bryant averaged 43.4 points per game, the eighth highest single month scoring average in NBA history and highest for any player other than Chamberlain. By the end of the 2005 -- 06 season, Bryant set Lakers single - season franchise records for most 40 - point games (27) and most points scored (2,832). He won the league 's scoring title for the first time by averaging 35.4 points per game, becoming just the fifth player in league history to average at least 35 in a season. Bryant finished in fourth place in the voting for the 2006 NBA Most Valuable Player Award, but received 22 first place votes -- second only to winner Steve Nash.
Later in the season, it was reported that Bryant would change his jersey number from 8 to 24 at the start of the 2006 -- 07 NBA season. Bryant 's first high school number was 24 before he switched to 33. After the Lakers ' season ended, Bryant said on TNT that he wanted 24 as a rookie, but it was unavailable, as was 33, retired with Kareem Abdul - Jabbar. Bryant wore 143 at the Adidas ABCD camp, and chose 8 by adding those numbers. In the first round of the playoffs, the Lakers played well enough to reach a 3 -- 1 series lead over the Phoenix Suns, culminating with Bryant 's overtime - forcing and game - winning shots in Game 4. They came within six seconds of eliminating the second - seeded Suns in Game 6, however, they lost that game 126 -- 118 in overtime. Despite Bryant 's 27.9 points per game in the series, the Lakers broke down, and ultimately fell to the Suns in seven games. After scoring 50 points on 20 of 35 shooting in the Game 6 loss, Bryant was criticized for only taking three shots in the second half of the 121 -- 90 Game 7 loss to Phoenix.
During the 2006 -- 07 season, Bryant was selected to his 9th All - Star Game appearance, and on February 18, he logged 31 points, 6 assists, and 6 steals, earning his second career All - Star Game MVP trophy. Over the course of the season, Bryant became involved in a number of on court incidents. On January 28 while attempting to draw contact on a potential game winning jumpshot, he flailed his arm, striking San Antonio Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili in the face with his elbow. Following a league review, Bryant was suspended for the subsequent game at Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks. The basis given for the suspension was that Bryant had performed an "unnatural motion '' in swinging his arm backwards. Later, on March 6, he seemed to repeat the motion, this time striking Minnesota Timberwolves guard Marko Jarić. On March 7, the NBA handed Bryant his second one - game suspension. In his first game back on March 9, he elbowed Kyle Korver in the face which was retroactively re-classified as a Type 1 flagrant foul.
On March 16, Bryant scored a season - high 65 points in a home game against the Portland Trail Blazers, which helped end the Lakers 7 - game losing streak. This was the second - best scoring performance of his 11 - year career. The following game, Bryant recorded 50 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves, after which he scored 60 points in a road win against the Memphis Grizzlies -- becoming the second Laker to score three straight 50 - plus point games, a feat not seen since Jordan last did it in 1987. The only other Laker to do so was Baylor, who also scored 50 + in three consecutive contests in December 1962. In the following day, in a game against the New Orleans Hornets, Bryant scored 50 points, making him the second player in NBA history to have four straight 50 - point games behind Chamberlain, who achieved it twice with streaks of five and seven. Bryant finished the year with a total of ten 50 - plus point games, matched only by Chamberlain. Bryant also won his second straight scoring title that season. Throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, his jersey became the top selling NBA jersey in the United States and China. A number of journalists have attributed the improved sales to Bryant 's new number, as well as his continuing All - Star performance on the court. In the 2007 NBA playoffs, the Lakers were once again eliminated in the first round by the Phoenix Suns, 4 -- 1.
On May 27, 2007, ESPN reported that Bryant stated that he wanted to be traded if Jerry West did not return to the team with full authority. Bryant later confirmed his desire for West 's return to the franchise, but denied stating that he would want to be traded if that does not occur. However, three days later, on Stephen A. Smith 's radio program, Bryant expressed anger over a Lakers "insider '' who claimed that Bryant was responsible for Shaquille O'Neal 's departure from the team, and publicly stated, "I want to be traded. '' Three hours after making that statement, Bryant stated in another interview that after having a conversation with head coach Jackson, he has reconsidered his decision and backed off his trade request. Bryant was later shown in an infamous amateur video saying that center Andrew Bynum should have been traded for All - Star Jason Kidd.
On December 23, 2007, Bryant became the youngest player (29 years, 122 days) to reach 20,000 points, in a game against the New York Knicks, in Madison Square Garden. This record has since been broken by LeBron James. Despite an injury to his shooting hand 's small finger, described as "a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament, an avulsion fracture, and a volar plate injury at the MCP joint '' that occurred in a game on February 5, 2008, Bryant played all 82 games of the regular season instead of opting for surgery. Regarding his injury, he stated, "I would prefer to delay any surgical procedure until after our Lakers season, and this summer 's Olympic Games. But, this is an injury that myself (sic) and the Lakers ' medical staff will just have to continue to monitor on a day - to - day basis. '' In early September 2008, Bryant decided not to have surgery to repair the injury.
Aided by the signing of Spanish All - Star Pau Gasol, Bryant lead his team to a West best 57 -- 25 record. The Lakers swept the Nuggets in the first round and on May 6, 2008, and Bryant was officially announced as the league MVP. He said, "It 's been a long ride. I 'm very proud to represent this organization, to represent this city. '' West, who was responsible for bringing Bryant to the Lakers, was on hand at the press conference to observe Bryant receive his MVP trophy from NBA commissioner David Stern. He stated, "Kobe deserved it. He 's had just another great season. Does n't surprise me one bit. '' In addition to winning his MVP award, Bryant was the only unanimous selection to the All - NBA team on May 8, 2008 for the third straight season and sixth time in his career. He would then headline the NBA All - Defensive First Team with Kevin Garnett, receiving 52 points overall including 24 first - place nods, earning his eighth selection.
The Lakers concluded the 2007 -- 08 regular season with a 57 -- 25 record, finishing first in the Western Conference and setting up themselves for a first - round contest against the Nuggets. In Game 1, Bryant, who said he made himself a decoy through most of the game, scored 18 of his 32 points in the final 8 minutes to keep Los Angeles safely ahead. That made Denver the first 50 - win team to be swept out of the first round of the playoffs since the Memphis Grizzlies fell in four games to the San Antonio Spurs in 2004. In the first game of the next round against the Jazz, Bryant scored 38 points as the Lakers beat the Jazz in Game 1. The Lakers won the next game as well, but dropped Games 3 and 4, even with Bryant putting up 33.5 points per game. The Lakers then won the next two games to win the semifinals in 6. This set up a Western Conference Finals berth against the San Antonio Spurs. The Lakers defeated the Spurs in 5 games, sending themselves to the NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics. This marked the fifth time in Bryant 's career and the first time without O'Neal to go to the NBA Finals. The Lakers then lost to the Boston Celtics in 6 games.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Lakers opened the campaign by winning their first seven games. Bryant led the team to tie the franchise record for most wins to start the season going 17 -- 2, and by the middle of December they compiled a 21 -- 3 record. He was selected to his eleventh consecutive All - Star Game as a starter, and was named the Western Conference Player of the Month for December and January in addition to being named Western Conference Player of the week three times. In a game against the Knicks on February 2, 2009, Bryant scored 61 points, setting a record for the most points scored at Madison Square Garden. During the 2009 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant who tallied 27 points, 4 assists, 4 rebounds, and 4 steals was awarded All - Star Game co-MVP with former teammate O'Neal. The Lakers finished the regular season with the best record in the west (65 -- 17). Bryant was runner - up in the MVP voting behind LeBron James, and was selected to the All - NBA First Team and All - Defensive First Team for the seventh time in his career.
In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the Utah Jazz in five games and the Houston Rockets in seven games in the opening two rounds. After finishing off the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Finals in six games, the Lakers earned their second straight trip to the NBA Finals where they defeated the Orlando Magic in five games. Bryant was awarded his first NBA Finals MVP trophy upon winning his fourth championship, achieving series averages of 32.4 points, 7.4 assists, 5.6 rebounds, 1.4 steals and 1.4 blocks. He became the first player since West in the 1969 NBA Finals to average at least 32.4 points and 7.4 assists for a finals series and the first since Jordan to average 30 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists for a title - winning team in the finals.
During the 2009 -- 10 season, Bryant made six game - winning shots including a buzzer - beating, one - legged 3 - pointer against the Miami Heat on December 4, 2009. Bryant considered the shot one of the luckiest he has made. A week later, Bryant suffered an avulsion fracture in his right index finger in a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. Despite the injury, Bryant elected to continue playing with it, rather than take any time off to rest the injury. Five days after his finger injury, he made another game winning shot, after missing on an opportunity in regulation, this time against the Milwaukee Bucks in an overtime game. Bryant also became the youngest player (31 years, 151 days) to reach 25,000 points during the season, surpassing Chamberlain. He continued his dominant clutch plays making yet another game - winning three - pointer against the Sacramento Kings, and what would be the game - winning field goal against the Boston Celtics. The following day, he surpassed West to become the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history. After being sidelined for five games from an ankle injury, Bryant made his return and made another clutch three - pointer to give the Lakers a one - point lead with four seconds remaining against the Memphis Grizzlies. Two weeks later, he made his sixth game - winning shot of the season against the Toronto Raptors.
On April 2, 2010, Bryant signed a three - year contract extension worth $87 million. Bryant finished the regular season missing four of the final five games, due to injuries to his knee and finger. Bryant suffered multiple injuries throughout the season and as a result, missed nine games. The Lakers began the playoffs as the number one seed in the Western Conference against the Oklahoma City Thunder, eventually defeating them in six games. The Lakers swept the Utah Jazz in the second round and advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they faced the Phoenix Suns. In Game 2, Bryant finished the game with 13 assists, setting a new playoff career high; it was the most assists by a Laker in the playoffs since Magic Johnson had 13 in 1996. The Lakers went on to win the series in six games capturing the Western Conference Championship and advancing to the NBA Finals for a third straight season. In a rematch against the 2008 Champion Boston Celtics, Bryant, despite shooting 6 for 24 from the field, led the Lakers back from a thirteen - point third quarter deficit in Game 7 to win the championship; he scored 10 of his game - high 23 points in the fourth quarter, and finished the game with 15 rebounds. Bryant won his fifth championship and earned his second consecutive NBA Finals MVP award. This marked the first time the Lakers won a Game 7 against the Boston Celtics in the NBA Finals. Bryant said that this was the most satisfying of all of his five championships.
Bryant wanted a sixth championship to match Jordan 's total. The Lakers started the 2010 -- 11 season by winning their first eight games. In his ninth game of the season, playing against the Denver Nuggets, Bryant became the youngest player in NBA history to reach 26,000 career points. Bryant also recorded his first triple double since January 21, 2009. On January 30 against the Celtics, he became the youngest player to score 27,000 points. On February 1, 2011, Bryant became one of seven players with at least 25,000 points, 5,000 rebounds and 5,000 assists. In Boston on February 10, Bryant scored 20 of his 23 points in the second half as the Lakers rallied from an early 15 - point deficit for a 92 -- 86 win over the Celtics. It was the Lakers ' first victory of the season against one of the league 's top four teams, as they entered the game 0 -- 5 in previous matchups and had been outscored by an average of 11 points. Bryant, selected to his 13th straight All - Star game after becoming the leading vote - getter, had 37 points, 14 rebounds, and three steals in the 2011 All - Star Game and won his fourth All - Star MVP, tying Hall of Famer Bob Pettit for the most All - Star MVP awards. During the season, Bryant moved from 12th to 6th place on the NBA all - time career scoring list, passing John Havlicek, Dominique Wilkins, Oscar Robertson, Hakeem Olajuwon, Elvin Hayes, and Moses Malone. Bryant finished the season averaging less than 20 shots a game, his fewest since the 2003 -- 04 season.
On April 13, 2011, the NBA fined Bryant $100,000 for directing a gay slur at referee Bennie Adams in frustration in the previous day 's game. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation praised the NBA 's decision to fine Bryant, and the Human Rights Campaign said that Bryant 's language was a "disgrace '' and "distasteful ''. Bryant stated that he was open to discussing the matter with gay rights groups and wanted to appeal his fine. He later apologized for the use of the word. Bryant and other Lakers appeared in a Lakers public service announcement denouncing his behavior. The team 's quest for another three - peat was ended when they were swept by the Dallas Mavericks in the second round of the playoffs. The Mavericks would go on to win the 2011 NBA Finals.
Bryant received experimental platelet - rich plasma therapy called Orthokine in Germany to treat the pain on his left knee and ankle, and Mike Brown replaced the retired Jackson as coach of the Lakers in the offseason. Bryant began the season playing with an injured wrist. On January 10, 2012, Bryant scored 48 points against the Suns, the most ever by a player in his 16th season. "Not bad for the seventh - best player in the league '', said Bryant, referring to a preseason ESPN ranking of the NBA 's top players. He went on to score 40, 42, and 42 in his next three games. It was the sixth time in his career he scored 40 or more points in four straight games, a feat exceeded only by Chamberlain (19 times). At the 2012 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant scored 27 points to pass Jordan as the career scoring leader in the All - Star Game. He also suffered a broken nose and a concussion in the third quarter of the All - Star Game after a hard foul from Dwyane Wade. In April, Bryant missed seven games with a bruised left shin. He returned three games before the end of the regular season. In the last game of the regular season, against Sacramento, he chose not to go for a possible third NBA scoring title, having needed 38 points to surpass Kevin Durant. The Lakers were knocked out of the playoffs by Durant 's Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round of the playoffs, losing in five games.
The Lakers in 2012 -- 13 acquired center Dwight Howard and point guard Steve Nash. On November 2, 2012, Bryant scored 40 points with two steals, and he passed Magic Johnson (1,724) as the Lakers career leader in steals. However, the Lakers lost the game to the Clippers and started the season 0 -- 3 for the first time in 34 years and just the fourth time in franchise history. After starting the season 1 -- 4, coach Brown was fired. He was replaced by Mike D'Antoni, who Bryant knew as a child when Bryant 's father was playing in Italy and D'Antoni was also a star player there. Bryant had grown close with D'Antoni during their time with Team USA. On December 5 against New Orleans, Bryant became the youngest player (34 years and 104 days) in league history to score 30,000 points, joining Hall of Famers Chamberlain, Jordan, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, and Karl Malone as one of five players to reach that milestone. On December 18, in a 101 -- 100 win over the Charlotte Bobcats, Bryant scored 30 + points in his seventh consecutive game, the longest streak ever by an NBA player after turning 34 years old; it was the fourth - longest such streak in his career. His streak would be snapped at 10 on December 28 in a 104 -- 87 win over the Portland Trail Blazers, when he scored 27 points, sitting out the whole fourth quarter. In a move to improve the team 's defense, D'Antoni began having Bryant guard the opponent 's best perimeter player; Bryant was the primary defender on the Cavaliers ' Kyrie Irving, who was held to 15 points. Bryant acknowledged he was a more focused defender when he had a challenging defensive assignment as opposed to when he played off the ball against weaker players. His defense disrupted opponents and freed Nash from unfavorable matchups.
Bryant was leading the league in scoring through much of the first 42 games. With a disappointing 17 -- 25 start to the season, D'Antoni had Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense and Nash was moved off the ball and became more of a spot - up shooter. In the next three games, Bryant had at least 10 assists in three wins with a three - game total of 39 assists, the most in his career. He missed a triple double in each game with nine rebounds twice and eight in the other. In two crucial wins in March, he scored at least 40 points and had at least 10 assists in back - to - back games, becoming the first Laker to accomplish the feat since West in 1970.
With the Lakers fighting to secure the eighth and final playoff berth in the Western Conference, coupled with injuries on the team, Bryant began playing almost all 48 minutes each game. On April 10, 2013, Bryant became the first player in NBA history to get 47 points, eight rebounds, five assists, four blocks, and three steals in an NBA game. On April 12, Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon against the Golden State Warriors, ending his season. His injury came while he was playing seven consecutive quarters and at least 40 minutes for seven consecutive games. The 34 - year - old Bryant was averaging his most minutes (38.6) in six years, and only Portland rookie Damian Lillard was averaging more minutes. Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak had spoken to Bryant about his extensive playing time 10 days earlier, but Bryant insisted the minutes needed to continue given the Lakers ' playoff push. Bryant had surgery on April 13 to repair the tear, and it was estimated he would miss six to nine months. He ended the season with his customary numbers scoring average of 27.3 points, 46.3 percent shooting, 5.6 rebounds, and 6 assists. However, The New York Times called his leading of the Lakers back into playoff contention "perhaps some of the finest work of his career. '' Eight times he reached 40 points during the season, and eleven times he had 10 or more assists in his role as distributor, dubbed "Magic Mamba '' after the passing skills of Magic Johnson. Bryant 's assists were the second - highest of his career and his field goal percentage was its highest since 2008 -- 09. The Lakers finished the season at 45 - 37, good for seventh in the West. Playing without Bryant, the Lakers were swept in four games by the San Antonio Spurs.
Bryant resumed practicing starting in November, after the start of the 2013 -- 14 season. On November 25, he signed a two - year contract extension with the Lakers at an estimated value of $48.5 million that would make him the first NBA player to play 20 years with the same franchise. He remained the league 's highest - paid player, despite accepting the discounted deal; he had been eligible to receive an extension starting at $32 million per year. His contract became a polarizing topic, with detractors arguing that stars should take less money to allow their teams more financial freedom, while supporters countered that the NBA 's biggest stars were being paid less than their true value. Bryant resumed playing on December 8 after missing the season 's first 19 games. On December 17, Bryant matched his season high of 21 points in a 96 -- 92 win over Memphis, but he suffered a lateral tibial plateau fracture in his left knee that was expected to sideline him for six weeks. He had played six games since returning from his Achilles injury, which included time at point guard after injuries to Nash, Steve Blake, and Jordan Farmar. Bryant was averaging 13.8 points, 6.3 assists, and 4.3 rebounds. Despite being sidelined, he was voted by fans to start in his 16th All - Star game. Bryant did not feel he was deserving of the selection, and some likened it to a career achievement award for his past performance. However, he missed playing in the game, still hampered by his knee. On March 12, 2014, the Lakers ruled Bryant out for the remainder of the season, citing his need for more rehab and the limited time remaining in the season. At the time, the team was 22 -- 42 and tied for the worst record in the Western Conference. The Lakers finished 27 -- 55 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2005.
Bryant returned for the 2014 -- 15 season, his 19th season with the Lakers, who had replaced D'Antoni with Bryant 's former Lakers teammate, Byron Scott. On November 30, 2014, in a 129 -- 122 overtime victory against the Toronto Raptors, Bryant recorded his 20th career triple - double with 31 points, 12 assists and 11 rebounds. At age 36, he became the oldest NBA player to ever achieve 30 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists in a game. On December 14, Bryant became the NBA 's third all - time leading scorer, passing Jordan (32,292) in a 100 -- 94 win against Minnesota. He played in the first 27 games of the season, averaging team - highs with 26.4 points and 35.4 minutes per game while leading the league with 22.4 shots per game. However, Scott held him out for three straight games to rest after one of his worst performances of the season, when Bryant committed nine turnovers and scored 25 points on just 8 - for - 30 shooting in a 108 -- 101 loss to Sacramento. He was suffering from soreness in his knees, feet, back, and Achilles tendons, and Scott planned to reduce his workload going forward. Three times Bryant had exceeded 40 minutes in a game, and the coach blamed himself for overloading him after he started the season in such great shape. For the season, Bryant had been shooting just 37 percent from the field, and the team 's record was only 8 -- 19. In his second game back after resting, he had 23 points, 11 assists, and 11 rebounds in a 111 -- 103 win over Denver, and became just the third player in league history to record multiple triple - doubles in a season at age 36 or older. On January 21, 2015, Bryant suffered a rotator cuff tear in his right shoulder while driving baseline for a two - handed dunk against the New Orleans Pelicans. Though he is right - handed, he returned to play in the game and ran the offense while shooting, dribbling, and passing almost exclusively with his left hand. Prior to the injury, Bryant had been rested in 8 of 16 games. He underwent season - ending surgery for the injury, finishing the season averaging 22.3 points but shooting a career - low 37.3 percent, well below his 45.4 percent career mark to start the season. He was expected to be sidelined for nine months with a return targeted toward the start of the 2015 -- 16 season.
After recovering to play in the 2015 -- 16 preseason, Bryant suffered a calf injury and missed the final two weeks of exhibition games. However, he played in the season opener to begin his 20th season with the Lakers, surpassing John Stockton 's league record of 19 for the most seasons with the same team. On November 24, 2015, the Lakers fell to 2 -- 12 after losing 111 -- 77 to the Warriors. Bryant scored just four points in 25 minutes on 1 - for - 14 shooting, matching the worst - shooting game of his career in which he attempted at least five shots. On December 1, 2015, Bryant played his last game against his hometown team, the Philadelphia 76ers, where the Lakers lost 91 - 103.
On November 29, 2015, Bryant announced via The Players ' Tribune that he would be retiring at the end of the season. In his poem titled "Dear Basketball '', Bryant wrote that he fell in love with the game at age six; "A love so deep I gave you my all / From my mind & body / To my spirit & soul. '' The 2015 -- 16 season "is all I have left to give. / My heart can take the pounding / My mind can handle the grind / But my body knows it 's time to say goodbye. / And that 's OK. / I 'm ready to let you go. '' In a letter distributed to Lakers ' fans before that evening 's game against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant wrote, "What you 've done for me is far greater than anything I 've done for you... My love for this city, this team and for each of you will never fade. Thank you for this incredible journey. ''
At the time of his announcement, he was second on the team in minutes (30.8) behind Jordan Clarkson and leading the team with 16.7 field goal attempts per game, while averaging just 15.7 points and shooting a career - low 31.5 percent. His free throw attempts had dropped from his career average, and his game had become over-reliant on pump fakes and long - range shots, making a league - worst 19.5 percent from three - point range while attempting seven a game, almost double his career average. In his press conference after the announcement, he acknowledged his declining skills. "Even though I play like shit, I 've worked really, really hard not to play like crap and I do everything I possibly can. And I feel good about that '', he said.
Bryant requested that opposing teams on the road not hold any on - court ceremonies in his honor or present him any gifts in public. Prior to announcing his retirement, he had been steadfast about not wanting the fuss of a staged farewell tour, preferring to hear boos instead of cheers. Still, he was honored around the league with video tributes, and fans greeted him with ovations, even at arenas that historically jeered him like TD Garden in Boston and Sleep Train Arena in Sacramento. Previously, Bryant was respected but not beloved, and he was astonished at the cheers he was now receiving.
On February 3, Bryant made seven three - pointers and scored a season - high 38 points, including 14 of the team 's 18 points in the last 5: 02 of the game, for a 119 -- 115 win over Minnesota. The win ended a 10 - game losing streak, and the Lakers averted establishing the longest losing streak in franchise history. Bryant became just the fourth NBA player over 37 years old to log at least 35 points, five rebounds, and five assists in a game. Bryant was the leading overall vote - getter for the 2016 All - Star Game with 1.9 million votes, ahead of Stephen Curry 's 1.6 million. Having moved to small forward that season, Bryant was selected as a frontcourt starter for the first time. Playing in his first All - Star game since 2013, Bryant had 10 points, six rebounds, and seven assists. West teammates offered to feed him the ball in an attempt to get him another All - Star MVP, but he declined.
On April 13, 2016, Bryant played his final NBA game against the Utah Jazz, scoring a season - high 60 points (the most points scored by a player that season), including outscoring the entire Jazz team 23 -- 21 in the fourth quarter, in the Lakers ' 101 -- 96 victory. Bryant became the oldest player to score 60 or more in a game at 37 years and 234 days old.
Bryant declined to play in the 2000 Olympics as he was getting married in the off - season. He also decided not to play in the 2002 FIBA World Championship. Bryant was originally selected for the FIBA Americas Championship in 2003, but withdrew after undergoing arthroscopic shoulder and knee surgeries. In the following summer, he had to withdraw from the Olympic team because of his sexual assault case. Along with LeBron James, he was one of the first two players to publicly named to the 2006 -- 2008 U.S. preliminary roster in 2006 by Jerry Colangelo. However, he was once again sidelined after knee surgery and did n't participate in the 2006 FIBA World Championship.
Bryant 's United States national team career finally began in 2007. He was a member of the 2007 USA Men 's Senior National Team and USA FIBA Americas Championship Team that finished 10 -- 0, won gold and qualified the United States men for the 2008 Olympics. He started in all 10 of the USA 's FIBA Americas Championship games. Bryant averaged 15.3 points, 2.9 assists, 2.0 rebounds, and 1.6 steals per game in the tournament.
On June 23, 2008, he was named to the USA Men 's Senior National Team for the 2008 Summer Olympics. This was his first time going to the Olympics. Bryant scored 20 points, including 13 in the fourth quarter, along with six assists, as Team USA defeated Spain 118 -- 107 in the gold medal game of the 2008 Summer Olympics on August 24, 2008, for its first gold medal in a worldwide competition since the 2000 Olympics. He averaged 15.0 points, 2.8 rebounds, and 2.1 assists while shooting. 462 from the field in eight Olympic contests.
Bryant rejoined the national team for the 2012 Summer Olympics. He retired from the team after winning another gold medal.
Standing at 6 feet 6 inches tall (1.98 m) and weighing 205 pounds (93 kg), Bryant primarily played as a shooting guard. Able to create a decent shot at any time, he is often cited as one of the most dangerous scorers in the NBA. Bryant has drawn frequent comparisons to Jordan, after whom he modeled his playing style. Like Jordan, he became most known shooting a fall - away jump shot. Chris Ballard of Sports Illustrated describes another of Bryant 's most famous moves as the "jab step - and - pause '': Bryant jabs his non-pivot foot forward to let the defender relax and instead of bringing the jab foot back, pushing off it and driving around his opponent to get to the basket.
Bryant established a reputation for taking shots in the closing moments of tight games, even amid double or triple teams, and has been noted as being one of the premier closers in the NBA. In an annual survey of NBA general managers, he was selected in 2012 for the 10th consecutive season as the player they most wanted taking the shot with the game on the line. Bryant enjoys being the villain, and revels in being booed and silencing the crowd with his play. His ability to make difficult shots has also drawn criticism of his shot selection. Throughout his career, he has been disparaged for being a selfish high - volume shooter; he has missed more field goal attempts in his career than any other player in NBA history. Phil Jackson states that Bryant "tends to force the action, especially when the game is n't going his way. When his shot is off, Kobe will pound away relentlessly until his luck turns. '' According to Bryant, "I would go 0 for 30 before I would go 0 for 9; 0 for 9 means you beat yourself, you psyched yourself out of the game. ''
Aside from his abilities on offense, he has established himself as a standout defender. Bryant rarely draws charges playing defense, which he believes has spared his body and contributed to his longevity. Some critics have suggested that the defensive accolades in his later years were earned more on his reputation than his actual play. His role with the Lakers became more focused on offense and conserving his energy for the playoffs, and Metta World Peace assumed the responsibility of guarding the opponent 's top player on the wing.
Bryant is also lauded for his work ethic. Through his first 16 seasons, his body was resilient, and he exhibited a high pain threshold while often playing through injuries. A fierce competitor, opponents and teammates alike have been the object of his scorn. Many players have considered him difficult to play with because of his high level of commitment and performance. According to sportswriter Mark Heisler of Forbes, "circa 2004 -- 2007, Kobe was the most alienated superstar the NBA had ever seen. '' He did, however, lead the Lakers to two championships post-O'Neal while becoming more of a mentor to his teammates. Bryant 's longtime head coach Phil Jackson noted that the biggest difference during his second tenure in coaching the Lakers was that "(Bryant) embraced the team and his teammates, calling them up when we were on the road and inviting them out to dinner. It was as if the other players were now his partners, not his personal spear - carriers. ''
Bryant was called "one of the greatest players in the history of our game '' by NBA commissioner Adam Silver, and The New York Times wrote that he has had "one of the most decorated careers in the history of the sport. '' Reuters called him "arguably the best player of his generation '', while both Sporting News and TNT named him their NBA player of the decade for the 2000s. In 2008 and again in 2016, ESPN ranked him the second greatest shooting guard of all - time after Jordan. Players including Kevin Durant, Dirk Nowitzki, Dwyane Wade, and Derrick Rose have called Bryant their generation 's version of Jordan. The Press - Enterprise described Bryant as "maybe the greatest Laker in the organization 's history ''. He is the Lakers ' all - time leading scorer, and his five titles are tied for the most in franchise history. Both numbers he wore during his career, 8 and 24, are slated to be retired by the Lakers on December 18, 2017, against the Golden State Warriors.
With career averages of 25.0 points, 5.2 rebounds, 4.7 assists, and 1.4 steals per game, he is considered one of the most complete players in NBA history. He was the first player in NBA history to have at least 30,000 career points and 6,000 career assists, and is one of only four players with 25,000 points, 6,000 rebounds and 6,000 assists. Bryant led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. His 81 - point performance against Toronto in 2006 was the second - highest in NBA history, behind only Chamberlain 's 100. He has scored at least 50 points 24 times in his career, which is third in league history behind Jordan (31) and Chamberlain (118); six times Bryant scored at least 60. He was just the third player in NBA history to average 40 points in a calendar month, which he has accomplished four times. Bryant was voted the league MVP in 2008 and led his team to the 2008 NBA Finals as the first seed in the Western Conference. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, he won a gold medal as a member of the U.S. men 's basketball team, occasionally referred to as "The Redeem Team ''. He won another gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. He led the Lakers to two more championships in 2009 and 2010, winning the Finals MVP award on both occasions.
Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, which ranks second behind only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar 's 19. He has been chosen a record 18 straight times, each time as a starter. On four occasions (2003, 2011, 2013, 2016) he was the leading vote - getter. Four times Bryant was named the All - Star MVP, a record he shares with Bob Pettit. He has been selected to the All - NBA Team on 15 occasions, tied for the most with Abdul - Jabbar and Tim Duncan, and his 11 first - team honors are tied for the most ever with Karl Malone. Bryant is also a 12 - time All - Defensive Team selection, trailing only Duncan 's 15, and nine times he was named to the All - Defensive First Team, tied with Jordan, Garnett, and Gary Payton for the most all - time. He was the first guard to play 20 seasons in the NBA. He also won the NBA Slam Dunk Contest in 1997 and is its youngest winner. In his career, Bryant has scored 40 - plus points in 121 games, and 21 times he has recorded a triple - double.
In November 1999, 21 - year - old Bryant met 17 - year - old Vanessa Laine while she was working as a background dancer on the Tha Eastsidaz music video "G 'd Up ''. Bryant was in the building working on his debut musical album. The two began dating and became engaged just six months later in May 2000, while Laine was still a senior at Marina High School in Huntington Beach, California. To avoid media scrutiny, she finished high school through independent study. According to Vanessa 's cousin Laila Laine, there was no prenuptial agreement. Vanessa said Bryant "loved her too much for one ''.
They married on April 18, 2001, at St. Edward the Confessor Catholic Church in Dana Point, California. The wedding was not attended by Bryant 's parents, his two sisters, his longtime advisor and agent Arn Tellem, or his Laker teammates. Bryant 's parents were opposed to the marriage for a number of reasons. Reportedly Bryant 's parents had problems with him marrying so young, especially to a woman who was not African - American. This disagreement resulted in an estrangement period of over two years, which ended when the couple 's first daughter was born.
In 2013, Bryant had a legal disagreement with an auction house over memorabilia from his early years that his mother intended to auction. Pamela Bryant received $450,000 from the auction house for the items, and claimed Bryant had given her the rights to the items he had remaining in her home. However, his lawyers asked the auction house to return the items to Bryant. Before the scheduled trial, a settlement was reached allowing the sale of less than 10 % of the original items. Bryant 's parents apologized to him in a written statement, which also acknowledged the financial support Bryant had provided them in the past.
In January 2002, Bryant bought a Mediterranean - style house for $4 million, located on a cul - de-sac in Newport Coast, Newport Beach, which sold in May 2015.
The Bryants ' first child, a daughter named Natalia Diamante Bryant, was born in 2003. The birth of Natalia influenced Bryant to reconcile his differences with his parents. Vanessa Bryant suffered a miscarriage due to an ectopic pregnancy in the spring of 2005. Their second daughter, Gianna Maria - Onore Bryant, was born in 2006. On December 16, 2011, Vanessa Bryant filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences, and the couple requested joint custody of their daughters. On January 11, 2013, Bryant and his wife both announced via social media that they had called off their divorce.
In an early 2007 interview, it was revealed that Bryant still speaks Italian fluently. He has also conducted press interviews in Spanish. Bryant assigned himself the nickname of "Black Mamba '', citing a desire for his basketball skills to mimic the eponymous snake 's ability to "strike with 99 % accuracy at maximum speed, in rapid succession. '' During the 2012 -- 13 season, he began referring to himself as "vino '' to describe how his play had been aging like a fine wine.
In 2016, it was announced that Kobe and Vanessa Bryant were going to have their third child, and in early December 2016, Vanessa gave birth to their third daughter named Bianka.
In the summer of 2003, the sheriff 's office of Eagle, Colorado, arrested Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19 - year - old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera in Eagle County in advance of undergoing knee surgery nearby. The accuser stated that Bryant raped her in his hotel room the night before Bryant was to have the procedure. Bryant admitted to an adulterous sexual encounter with his accuser, but denied her sexual assault allegation.
The accusation tarnished Bryant 's reputation, as the public 's perception of Bryant plummeted, and his endorsement contracts with McDonald 's and Nutella were terminated. Sales for Bryant 's replica jersey fell significantly from their previous highs. However, in September 2004, the assault case was dropped by prosecutors after the accuser refused to testify in the trial. Afterward, Bryant agreed to apologize to her for the incident, including his public mea culpa: "Although I truly believe this encounter between us was consensual, I recognize now that she did not and does not view this incident the same way I did. After months of reviewing discovery, listening to her attorney, and even her testimony in person, I now understand how she feels that she did not consent to this encounter. '' The accuser filed a separate civil lawsuit against Bryant, which the two sides ultimately settled with the specific terms of the settlement being undisclosed to the public.
Before starting the 1996 -- 97 NBA season, Bryant signed a six - year contract with Adidas worth approximately $48 million. His first signature shoe was the Equipment KB 8. Bryant 's other earlier endorsements included deals with The Coca - Cola Company to endorse their Sprite soft drink, appearing in advertisements for McDonald 's, promoting Spalding 's new NBA Infusion Ball, Upper Deck, Italian chocolate company Ferrero SpA 's brand Nutella, Russell Corporation, and appearing on his own series of video games by Nintendo. Many companies like McDonald 's and Ferrero SpA terminated his contracts when rape allegations against him became public. A notable exception was Nike, Inc., who had signed him to a five - year, $40 -- 45 million contract just before the incident. However, they refused to use his image or market a new shoe of his for the year, but eventually did start promoting Bryant once his image recovered 2 years later. He has since resumed endorsement deals with The Coca - Cola Company, through their subsidiary Energy Brands to promote their Vitamin Water brand of drinks. Bryant was also the cover athlete for NBA ' 07: Featuring the Life Vol. 2 and appeared in commercials for the video games Guitar Hero World Tour (with Tony Hawk, Michael Phelps, and Alex Rodriguez) in 2008 and Call of Duty: Black Ops (alongside Jimmy Kimmel) in 2010.
In a 2008 video promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant appears to jump over a speeding Aston Martin. The stunt was considered to be fake, and the Los Angeles Times said a real stunt would probably be a violation of Bryant 's Lakers contract. After promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant came out with the fourth edition of his signature line by Nike, the Zoom Kobe IV. In 2010 Nike launched another shoe, Nike Zoom Kobe V. In 2009, Bryant signed a deal with Nubeo to market the "Black Mamba collection '', a line of sports / luxury watches that range from $25,000 to $285,000. On February 9, 2009, Bryant was featured on the cover of ESPN The Magazine. However, it was not for anything basketball related, rather it was about Bryant being a big fan of FC Barcelona. CNN estimated Bryant 's endorsement deals in 2007 to be worth $16 million a year. In 2010, Bryant was ranked third behind Tiger Woods and Jordan in Forbes ' list of the world 's highest - paid athletes with $48 million.
On December 13, 2010, Bryant signed a two - year endorsement deal with Turkey 's national airline, Turkish Airlines. The deal involved Bryant being in a promotional film to be aired in over 80 countries in addition to his being used in digital, print and billboard advertising.
Bryant has appeared as the cover athlete for the following video games:
In September 2012, Bryant shot a commercial for Turkish Airlines with FC Barcelona star Lionel Messi. In the airline 's latest commercial, the duo competes to win the attention of a young boy. In 2013, Forbes listed Bryant the fifth highest paid sports star in the world behind Floyd Mayweather, Cristiano Ronaldo, LeBron James and Lionel Messi.
In high school, Bryant was a member of a rap group called CHEIZAW, named after the Chi Sah gang in the martial arts film Kid with the Golden Arm. The group was signed by Sony Entertainment, but the company 's ultimate goal was to eliminate the group and have Bryant record on his own. The label wanted to capitalize on Bryant 's youth and NBA fame. He performed at a 1997 concert by Sway & King Tech and recorded a verse for a remix of Brian McKnight 's "Hold Me ''. Bryant even appeared on Lakers teammate O'Neal's Respect, starting the track "3 X 's Dope '', though Bryant 's name was not listed on the credits.
Sony pushed Bryant from his roots of underground hip hop into a more radio - friendly sound. His debut album, Visions, was scheduled to release in the spring of 2000. The first single, "K.O.B.E ' '', featured supermodel Tyra Banks singing the hook. The single debuted in January 2000, and was performed at NBA All - Star Weekend that month; the song was not well received. Sony abandoned plans for the album, which was never released, and dropped Bryant later that year. The Sony president who originally signed Bryant had already left, and Bryant 's other backers had mostly abandoned him. Afterwards, Bryant co-founded an independent record label, Heads High Entertainment, but it folded within a year.
In 2011, Bryant was featured in Taiwanese singer Jay Chou 's single, "The Heaven and Earth Challenge '' (天地 一 鬥, pronounced "Tian Di Yi Dou ''). The proceeds for downloads of both the single and ringtones were donated to impoverished schools for basketball facilities and equipment. The music video of the single also features Bryant. The song was also used by Sprite in its 2011 marketing campaign in China.
In 2009, rapper Lil Wayne titled a song "Kobe Bryant ''. Similarly, in 2010, the rapper Sho Baraka released a song called "Kobe Bryant On'em '', which was featured in his album Lions and Liars.
Bryant is the official ambassador for After - School All - Stars (ASAS), an American non-profit organization that provides comprehensive after - school programs to children in 13 US cities. Bryant also started the Kobe Bryant China Fund which partnered with the Soong Ching Ling Foundation, a charity backed by the Chinese government. The Kobe Bryant China Fund raises money within China earmarked for education and health programs. On November 4, 2010, Bryant appeared alongside Zach Braff at the Call of Duty: Black Ops launch event at the Santa Monica Airport, where they presented a $1 million check to the Call of Duty Endowment, an Activision - founded nonprofit organization that helps veterans transition to civilian careers after their military service has ended.
Bryant established Kobe Inc. to own and grow brands in the sports industry. The initial investment was in the BodyArmor sports drink company in 2014. The headquarters are in Newport Beach, California.
On August 22, 2016, Kobe along with his business partner Jeff Stibel launched Bryant - Stibel, a venture capital firm focused on different businesses including media, data, gaming, and technology, with $100 million in funding. The pair have already invested in 15 businesses together since 2013.
|
how many simpsons treehouse of horrors episodes are there | List of the Simpsons Treehouse of Horror episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of Treehouse of Horror episodes produced by the animated television series The Simpsons. Treehouse of Horror episodes have aired annually since the second season (1990) and each episode has three separate segments. These segments usually involve the family in some horror, science fiction, or supernatural setting and always take place outside the normal continuity of the show and are therefore considered to be non-canon. "Treehouse of Horror '' episode aired on October 25, 1990 and was inspired by EC Comics Horror tales. Before "Treehouse of Horror XI '', which aired in 2000, every episode has aired in the week preceding or on October 31; "Treehouse of Horror II '' and "Treehouse of Horror X '' are the only episodes to air on Halloween. Between 2000 and 2011, due to Fox 's contract with Major League Baseball 's World Series, several episodes have originally aired in November; as of 2011 every Treehouse of Horror episode has aired during the month of October. From "Treehouse of Horror '' to "Treehouse of Horror XIII '', all three segments were written by different writers and in some cases there was a fourth writer that wrote the opening and wraparound segments. For "Treehouse of Horror '', there were even three different directors for the episode. Starting with season fifteen 's "Treehouse of Horror XIV '', only one writer was credited as having written a Treehouse of Horror episode, and the trend has continued since.
As of 2016, there are twenty - seven Treehouse of Horror episodes, with one airing every year. They are known for being more violent than an average Simpsons episode and contain several different trademarks, including the alien characters Kang and Kodos who have appeared in every episode. Quite often the segments will parody well - known movies, books, radio shows, and television shows. The Twilight Zone has been parodied quite often, and has served as the inspiration for numerous segments.
|
where did the saying meanwhile back at the ranch come from | Meanwhile, back at the ranch - wikipedia
"Meanwhile, back at the ranch... '' is a catch phrase that appears in a variety of contexts. For example, it may be employed by narrators of American cowboy movies and TV shows to indicate a segue from one scene to another but there is often more to this than meets the eye. The expression originated as a stock subtitle in the silent movies and at first the reference to the ranch was literal. Later, as the phrase became a cliché, it was used more and more loosely and with a growing sense of mockery or levity, often with a vague focus. In this manifestation the phrase came into common use in unrelated contexts.
"Meanwhile back at the ranch '' is the title of a children 's book by Trinka Hakes Noble; a crime novel by Kinky Friedman; of the first album of the German country band Texas Lightning; and is the root of the name of the English band Meanwhile, back in Communist Russia... (1999 - 2004). It is also the name of a song by Badfinger from the album Wish You Were Here (1974).
|
who was the ventriloquist who won america's got talent | Terry Fator - wikipedia
Terry Wayne Fator (/ ˈfeɪtər /; born June 10, 1965) is a ventriloquist, impressionist, comedian, and singer from Dallas, Texas. Fator does ventriloquial impersonations, and uses 15 different puppets in his act. He was the winner of season two of America 's Got Talent, and received the million dollar prize. The following year, he was signed on as the headliner at The Mirage hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada with a five - year, $100 million contract.
Terry Wayne Fator was born June 10, 1965, in Dallas, Texas, the son of Jephtha Wesley and Edith Marie Clifton, later known as Marie Sligh. He has an older brother, Jephtha Jr., and a younger sister, Deborah. Fator 's second cousin is Chris Sligh, an American Idol season six finalist. Terry Fator says in his audio commentary of Terry Fator: Live from Las Vegas (2009) that he went to college at Liberty University in Lynchburg, Virginia. The beginning of Fator 's ventriloquism career dates back to when he was in fifth grade. While searching for a book for an assignment on Valentine 's Day, he came across a book about ventriloquism titled, Ventriloquism for Fun and Profit, by Paul Winchell. Fator checked out the book and started learning about ventriloquism. A few weeks later, Fator purchased a Willie Talk dummy from Sears and soon won a $25 prize for a performance at a church picnic.
Fator got his first ventriloquism dummy when he was ten years old. Throughout his childhood, Fator entertained family and friends with his ventriloquism and did impersonations of singers and actors. Fator 's mother saved up her money for three years and bought him his first puppet when he was 18 years old.
Fator says he found he had the ability to impersonate singers by practicing ventriloquism while driving his car. "One of the reasons I learned how to sing as a ventriloquist was because I like singing in the car, '' Fator says. "I 'd see other people singing in the car, and they looked goofy, so I 'd do it without moving my lips. ''
Fator got his start touring as the lead singer of a band called "Freedom Jam '' in 1987 - 88, produced by Young American Showcase. They performed at over 200 high schools and middle schools across the United States and Canada, averaging three performances per school day. In mid-1988, he was the lead singer of a show band called ' Texas the Band ' when he was 23, and incorporated his puppet Walter T. Airedale into his shows. Fator 's band at one point was about to sign with a major record label and one of the label 's representatives came to hear the band. Fator sang the songs impersonating the original vocalists. "He told me ' you got ta stop doing those impressions, ' and wanted me to sing in my own voice, '' Fator says. "I tried it for a few weeks, and absolutely hated it. We told the record company ' no thanks. ' ''
Fator left the band and did a solo act combining comedy and ventriloquism but for many years had little success. "Fairs would stick me on a little stage in the back of fair and have me do three shows in the hottest part of the afternoon, '' related Fator. "I had heat stroke a couple of times, almost passed out. ''
The low point of his career, Fator said, was when he appeared at a 1,000 seat theater and had only one person in the audience. Discouraged, Fator contemplated pursuing another career, but his family encouraged him to continue. Terry entered the America 's Got Talent competition with the hope that the exposure if he made it to the Top 20 might help his career and cause people to want to attend his shows.
Fator 's success stems from combining singing, ventriloquism, and comedy. Fator was the lead singer in bands and often did impersonations of singers Garth Brooks, Etta James, James Taylor and Dean Martin, while ventriloquism had been just a comic side gig for him. In 2005, Fator decided to combine his talents, singing, ventriloquism, comedy, and impersonations. "I had one of my characters sing Garth Brooks ' "Friends in Low Places '' and the audience went crazy, '' Fator said. "Boy, that was when my life changed. '' After his initial success Fator revamped his act. "It took me six months and I completely rewrote the show, '' says Fator. "It was then that people really noticed and I started getting standing ovations at the end of every show, ''
Prior to winning America 's Got Talent, Fator opened for Reba McEntire, Garth Brooks, Neal McCoy, and Styx. Fator also performed for corporate giants General Motors and AT&T.
Before appearing on America 's Got Talent, Fator had almost given up on achieving success in show business as a ventriloquist. "It was n't easy trying to keep going all these years, and by the time I was in my late 30s, I was n't sure it was ever going to happen, '' says Fator.
On June 19, 2007, Fator made his first national appearance on America 's Got Talent. Speaking on the experience, Fator said, "Not in my wildest dreams did I imagine I would win that show... Essentially I auditioned because the guy that was the ventriloquist the first season got on Late Show with David Letterman... So I figured I 'd do three episodes like he did and end up on ' David Letterman. ' '' After winning the show, Fator actually had to turn the Letterman gig down fourteen times before his schedule was clear so he could appear. "My schedule got so packed, and it broke my heart every time I had to turn him down, '' Fator says.
When Fator first came onstage, judge David Hasselhoff said, "Oh, no, a ventriloquist. '' "I was thinking, there 's no way I would win, '' Fator says. "I gave myself zero percent (chance). '' The judges, Piers Morgan, Sharon Osbourne and David Hasselhoff loved Fator and he won the competition. Judge Piers Morgan told Fator "You 're a great impersonator, a great singer and a great comedian. '' "You put a twist on the whole being a ventriloquist thing, '' added Judge Sharon Osbourne. Even Simon Cowell approved. "Simon Cowell said I was one of the top two entertainers on the planet, '' says Fator. "And getting a compliment from Simon Cowell, well, not many people get a compliment like that. ''
It was announced on the show that in conjunction with winning, he was to appear at the Jubilee Theatre at Bally 's. However, the spots were only going to be 15 minutes long, and in complete mutual cooperation with his management team and Bally 's, the plan was dropped. Fator performed at Christian rock legend Larry Norman 's 60th birthday party in April 2007. Later Fator flew Larry to tapings of America 's Got Talent and also to his debut show at the Las Vegas Hilton as an honored guest. Norman told friends shortly before his death that it was one of the most fun years of his life.
On October 14 and 15, 2007, after winning America 's Got Talent, Fator took the stage of the Las Vegas Hilton (formerly the International, the same stage that Elvis Presley performed on for many years). Both shows were sold out to standing room only. Another show was added for December 3 to satisfy the demand for tickets.
In early December 2007, Fator signed a contract for $1.5 million with the Las Vegas Hilton to do three shows a month from January 2008 to May 2008. Fator also performed a 6 p.m. early family New Year 's Eve show on December 31, 2007.
In 2007, Fator became an official supporter of Ronald McDonald House Charities and is a member of their celebrity board, called the Friends of RMHC.
On March 17, 2008, Fator appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show along with American Idol Judge Simon Cowell. To the amazement of Oprah, Cowell referred to Fator as one of the "two most talented people on the planet. '' Fator performed with three of his dummies; country singer Walter T. Airedale performed a Garth Brooks song and Winston the impersonating Turtle sang a Bee Gees song. Julius performed a Marvin Gaye song; Julius was a favorite when he appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show. "As soon as I brought out Julius, she had this look on her face, wondering what I was about to do, '' Fator said. "Once I started into Marvin Gaye, she fell out of her chair. ''
On May 13, 2008 it was announced that Fator had signed a five - year, $100 million contract to perform nightly at The Mirage on the Las Vegas Strip. He replaced headliner Danny Gans and the theater was renamed the Terry Fator Theatre. Reportedly, Fator 's deal is one of the largest entertainment deals in Las Vegas history.
Fator announced in July 2008 that he was at work on a book. "I never thought in my whole life I would write a whole book. It 's called ' Who 's the Dummy Now? ' '' Fator announced at the 2008 Bloomsburg Fair on the week of September 20 -- 27, 2008 that he finished his book.
On September 10, 2008, Fator reappeared on America 's Got Talents Top Twenty Results Show as a guest. He brought back a larger Winston the Impersonating Turtle to sing Marvin Gaye 's song, "Let 's Get It On. '' Maynard Thomkins was also brought on to sing Viva Las Vegas. Winston was not the only puppet that was reconfigured; on an August 1, 2008 ABCNews Now interview, he brought a reshaped Emma Taylor to sing "At Last. ''
Also, on September 14, 2011, he was invited once again to perform as a guest on the Finals of "America 's Got Talent '' show. This time he brought Julius, the soul singer, that performed "Ai n't No Sunshine ''.
In 2013, he voiced a character on the Disney Channel show Mickey Mouse.
On May 30, 2013, Terry Fator celebrated his 1,000 th show at The Mirage Hotel & Casino.
On September 11, 2013, Terry Fator returned to perform as a guest on America 's Got Talent during the Top 12 results show.
On September 16, 2015, Fator made a guest appearance on America 's Got Talent during the finals show, performing alongside eventual tenth - season winner and ventriloquist Paul Zerdin.
On September 20, 2017, Fator made another guest appearance during the twelfth - season finale, performing alongside eventual winner Darci Lynne Farmer, another singing ventriloquist.
Fator has fought to be taken seriously as a ventriloquist. "There have been so few good, successful ventriloquists -- Edgar Bergen in the 1940s and Paul Winchell in the 1960s were respected and successful, '' says Fator. "And in the 1970s, I used to watch Willie Tyler and his Lester as well as Jay Johnson and Bob. But over the years, there have been so many bad ventriloquists - and most of them doing corny shows for children - that people began to think of us as a bad joke. ''
This is an incomplete list of the character names for the puppets that Fator uses.
Fator is consistently creating new characters.
Fator has often impersonated singers himself alongside his puppets and / or volunteers from the audience. Michael Jackson has been a regular figure Fator impersonates alongside his Walter T. Airedale puppet. Fator also has incorporated audience members into his act via a remote - control mask. A volunteer wears the mask and the remote allows Fator to move the mask 's mouth with Fator providing all of the conversation and singing. Fator usually dresses the volunteer as Cher and performs the duet "I Got You, Babe '' with Fator as Sonny Bono.
Fator was the lead singer of a local band called Texas The Band during the late - 1980s through 2001, and met his first wife, Melinda, after she began to follow the band extensively. They married on January 8, 1991. Prior to landing his show in Las Vegas, Terry and his wife bought a home he deemed his "dream house ''. Melinda left Terry in January 2009 and returned to Texas from Las Vegas where they had recently moved. She filed for divorce in February 2009 in Texas. Almost a year - and - a-half into the divorce, she then filed a second time in Nevada in 2010. After almost two years, a settlement was reached in November 2010. On November 3, 2010, one day after the divorce was finalized, Terry married Taylor Makakoa (who, identified in the closing credits as "Taylor Dew '', appears on Terry 's DVD as his on - stage assistant) in Las Vegas. They had a wedding ceremony in Hawaii on November 7, 2010. Terry proposed to Angie Fiore on stage in front of then wife Taylor Makakoa. Terry divorced Makakoa in late August 2015 and subsequently married Angie Fiore the next week on September 4, 2015.
In July 2007 Fator appeared in Montana to raise funds for the Kidsports Sports Complex in Kalispell and said he wanted to come back in 2008 to do another show. "We thought, we bet he wants to, but we bet he wo n't have time, '' said Nancy Manning of Rotary Club of Kalispell. "He made time because it 's so important to him. '' All proceeds from Fator 's show went towards the field.
In 2007 Fator performed a benefit for families of miners in Huntington, Utah.
In 2008, Fator performed at the Palace Theatre in Corsicana, Texas. Proceeds benefited the Navarro Council of the Arts and the Mildred Drama Club. Fator is a native of Corsicana.
On September 3, 2007, Fator made a special appearance in the Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon at the South Point Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, thanking the crowd for the support. He brought back Emma Taylor to sing "At Last '' and Winston the Turtle to sing "What a Wonderful World ''. He returned to the Telethon on September 1, 2008 and brought Julius to sing "Only You '' from The Platters, Marvin Gaye 's song, "Let 's Get It On, '' and "Crazy '' by Gnarls Barkley. Maynard Thomkins was also brought on to sing "Viva Las Vegas '' to finish the show. Fator made his 3rd consecutive telethon appearance (this time via satellite from his showroom during a performance of his show) on September 6, 2009 with puppets The Fifth Beatle and Vikki The Cougar with special guests The Commodores, who joined Fator performing "Brick House ''.
In 2010, Fator did a doodle for a charity celebrity doodle auction for Neurofibromatosis, more commonly known as NF. 100 % of the profit from all the doodles went to help families with NF.
All proceeds from Fator 's original song "Horses in Heaven '' go to St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital.
On September 1, 2009, Fator 's first DVD, Terry Fator: Live from Las Vegas (recorded during a performance at the Mirage), was released shortly after its August 28, 2009 debut airing on CMT. Copies sold at Target stores include footage not shown on the CMT broadcast.
|
when did the queen became the queen of the uk | Elizabeth II - wikipedia
Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926) is Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms.
Elizabeth was born in London as the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, and she was educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother King Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In 1947, she married Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, a former prince of Greece and Denmark, with whom she has four children: Charles, Prince of Wales; Anne, Princess Royal; Andrew, Duke of York; and Edward, Earl of Wessex.
When her father died in February 1952, she became Head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon. She has reigned through major constitutional changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation, and the decolonisation of Africa. Between 1956 and 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and realms, including South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (renamed Sri Lanka), became republics. Her many historic visits and meetings include a state visit to the Republic of Ireland and visits to or from five popes. Significant events have included her coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of her Silver, Golden, and Diamond Jubilees in 1977, 2002, and 2012 respectively. In 2017, she became the first British monarch to reach a Sapphire Jubilee. She is the longest - lived and longest - reigning British monarch as well as the world 's longest - reigning queen regnant and female head of state, the oldest and longest - reigning current monarch and the oldest and longest - serving current head of state.
Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the royal family, in particular after the breakdown of her children 's marriages and the Windsor Castle fire in 1992 (her annus horribilis) and the death in 1997 of her former daughter - in - law Diana, Princess of Wales. However, support for the monarchy remains high, as does her personal popularity.
Elizabeth was born at 02: 40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, the Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her mother, the Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat the Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather 's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May, and named Elizabeth after her mother, Alexandra after George V 's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother. Called "Lilibet '' by her close family, based on what she called herself at first, she was cherished by her grandfather George V, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.
Elizabeth 's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music. Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret 's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeth 's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility. Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant. '' Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well - behaved ''.
During her grandfather 's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young. Many people believed he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second - in - line to the throne, after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeth 's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first - in - line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.
Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College, and learned French from a succession of native - speaking governesses. A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her own age. Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.
In 1939, Elizabeth 's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours. Elizabeth "looked tearful '' as her parents departed. They corresponded regularly, and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.
In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London 's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth 's mother, who declared, "The children wo n't go without me. I wo n't leave without the King. And the King will never leave. '' Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk. From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years. At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen 's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments. In 1940, the 14 - year - old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC 's Children 's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities. She stated: "We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well. ''
In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year. As she approached her 18th birthday, parliament changed the law so she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father 's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944. In February 1945, she was appointed as an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the service number of 230873. She trained as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander five months later.
At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief. ''
During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war. Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent. In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.
Princess Elizabeth went in 1947 on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong. ''
Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937. They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth -- though only 13 years old -- said she fell in love with Philip, and they began to exchange letters. She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.
The engagement was not without controversy; Philip had no financial standing, was foreign - born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links. Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King 's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip 's foreign origin. '' Later biographies reported Elizabeth 's mother initially opposed the union, dubbing Philip "The Hun ''. In later life, however, the Queen Mother told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman ''.
Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother 's British family. Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.
Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world. Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell. In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh 's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding. The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.
Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince. A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.
Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949, when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip 's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.
During 1951, George VI 's health declined, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour. In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth 's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen. Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course ''. She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom. She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.
With Elizabeth 's accession, it seemed probable the royal house would bear her husband 's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband 's surname on marriage. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth 's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children. '' In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten - Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth 's male - line descendants who do not carry royal titles.
Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé ‚ 16 years Margaret 's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought -- she hoped -- given time, the affair would peter out. '' Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession. Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend. In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong - Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.
Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died. The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time. Elizabeth 's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries: English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan 's wheat, cotton, and jute.
From Elizabeth 's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established. In 1953, the Queen and her husband embarked on a seven - month round - the - world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles by land, sea and air. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations. During the tour, crowds were immense; three - quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her. Throughout her reign, the Queen has made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she is the most widely travelled head of state.
In 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union. In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.
The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden 's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.
The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden 's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited, Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch ''. Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments. Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice she followed. The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister. In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving her of involvement.
In 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session. Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada. In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran. On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins. Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as... a film star... She has indeed ' the heart and stomach of a man '... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen. '' Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth 's assassination. No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen 's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence '' was noted.
Elizabeth 's pregnancies with Princes Andrew and Edward, in 1959 and 1963, mark the only times she has not performed the State Opening of the British parliament during her reign. In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, she also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.
The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. Over 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self - government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, declared unilateral independence from Britain while still expressing "loyalty and devotion '' to Elizabeth. Although the Queen dismissed him in a formal declaration, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade. As Britain 's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.
In February 1974, the British Prime Minister, Edward Heath, advised the Queen to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain. The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath 's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour 's Harold Wilson, to form a government.
A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor - General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition - controlled Senate rejected Whitlam 's budget proposals. As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr 's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor - general. The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.
In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen 's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret 's separation from her husband. In 1978, the Queen endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania 's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena, though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands ''. The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen 's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in - law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.
According to Paul Martin, Sr., by the end of the 1970s the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for '' Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian Prime Minister. Tony Benn said the Queen found Trudeau "rather disappointing ''. Trudeau 's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind the Queen 's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office. In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found the Queen "better informed... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats ''. She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C - 60, which would have affected her role as head of state. Patriation removed the role of the British parliament from the Canadian constitution, but the monarchy was retained. Trudeau said in his memoirs that the Queen favoured his attempt to reform the constitution and that he was impressed by "the grace she displayed in public '' and "the wisdom she showed in private ''.
During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at the Queen from close range as she rode down The Mall on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17 - year - old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three. The Queen 's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.
Months later, in October, the Queen was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. New Zealand Security Intelligence Service documents declassified in 2018 revealed that 17 - year - old Christopher John Lewis fired a shot with a. 22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade, but missed. Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital in order to assassinate Prince Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana, Princess of Wales, and Prince William.
From April to September 1982, the Queen was anxious but proud of her son, Prince Andrew, who was serving with British forces during the Falklands War. On 9 July, the Queen awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard. After hosting US President Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, the Queen was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.
Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, not all of which were entirely true. As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Do n't worry if it 's not true -- so long as there 's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards. '' Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of... it is not just that some papers do n't check their facts or accept denials: they do n't care if the stories are true or not. '' It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that the Queen was worried that Margaret Thatcher 's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners ' strike, and Thatcher 's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary - General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation. Thatcher reputedly said the Queen would vote for the Social Democratic Party -- Thatcher 's political opponents. Thatcher 's biographer John Campbell claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief - making ''. Belying reports of acrimony between them, Thatcher later conveyed her personal admiration for the Queen, and the Queen gave two honours in her personal gift -- membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter -- to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major. Former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force '' in ending apartheid.
In 1987, in Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau. The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of the Governor - General, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic. By the start of 1991, republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen 's private wealth -- which were contradicted by the Palace -- and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family. The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It 's a Royal Knockout was ridiculed, and the Queen was the target of satire.
In 1991, in the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, the Queen became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress.
In a speech on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis, meaning horrible year. In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, and his wife, Sarah, separated; in April, her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips; during a state visit to Germany in October, angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at her; and, in November, a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny. In an unusually personal speech, the Queen said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding ''. Two days later, the Prime Minister, John Major, announced reforms to the royal finances planned since the previous year, including the Queen paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list. In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated. The year ended with a lawsuit as the Queen sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £ 200,000 to charity.
In the years to follow, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana 's marriage continued. Even though support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republicanism was still a minority viewpoint, and the Queen herself had high approval ratings. Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself and the Queen 's wider family rather than her own behaviour and actions. In consultation with her husband and the Prime Minister, John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey, and her private secretary, Robert Fellowes, she wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, saying a divorce was desirable.
In August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. The Queen was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana 's two sons by Charles -- Princes William and Harry -- wanted to attend church and so the Queen and Prince Philip took them that morning. After that single public appearance, for five days the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private, but the royal family 's seclusion and the failure to fly a flag at half - mast over Buckingham Palace caused public dismay. Pressured by the hostile reaction, the Queen agreed to return to London and do a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana 's funeral. In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a grandmother '' for the two princes. As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.
In November 1997, the Queen and her husband held a reception at Banqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary. She made a speech and praised Philip for his role as a consort, referring to him as "my strength and stay ''.
In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee. Her sister and mother died in February and March respectively, and the media speculated whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure. She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable '' after a power cut plunged the King 's House, the official residence of the governor - general, into darkness. As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three - day main Jubilee celebration in London, and the enthusiasm shown by the public for the Queen was greater than many journalists had expected.
Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.
In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph, citing unnamed sources, reported the Queen was "exasperated and frustrated '' by the policies of the British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair. She was, however, said to admire Blair 's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland. She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007. On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick 's Cathedral, Armagh, the Queen attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.
The Queen addressed the United Nations for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth. The UN Secretary General, Ban Ki - moon, introduced her as "an anchor for our age ''. During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for British victims of the September 11 attacks. The Queen 's visit to Australia in October 2011 -- her sixteenth visit since 1954 -- was called her "farewell tour '' in the press because of her age. By invitation of the Irish President, Mary McAleese, the Queen made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011.
Elizabeth 's Diamond Jubilee in 2012 marked 60 years on the throne, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. In a message released on Accession Day, Elizabeth wrote:
In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope we will all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength of family, friendship and good neighbourliness... I hope also that this Jubilee year will be a time to give thanks for the great advances that have been made since 1952 and to look forward to the future with clear head and warm heart.
She and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf. On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world. In November, the Queen and her husband celebrated their sapphire wedding anniversary. On 18 December, she became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.
The Queen, who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two different countries. For the London Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond. On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet '' at the award ceremony.
On 3 March 2013, Elizabeth was admitted to King Edward VII 's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. She returned to Buckingham Palace the following day. A week later, she signed the new Commonwealth charter. Because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, in 2013 she chose not to attend the biennial meeting of Commonwealth heads of government for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by her son, Prince Charles.
The Queen surpassed her great - great - grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest - lived British monarch on 21 December 2007, and the longest - reigning British monarch and longest - reigning queen regnant and female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015. She is also the "longest - reigning sovereign in Canada 's modern era ''. (King Louis XIV of France reigned over Canada (New France) for longer than Elizabeth.) She became the oldest current monarch after King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia died on 23 January 2015. She later became the longest - reigning current monarch and the longest - serving current head of state following the death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016, and the oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe on 21 November 2017. On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee, and on 20 November, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum wedding anniversary. Prince Philip had retired from his official duties as the Queen 's consort in August.
The Queen does not intend to abdicate, though Prince Charles is expected to take on more of her duties as Elizabeth, who celebrated her 91st birthday in 2017, carries out fewer public engagements. Plans for her death and funeral have been extensively prepared by most British government and media organisations for decades.
Since Elizabeth rarely gives interviews, little is known of her personal feelings. As a constitutional monarch, she has not expressed her own political opinions in a public forum. She does have a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and takes her coronation oath seriously. Aside from her official religious role as Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, she is personally a member of that church and also of the national Church of Scotland. She has demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and has met with leaders of other churches and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. A personal note about her faith often features in her annual Christmas message broadcast to the Commonwealth. In 2000, she spoke about the theological significance of the millennium marking the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Jesus:
To many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ 's words and example.
She is patron of over 600 organisations and charities. Her main leisure interests include equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis. Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first corgi owned by her family. Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life have occasionally been witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepare a meal together and do the washing up afterwards.
In the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen ''. After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a "new Elizabethan age ''. Lord Altrincham 's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish schoolgirl '' was an extremely rare criticism. In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles 's investiture as Prince of Wales. In public, she took to wearing mostly solid - colour overcoats and decorative hats, which allow her to be seen easily in a crowd.
At her Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic, but in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth 's children came under media scrutiny. Elizabeth 's popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public. Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, though Elizabeth 's personal popularity and support for the monarchy rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana 's death.
In November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state. Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for Elizabeth, and in 2012, her Diamond Jubilee year, approval ratings hit 90 percent. Referenda in Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 both rejected proposals to become republics.
Elizabeth has been portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including painters Pietro Annigoni, Peter Blake, Chinwe Chukwuogo - Roy, Terence Cuneo, Lucian Freud, Rolf Harris, Damien Hirst, Juliet Pannett, and Tai - Shan Schierenberg. Notable photographers of Elizabeth have included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Annie Leibovitz, Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, John Swannell, and Dorothy Wilding. The first official portrait of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams in 1926.
Elizabeth 's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. In 1971 Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth at £ 2 million (equivalent to about £ 26 million in 2016). In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates of £ 100 million "grossly overstated ''. In 2002, she inherited an estate worth an estimated £ 70 million from her mother. The Sunday Times Rich List 2017 estimated her personal wealth at £ 360 million, making her the 329th richest person in the UK.
The Royal Collection, which includes thousands of historic works of art and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Queen personally but is held in trust, as are her official residences, such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £ 472 million in 2015. Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are personally owned by the Queen. The British Crown Estate -- with holdings of £ 12 billion in 2016 -- is held in trust and can not be sold or owned by Elizabeth in a personal capacity.
Elizabeth has held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, is Sovereign of many orders in her own countries, and has received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms she has a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen of Jamaica and her other realms and territories in Jamaica, Queen of Australia and her other realms and territories in Australia, etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown dependencies rather than separate realms, she is known as Duke of Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster. When in conversation with the Queen, the practice is to initially address her as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am.
From 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth 's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of St George. Upon her accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign. The Queen also possesses royal standards and personal flags for use in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, and elsewhere.
|
is yonge street the longest street in the world | Yonge Street - wikipedia
Roads in Ontario
Roads in Ontario
Yonge Street (/ jʌŋ /; "young '') is a major arterial route connecting the shores of Lake Ontario in Toronto to Lake Simcoe, a gateway to the Upper Great Lakes. Until 1999, the Guinness Book of World Records repeated the popular misconception it was 1,896 km (1,178 mi) long, and thus the longest street in the world; this was due to a conflation of Yonge Street with the rest of Ontario 's Highway 11. Yonge Street (including the Bradford - to - Barrie extension) is actually 56 kilometres (35 mi) long. The construction of Yonge Street is designated an Event of National Historic Significance in Canada. Yonge Street was fundamental in the original planning and settlement of western Upper Canada in the 1790s, forming the basis of the concession roads in Ontario today. Once the southernmost leg of Highway 11, linking the capital with northern Ontario, Yonge Street has been referred to as "Main Street Ontario ''. Today, no section of Yonge Street is a provincial highway.
The street was named by Ontario 's first colonial administrator, John Graves Simcoe, for his friend Sir George Yonge, an expert on ancient Roman roads. Yonge Street is a commercial main thoroughfare rather than a ceremonial one, with landmarks such as the Eaton Centre, Yonge - Dundas Square and the Hockey Hall of Fame along its length -- and lends its name to the Downtown Yonge shopping and entertainment district.
In Toronto and York Region, Yonge Street is the north - south baseline from which street numbering is reckoned east and west. The eastern branch of Line 1 Yonge -- University serves nearly the entire length of the street in Toronto and acts as the spine of the Toronto subway system, linking to suburban commuter systems such as the Viva Blue BRT. See the ' Public Transit ' section below.
Yonge Street originates on the northern shore of Toronto Bay at Queens Quay as a four - lane arterial road (speed limit 40 km / h) proceeding north by north - west. Toronto 's Harbourfront is built on landfill extended into the bay, with the former industrial area now converted from port, rail and industrial uses to a dense residential high - rise community. The street passes under the elevated Gardiner Expressway and the congested rail lines of the Toronto viaduct on their approach to Union Station. The road rises slightly near Front Street, marking the pre-landfill shoreline. Here, at the southern edge of the central business district, is the Dominion Public Building, the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts and the Hockey Hall of Fame, the latter housed in an imposing former Bank of Montreal office, once Canada 's largest bank branch. Beyond Front Street the road passes through the east side of the Financial District, within sight of many of Canada 's tallest buildings, fronting an entrance to the Allen Lambert Galleria.
Between Front Street and Queen Street, Yonge Street is bounded by historic and commercial buildings, many serving the large weekday workforce concentrated here. Yonge Street 's entire west side, from Queen Street to Dundas Street, is occupied by the Eaton Centre, an indoor mall featuring shops along its Yonge Street frontage and a Nordstrom anchor store at the corner of Dundas Street. The east side has two historic performance venues, the Ed Mirvish Theatre (formerly the Canon Theatre and before that, the Pantages) and the Elgin and Winter Garden Theatres. In addition, Massey Hall is just to the east on Shuter Street.
Opposite the Eaton Centre lies Yonge - Dundas Square. The area now comprising the square was cleared of several small commercial buildings and redeveloped in the late 1990s and early 2000s, with large video screens, retail shopping arcades, fountains and seating in a bid to become "Toronto 's Times Square ''. It is used for numerous public events.
Another stretch of busy retail lines both sides of Yonge Street north of Dundas Street, including Sam the Record Man until its closure on June 30, 2007. The density of businesses diminishes north of Gerrard Street; residential towers flank this section. The Art Deco College Park building, a former shopping complex of the T. Eaton Company, occupies most of the west side of Yonge Street from Gerrard Street north to College Street. It was converted into a residential and commercial complex after the building of the Eaton Centre.
From College Street north to Bloor Street, Yonge Street serves smaller street - level retail, mostly in two - to three - storey buildings of a hundred years ' vintage. The businesses here, unlike the large chains which dominate south of Gerrard Street, are mostly small independent shops and serve a dense residential community on either side of Yonge Street with amenities such as convenience stores.
The intersection of Yonge and Bloor Streets is a major crossroads of Toronto, informally considered the northern edge of the downtown core. Subway Line 2 Bloor -- Danforth intersects the Yonge line here, with the resulting transfers between lines making Bloor - Yonge Station the busiest in the city. The Hudson 's Bay Centre and Two Bloor West office towers dominate the corner, visible both from downtown and beyond, with the south - east corner earmarked for a major condominium development. The Mink Mile 's borders extend from Yonge to Avenue Road along Bloor. The intersection of Yonge and Bloor Streets is itself a "scramble '' - type intersection allowing pedestrians to cross from any corner to any other corner.
Immediately north of Bloor, the street is part of the old town of Yorkville, today a major shopping district extending west of Yonge Street along Cumberland and Bloor Streets. North of Yorkville, densities and traffic decrease somewhat and the speed limit increases slightly (to 50 km / h, which it remains for most of its urban length) as Yonge Street forms the main street of Summerhill, which together with Rosedale to the east is noted for its opulent residences. The area is marked by the historic North Toronto railway station, formerly served by the Canadian Pacific Railway. The CPR route parallels the foot of the Iroquois shoreline escarpment, which Yonge Street ascends here toward Midtown.
From approximately St. Clair Avenue to Yonge Boulevard, Yonge Street is central to the former suburb of North Toronto and features mixed low - scale residential, retail and commercial buildings. Major intersections in Midtown, served by some of the city 's busiest TTC stations, dot the skyline with dense clusters of high - rises in an otherwise leafy residential setting. The intersection at Eglinton Avenue has become a focal point, serving as a high - density residential, commercial and transit hub. The site of Montgomery 's Tavern is nearby, scene of a significant clash in the Upper Canada Rebellion and a National Historic Site.
North of Yonge Boulevard, Yonge Street traverses the deep forested ravine of the West Don Valley at Hoggs Hollow, a formidable obstacle in pioneer days and the site of one of the last of the former toll gates. The lower - density residential community and park - like setting here represent an interlude between North Toronto and the newer high - rise district beyond, towering over the valley. Canada 's busiest section of highway (Highway 401) spans the valley via the Hogg 's Hollow Bridge (exit 369). Leaving the valley, densities and traffic both significantly increase on entering the downtown core of the former suburban city of North York. The street widens to a six - lane urban arterial road through North York, passing inner - suburb transit hubs at Sheppard and Finch Avenues.
From Finch Avenue to Stouffville Road (acquiring the York Regional Road 1 designation north of the Toronto city limits at Steeles Avenue in York Region), Yonge Street is a suburban commercial strip, passing Highway 407 (exit 77) two kilometres north of Steeles. This 16.5 km (10.3 mi) segment is a busy suburban arterial, interrupted by the original town centres of ((suburban communities such as Thornhill (where the route crosses the East Don Valley in the upper part of its watershed) and Richmond Hill. Between Richmond Hill and Aurora, Yonge Street is in a semi-rural setting, passing a number of kettle lakes and traversing the crest of the Oak Ridges Moraine, thence leaving the Lake Ontario basin, while also passing through the core of Aurora. Toward the regional seat of Newmarket, Yonge Street again serves as a main suburban artery, passing through low - density residential and still - undeveloped areas, bypassing its core to the west. North of Green Lane, Regional Road 1 deviates from the original baseline 56 km (35 mi) north of Lake Ontario, bypassing the centre of Holland Landing with a north - west heading and thereby circumnavigating Cook 's Bay and the lower Holland Marsh, finally taking on a more rural character. The bypass was constructed in 1959.
Regional Road 51 (also known as Highway 7036), is the original route of the main section. Yonge Street branches off Regional Road 1 at the foot of the bypass to continue north through Holland Landing. This short section, known locally as the Yonge Street Extension, is co-routed with Regional Road 13. Past Queensville Side Road, the roadf beguins sligent east of where it ends. The roads process again for 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) before it for 2.2 kilometres (1.4 mi). After that it begins for another 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) before it ends.
To the west of Holland Landing the main route crosses the Holland River and its polders in the town of Bradford, where the name changes to Bridge Street and again to Holland Street. Resuming its northward heading with a right turn at an intersection in the centre of Bradford, where the road briefly becomes Barrie Street before the name Yonge resumes, Yonge Street roughly parallels Lake Simcoe 's western shore, traversing the rolling hills of southeast Simcoe County, and is signed Simcoe Road 4. The street officially ends in Barrie at a rail spur, where its name changes to Burton Avenue, which itself ends less than a kilometre from Kempenfelt Bay, at a T - intersection with Essa Road.
In Toronto, Yonge St. is served by the eastern half of the Line 1 Yonge -- University subway, which runs north from Union Station at Front Street to Finch Avenue. There is also a supplementary bus route running along the street, as well as an overnight Blue Night route which operates after the subway closes. In York Region, it is served by Viva Blue, a bus rapid transit route which connects with Finch station at the northern terminus of the subway. The subway is proposed to be extended north to Highway 7 in Richmond Hill, and the construction of dedicated bus lanes called rapidways for the Viva buses is underway as of 2017 from Highway 7 to Major Mackenzie Drive. Viva Blue is also supplemented by two local - service routes. In Holland Landing, there are transit services as well. In Simcoe County, GO Transit runs a bus route along Yonge from Newmarket to Barrie. Barrie Transit operates a circular route with directional branches that serve Yonge for a portion of their respective routes.
The trunk routes serving the street (with branches providing the most coverage) are:
Toronto (TTC):
York Region (YRT):
Simcoe County (GO Transit):
Barrie (Barrie Transit):
With the outbreak of hostilities between France and Great Britain in 1793, part of the War of the First Coalition, the Lieutenant - Governor of Upper Canada (now Ontario), John Graves Simcoe, was concerned about the possibility of the United States entering British North America in support of their French allies. In particular, the location of Newark (now Niagara - on - the - Lake), the first and former capital of Upper Canada, was in danger of being attacked by the Americans from the nearby border. Additionally, US forces could easily sever British access to the upper lakes at Lake St. Clair or the Detroit River, cutting the colony off from the important trading post at Michilimackinac.
Simcoe planned to move the capital to a better - protected location and build overland routes to the upper lakes as soon as possible. Simcoe established York, as Toronto was originally called, with its naturally enclosed harbour, as a defensible site for a new capital. To provide communications between the site and the upper lakes, he planned two connected roads, the first running north from York to Lake Simcoe, (then named Lake aux Claies), the second joining Lake Simcoe with Georgian Bay. This would allow overland transport to the upper lakes, bypassing U.S. strongholds. The route from Lake Ontario to Lake Simcoe is still known as Yonge Street, and the second leg to Georgian Bay was long known as the Penetanguishene Road.
Before the construction of Yonge Street, a portage route, the Toronto Carrying - Place Trail, had already linked Lakes Ontario and Simcoe. On September 25, 1793, Simcoe and a small party of soldiers and native guides started northward along the trail, establishing the Pine Fort on the western branch of the Holland River, near the modern location of Bradford. Stopping only to rename Lake aux Claies to "Lake Simcoe '' in memory of his father, the party continued north to Lake Couchiching, and then down the Severn River to Georgian Bay. Here he selected the site of Penetanguishene as the location for a new naval base and port.
On his return, he met with an Ojibway named ' Old Sail ' and was shown a new route along another arm of the trail, this one starting on the eastern branch of the Holland River and thereby avoiding the marshes of the western branch (today 's Holland Marsh). They left Pine Fort on October 11 and reached York on the 15th. Simcoe selected this eastern route for his new road, moving the southern end from the Rouge River to the western outskirts of the settled area in York, and the northern end to a proposed new town on the Holland River, St. Albans.
Bears were known to wander onto Yonge Street in the early days of Toronto. In 1809 Lieutenant Fawcett, of the 100th Regiment, came across a large bear on Yonge Street and cut its head open with his sword.
The road was actually called Concession 1 at first with Concessions 2 etc. on either side. For instance Concession 1 Whitchurch Township faces Yonge St. and goes east to Concession 2, which starts at Bayview Ave. Concession 1 King Township faces Yonge St. and goes west to Concession 2, which starts at Bathurst St. There are 10 concessions in York County going east and west from Concession 1, Yonge St. The east side ending at then Ontario County, now Durham Region, and the west side ending at Peel County (now Peel Region).
The following spring, Simcoe instructed Deputy Surveyor General Augustus Jones to blaze a small trail marking the route. Simcoe initiated construction of the road by granting land to settlers, who in exchange were required to clear 33 feet of frontage on the road passing their lot. Certain seasons saw the muddy sidewalks of York in deplorable condition, and Yonge Street was renowned as being particularly bad, making it difficult to transport loads along it. The first Toronto resident known to have introduced sidewalks was Jesse Ketchum, who used tanned bark.
In the summer of 1794, William Berczy was the first to take up the offer, leading a group of 64 families north - east of Toronto to found the town of German Mills, in modern Markham. By the end of 1794, Berczy 's settlers had cleared the route around Thornhill. However, the settlement was hit by a series of setbacks and road construction stalled.
Work on the road started again in 1795 when the Queen 's Rangers took over. They began their work at Eglinton Avenue and proceeded north, reaching the site of St. Albans on 16 February 1796. Expansion of the trail into a road was a condition of settlement for farmers along the route, who were required to spend 12 days a year to clear the road of logs, subsequently removed by convicted drunks as part of their sentence. The southern end of the road was in use in the first decade of the 19th century, and became passable all the way to the northern end in 1816.
The road was extended south from Eglinton to Bloor Street in 1796 by Berczy, who needed a route to his warehouse on the Toronto lakeshore. The area south of Bloor Street proved too swampy for a major road. A path did exist between Queen and Bloor Streets, but was called the "road to Yonge Street '', rather than being considered part of the street itself due to its poor condition. Over time the creeks were rerouted and the swamps drained. In 1812 the route was extended from Queen Street to the harbour, and in 1828 the entire southern portion was solidified with gravel.
St. Albans never developed as Simcoe had hoped, but the town of Holland Landing eventually grew up on the site, a somewhat more descriptive name. Holland Landing was settled by Quakers who moved into the area after having left the United States in the aftermath of the American Revolution. The settlers were branching out from their initial town of "Upper Yonge Street '', which later became Newmarket.
The road almost served its original military purpose during the War of 1812, when construction of a new fleet of first - rate ships began on the Lakes, necessitating the shipment of a large anchor from England for use on a frigate under construction on Lake Huron. The war ended while the anchor was still being moved, and now lies just outside Holland Landing in a park named in its honour.
In 1824, work began to extend Yonge Street to Kempenfelt Bay near Barrie. A north - western extension was branched off the original Yonge Street in Holland Landing and ran into the new settlement of Bradford before turning north towards Barrie. Work was completed by 1827, making connections with the Penetanguishene Road.
The decision was made to withdraw the military garrison in Penetanguishene in 1852. A year later, the Northern Railway of Canada was built along this established route, between Toronto and Kempenfelt Bay and extended to Collingwood by 1855. Settlement along the Penetanguishene Road pre-dated the road itself. Subsequent extensions of Yonge Street (though never named as such) which later became the more northerly parts of Highway 11, built in the 1830s (some with military strategy in mind), pushed settlement northeast along the shores of Lake Simcoe. By 1860 the Muskoka Road penetrated the southern skirts of the Canadian Shield, advancing towards Lake Nipissing.
A horse - drawn streetcar line was completed on Yonge Street in Toronto in September 1861 and operated by the Toronto Street Railway. The line went from Scollard Street to King Street. Streetcar service would be electrified in Toronto by 1892.
Confederation and the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway further diminished the importance of Yonge Street, as the new Dominion of Canada heralded the construction of east - west trade routes spanning the continent. By the 1870s, Dr. Scadding, historian of Toronto of Old, declared that Penetanguishene did not have the importance to need an approach such as the "extension of the Yonge Street Road ''.
During the late 1800s, the Toronto and York Radial Railway used the Yonge Street right - of - way, originally to the town of North Toronto, but expanding over the years all the way to Sutton, on southern Lake Simcoe. The Radial Railway ran along the eastern side of the street, allowing the prevailing westerly winds to remove snow from the slightly raised rails. The arrival of the Canadian Northern Railway in 1906 lessened traffic on the Radial, but it was not until Yonge became a major route for automobiles that the Radial truly fell into disuse. The last TYRR train north from Toronto ran on March 16, 1930. The line was then purchased by the townships north of the city and re-incorporated as North Yonge Railways, running service for another eighteen years before operations ended, along with service on numerous other portions of the Radial lines, in 1948. The space it formerly occupied was used to expand the road between Aurora and Newmarket.
Yonge Street was formerly a part of Highway 11, which led to claims that Yonge Street was the longest street in the world. Running (mostly) concurrent with Yonge as far north as Barrie, then continuing beyond through central and northern Ontario to the Ontario - Minnesota border at Rainy River, the highway was over 1,896 kilometres (1,178 mi) long. But Yonge Street could only be called the longest street in the world if were fully synonymous with Highway 11, which has never been the case.
The original Yonge Street continues along its original alignment, ending in Holland Landing. This alignment was extended over the years, and today ends just south of Lake Simcoe. The original extension running from Holland Landing from Bradford was named for the towns, known as Bradford Street in Holland Landing, and Holland Landing Road in Bradford. The latter was later extended as a bypass was added, curving off the original alignment. A second bypass was later constructed, bypassing the entirety of Holland Landing Road and joining Bradford at Bridge Street. Likewise, the road between Bradford and Barrie is known as Barrie Street in Bradford and Bradford Street (along with Yonge St.) in Barrie, although Bradford St. is a physically distinct street today. The entire route of Highway 11 has incorrectly become synonymous with Yonge Street. No segment of the highway anywhere north of Barrie ever actually bore the name. However, the Guinness Book of World Records recognized this claim as late as 1999.
Provincial downloading separated Yonge Street from Highway 11 during the 1990s. As a result, Highway 11 does not start until Crown Hill just outside Barrie, several kilometres north of where the name "Yonge Street '' ends. The Guinness Book of World Records no longer lists Yonge Street as the longest street in the world and has not chosen a replacement street, but cites the Pan-American Highway as the world 's longest "motorable road ''.
Although current tourist campaigns do not make much of Yonge Street 's length, its status as an urban myth was bolstered by an art installation at the foot of Yonge Street and a map of its purported length laid out into the sidewalk in bronze at the southwest corner of Yonge and Dundas Streets. However, possibly due to wider recognition of the street 's actual length, the map inlay has now been removed.
On April 23, 2018, the driver of a rented Ryder van intentionally struck numerous pedestrians, killing 10 and injuring 16 others on Yonge Street between Finch and Sheppard Avenues.
Yonge is Toronto 's main street, hosting parades, street performances and demonstrations.
When the Toronto Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993 it was estimated that 1,000,000 people gathered in the vicinity of Yonge and Dundas Streets. Similar gatherings occurred during the Winter Olympics in 2002 and 2010, when the Canadian men 's hockey team defeated the United States for the gold medal. During lesser celebrations motorists drive up and down the street honking their horns and flying flags.
Sections of the street are often closed for other events, such as an annual street festival. In 1999 Ricky Martin held an autograph session at Sunrise Records and had a large section of Yonge Street closed for the day. The intersection of Yonge and Dundas Streets, centred on the plaza at Yonge - Dundas Square, has been closed on occasion to host free concerts, including performances by R.E.M. on 17 May 2001, by Beyoncé on 15 September 2006 and by John Mayer on 16 September of the same year.
In 2008, Toronto 's first pedestrian scramble was opened at the intersection of Yonge and Dundas Streets.
Five - pin bowling was invented and first played at the Toronto Bowling Club at Yonge and Temperance Streets.
Ken Westerfield and Jim Kenner are credited with introducing ultimate and other disc sports (Frisbee) to Canada. They did nightly Frisbee shows on the Yonge Street Mall between Gerrard and Dundas 1971 - 1974.
Toronto 's annual Gay Pride, Orange Order, and Santa Claus parades also use Yonge Street for a significant portion of their routes.
The early works of Canadian singer - songwriters such as Joni Mitchell and Gordon Lightfoot were featured at the Yonge Street location of Sam the Record Man, just north of Dundas Street, at a time when records by Canadian musicians were not widely available. Lightfoot has a song about Yonge Street, titled "On Yonge Street '', on his album A Painter Passing Through.
The Canadian singer - songwriter Bruce Cockburn makes this reference in his song "Coldest Night of the Year, '' from his album Inner City Front: "I took in Yonge Street at a glance / Heard the punkers playing / Watched the bikers dance / Everybody wishing they could go to the south of France / And you 're not here / On the coldest night of the year. ''
Singer and rapper K - os also references the street in the lyrics to his 2004 single "Crabbuckit '': "Walking down Yonge Street on a Friday / Ca n't follow them, got ta do it my way / No fast lane, still on a highway ''.
(a) Berczy 's Draft letter in the Public Archives of Canada. Among the William Berczy Papers (M.G. 23, H ii, Vol. 2, p. 419 and Vol. 3, p. 527). As well as agreement of the German Company reproduced in The Simcoe correspondence, I, p. 191, 192
(b) Baby collection, University of Montreal. Salso Berczy Papers National Archive.
(c) John Andre the Berczy Study Infant Toronto as Simcoe 's Folly p. 137. Also see Table II that shows comparison by yearly averaged growth from 1802 to 1825 p. 138
(d) Firth, p. 10 p. 10 P. Russell to Elizabeth Russell, Sep. 1, 1793 Also in Eric ArthurToronto No Mean City '' Toronto, 1964 p. 138
|
peaches is a girl i met in new york lyrics | List of songs about New York City - wikipedia
This article lists songs about New York City, set there, or named after a location or feature of the city.
It is not intended to include songs where New York is simply "name - checked '' along with various other cities.
|
when did little league start using aluminum bats | Little League Baseball - wikipedia
See: Intermediate, Junior, and Senior League Baseball
Little League Baseball and Softball (officially, Little League International) is a nonprofit organization based in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania, United States, which organizes local youth baseball and softball leagues throughout the U.S. and the rest of the world.
Founded by Carl Stotz in 1939 as a three - team league in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, Little League Baseball encourages local volunteers to organize and operate Little League programs that are annually chartered through Little League International. Each league can structure itself to best serve the children in the area in which the league operates. Several specific divisions of Little League baseball and softball are available to children ages 4 to 16. The organization holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code.
The organization 's administrative office is located in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania. The first Little League Baseball World Series was played in Williamsport in 1947. The Little League International Complex hosts the annual Little League Baseball World Series at Howard J. Lamade Stadium and Little League Volunteer Stadium, and is also the site of the Peter J. McGovern Little League Museum, which provides a history of Little League Baseball and Softball through interactive exhibits for children. Some Major League Baseball (MLB) players played in Little League.
Carl Stotz, a resident of Williamsport, Pennsylvania, founded Little League Baseball in 1939. He began experimenting with his idea in the summer of 1938 when he gathered his nephews, Jimmy and Major Gehron and their neighborhood friends. They tried different field dimensions over the course of the summer and played several informal games. The following summer Stotz felt that he was ready to establish what later became Little League Baseball. The first league in Williamsport had just three teams, each sponsored by a different business. The first teams, Jumbo Pretzel, Lycoming Dairy, and Lundy Lumber, were managed by Carl Stotz and two of his friends, George and Bert Bebble. The men, joined by their wives and another couple, formed the first - ever Little League Board of Directors.
The first League game took place on June 6, 1939. Lardy Lumber defeated Lycoming Dairy, 23 - 8. Lycoming Dairy came back to claim the league championship. They, the first - half - season champions, defeated Lundy Lumber, the second - half champs, in a best - of - three season - ending series. The following year a second league was formed in Williamsport, and from there Little League Baseball grew to become an international organization of nearly 200,000 teams in every U.S. state and over 80 countries around the world.
From 1951 through 1973, Little League was for boys only. In 1974, Little League rules were revised to allow participation by girls in the baseball program following the result of a lawsuit filed by the National Organization for Women on behalf of Maria Pepe.
According to the Little League Baseball and Softball participation statistics following the 2008 season, there were nearly 2.6 million players in Little League Baseball worldwide, including both boys and girls, including 400,000 registered in softball (also including both boys and girls). For tournament purposes, Little League Baseball is divided into 16 geographic regions; eight National and eight international. Each summer, Little League operates seven World Series tournaments at various locations throughout the U.S. (Little League softball and Junior, Senior, and Big League baseball and softball).
1939: Little League is established by Carl E. Stotz. The first season is played in a lot close to Bowman Field. Lycoming Dairy is the first season champion.
1946: Little League has expanded to 12 leagues, all in Pennsylvania.
1947: The first league outside of Pennsylvania is founded in Hammonton, New Jersey. Maynard League of Williamsport defeats a team from Lock Haven, Pennsylvania to win the first Little League World Series. Allen Yearick is the first Little League graduate to play professional baseball when he is signed by the Boston Braves.
1948: Little League has grown to include 94 leagues. Lock Haven returns to the Little League World Series and defeats a league from St. Petersburg, Florida. The first corporate sponsor, U.S. Rubber, is announced, who donate Pro-Keds shoes to teams at the Little League World Series.
1949: Little League is featured in the Saturday Evening Post and on newsreels. Carl Stotz gets hundreds of requests for information on how to form leagues at the local level from all over the United States. Little League incorporates in New York.
1950 or 1951 (sources contradict) Kathryn ' Kay ' Johnston - Massar became the first girl to play Little League baseball. Her mother cut her braids and she dressed like a boy. Not knowing what to call herself, she adopted the nickname "Tubby '' because of her love of Little Lulu comic books, and joined the Kings Dairy Little League team in Corning, N.Y., posing as a boy. After earning her way onto the team and being assigned first base, she told her coach she was a girl, but he said "That 's O.K., you 're a darned good player. '' Kay, aka ' Tubby ' (which all her teammates continued to call her even after they knew the truth), played first base for the season, but was forced to quit after just one season because a new rule, known as the Tubby Rule, was created. It declared, "Rule III (f) Girls are not eligible under any circumstances. ''; that rule was in force until 1974.
1951: Leagues are formed in British Columbia, Canada and near the Panama Canal making them the first leagues outside the United States.
1953: The Little League World Series is televised for the first time. Jim McKay provides the play by play for CBS. Howard Cosell provides play by play for ABC Radio. Joey Jay of Middletown, Connecticut and the Milwaukee Braves is the first Little League graduate to play in the Major Leagues.
1954: Boog Powell, who later played for the Baltimore Orioles plays in the Little League World Series for Lakeland, Florida. Ken Hubbs, who later played for the Chicago Cubs, plays in the Little League World Series for Colton, California. Little League has expanded to more than 3,300 leagues. Jim Barberi who later played for the Los Angeles Dodgers and in a Major League World Series was also a member of the Schenectady, New York team who won the 1954 Series.
1955: There is a Little League organization in each of the 48 U.S. States. George W. Bush begins playing Little League as a catcher for the Cubs of the Central Little League in Midland, Texas. He is the first Little League graduate to be elected President of the United States. The all - black Cannon Street YMCA All - Stars in Charleston, South Carolina created an uproar that every other Little League organization in South Carolina refused to play Cannon Street. Little League sent an ultimatum that the team be able to play, which the other leagues refused, where the other 61 organizations returned their charters and formed their own league in response. No team from the state had made the tournament until 2015.
1956: Carl Stotz severs his ties with Little League Baseball in a dispute over the direction and control of Little League. Stotz believed the league was becoming over-commercialized by Little League president, Peter J. McGovern. Stotz remains active in youth baseball with the "Original League '' in Williamsport. Little League records its first on - field death in Garland, Texas as 12 - year - old Richard "Rick '' Oden is hit in the head by a pitch thrown by Jerry Armstrong. The city park location of the incident is renamed "Rick Oden Field. '' As batting helmets are yet to be developed, Garland teams finish the season wearing youth football helmets over their baseball caps when batting. Later that year, Fred Shapiro throws a perfect game in the Little League World Series.
1957: Angel Macias throws a perfect game and Monterrey, Mexico, becomes the first team from outside the United States to win the Little League World Series. (Portrayed in 2010 film "The Perfect Game ''.)
1959: The Little League World Series moves from Williamsport to the newly built Little League Headquarters in South Williamsport. The protective baseball helmet is developed by Dr. Creighton J. Hale.
1960: A team from West Berlin, West Germany, is the first team from Europe to play in the Little League World Series. The series is broadcast live for the first time on ABC. Little League has grown to 27,400 teams in more than 5,500 leagues.
1961: Brian Sipe, future quarterback for the Cleveland Browns, plays for the series champions from El Cajon, California.
1962: Jackie Robinson attends the Little League World Series. President John F. Kennedy proclaims National Little League Week.
1967: A team from West Tokyo, Japan, is the first team from Asia to win the Little League World Series.
1969: Taiwan begins a dominant era that would see them win 17 Little League World Series titles.
1971: The aluminum baseball bat is first used. It was partly developed by Little League Baseball. Lloyd McClendon of Gary, Indiana, dominates the Little League World Series, hitting five home runs in five at - bats. He later played in the Major Leagues and become the first Little League graduate to manage an MLB club with the Pittsburgh Pirates.
1973: Ed Vosberg plays in the Little League World Series for Tucson, Arizona. He later played in the College World Series for the University of Arizona in 1980 and the World Series in 1997 for the Florida Marlins. Vosberg is the first person to have played in all three world series.
1974: Girls are formally permitted to play in the Little League Baseball program as result of lawsuit brought on behalf of Frances Pescatore and Jenny Fulle, and a Little League Softball program for both boys and girls is created. Bunny Taylor becomes the first girl to pitch a no - hitter.
1975: In a controversial decision, all foreign teams are banned from the Little League World Series. International play is restored the following year.
1980: A team from Tampa, Florida, representing Belmont Heights Little League, is led by two future major leaguers Derek Bell and Gary Sheffield. Bell returns the following year and Belmont Heights again loses in the finals to a team from Taiwan.
1982: The Peter J. McGovern Little League Museum opens. Cody Webster leads a team from Kirkland, Washington, in an upset victory of a powerful team from Taiwan. It was Taiwan 's first loss in 31 games. This game was later featured on ESPN 's 30 for 30 series Little Big Men.
1984: Seoul, South Korea, wins the first title for a South Korean team. They defeat a team from Altamonte Springs, Florida, led by future Boston Red Sox catcher, Jason Varitek.
1984:: Victoria Roche, a 12 - year - old from Belgium, becomes the first girl to play in the Little League World Series.
1988: Tom Seaver is the first former Little Leaguer to be enshrined in the Peter J. McGovern Museum Hall of Excellence.
1989: Poland becomes the first former Warsaw Pact nation to receive a Little League charter. Trumbull, Connecticut, led by future NHL star Chris Drury, wins the Little League World Series.
1991: Future NL All Star Jason Marquis pitches the Staten Island South Shore Little League team to third place in the Little League World Series over Canada, throwing a no - hitter.
1992: Carl Stotz, the founder of Little League, dies. Lights are installed at Lamade Stadium allowing for the first night games to be played. The series is expanded from single elimination to round - robin format. Long Beach, California, managed by former Major Leaguer Jeff Burroughs and led by his son, future Major Leaguer Sean Burroughs, is named series champion after Zamboanga City, Philippines, is forced to forfeit for playing with ineligible players.
1993: Long Beach repeats as champions, defeating Coquivacoa Little League of Maracaibo, Venezuela. It is the first U.S. team to successfully defend its title.
1997: ESPN2 broadcasts regional play for the first time. Taiwan 's baseball association withdraws from Little League Baseball (they would rejoin in 2003) over newly established rules on zoning. Bradenton, Florida, and Pottsville, Pennsylvania, play at Lamade Stadium before the largest crowd ever to attend a non-championship game. The crowd was estimated at over 35,000 fans.
1999: Burkina - Faso becomes the 100th nation with a Little League organization. Hirkata Little League of Osaka, Japan, becomes the first Japanese team to win a title since 1976.
2000: An expansion project begins at Little League International. Volunteer Stadium is built. This allows the pool of participants to be doubled from 8 to 16 the following year.
2001: The LLWS expands from 8 to 16 teams, with the following changes to regional lineups (post-2000 regions in bold):
In other news, Volunteer Stadium is opened. George W. Bush becomes the first U.S. president to visit the Little League World Series. Led by phenom Danny Almonte, pitching the first perfect game since 1957, the Rolando Paulino All Stars (Bronx, New York) finish third in the series. The team 's entire postseason, however, is wiped from the books when it is found that Almonte was 14 years old.
2002: Austin Dillon plays for Southwest Forsyth (County) Little League in Clemmons, North Carolina. The grandson of Richard Childress, he would win NASCAR championships in the Camping World Truck Series in 2011 and Nationwide Series in 2013, and made his Sprint Cup debut in 2014.
2004: Effective with the 2004 LLWS, the Europe Region is renamed EMEA, for Europe, Middle East, Africa.
2007: Little League expands into Australia for the first time. Effective with the 2007 LLWS, the Asia and Pacific regions are merged to form the Asia - Pacific Region, with Japan being split into its own region.
2007: Little League expands into Kyrgyzstan for the first time
2008: Effective with this year 's LLWS, the Transatlantic and EMEA regions are reorganized into the Europe and Middle East and Africa (MEA) regions. The previous nationality restrictions for players from these regions are abolished. Hawai'i wins the 2008 Little League World Series beating Mexico in the Final.
2008: Little League International relocates the Southeast Region Headquarters From Gulfport, Florida, to Warner Robins, Ga. Little League International completes renovation of its administration building in South Williamsport, Pa.
2010: The World Series tournament is reorganized, eliminating pool play and adopting double - elimination until the bracket winners are determined. Little League announces plans to add a pilot division in baseball for ages 12 -- 13 to help baseball Little Leaguers make the transition to regulation - size fields in Junior League Baseball. Bartlett, Illinois, becomes biggest little league.
2011: The World Series officially eliminates the two four - team brackets and puts all eight teams in the United States bracket and all eight teams in the International bracket, with a SEC Baseball Tournament style flipped bracket on the loser 's bracket to prevent rematches, but does not require the loser to defeat the winner 's bracket team twice in either Saturday championship game where the winner advances to the Sunday final.
2012:
2013:
2014:
The national regions represented in the annual Little League Baseball World Series are:
The international regions are:
The best - known event on the Little League Baseball and Softball calendar is the annual Little League Baseball World Series, which is held every August in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Local and regional tournaments leading up to the World Series are held in the U.S. insular areas of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands, and throughout the world. In 2003, for example, there were tournaments in Canada, Latin America (Mexico, Aruba, Curaçao, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela), Europe (Germany and Poland), and Asia (Japan, Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan).
The Little League Baseball World Series is just one of nine World Series conducted by Little League International every year, each one held in a different location.
Little League Baseball has several baseball divisions for boys and girls, based on age.
The major divisions of Little League Baseball have their own World Series format as follows:
Tee Ball is for boys and girls ages 4 -- 5, with local leagues given the option to allow 6 -- 7 - year - olds to play. In Tee Ball, players hit the ball off of a tee located atop home plate; live pitching is not allowed. The purpose of the division is to teach young children the basic fundamentals of hitting and fielding.
The Minor League Baseball division is generally for children ages 7 -- 11, with local leagues given the option to allow 6 - year - old children to try out. Local leagues are permitted to further divide the Minor League division based on player age and / or experience, and often consist of coach - pitch (i.e., the batter 's coach lightly pitching the ball) or machine - pitch at lower levels, with defensive players pitching at higher levels.
"The 9 -- 10 Year Old Baseball Division for boys and girls was established as a tournament program in 1994. It gives children of this age the opportunity to experience tournament competition, up to state level. Players on these teams can be chosen from among Major Division and / or Minor Division teams. The diamond used is a 60 - foot diamond and the pitching distance is 46 feet. ''
"The Little League Baseball Division (sometimes known as the Major Division) is for boys and girls ages 9 -- 12. A local league may choose to limit its Major Division to 10 -, 11 -, and 12 - year - olds, or 11 -- 12 - year - olds. The diamond used is a 60 - foot diamond and the pitching distance is 46 feet. The local league has an option to choose a Tournament Team (or "All Stars '') of 11 -- 12 - year - olds from within this division, and the team may enter the International Tournament. The culmination of the International Tournament is the Little League Baseball World Series, featuring teams from around the globe. All expenses for the teams advancing to the World Series (travel, meals, and housing) are paid by Little League Baseball. ''
In 2012, Little League announced plans to add a new division of play for the 2013 season, the Little League Intermediate Division. This Division is played on a field with a 50 - foot (15 m) pitching distance and 70 - foot (21 m) base paths. It is open to players ages 11 -- 13, but may be limited to ages 11 -- 12 or 12 -- 13 by a local league. Players in this division are able to lead off and steal. The rules follow rules similar to those of the Junior, Senior, and Big League Divisions of play.
Little League holds a World Series in this level of play, officially called the Intermediate Little League World Series, in Livermore, California.
"The Junior League Baseball Division is a program for boys and girls ages 13 -- 14, using a conventional 90 - foot (27 m) diamond with a pitching distance of 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m). (A modified diamond is available during the regular season.) The local league has an option to choose a Tournament Team (or "All Stars '') of 13 - 14 - year - olds from within this division (and / or from within the Senior League Division), and the team may enter the International Tournament. The culmination of the International Tournament is the Junior League Baseball World Series, featuring teams from around the globe. All expenses for the teams advancing to the World Series (travel, meals, and housing) are paid by Little League Baseball. ''
"The Senior League Baseball Division is for boys and girls 14 -- 16 years old, using a conventional 90 - foot (27 m) diamond with a pitching distance of 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m). The local league has an option to choose a Tournament Team (or "All Stars '') of 14 - to 16 - year - olds from within this division (and / or from within the Junior League or Big League divisions), and the team may enter the International Tournament. The culmination of the International Tournament is the Senior League Baseball World Series, featuring teams from around the globe. All expenses for the teams advancing to the World Series (travel, meals, and housing) are paid by Little League Baseball. ''
"The Big League Baseball Division is for boys and girls ages 16 -- 18, using a conventional 90 - foot (27 m) diamond with a pitching distance of 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m). The local league has an option to choose a Tournament Team (or "All Stars '') of 16 -- 18 - year - olds from within this division (and / or from within the Senior League Division), and the team may enter the International Tournament. The culmination of the International Tournament is the Big League Baseball World Series, featuring teams from around the globe. All expenses for the teams advancing to the World Series (travel, meals, and housing) are paid by Little League Baseball. ''
Little League introduced the Challenger Division in 1989 to provide opportunities for children with physical and intellectual challenges to participate in the Little League program. The Challenger Division utilizes a "buddy system '' in which Little Leaguers assist Challenger participants in the areas of batting, running and fielding. Challenger Division games are typically non-competitive in nature.
Introduced in 1989, the Little League Challenger Division is for participants ages 4 -- 18. Games are played on a 46 / 60 field and are non-competitive.
Approved at the 2014 Little League International Congress the Senior League Challenger Division launched in 2015. This division is for participants ages 15 and above (no maximum age). Games are played on a 60 / 90 field and are non-competitive. Leagues may request permission to play games on a smaller field as well.
As of 2016, nearly 1,000 Little Leagues in 10 countries around the world offered the Challenger Program providing an opportunity for more than 31,000 individuals with physical or intellectual challenges to participate in the Little League program.
Little League Baseball has several softball divisions for girls and boys, based on age.
The playing rules for the baseball divisions essentially follow the "Official Baseball Rules '' (as defined by and used by Major League Baseball and published at Official Baseball Rules at MLB.com), especially with respect to the upper divisions (Junior, Senior, and Big League). Some major exceptions are outlined in the following sections, and these apply to Little League (Minor and Major, ages 7 -- 12) except as otherwise noted.
Unlike Major League Baseball and most other sports such as football, soccer, and basketball, the official rules of Little League Baseball are available to the general public only by online subscription ($20) or as a printed edition ($7 plus $3 for "shipping and handling '' within the US via UPS). In Canada, rulebook orders requested through LittleLeague.ca are routed to the US website at the same prices, except that "shipping and handling '' to Canada via UPS is US $15.51, for a total of US $22.51 for a single printed copy.
Rulebooks are not available in sporting goods or other stores and must be ordered directly from Little League Baseball, Incorporated or one of its "Regional Centers ''. One paper copy is provided to each team that has sent in an "Application for Charter and Insurance '', although previously two copies were provided.
Little League has been criticized for requiring payment to view its rules. However, the organization counters by claiming it has been exposed to lawsuits in the past in cases involving organizations not officially affiliated with Little League but which nonetheless use its rules.
A regulation game is 6 innings. If the game is called prior to the completion of six innings, it is considered an official game if four innings have been completed (three and a half, if the home team leads); otherwise, if at least one inning has been completed, it is a suspended game.
In Intermediate Little League, as well as the Junior, Senior, and Big League levels (ages 13 -- 18), a game is seven innings and is official if five innings have been completed.
In all divisions except Senior and Big League, every player on the team roster must have at least one plate appearance and play six consecutive outs on defense in each game. The penalty for a manager violating the rule is a two - game suspension. This rule is waived if the game is completed prior to the usual duration of the game (six innings in Little League and below, seven innings in Intermediate Little League and Junior League). This rule is modified during tournament play. During tournament play, teams that have 13 or more players dressed at the field for a game are mandated to have one (1) "At Bat '' during the game per player with no defensive requirement. Teams that have 12 or fewer players dressed at the field for a tournament game require each player to receive one (1) "At Bat '' plus six consecutive outs played in the field on defense.
The size of the field is dependent on the division of play.
Tee Ball
Minor League and Little League
Intermediate Little League
Junior League, Senior League, and Big League
Bats (all levels) may be made from wood or other materials (such as aluminum) and must be approved for use in Little League Baseball. For the Majors Division and below, the maximum bat length is thirty - three (33) inches and barrel diameter may not exceed 2 ⁄ inches. Beginning in 2009 all Little League bats must be labeled with a Bat Performance Factor (BPF) of 1.15 or lower.
Bats for the Junior League level may have a maximum length of thirty - four (34) inches and a maximum barrel diameter of 2 ⁄ inches. Bats for the Big and Senior League levels may have a maximum length of thirty - six (36) inches and a maximum barrel diameter of 2 ⁄ inches. Non-wood Big and Senior League bats must meet the Batted Ball Coefficient of Restitution (BBCOR) testing standards that are currently used in the NCAA and NFHS (high school). Intermediate Little League bats must meet Junior League specifications.
When the pitcher is ready to pitch, a baserunner may not leave the bag until the pitch reaches the batter in Minor League and standard Little League. In the upper levels, including Intermediate Little League, the runner can leave the bag at any time while the ball is in play.
If a fielder is waiting at the base with the ball, an advancing runner must attempt to avoid contact. A runner may not slide head - first except when retreating to a previously held base.
In the upper levels, runners must still make an attempt to avoid contact if possible, and may not maliciously initiate contact with a fielder.
The upper limit of the strike zone extends to the batter 's armpits.
In Tee - Ball, Minor League, and Little League (if ' uncaught third strike ' rule is waived by the local league), the batter is out after the third strike regardless of whether the pitched ball is held by the catcher. In Little League (both standard and Intermediate), Junior, Senior, and Big League, a batter may attempt to advance to first base on a dropped third strike if first base is unoccupied with less than two outs or if first base is unoccupied or occupied with two outs.
If the batter is hit by a pitch, the batter gets walked automatically. However, if the batter does not make an attempt to get out of the way of the pitched ball, the home - plate umpire may continue the at - bat.
Players who have been substituted for may return to the game under certain conditions, though a player who is removed as pitcher may not return to pitch.
Pitchers in all divisions are limited to a specific pitch count per game and a mandatory rest period between outings. These vary with age. The rest period also depends on the number of pitches thrown.
If the pitcher hits too many batters with the ball, or intentionally hits the batter, he is ejected from the pitching spot.
Historically, a pitcher could intentionally walk a batter by simply announcing his intent to do so and not have to actually throw any pitches. Beginning in 2008, the pitcher had to actually pitch the required four balls (which were counted against the pitch count). In 2017, the Major and Minor levels of Little League Baseball aligned with a new rule of Major League Baseball and allowed the batter to intentionally walk a batter simply by declaration. The intentional walk adds 4 to the pitcher 's pitch count. This change rescinded a former rule in which the team at bat could decline the award of first base and force the pitcher to pitch, such as to further inflate the pitch count to force the removal of the pitcher.
Local leagues have a certain amount of flexibility. For example, a league may opt to use the "continuous batting order '' rule (4.04), under which each player on the team 's roster bats, even when not in the defensive lineup. Leagues may also waive the "ten - run rule '' (4.10 (e)) which ends the game if one team is ahead by ten or more runs after four innings.
The following is an incomplete list of current and former Major League Baseball players who played Little League Baseball. Each player also participated in the Little League World Series, unless otherwise noted.
Jonathan Schoop
|
days of our lives who is bonnie lockhart | Mimi Lockhart - wikipedia
Mimi Lockhart (formerly Brady) is a fictional character from Days of Our Lives. Mimi was originated by Doren Fein from August 17 to 19, 1999. She is most recognized by actress Farah Fath who played the role from September 16, 1999, to March 1, 2007.
Mimi grew up in an abusive household. Her father, David, attacked Mimi and Bonnie on a number of occasions forcing her older brother, Patrick, to split at an early age. Mimi looked after her younger brother Connor until he too moved away at a young age.
Mimi was Belle Black 's best friend since kindergarten. Mimi grew jealous of Belle 's new friendship with Chloe Lane and began working with Jan Spears to cast Chloe as a social outcast. Jan preyed on Mimi 's insecurities and used her to torment Chloe, including taking nude pictures of Chloe in the shower. Mimi developed a crush on Shawn - Douglas Brady but he was interested in Belle. Shawn agreed to take both Belle and Mimi to the dance after Mimi got down on bended knee to beg Shawn to take her. Jan 's hatred for Chloe intensified and Jan used Mimi to sneak the photos of Chloe into the slide projector to humiliate Chloe and advertise their website operagirl.net. The prank almost landed Mimi in jail; instead she was forced to spend her senior year at Salem High cleaning bathrooms.
Despite Mimi 's involvement in the pranks, her friends noticed her odd behavior that included staying away from her friends and roaming the streets at night. Chloe was the first to discover that Mimi and her family were homeless. Her father had been laid off, and was out of town searching for work. Mimi 's friends rallied together and built a Habitat for Humanity house for the Lockhart family.
During the summer of 2001, Mimi joined her classmates on a trip to Puerto Rico to study the environment. She and Belle became close again, but she became even closer to geeky Kevin Lambert and the two nearly had sex on the island. With her newfound self - esteem, Mimi became determined to do the right thing and make up with Chloe. In fact, Chloe and Mimi joined forces toward to help Belle and Shawn get back together. She accomplished that task, along with high school graduation, and spent the summer with Kevin; they broke up at the end of the summer so he could go away to college.
Mimi started the following year at Salem University with Belle. Mimi eventually got together with Rex DiMera but feared he might be the Salem Stalker. Rex suffered from massive headaches and mood swings. At one point, Rex accidentally killed Dr. Rolf, Rex 's "creator. '' After this ordeal, the couple landed on solid groupd until Mimi found out she was pregnant. Mimi 's insecurities returned and she convinced herself she had a good thing with Rex and it would be ruined with a baby. Mimi made the heartbreaking decision to have an abortion without telling Rex. Due to a resulting infection, Mimi was rendered sterile.
Jan returned to Salem and Mimi learned that she had been keeping Shawn hostage at her country home. Before Mimi could expose Jan, Jan blackmailed her about the abortion. Jan tripped and hit her head on a rock while arguing with Mimi and ended up in serious condition in the hospital. Mimi confessed to all her sins and was sentenced to jail. Rex and Patrick managed to get their hands on a video clearing Mimi 's name just in time, and Mimi was released. Mimi 's guilt over her lies to Rex mounted but her mother, Bonnie convinced her to keep quiet and hold on to her man.
Rex overheard an argument between Belle and Mimi and learned that Mimi had aborted his child without ever telling him that she was pregnant. He left her, and Salem. Mimi blamed Belle for ruining her life and grew closer with her new roommate and high school crush, Shawn. After the birth of Belle 's daughter, Claire, Mimi attempted to mend fences with Belle. After months of escalating romance, Shawn proposed to Mimi on New Year 's Eve and they married in March 2006.
Mimi did everything she could to keep Shawn and Belle apart because she feared they would fall in love again. Mimi and Shawn went thru the "in vitro '' process and Mimi became pregnant in May 2006, just two months after the couple wed. In early June, Mimi and Belle were out shopping when she started having cramps. Lexie Carver told Shawn, Belle and Phillip that Mimi had miscarried. Mimi was truly devastated and Shawn stuck by her. They decided to ask a surrogate to carry their child but a mix - up in the lab caused Mimi 's egg to be fertilized with Philip 's sperm and Belle 's egg with Shawn 's sperm; the Gloved Hand was responsible for this mix - up as part of his crusade to ruin the lives of the people in Salem. Mimi knew that Shawn was the father of Belle 's baby and told no one. When the truth was finally revealed, Shawn left Mimi and they got a divorce. She and Philip signed away their rights to their baby to the surrogate, Lauren.
Mimi moved back home to the Lockhart House with Bonnie and Conner. Mimi briefly worked at Chez Rouge but left after a fight Shawn 's girlfriend at the time, Willow Stark. Mimi then got a job working for Max at his garage. She and Max grew close as they looked for a seemingly missing Philip. Victor 's goons held them prisoner in a church basement where they shared their first kiss and also discovered a skeleton. Mimi and Max began to date, much to Abby 's dismay. Mimi got in the way oh Phillip 's search for Claire after Shawn and Belle took her into hiding. Max rescued Mimi and they two helped Shawn and Belle flee to Canada.
The skeleton that they was revealed to be David Lockhart, Mimi 's father. Max comforted Mimi through this mystery but it was Bonnie who was able to give Mimi the answers she was looking for. Bonnie explained that Mimi killed her father but suppressed the memories because David used to abuse the family. Instead of letting her daughter take the blame, Bonnie went to jail. With her mother and older brother both in jail, Mimi left to live with her younger brother, Connor, in Arizona.
|
what happens to pete in o brother where art thou | O Brother, Where Art Thou? - Wikipedia
O Brother, Where Art Thou? is a 2000 crime comedy road film written, produced, and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen, and starring George Clooney, John Turturro, and Tim Blake Nelson, with John Goodman, Holly Hunter, and Charles Durning in supporting roles.
The film is set in 1937 rural Mississippi during the Great Depression, and its story is a modern satire loosely based on Homer 's epic poem Odyssey. The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 film Sullivan 's Travels, in which the protagonist is a director who wants to film O Brother, Where Art Thou?, a fictional book about the Great Depression.
Much of the music used in the film is period folk music, including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley. The movie was one of the first to extensively use digital color correction to give the film an autumnal, sepia - tinted look. The film received positive reviews, and the soundtrack won a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 2001 using American folk music. The original band became popular after the film release. The country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film included John Hartford, Alison Krauss, Emmylou Harris, Gillian Welch, Chris Sharp, and others. They joined together to perform the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD.
Three convicts, Ulysses Everett McGill, Pete Hogwallop, and Delmar O'Donnell, escape from a chain gang and set out to retrieve a supposed treasure Everett buried before the area is flooded to make a lake. The three get a lift from a blind man driving a handcar on a railway. He tells them, among other prophecies, that they will find a fortune but not the one they seek. The trio make their way to the house of Wash, Pete 's cousin. They sleep in the barn, but Wash reports them to Sheriff Cooley, who, along with his men, torches the barn. Wash 's son helps them escape.
They pick up Tommy Johnson, a young black man, who claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for the ability to play guitar. In need of money, the four stop at a radio station where they record a song as The Soggy Bottom Boys. That night, the trio part ways with Tommy after their car is discovered by the police. Unbeknownst to them, the recording becomes a major hit.
Near a river, the group hears singing. They see three women washing clothes and singing. The women drug them with corn whiskey and they lose consciousness. Upon waking, Delmar finds Pete 's clothes lying next to him, empty except for a toad. Delmar realizes the women were Sirens and convinces himself that they transformed Pete into the toad. Later, one - eyed Bible salesman Big Dan Teague invites them for a picnic, then mugs them and kills the toad.
Everett and Delmar arrive in Everett 's home town. Everett confronts his wife Penny, who changed her last name and told his daughters he was dead. He gets into a fight with Vernon T. Waldrip, her new "suitor. '' They later see Pete working on a chain gang. Later that night, they sneak into Pete 's holding cell and free him. As it turns out, the women had dragged Pete away and turned him in to the authorities. Under torture, Pete gave away the treasure 's location to the police. Everett then confesses that there is no treasure. He made it up to convince the guys he was chained with to escape with him in order to stop his wife from getting married. Pete is enraged at Everett, because he had two weeks left on his original sentence, and must serve fifty more years for the escape.
The trio stumble upon a rally of the Ku Klux Klan, who are planning to hang Tommy. The trio disguise themselves as Klansmen and attempt to rescue Tommy. However, Big Dan, a Klan member, reveals their identities. Chaos ensues, and the Grand Wizard reveals himself as Homer Stokes, a candidate in the upcoming gubernatorial election. The trio rush Tommy away and cut the supports of a large burning cross, leaving it to fall on Big Dan.
Everett convinces Pete, Delmar and Tommy to help him win his wife back. They sneak into a Stokes campaign gala dinner she is attending, disguised as musicians. The group begins a performance of their radio hit. The crowd recognizes the song and goes wild. Homer recognizes them as the group who humiliated his mob. When he demands the group be arrested and reveals his white supremacist views, the crowd runs him out of town on a rail. Pappy O'Daniel, the incumbent candidate, seizes the opportunity, endorses the Soggy Bottom Boys and grants them full pardons. Penny agrees to marry Everett with the condition that he find her original ring.
The next morning, the group sets out to retrieve the ring, which is at a cabin in the valley which Everett had earlier claimed was the location of his treasure. The police, having learned of the place from Pete, arrest the group. Dismissing their claims of having received pardons, Sheriff Cooley orders them hanged. Just as Everett prays to God, the valley is flooded and they are saved. Tommy finds the ring in a desk that floats by, and they return to town. However, when Everett presents the ring to Penny, it turns out it was not her ring, she does n't want that one, and she ca n't remember where she put the real ring.
The idea of O Brother, Where Art Thou? arose spontaneously. Work on the script began in December 1997, long before the start of production, and was at least half - written by May 1998. Despite the fact that Ethan Coen described the Odyssey as "one of my favorite storyline schemes, '' neither of the brothers had read the epic and were only familiar with its content through adaptations and numerous references to the Odyssey in popular culture. According to the brothers, Nelson (who has a degree in classics from Brown University) was the only person on the set who had read the Odyssey.
The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 Preston Sturges film Sullivan 's Travels, in which the protagonist (a director) wants to direct a film about the Great Depression called O Brother, Where Art Thou? that will be a "commentary on modern conditions, stark realism, and the problems that confront the average man. '' Lacking any experience in this area, the director sets out on a journey to experience the human suffering of the average man but is sabotaged by his anxious studio. The film has some similarity in tone to Sturges 's film, including scenes with prison gangs and a black church choir. The prisoners at the picture show scene is also a direct homage to a nearly identical scene in Sturges 's film.
Joel Coen revealed in a 2000 interview that he came to Phoenix, Arizona, to offer the lead role to Clooney. Clooney agreed to do the role immediately, without reading the script. He stated that he liked even the Coens ' least successful films. Clooney did not immediately understand his character and sent the script to his uncle Jack who lived in Kentucky and asked him to read the entire script into a tape recorder. Unknown to Clooney, in his recording, Jack, a devout Baptist, omitted all instances of the words "damn '' and "hell '' from the Coens ' script, which only became known to Clooney after the directors pointed this out to him in the middle of shooting.
This was the fourth film of the brothers in which John Turturro has starred. Other actors in O Brother, Where Art Thou? who had worked previously with the Coens include John Goodman (three films), Holly Hunter (two), Michael Badalucco and Charles Durning (one film each).
The Coens used digital color correction to give the film a sepia - tinted look. Joel stated this was because the actual set was "greener than Ireland. '' Cinematographer Roger Deakins stated, "Ethan and Joel favored a dry, dusty Delta look with golden sunsets. They wanted it to look like an old hand - tinted picture, with the intensity of colors dictated by the scene and natural skin tones that were all shades of the rainbow. '' Initially the crew tried to perform the color correction using a physical process, however after several tries with various chemical processes proved unsatisfactory, it became necessary to perform the process digitally.
This was the fifth film collaboration between the Coen Brothers and Deakins, and it was slated to be shot in Mississippi at a time of year when the foliage, grass, trees, and bushes would be a lush green. It was filmed near locations in Canton, Mississippi and Florence, South Carolina in the summer of 1999. After shooting tests, including film bipack and bleach bypass techniques, Deakins suggested digital mastering be used. Deakins subsequently spent 11 weeks fine - tuning the look, mainly targeting the greens, making them a burnt yellow and desaturating the overall image in the digital files. This made it the first feature film to be entirely color corrected by digital means, narrowly beating Nick Park 's Chicken Run.
O Brother, Where Art Thou? was the first time a digital intermediate was used on the entirety of a first - run Hollywood film that otherwise had very few visual effects. The work was done in Los Angeles by Cinesite using a Spirit DataCine for scanning at 2K resolution, a Pandora MegaDef to adjust the color, and a Kodak Lightning II recorder to put out to film.
A major theme of the film is the connection between old - time music and political campaigning in the Southern U.S. It makes reference to the traditions, institutions, and campaign practices of bossism and political reform that defined Southern politics in the first half of the 20th century.
The Ku Klux Klan, at the time a political force of white populism, is depicted burning crosses and engaging in ceremonial dance. The character Menelaus "Pappy '' O'Daniel, the governor of Mississippi and host of the radio show The Flour Hour, is similar in name and demeanor to W. Lee "Pappy '' O'Daniel, one - time Governor of Texas and later U.S. Senator from that state. W. Lee O'Daniel was in the flour business, and used a backing band called the Light Crust Doughboys on his radio show. In one campaign, W. Lee O'Daniel carried a broom, an oft - used campaign device in the reform era, promising to sweep away patronage and corruption. His theme song had the hook, "Please pass the biscuits, Pappy '', emphasizing his connection with flour.
While the film borrows from real - life politics, differences are obvious between the characters in the film and historical political figures. The O'Daniel of the movie used "You Are My Sunshine '' as his theme song (which was originally recorded by real - life Governor of Louisiana James Houston "Jimmie '' Davis) and Homer Stokes, as the challenger to the incumbent O'Daniel, portrays himself as the "reform candidate '', using a broom as a prop.
Music in the film was originally conceived as a major component of the film, not merely as a background or a support. Producer and musician T - Bone Burnett worked with the Coens while the script was still in its working phases, and the soundtrack was recorded before filming commenced.
Much of the music used in the film is period - specific folk music, including that of Virginia bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley. The musical selection also includes religious music, including Primitive Baptist and traditional African American gospel, most notably the Fairfield Four, an a cappella quartet with a career extending back to 1921 who appear in the soundtrack and as gravediggers towards the film 's end. Selected songs in the film reflect the possible spectrum of musical styles typical of the old culture of the American South: gospel, delta blues, country, swing and bluegrass.
The use of dirges and other macabre songs is a theme that often recurs in Appalachian music ("O Death '', "Lonesome Valley '', "Angel Band '', "I Am Weary '') in contrast to bright, cheerful songs ("Keep On the Sunny Side '', "In the Highways '') in other parts of the film.
The voices of the Soggy Bottom Boys were provided by Dan Tyminski (lead vocal on "Man of Constant Sorrow ''), Nashville songwriter Harley Allen, and the Nashville Bluegrass Band 's Pat Enright. The three won a CMA Award for Single of the Year and a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals, both for the song "Man of Constant Sorrow ''. Tim Blake Nelson sang the lead vocal on "In the Jailhouse Now ''.
"Man of Constant Sorrow '' has five variations: two are used in the film, one in the music video, and two in the soundtrack album. Two of the variations feature the verses being sung back - to - back, and the other three variations feature additional music between each verse. Though the song received little significant radio airplay, it reached # 35 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in 2002. The version of "I 'll Fly Away '' heard in the film is performed not by Krauss and Welch (as it is on the CD and concert tour), but by the Kossoy Sisters with Erik Darling accompanying on long - neck five - string banjo, recorded in 1956 for the album Bowling Green on Tradition Records.
The film premiered at the AFI Film Festival on October 19, 2000. It grossed $71,868,327 worldwide off its $26 million budget.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 77 % based on 147 reviews and an average score of 7.1 / 10. The consensus reads: "Though not as good as Coen brothers ' classics such as Blood Simple, the delightfully loopy O Brother, Where Art Thou? is still a lot of fun. '' The film holds an average score of 69 / 100 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews.
Roger Ebert gave two and a half out of four stars to the film, saying all the scenes in the film were "wonderful in their different ways, and yet I left the movie uncertain and unsatisfied ''.
The film was selected into the main competition of the 2000 Cannes Film Festival.
The film also received two Academy Award nominations at the 73rd Academy Awards: Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Cinematography. Cinematographer Roger Deakins was recognized with both Academy Award and ASC Outstanding Achievement Award nominations for his work on the film.
For his portrayal of Ulysses Everett McGill, George Clooney received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. The film was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy.
The Soggy Bottom Boys is the musical group that the main characters form to serve as accompaniment for the film. The name is in homage to the Foggy Mountain Boys, a bluegrass band led by Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs. In the film, the songs credited to the band are lip - synched by the actors, except that Tim Blake Nelson does sing his own vocals on "In the Jailhouse Now. '' The actual musicians are Dan Tyminski (guitar and lead vocals), Harley Allen, and Pat Enright. The band 's hit single is Dick Burnett 's "Man of Constant Sorrow, '' a song that had already enjoyed much success in real life. After the film 's release, the fictitious band became so popular that the country and folk musicians who were dubbed into the film got together and performed the music from the film in a Down from the Mountain concert tour which was filmed for TV and DVD. This included Ralph Stanley, John Hartford, Alison Krauss, Emmylou Harris, Gillian Welch, Chris Sharp, and others.
|
how many seasons did star trek next generation run | Star Trek: the Next Generation - wikipedia
Star Trek: The Next Generation (abbreviated as TNG and ST: TNG) is an American science - fiction television series in the Star Trek franchise created by Gene Roddenberry that ran from 1987 to 1994. Roddenberry, Maurice Hurley, Rick Berman, Michael Piller, and Jeri Taylor served as executive producers at different times throughout its production.
The show was very popular, reaching almost 12 million viewers in its 5th season, and the season seven finale in 1994 was watched by over 30 million viewers. The show spawned two reasonably popular spin - offs set in the same sci - fi universe time and place, and 4 theater films with the cast of the show. In the early 2000s the show Enterprise, although more oriented towards re-booting the series was also in the same fictional universe, but an earlier time.
The series involves a starship named Enterprise and is set in the nearby regions of the Milky Way galaxy, the Alpha Quadrant. The first episode takes place in the year 2364, 99 years after the start of the five - year mission described in the original series, which began in 2265.
It features a new cast and a new starship Enterprise, the fifth to bear the name within the franchise 's storyline. An introductory statement, delivered by Patrick Stewart and featured at the beginning of each episode 's title sequence, stated the starship 's purpose in language similar to the opening statement of The Original Series, but was updated to reflect an ongoing mission, and to be gender - neutral:
Space: the final frontier. These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise. Its continuing mission: to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no one has gone before.
TNG premiered the week of September 28, 1987, drawing 27 million viewers, with the two - hour pilot "Encounter at Farpoint ''. In total, 176 episodes were made (including several two - parters), ending with the two - hour finale "All Good Things... '' the week of May 23, 1994.
The series (1987 -- 94) was broadcast in first - run syndication with dates and times varying among individual television stations. Further Star Trek spin - offs followed The Next Generation: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1993 -- 99), Star Trek: Voyager (1995 -- 2001), Star Trek: Enterprise (2001 -- 2005), and Star Trek: Discovery (2017 -- present). The series formed the basis for the seventh through the tenth of the Star Trek films, and is also the setting of numerous novels, comic books, and video games.
In its seventh season, Star Trek: The Next Generation became the first and only syndicated television series to be nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series. The series received a number of accolades, including 19 Emmy Awards, two Hugo Awards, five Saturn Awards, and "The Big Goodbye '' (S1E12) won a Peabody Award. Some of the highest rated shows by Nielsen ratings were the pilot, the finale, "Unification '' (duology), "Aquiel '', "A Matter of Time '', and "Relics ''. "Unification '' includes the classic characters Spock and his father Sarek, and "Relics '' includes Scotty. Other famous episodes include the "Best of Both Worlds '' duology, "Inner Light '', and "The Measure of Man '', which was released in a 1080p extended version in 2012.
The series follows the adventures of a space - faring crew on board the Galaxy Class starship USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701 - D), the fifth Federation vessel to bear the name and registry and the seventh starship by that name. (See Starship Enterprise for other ships with the name and / or registry). The series is set about 70 years after the final mission of the original Enterprise crew under the command of James T. Kirk. The Federation has undergone significant internal changes in its quest to explore and seek out new life, adding new degrees of complexity and controversy to its methods, especially those focused on the Prime Directive. The Klingon Empire and the United Federation of Planets have ceased wartime hostilities and become galactic allies, while more sinister foes such as the Romulans and the Borg take precedence on the series.
The Enterprise is commanded by Captain Jean - Luc Picard and is staffed by first officer Commander William Riker, second officer / operations manager Data, security chief Tasha Yar, ship 's counselor Deanna Troi, chief medical officer Dr. Beverly Crusher and her son Wesley Crusher, conn officer Lieutenant Geordi La Forge, and junior officer Lieutenant Worf. The death of Lieutenant Yar in the twenty - third episode of the first season (1987 - 1988) of the series prompts an internal shuffle of personnel, making Worf official chief of security. In season two, La Forge is promoted to chief engineer and Katherine Pulaski briefly takes over for Beverly Crusher.
The series begins with the crew of the Enterprise - D put on trial by an omnipotent being known as Q, who became a recurring character. The god - like entity threatens the extinction of mankind for being a race of savages, forcing them to solve a mystery at nearby Farpoint Station to prove their worthiness to be spared. After successfully solving the mystery and avoiding disaster, the crew officially departs on its mission to explore strange new worlds.
Subsequent stories focus on the discovery of new life and sociological and political relationships with alien cultures, as well as exploring the human condition. Several new species are introduced as recurring antagonists, including the Ferengi, the Cardassians, and the Borg. Throughout their adventures, Picard and his crew are often forced to face and live with the consequences of difficult choices.
The series ended in its seventh season with a two - part episode "All Good Things... '', which brought the events of the series full circle to the original confrontation with Q. An interstellar anomaly that threatens all life in the universe forces Picard to leap from his present, past, and future to combat the threat. Picard was successfully able to show to Q that humanity could think outside of the confines of perception and theorize on new possibilities while still being prepared to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the greater good. The series ended with the crew of the Enterprise portrayed as feeling more like a family and paved the way for four consecutive motion pictures that continued the theme and mission of the series.
By 1986, 20 years after Star Trek 's debut on NBC, the franchise 's longevity amazed Paramount Pictures executives. Chairman Frank Mancuso Sr. and others described it as the studio 's "crown jewel '', a "priceless asset '' that "must not be squandered ''. The series was the most popular syndicated television program 17 years after cancellation, and the Harve Bennett - produced Star Trek films did well at the box office. William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy 's salary demands for Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986) caused the studio to plan for a new Star Trek television series, as it had thought to do in 1977 with Star Trek: Phase II before making the films. Paramount executives worried that a new show could hurt the demand for the films, but decided that it would increase their appeal on videocassette and cable, and that a show with unknown actors would be more profitable than paying the films ' actors ' large salaries. Roddenberry initially declined to be involved, but came on board as creator after being unhappy with early conceptual work. Star Trek: The Next Generation was announced on October 10, 1986, and its cast in May 1987.
Paramount executive Rick Berman was assigned to the show at Roddenberry 's request. Roddenberry hired a number of Star Trek veterans, including Bob Justman, D.C. Fontana, Eddie Milkis, and David Gerrold. Early proposals for the series included one in which some of the original series cast might appear as "elder statesmen '', and Roddenberry speculated as late as October 1986 that the new series might not even use a spaceship, as "people might travel by some (other) means '' 100 years after the USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701). A more lasting change was his new belief that workplace interpersonal conflict would no longer exist in the future; thus, the new series did not have parallels to the frequent "crusty banter '' between Kirk, Spock, and Leonard McCoy. According to series actor Patrick Stewart, Berman was more receptive than Roddenberry to the show addressing political issues.
The series ' music theme combined the fanfare from the original series theme by Alexander Courage with Jerry Goldsmith 's theme for Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979). Some early episodes ' plots derived from outlines created for Star Trek: Phase II. Additionally, some sets used in the Original Series - era films were redressed for The Next Generation, and in turn used for subsequent Original Series films. Part of the transporter room set in TNG was used in the original Star Trek 's transporter set. Many production details, such as LCARS computer interfaces and starship design, were carried through in the production of subsequent spin - offs.
A major focus of the show is the faster - than - light starship visiting exoplanets, which, although some had speculated to exist, were still in the realm of science fiction when show started in the 1987. However, by the early 1990s more claims were coming out including for PSR B1257 + 12, and a year after the show ended there was a more definitive detection of planets around 51 Pegasi. Another example is the ubiquitous use of hand - held tablet computers, at the time a fictional technology props for the actors but became a more practical and common computing device by the 2010s
Despite Star Trek 's proven success, NBC and ABC only offered to consider pilot scripts for the new series, and CBS offered to air a miniseries that could become a series if it did well. That the Big Three television networks treated Paramount 's most appealing and valuable property as they would any other series offended the studio. Fox wanted the show to help launch the new network, but wanted it by March 1987, and would only commit to 13 episodes instead of a full season. The unsuccessful negotiations convinced the studio that it could only protect Star Trek with full control.
Paramount increased and accelerated the show 's profitability by choosing to instead broadcast it in first - run syndication on independent stations (whose numbers had more than tripled since 1980) and Big Three network affiliates. The studio offered the show to local stations for free as barter syndication. The stations sold five minutes of commercial time to local advertisers and Paramount sold the remaining seven minutes to national advertisers. Stations had to commit to purchasing reruns in the future, and only those that aired the new show could purchase the popular reruns of the original series.
The studio 's strategy succeeded. Most of the 150 stations airing reruns of the original Star Trek wanted to prevent a competitor from airing the new show; ultimately, 210 stations covering 90 % of the United States became part of Paramount 's informal nationwide network for TNG. In early October 1987, more than 50 network affiliates pre-empted their own shows for the series pilot, "Encounter at Farpoint ''. One station predicted that "' Star Trek ' promises to be one of the most successful programs of the season, network or syndicated. '' TNG helped stations like WZZM in Grand Rapids, Michigan, who made a decision show The Next Generation.
The new show indeed performed well; the pilot 's ratings were higher than those of many network programs, and ratings remained comparable to network shows by the end of the first season, despite the handicap of each station airing the show on a different day and time, often outside prime time. By the end of the first season, Paramount reportedly received $1 million for advertising per episode, more than the roughly $800,000 fee that networks typically paid for a one - hour show; by 1992, when the budget for each episode had risen to almost $2 million, the studio earned $90 million from advertising annually from first - run episodes, with each 30 - second commercial selling for $115,000 to $150,000. The show had a 40 % return on investment for Paramount, with $30 to $60 million in annual upfront net profit for first - run episodes and another $70 million for stripping rights for each of the about 100 episodes then available, so did not need overseas sales to be successful.
The Next Generation was shot on 35mm film, and the budget for each episode was $1.3 million, among the largest for a one - hour television drama. While the staff enjoyed the creative freedom gained by independence from a broadcast network 's Standards and Practices department, the first season was marked by a "revolving door '' of writers, with Gerrold, Fontana, and others quitting after disputes with Roddenberry. Roddenberry "virtually rewrote '' the first 15 episodes because of his "dogmatic '' intention to depict human interaction "without drawing on the baser motives of greed, lust, and power ''. Writers found the show 's "bible '' constricting and ridiculous and could n't deal with Roddenberry 's ego and treatment of them. It stated, for example, that "regular characters all share a feeling of being part of a band of brothers and sisters. As in the original ' Star Trek, ' we invite the audience to share the same feeling of affection for our characters. ''
Mark Bourne of The DVD Journal wrote of season one: "A typical episode relied on trite plot points, clumsy allegories, dry and stilted dialogue, or characterization that was taking too long to feel relaxed and natural. '' Other targets of criticism included poor special effects and plots being resolved by the deus ex machina of Wesley Crusher saving the ship. However, Patrick Stewart 's acting skills won praise, and critics noted that characters were given greater potential for development than those of the original series. Both actors and producers were unsure whether Trekkies loyal to the original show would accept the new one, but one critic stated as early as October 1987 that The Next Generation, not the movies or the original show, "is the real ' Star Trek ' now ''.
While the events of most episodes of season one were self - contained, many developments important to the show as a whole occurred during the season. The recurring nemesis Q was introduced in the pilot, the alien Ferengi had their sentinel showing in "The Last Outpost '', the holodeck was introduced, and the romantic backstory between William Riker and Deanna Troi was investigated. "The Naked Now '', one of the few episodes that depicted Roddenberry 's fascination (as seen in the show 's bible) with sex in the future, became a cast favorite.
Later episodes in the season set the stage for serial plots. The episode "Datalore '' introduced Data 's evil twin brother Lore, who made several more appearances in episodes in subsequent seasons. "Coming of Age '' dealt with Wesley Crusher 's efforts to get into Starfleet Academy while also hinting at the threat to Starfleet later faced in "Conspiracy ''. "Heart of Glory '' explored Worf 's character, Klingon culture, and the uneasy truce between the Federation and the Klingon Empire, three themes that played major roles in later episodes. Tasha Yar left the show in "Skin of Evil '', becoming the first regular Star Trek character to die permanently (although the character was seen again in two later episodes) in either series or film. The season finale, "The Neutral Zone '', established the presence of two of TNG ' most enduring villains: the Romulans, making their first appearance since the Original Series, and, through foreshadowing, the Borg.
The premiere became the first television episode to be nominated for a Hugo Award since 1972. Six of the season 's episodes were each nominated for an Emmy Award. "11001001 '' won for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series, "The Big Goodbye '' won for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series, and "Conspiracy '' won for Outstanding Achievement in Makeup for a Series. "The Big Goodbye '' also won a Peabody Award, the first syndicated program and only Star Trek episode to do so.
The top episodes for Nielsen ratings were "Encounter at Farpoint '' with 15.7, and the next highest was "Justice '' with 12.7.
Debuted 1987 - 1988
The series underwent significant changes during its second season. Beverly Crusher was replaced as Chief Medical Officer by Katherine Pulaski, played by Diana Muldaur, who had been a guest star in "Return to Tomorrow '' and "Is There in Truth No Beauty? '', two episodes from the original Star Trek series. The ship 's recreational area, Ten - Forward, and its mysterious bartender / advisor, Guinan, played by Whoopi Goldberg, appeared for the first time. Another change was in the opening theme, wherein at the end is a short fanfare. Owing to the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike, the number of episodes produced was cut from 26 to 22, and the start of the season was delayed. Because of the strike, the opening episode, "The Child '', was based on a script originally written for Star Trek: Phase II, while the season finale, "Shades of Gray '', was a clip show.
Nevertheless, season two as a whole was widely regarded as significantly better than season one. Benefiting from Paramount 's commitment to a multiyear run and free from network interference due to syndication, Roddenberry found writers who could work within his guidelines and create drama from the cast 's interaction with the rest of the universe. The plots became more sophisticated and began to mix drama with comic relief. Its focus on character development received special praise. Co-executive producer Maurice Hurley has stated that his primary goal for the season was to plan and execute season - long story arcs and character arcs. Hurley wrote the acclaimed episode "Q Who '', which featured the first on - screen appearance of the Borg, TNG 's most popular villain. Season two focused on developing the character Data, and two highly regarded episodes from the season, "Elementary, Dear Data '' and "The Measure of a Man '', featured him prominently. Miles O'Brien also became a more prominent character during the second season, while Geordi La Forge took the position of Chief Engineer. Klingon issues continued to be explored in well - regarded episodes such as "A Matter of Honor '' and "The Emissary '', which introduced Worf 's former lover K'Ehleyr. Five second - season episodes were nominated for six Emmy Awards, and "Q Who '' won for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series.
Debuted 1988 - 1989
Before the production of the third season in the summer of 1989, some personnel changes were made. Head writer Maurice Hurley was let go and Michael Piller took over for the rest of the series. Creator and executive producer Gene Roddenberry took less of an active role due to his declining health. Roddenberry gave Piller and Berman the executive producer jobs, and they remained in that position for the rest of the series ' run, with Berman overseeing the production as a whole and Piller being in charge of the creative direction of the show and the writing room. Doctor Crusher returned from her off - screen tenure at Starfleet Medical to replace Doctor Pulaski, who had remained a guest star throughout the second season. An additional change was the inclusion of the fanfare that was added to the opening credits of the second season, to the end of the closing credits. Ronald D. Moore joined the show after submitting a spec script that became "The Bonding ''. He became the franchise 's "Klingon guru '', meaning that he wrote most TNG episodes dealing with the Klingon Empire (though he wrote some Romulan stories, as well, such as "The Defector ''). Writer / producer Ira Steven Behr also joined the show in its third season. Though his tenure with TNG lasted only one year, he later went on to be a writer and showrunner of spin - off series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Six third - season episodes were nominated for eight Emmys. "Yesterday 's Enterprise '' won for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series and "Sins of the Father '' won for Best Art Direction for a Series. After a chiropractor warned that the cast members risked permanent skeletal injury, new two - piece wool uniforms replaced the first two seasons ' extremely tight spandex uniforms. The season finale, the critically acclaimed episode "The Best of Both Worlds '', was the first season - ending cliffhanger, a tradition that continued throughout the remainder of the series.
Debuted 1989 - 1990
Brannon Braga and Jeri Taylor joined the show in its fourth season. The fourth season surpassed the Original Series in series length with the production of "The Best of Both Worlds, Part II ''. A new alien race, the Cardassians, made their first appearance in "The Wounded ''. They later were featured in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. The season finale, "Redemption '', was the 100th episode, and the cast and crew (including creator Gene Roddenberry) celebrated the historic milestone on the bridge set. Footage of this was seen in the Star Trek 25th - anniversary special hosted by William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy which aired later in the year. Seven fourth - season episodes were nominated for eight Emmys. "The Best of Both Worlds, Part II '' won for both Outstanding Sound Editing in a Series and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Series. Character Wesley Crusher left the series in season four to go to Starfleet Academy. "Family '' was the only Star Trek episode not to have a bridge scene during the entire episode and is the only TNG episode where Data does not appear on - screen.
Debuted 1990 - 1991
The fifth season 's seventh episode, "Unification '', opened with a dedication to Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry (though the prior episode, "The Game '', aired four days after his death). Roddenberry, though he had recently died, continued to be credited as executive producer for the rest of the season. The cast and crew learned of his death during the production of "Hero Worship '', a later season - five episode. Seven fifth - season episodes were nominated for eight Emmys. "Cost of Living '' won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Costume Design for a Series and Outstanding Individual Achievement in Makeup for a Series, and "A Matter of Time '' and "Conundrum '' tied for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Special Visual Effects. In addition, "The Inner Light '' became the first television episode since the 1968 original series Star Trek episode "The City on the Edge of Forever '' to win a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Season five had the introduction of a jacket for Picard, worn periodically throughout the rest of the show 's run. The observation lounge set was altered with the removal of the gold model starships across the interior wall and the addition of lighting beneath the windows. Recurring character Ensign Ro Laren was introduced in the fifth season. The season 5 finale cliffhanger includes a cameo by Stephen Hawking (Part I of "Descent '').
Debuted 1991 - 1992
The sixth season brought a new set of changes. Rick Berman and Michael Piller 's time was split between the newly created Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and The Next Generation. Three sixth - season episodes were nominated for Emmys. "Time 's Arrow, Part II '' won for both Outstanding Individual Achievement in Costume Design for a Series and Outstanding Individual Achievement in Hairstyling for a Series, and "A Fistful of Datas '' won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Drama Series. The highest rated episode of Season 6 for Nielsen ratings was "Relics '', with a rating of 13.9. which featured Scotty played by original series veteran James Doohan.
NASA astronaut Mae Jemison plays in Lt. Palmer the Season 6 show "Second Chances ''.
Debuted 1992 - 1993
The seventh season was The Next Generation 's last. The penultimate episode, "Preemptive Strike '', concluded the plot line for the recurring character Ensign Ro Laren and introduced themes that continued in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager. The Next Generation series finale, "All Good Things... '', was a double - length episode (separated into two parts for reruns) that aired the week of May 19, 1994, revisiting the events of the pilot and providing a bookend to the series. Toronto 's SkyDome played host to a massive event for the series finale. Thousands of people packed the stadium to watch the final episode on the stadium 's JumboTron. Five seventh - season episodes were nominated for nine Emmys, and the series as a whole was the first syndicated television series nominated for Outstanding Drama Series. To this day, The Next Generation is the only syndicated drama to be nominated in this category. "All Good Things... '' won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Special Visual Effects, and "Genesis '' won for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Drama Series. "All Good Things... '' also won the second of the series 's two Hugo Awards. "All Good Things... '' also achieved the highest Nielson rating for all of Season 7, with a rating of 17.4.
The TNG cast went on to make 4 films after the conclusion of Season 7. Between 1994 and 2002 the main Cast of the show went on to star in Generations, First Contact, Insurrection, and Nemesis. Meanwhile, on TV, DS9 continued with some of the prior TNG cast including Worf and O'Brien, and later in Fall of 1994 Frakes (TNG 's Riker) guest starred on Deep Space Nine 's "Defiant '' (S3E9). In January 1995 the new Star Trek TV series Voyager show launched. and the aforementioned Generations movie had hit theaters in November 1994. Even with the loss of the franchise 's guide and visionary, Roddenberry, Star Trek: The Next Generation had launched a golden era of new Trek media which would last well into the 21st century. In the finale of Enterprise, over ten years later Frakes and Sirtis reprising their roles as Riker and Deanna appear on television one last time. In the 2010s a project would be undertaken to convert all of TNG to 1080p High - Definition, and by 2015 it was all released on Blue - Ray, TV, and HD internet steaming services.
Debuted 1993 - 1994
Although the cast members were contracted for eight seasons, Paramount ended The Next Generation after seven, which disappointed and puzzled some of the actors, and was an unusual decision for a successful television show. Paramount then made films using the cast, which it believed would be less successful if the show were still on television. Season eight also would likely have reduced the show 's profitability due to higher cast salaries and a lower price per episode when sold for stripping. The show 's strong ratings continued to the end; the series finale was ranked number two among all shows that week, between hits Home Improvement and Seinfeld.
Star Trek: The Next Generation finale in Season Seven was watched by over 30 million viewers when it concluded in early 1994. TNG would provide the high - water mark in terms of viewership, with a peak of 11.5 million during its 5th Season prior to the launch of DS9, and between 1988 and 1992 it picked up half a million to a million additional viewers per year.
Adjusted Nielson Ratings for Star Trek TV
In the 2010s, Star Trek: The Next Generation was re-produced in high - definition (1080p) with a format of 4: 3 (1.33: 1). Many thought would not be possible, but CBS managed to do it and major work was done at CBS Digital. TNG was shot on 35 mm film, which meant the film could be re-scanned to a higher resolution, however, many of the special effects had to be re-produced. Also a 7.1 DTS - HD Master Audio sound option was created.
Season 1 achieved 95,000 units in its launch week in 2012. (further information Blu - Ray releases) In addition to the Blu - Ray packages, the HD was sold to many online streaming TV providers such as Netflix. The Netflix version included some additional special effect changes. The Blu - ray sets include many special features and videos, such as a 1988 episode of Reading Rainbow where Levar Burton (on TNG he is cast as Chief Engineer Geordi) documents the making of a Star Trek: The Next Generation episode.
In June 2016 a 41 - disc set was released with over 8000 minutes of TNG - content, including the entire show in 1080p (4: 3).
In addition to the series regulars, other recurring characters include:
There were certain big changes for regular characters, the major one was that Tasha Yar is only in season one, and Wesley left for Starfleet Academy in Season 4. In Season 2 the doctor is Pulaski not Crusher, but Crusher does come back and remains the ship 's doctor thereafter (In All Good Things it is revealed she eventually marries Picard and has her own starship command, thus becoming the new Captain Picard, as he retired to tend a vineyard). In many cases the characters, or at least the actors, come back to act in some role on the show. There are many reoccurring characters, some of them have actually more appearances in episodes than Tasha. (See List of Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members # Appearances for a more in - depth table)
The character Q is very famous, and appeared in the first and last duologies, but overall only appeared in 8 shows
The Next Generation included several guest characters who appeared in other iterations of Star Trek, and also introduced characters who appeared in later spinoffs and films. James Doohan, DeForest Kelley, Mark Lenard, and Leonard Nimoy appeared as the original Star Trek characters Montgomery Scott, Leonard McCoy, Sarek, and Spock, respectively. Merritt Butrick, Robin Curtis, Judson Scott, David Warner, and Paul Winfield played characters in various Star Trek films and later had roles in The Next Generation. Additionally, Alexander Siddig and Armin Shimerman played their Deep Space Nine characters, Julian Bashir and Quark, in episodes of The Next Generation. Before being cast in Deep Space Nine, Shimerman had played several Ferengi characters in The Next Generation. Jennifer Hetrick (Vash), Barbara March (Lursa), Richard Poe (Evek), and Gwynyth Walsh (B'Etor) reprised their Next Generation characters on Deep Space Nine.
Several actors who appeared in Star Trek: The Next Generation later played other roles within the franchise. These include Robert Duncan McNeill, Ethan Phillips, and Tim Russ, who played Tom Paris, Neelix, and Tuvok, respectively, on Voyager. Salome Jens and James Sloyan appeared in episodes of The Next Generation before landing recurring roles in Deep Space Nine. Suzie Plakson and Tony Todd also appeared in The Next Generation, and they later played roles in both Deep Space Nine and Voyager. Marc Alaimo, who depicted one of the franchise 's first Cardassians in The Next Generation, later played the Cardassian Dukat throughout Deep Space Nine 's seven seasons. Like Armin Shimerman, Max Grodénchik played a Ferengi in The Next Generation before being cast as a recurring Ferengi, Rom, in Deep Space Nine. Emmy Award - winner James Cromwell appeared twice in The Next Generation, and he played Zefram Cochrane in the second Next Generation film, First Contact.
Other notable guest actors in the show include Erich Anderson, Billy Campbell, Nikki Cox, Ronny Cox, Olivia d'Abo, Kirsten Dunst, Mick Fleetwood, Matt Frewer, Walter Gotell, Kelsey Grammer, Bob Gunton, Teri Hatcher, Stephen Hawking (as himself), Famke Janssen, Mae Jemison, Ken Jenkins, Ashley Judd, Sabrina Le Beauf, Christopher McDonald, Bebe Neuwirth, Terry O'Quinn, Michelle Phillips, Joe Piscopo, Gina Ravera, Jean Simmons, Paul Sorvino, Brenda Strong, James Worthy, Tracey Walter, Liz Vassey, David Ogden Stiers, Ray Walston, Ray Wise, and John Tesh.
Star Trek had a number of story arcs within the larger story, and oftentimes different episodes contributed to two or more different story or character arcs. These could be grouped in different ways, and one way was by the aliens they were interacting with, for example TNG introduced the Borg and the Cardassians. The Klingons and Romulans had been introduced in the original series (1966 -- 69); however, the Klingons were somewhat re-booted with "turtle - head '' look, although a retcon was given for this in an Enterprise episode. Another way to group them is by a certain character such as Q or Ro Laren or by a technology like the holo - deck, and there were many other alien encounters (usually funny foreheads, face - paint, or no - body). Often the plot for alien encounters involved some eccentric alien nature that caused tensions, revealed at the end
The Borg:
Certain episodes go deeper into the Klingon alien saga, which are famous for having an actual Klingon language made for them in the trekiverse. The Klingon stories usually involve Worf, but not all Worf - centric shows are focused on Klingons. The famous Duras sisters, a Klingon duo Lursa and B'Etor, were introduced on TNG in 1991 on Redemption (S5 - S5 bridge) and they later appeared in the film Generations
Klingon stories (examples):
The Klingon saga established by TNG was significantly continued on the Deep Space Nine tv show, which continued the Worf character for another 4 seasons
Reginald Barclay (played by A-Team veteran Dwight Schultz) stories:
Barclay 's character also has several important episodes Star Trek Voyager TV show such as Projections (Star Trek: Voyager).
Lore is an android like Data, and is played by the same actor. Lore was introduced in S1E13.
Q
A thematic grouping is also possible, and a number of TNG dabbled in softcore terror / horror
The Next Generation 's average of 20 million viewers often exceeded both existing syndication successes such as Wheel of Fortune and network hits including Cheers and L.A. Law. Benefiting in part from many stations ' decision to air each new episode twice in a week, it consistently ranked in the top ten among hour - long dramas, and networks could not prevent affiliates from preempting their shows with The Next Generation or other dramas that imitated its syndication strategy. Star Trek: The Next Generation received 18 Emmy Awards and, in its seventh season, became the first and only syndicated television show to be nominated for the Emmy for Best Dramatic Series. It was nominated for three Hugo Awards and won two. The first - season episode "The Big Goodbye '' also won the Peabody Award for excellence in television programming.
In 1997, the episode "The Best of Both Worlds, Part I '' was ranked No. 70 on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. In 2002, Star Trek: The Next Generation was ranked # 46 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time list, and in 2008, was ranked No. 37 on Empire 's list of the 50 greatest television shows.
On October 7, 2006, one of the three original filming models of the USS Enterprise - D used on the show sold at a Christie 's auction for USD $576,000, making it the highest - selling item at the event. The buyer of the piece was Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, owner of the Museum of Pop Culture in Seattle. The piece is on display within the Science Fiction Museum.
In 2012, Entertainment Weekly listed the show at No. 7 in the "25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years '', saying, "The original Star Trek was cult TV before cult TV was even a thing, but its younger, sleeker offspring brought, yes, a new generation into the Trekker fold, and reignited the promise of sci - fi on television. '' Although TNG did develop a cult following, it was noted for its prime - time general audience viewership also.
The flute from "Inner Light '' was valued at only a few hundred to perhaps 1000 USD when it went to auction, but was sold for over 40,000; in this case the auctioneers admitted they had underestimated the appeal of the prop.
In the days leading up to the auction, Denise Okuda, former Trek scenic artist and video supervisor, as well as co-writer of the auction catalog, said: "That 's the item people say they really have to have, because it 's so iconic to a much - beloved episode. ''
DS9 's "The Emissary '', which came out half - way through season 6 of TNG achieved a Nielsen rating of 18.8. Star Trek 's ratings went into a steady decline starting with Season 6 of TNG, and the second to last episode of DS9 achieved a Nielsen rating of 3.9.
Examples of video games based on The Next Generation TV series, movies, and characters include:
The Enterprise and its setting is also in other Trekiverse games like Star Trek: Armada (2000), by which time it was common to have a game set in the time and place inhabited by TNG, but also occupied by two more television shows and the films. For example, in Star Trek: Armada voice actors from The Next Generation contributed to their characters in the game including Patrick Stewart reprised the roles of Jean - Luc Picard and Locutus, Michael Dorn voiced Worf, Denise Crosby reprised Sela, and J.G. Hertzler voiced Chancellor Martok. Several other voice actors who had been previously unaffiliated with Star Trek also voiced characters in the game, among them was Richard Penn.
Star Trek: Armada II was set in the Star Trek: The Next Generation era of the Star Trek universe.
Star Trek: Hidden Evil, which came out in 1999 not only included voice acting by Brent Spiner as Data and Patrick Stewart as Picard, but the story was a follow - on from the ninth Star Trek movie, Star Trek: Insurrection.
Four films feature the characters of the series: Star Trek Generations (1994), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002).
Worf played by Dorn also appeared in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.
` ` I think it was kind of an honor they had my character be sort of the link between the two series. It was wonderful to be working with the other cast (from the original Star Trek series). It was kind of a fantasy because who would have thought when I was watching the original show that I ` d be working in the movie? Beyond that, it ` s like professionalism takes over and you just kind of do the best you can and not make yourself look bad
Gross with TNG - cast ST films (not - inflation adjusted)
Lenard Nimoy as Spock also had some TNG episodes (e.g. Unification (Star Trek: The Next Generation) and was featured in the re-boot Star Trek film in 2009
Starting with First Contact, they get a new ship the Enterprise - E with a similar but modified designed as the D - model featured in TV and in Generations
All episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation were made available on VHS cassettes, starting in 1991. The entire series was gradually released on VHS over the next few years during the remainder of the show 's run and after the show had ended.
The VHS for TNG were available on mail - order usually two episodes per VHS cassette.
Paramount published all episodes on the LaserDisc format from October 1991 using an extended release schedule that concluded in May 1999. Each disc featured two episodes with Closed Captions, Digital Audio, and CX encoding. Also published were four themed "collections '', or boxed sets, of related episodes. These included The Borg Collective, The Q Continuum, Worf: Return to Grace, and The Captains Collection.
There was a production error with episode 166, "Sub Rosa '', where a faulty master tape was used that was missing 41⁄2 minutes of footage. Though a new master copy of the episode was obtained, no corrected pressing of this disc was issued.
Star Trek: The Next Generation was also released on LaserDisc in the non-US markets Japan and Europe. In Japan, all episodes were released in a series of 14 boxed sets (two boxed sets per season), and as with the US releases were in the NTSC format and ordered by production code. The European laserdiscs were released in the PAL format and included the ten two - part telemovies as well as a disc featuring the episodes Yesterday 's Enterprise and Cause And Effect. The pilot episode, Encounter At Farpoint, was also included in a boxed set called Star Trek: The Pilots featuring the pilot episodes from Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, and Star Trek: Voyager.
The first season of the series was released on DVD in March 2002. Throughout the year the next six seasons were released at various times on DVD, with the seventh season being released in December 2002. To commemorate the 20th anniversary of the series, CBS Home Entertainment and Paramount Home Entertainment released Star Trek: The Next Generation -- The Complete Series on October 2, 2007. The DVD box set contains 49 discs. Between March 2006 and September 2008, "Fan Collective '' editions were released containing select episodes of The Next Generation (and The Original Series, Deep Space Nine, and Voyager) based on various themes. The individual episodes were chosen by fans voting on StarTrek.com. In total, six "Fan Collectives '' were produced, along with a boxed set containing the first five collectives. In April 2013 all seven seasons of Star Trek: The Next Generation were re-released in new packaging featuring a silhouette of a different cast member on each box. However, the discs contained the identical content that was previously released in 2002.
The original show was shot on high - quality 35 mm film, but had to be downscaled before editing and postprocessing to standard ' 80s and ' 90s TV resolution (video quality) for broadcast. The show 's final visual effects (e.g. all exterior shots of the starship Enterprise, phaser fire or beaming fade - ins and - outs) were also composed only in standard resolution video. All previous home video and DVD releases used this severely downscaled version. To include such footage on Blu - ray, using only upscaling, would have resulted in a larger but blurred image, so CBS decided to use a more detailed approach to bring the show to high definition. They also opted to adhere to the show 's original 4: 3 aspect ratio.
A news release on the official website announced on September 28, 2011, in celebration of the series ' twenty - fifth anniversary, that Star Trek: The Next Generation would be completely re-mastered in 1080p and 4k high definition from the original 35 mm film negatives (consisting of almost 25,000 reels of original film stock). All the visual effects for each episode would be digitally recomposed from original large - format negatives and newly created CGI shots. The release would be accompanied by 7.1 DTS Master Audio.
An initial disc featuring the episodes "Encounter at Farpoint '', "Sins of the Father '', and "The Inner Light '' was released on January 31, 2012 under the label "The Next Level ''. The six - disc first season set was released on July 24, 2012. The remaining seasons were released periodically thereafter, culminating in the release of the seventh season on December 2, 2014.
The entire re-mastered series is available on Blu - ray as individual seasons, and as a 41 - disc box set titled The Full Journey. Eventually, all remastered episodes will also be available for television syndication and digital distribution. Mike Okuda believes this is the largest film restoration project ever attempted.
When TNG was re-made into 1080p, several episodes were released as stand - alone single show Blu - Ray products.
This includes
A famous episode, "The Measure of a Man ", which broke - out of entertainment into academia was released in HD in 2012 with an extended cut. The extended version includes an extra 13 minutes of footage as well as recreated special effects. It was released as part of the Season 2 collection set.
Star Trek: The Next Generation spawned a lot of media set in its science - fiction vision, which was primarily the 2370s but set in the same universe as first Star Trek TV shows of the 1960s. This included the aforementioned films, computer games, board games, theme parks etc. In the 2010s there was still discussion about a Captain Worf spin - off, the Bridge officer that debuted on TNG and was also featured in the TNG spin - off show Deep Space Nine, which itself had quite a following.
Star Trek TNG - era Novels (examples):
In 2005, the last episode of "Enteprise '' called "These Are the Voyages... '' (S4E22) featured a holodeck simulation on the USS Enterprise (NCC - 1701 - D) from Star Trek: The Next Generation during the events of the episode "The Pegasus '' and the return of Commander William Riker (Jonathan Frakes) and Counselor Deanna Troi (Marina Sirtis). It was written by Berman and Braga, who noted "... this was a very cool episode because it has a great concept driving it ''.
Star Trek: Enterprise was TV show launched following Star Trek: Voyager conclusion, and was set 100 years before TOS and 200 years before TNG, in addition to including some soft re-boot elements with an all new cast. Some episodes connected to TNG directly including guest stars by Brent Spiner and connections to the events in TNG 's fictional universe. The three - episode story arc consisting of "Borderland '', "Cold Station 12 '', and "The Augments '', with a Soong ancestor portrayed by The Next Generation regular Brent Spiner provides some backstory to Data 's back - story. Also Affliction (Star Trek: Enterprise) also helps explain the smooth - headed Klingons that sometimes appeared, a theatrically presented retcon and backstory that helped explain this varying presentation between TOS, TNG, and Films
Star Trek would not return to television as a show for over 12 years, until the debut of Star Trek: Discovery on CBS, but thereafter exclusively available on the internet service CBS All Access (Neflix Internationally) at that time. The film franchise was rebooted under the Kelvin timeline was quite successful, with several blockbusters from 2009 and featuring scenes with Spock
This infographic shows the first - run production timeline of various Star Trek franchise shows and films, including Star Trek: The Next Generation
The re-production of TNG into HD was done in the 2010s.
|
what is issued by the financial action task force three times a year | Financial Action Task Force on money laundering - wikipedia
The Financial Action Task Force (on Money Laundering) (FATF), also known by its French name, Groupe d'action financière (GAFI), is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1989 on the initiative of the G7 to develop policies to combat money laundering. In 2001 the purpose expanded to act on terrorism financing. It monitors countries ' progress in implementing the FATF Recommendations by ' peer reviews ' (' mutual evaluations ') of member countries. The FATF Secretariat is housed at the headquarters of the OECD in Paris.
The Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) was established during the 1989 G7 Summit in Paris to combat the growing problem of money laundering. The task force was charged with studying money laundering trends, monitoring legislative, financial and law enforcement activities taken at the national and international level, reporting on compliance, and issuing recommendations and standards to combat money laundering. At the time of its creation, the organisation had 16 original members.
In its first year, the FATF issued a report containing forty recommendations to more effectively fight money laundering. These standards were revised in 2003 to reflect evolving patterns and techniques in money laundering.
The mandate of the organisation was expanded to include terrorist financing following the September 11 terror attacks.
The FATF 's primary policies issued are the Forty Recommendations on money laundering from 1990 and the 9 Special Recommendations (SR) on Terrorism Financing (TF).
Together, the Forty Recommendation and Special Recommendations on Terrorism Financing set the international standard for anti-money laundering measures and combating the financing of terrorism and terrorist acts. They set out the principles for action and allow countries a measure of flexibility in implementing these principles according to their particular circumstances and constitutional frameworks. Both sets of FATF Recommendations are intended to be implemented at the national level through legislation and other legally binding measures.
The FATF completely revised the Forty Recommendations in 1996 and 2003. The 2003 Forty Recommendations require states, among other things, to:
The FATF issued 8 Special Recommendations on Terrorism Financing in October 2001, following the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States. Among the measures, "Special Recommendation VIII '' (SR VIII) was targeted specifically at nonprofit organizations. This was followed by the International Best Practices Combating the Abuse of Non-Profit Organizations in 2002, released one month before the U.S. Department of Treasury 's Anti-Terrorist Financing Guidelines, and the Interpretive Note for SR VIII in 2006.
In February 2004 (Updated as of February 2009) the FATF published a reference document Methodology for Assessing Compliance with the FATF 40 Recommendations and the FATF 9 Special Recommendations. The 2009 Handbook for Countries and Assessors outlines criteria for evaluating whether FATF standards are achieved in participating countries. In February 2012, the FATF codified its recommendations and Interpretive Notes into one document that maintains SR VIII (renamed "Recommendation 8 ''), and also includes new rules on weapons of mass destruction, corruption and wire transfers ("Recommendation 16 '').
In addition to FATF 's "Forty plus Nine '' Recommendations, in 2000 FATF issued a list of "Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories '' (NCCTs), commonly called the FATF Blacklist. This was a list of 15 jurisdictions that, for one reason or another, FATF members believed were uncooperative with other jurisdictions in international efforts against money laundering (and, later, terrorism financing). Typically, this lack of cooperation manifested itself as an unwillingness or inability (frequently, a legal inability) to provide foreign law enforcement officials with information relating to bank account and brokerage records, and customer identification and beneficial owner information relating to such bank and brokerage accounts, shell company, and other financial vehicles commonly used in money laundering. As of October 2006, there are no Non-Cooperative Countries and Territories in the context of the NCCT initiative. However FATF issues updates as countries on High - risk and non-cooperative jurisdictions list have made significant improvements in standards and cooperation. The FATF also issues updates to identify additional jurisdictions that pose Money Laundering / Terrorist Financing risks.
The effect of the FATF Blacklist has been significant, and arguably has proven more important in international efforts against money laundering than has the FATF Recommendations. While, under international law, the FATF Blacklist carried with it no formal sanction, in reality, a jurisdiction placed on the FATF Blacklist often found itself under intense financial pressure.
As of 2016 FATF consists of thirty - five member jurisdictions and two regional organisations, the EU and the Gulf Co-operation Council. The FATF also works in close co-operation with a number of international and regional bodies involved in combating money laundering and terrorism financing.
As of 2015 there are 8 associate members:
As of 2015 twenty five international organisations including for example the International Monetary Fund, the UN with six expert groups and the World Bank are observer organisations. The FATF welcomed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as an observer to the FATF.
|
if p = np does that imply that eth is false justify your answer | Exponential time hypothesis - wikipedia
In computational complexity theory, the exponential time hypothesis is an unproven computational hardness assumption that was formulated by Impagliazzo & Paturi (1999). The hypothesis states that 3 - SAT (or any of several related NP - complete problems) can not be solved in subexponential time in the worst case. The exponential time hypothesis, if true, would imply that P ≠ NP, but it is a stronger statement. It can be used to show that many computational problems are equivalent in complexity, in the sense that if one of them has a subexponential time algorithm then they all do.
k - SAT is the problem of testing whether a Boolean expression, in conjunctive normal form with at most k variables per clause, can be made to be true by some assignment of Boolean values to its variables. For each integer k ≥ 2, define a real number s to be the infimum of the real numbers δ for which there exists an algorithm solving k - SAT in time O (2), where n is the number of variables in the given k - SAT instance. Then s = 0, because 2 - SAT can be solved in polynomial time. The exponential time hypothesis is the conjecture that, for every k > 2, s > 0. Clearly, s ≤ s ≤..., so it is equivalent to assume that s > 0; the positivity of the remaining numbers s follows automatically from this assumption.
Some sources define the exponential time hypothesis to be the slightly weaker statement that 3 - SAT can not be solved in time 2. If there existed an algorithm to solve 3 - SAT in time 2, then clearly s would equal zero. However, it is consistent with current knowledge that there could be a sequence of 3 - SAT algorithms, each with running time O (2) for a sequence of numbers δ tending towards zero, but where the descriptions of these algorithms are so quickly growing that a single algorithm could not automatically select and run the most appropriate one.
Because the numbers s, s,... form a monotonic sequence that is bounded above by one, they must converge to a limit s. The strong exponential time hypothesis (SETH) is the assumption that the limiting value s of the sequence of numbers s equals one.
Another variant is the non-uniform exponential time hypothesis, a strengthening of the second phrasing of the ETH, which posits that there is no family of algorithms (one for each length of the input, in the spirit of advice) that can solve 3 - SAT in time 2.
It is not possible for s to equal s for any finite k: as Impagliazzo, Paturi & Zane (2001) showed, there exists a constant α such that s ≤ s (1 − α / k). Therefore, if the exponential time hypothesis is true, there must be infinitely many values of k for which s differs from s.
An important tool in this area is the sparsification lemma of Impagliazzo, Paturi & Zane (2001), which shows that, for any ε > 0, any k - CNF formula can be replaced by O (2) simpler k - CNF formulas in which each variable appears only a constant number of times, and therefore in which the number of clauses is linear. The sparsification lemma is proven by repeatedly finding large sets of clauses that have a nonempty common intersection in a given formula, and replacing the formula by two simpler formulas, one of which has each of these clauses replaced by their common intersection and the other of which has the intersection removed from each clause. By applying the sparsification lemma and then using new variables to split the clauses, one may then obtain a set of O (2) 3 - CNF formulas, each with a linear number of variables, such that the original k - CNF formula is satisfiable if and only if at least one of these 3 - CNF formulas is satisfiable. Therefore, if 3 - SAT could be solved in subexponential time, one could use this reduction to solve k - SAT in subexponential time as well. Equivalently, if s > 0 for any k > 3, then s > 0 as well, and the exponential time hypothesis would be true.
The limiting value s of the sequence of numbers s is at most equal to s, where s is the infimum of the numbers δ such that satisfiability of conjunctive normal form formulas without clause length limits can be solved in time O (2). Therefore, if the strong exponential time hypothesis is true, then there would be no algorithm for general CNF satisfiability that is significantly faster than testing all possible truth assignments. However, if the strong exponential time hypothesis fails, it would still be possible for s to equal one.
The exponential time hypothesis implies that many other problems in the complexity class SNP do not have algorithms whose running time is faster than c for some constant c. These problems include graph k - colorability, finding Hamiltonian cycles, maximum cliques, maximum independent sets, and vertex cover on n - vertex graphs. Conversely, if any of these problems has a subexponential algorithm, then the exponential time hypothesis could be shown to be false.
If cliques or independent sets of logarithmic size could be found in polynomial time, the exponential time hypothesis would be false. Therefore, even though finding cliques or independent sets of such small size is unlikely to be NP - complete, the exponential time hypothesis implies that these problems are non-polynomial. More generally, the exponential time hypothesis implies that it is not possible to find cliques or independent sets of size k in time n. The exponential time hypothesis also implies that it is not possible to solve the k - SUM problem (given n real numbers, find k of them that add to zero) in time n. The strong exponential time hypothesis implies that it is not possible to find k - vertex dominating sets more quickly than in time n.
The exponential time hypothesis implies also that the weighted Feedback Arc Set Tournament (FAST) problem does not have a parametrized algorithm with running time O (2), it does have though a parametrized algorithm with running time O (2).
The strong exponential time hypothesis leads to tight bounds on the parameterized complexity of several graph problems on graphs of bounded treewidth. In particular, if the strong exponential time hypothesis is true, then the optimal time bound for finding independent sets on graphs of treewidth w is (2 − o (1)) n, the optimal time for the dominating set problem is (3 − o (1)) n, the optimum time for maximum cut is (2 − o (1)) n, and the optimum time for k - coloring is (k − o (1)) n. Equivalently, any improvement on these running times would falsify the strong exponential time hypothesis. The exponential time hypothesis also implies that any fixed - parameter tractable algorithm for edge clique cover must have double exponential dependence on the parameter.
In the three - party set disjointness problem in communication complexity, three subsets of the integers in some range (1, m) are specified, and three communicating parties each know two of the three subsets. The goal is for the parties to transmit as few bits to each other on a shared communications channel in order for one of the parties to be able to determine whether the intersection of the three sets is empty or nonempty. A trivial m - bit communications protocol would be for one of the three parties to transmit a bitvector describing the intersection of the two sets known to that party, after which either of the two remaining parties can determine the emptiness of the intersection. However, if there exists a protocol that solves the problem with o (m) communication and 2 computation, it could be transformed into an algorithm for solving k - SAT in time O (1.74) for any fixed constant k, violating the strong exponential time hypothesis. Therefore, the strong exponential time hypothesis implies either that the trivial protocol for three - party set disjointness is optimal, or that any better protocol requires an exponential amount of computation.
If the exponential time hypothesis is true, then 3 - SAT would not have a polynomial time algorithm, and therefore it would follow that P ≠ NP. More strongly, in this case, 3 - SAT could not even have a quasi-polynomial time algorithm, so NP could not be a subset of QP. However, if the exponential time hypothesis fails, it would have no implication for the P versus NP problem. There exist NP - complete problems for which the best known running times have the form O (2) for c < 1, and if the best possible running time for 3 - SAT were of this form, then P would be unequal to NP (because 3 - SAT is NP - complete and this time bound is not polynomial) but the exponential time hypothesis would be false.
In parameterized complexity theory, because the exponential time hypothesis implies that there does not exist a fixed - parameter - tractable algorithm for maximum clique, it also implies that W (1) ≠ FPT. It is an important open problem in this area whether this implication can be reversed: does W (1) ≠ FPT imply the exponential time hypothesis? There is a hierarchy of parameterized complexity classes called the M - hierarchy that interleaves the W - hierarchy in the sense that, for all i, M (i) ⊆ W (i) ⊆ M (i + 1); for instance, the problem of finding a vertex cover of size k log n in an n - vertex graph with parameter k is complete for M (1). The exponential time hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that M (1) ≠ FPT, and the question of whether M (i) = W (i) for i > 1 is also open.
It is also possible to prove implications in the other direction, from the failure of a variation of the strong exponential time hypothesis to separations of complexity classes. As Williams (2010) shows, if there exists an algorithm A that solves Boolean circuit satisfiability in time 2 / ƒ (n) for some superpolynomially growing function ƒ, then NEXPTIME is not a subset of P / poly. Williams shows that, if algorithm A exists, and a family of circuits simulating NEXPTIME in P / poly also existed, then algorithm A could be composed with the circuits to simulate NEXPTIME problems nondeterministically in a smaller amount of time, violating the time hierarchy theorem. Therefore, the existence of algorithm A proves the nonexistence of the family of circuits and the separation of these two complexity classes.
|
in determining the power of congress to regulate commerce in the case | Commerce Clause - wikipedia
The Commerce Clause describes an enumerated power listed in the United States Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3). The clause states that the United States Congress shall have power "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes. '' Courts and commentators have tended to discuss each of these three areas of commerce as a separate power granted to Congress. It is common to see the individual components of the Commerce Clause referred to under specific terms: The Foreign Commerce Clause, the Interstate Commerce Clause, and the Indian Commerce Clause.
Dispute exists within the courts as to the range of powers granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause. As noted below, the clause is often paired with the Necessary and Proper Clause, the combination used to take a broad, expansive perspective of these powers. However, the effect of the Commerce Clause has varied significantly depending on the Supreme Court 's interpretation. During the Marshall Court era, Commerce Clause interpretation empowered Congress to gain jurisdiction over numerous aspects of intrastate and interstate commerce as well as non-commerce. During the post-1937 era, the use of the Commerce Clause by Congress to authorize federal control of economic matters became effectively unlimited. Since the latter half of the Rehnquist Court era, Congressional use of the Commerce Clause has become slightly restricted again, being limited only to matters of trade or any other form of restricted area (whether interstate or not) and production (whether commercial or not).
The Commerce Clause is the source of federal drug prohibition laws under the Controlled Substances Act. In the recent medical marijuana case, Gonzales v. Raich, the Supreme Court rejected the argument that the ban on growing medical marijuana for personal use exceeded Congress ' powers under the Commerce Clause. Even if no goods were sold or transported across state lines, the Court found that there could be an "indirect '' effect on interstate commerce. In reaching this conclusion, the Court relied heavily on the New Deal era case, Wickard v. Filburn, which held that the government may regulate personal cultivation and consumption of crops because the aggregate effect of individual consumption could have an "indirect '' effect on interstate commerce.
Article I, Section 8, Clause 3:
(The Congress shall have Power) To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;
The significance of the Commerce Clause is described in the Supreme Court 's opinion in Gonzales v. Raich, 545 U.S. 1 (2005):
The Commerce Clause emerged as the Framers ' response to the central problem giving rise to the Constitution itself: the absence of any federal commerce power under the Articles of Confederation. For the first century of our history, the primary use of the Clause was to preclude the kind of discriminatory state legislation that had once been permissible. Then, in response to rapid industrial development and an increasingly interdependent national economy, Congress "ushered in a new era of federal regulation under the commerce power, '' beginning with the enactment of the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887 and the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890.
The Commerce Clause represents one of the most fundamental powers delegated to the Congress by the founders. The outer limits of the Interstate Commerce Clause power have been the subject of long, intense political controversy. Interpretation of the sixteen words of the Commerce Clause has helped define the balance of power between the federal government and the states and the balance of power between the two elected branches of the federal government and the Judiciary. As such, it directly affects the lives of American citizens.
The commerce clause provides comprehensive powers to the United States over navigable waters. These powers are critical to understanding the rights of landowners adjoining or exercising what would otherwise be riparian rights under the common law. The Commerce Clause confers a unique position upon the Government in connection with navigable waters. "The power to regulate commerce comprehends the control for that purpose, and to the extent necessary, of all the navigable waters of the United States... For this purpose they are the public property of the nation, and subject to all the requisite legislation by Congress. '' United States v. Rands, 389 U.S. 121 (1967). The Rands decision continues:
This power to regulate navigation confers upon the United States a dominant servitude, FPC v. Niagara Mohawk Power Corp., 347 U.S. 239, 249 (1954), which extends to the entire stream and the stream bed below ordinary high - water mark. The proper exercise of this power is not an invasion of any private property rights in the stream or the lands underlying it, for the damage sustained does not result from taking property from riparian owners within the meaning of the Fifth Amendment but from the lawful exercise of a power to which the interests of riparian owners have always been subject. United States v. Chicago, M., St. P. & P.R. Co., 312 U.S. 592, 596 -- 597 (1941); Gibson v. United States, 166 U.S. 269, 275 -- 276 (1897). Thus, without being constitutionally obligated to pay compensation, the United States may change the course of a navigable stream, South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U.S. 4 (1876), or otherwise impair or destroy a riparian owner 's access to navigable waters, Gibson v. United States, 166 U.S. 269 (1897); Scranton v. Wheeler, 179 U.S. 141 (1900); United States v. Commodore Park, Inc., 324 U.S. 386 (1945), even though the market value of the riparian owner 's land is substantially diminished.
Other scholars, such as Robert H. Bork and Daniel E. Troy, argue that prior to 1887, the Commerce Clause was rarely invoked by Congress, and thus a broad interpretation of the word "commerce '' was clearly never intended by the Founders. In support of this claim, they argue that the word "commerce '', as used in the Constitutional Convention and the Federalist Papers, can be substituted with either "trade '' or "exchange '' interchangeably while preserving the meaning of the statements. They also point to Madison 's statement in an 1828 letter that the "Constitution vests in Congress expressly... ' the power to regulate trade '. ''
Examining contemporaneous dictionaries does not neatly resolve the matter. For instance, the 1792 edition of Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language defines the noun "commerce '' narrowly as "(e) xchange of one thing for another; interchange of any thing; trade; traffick '', but it defines the corresponding verb "to commerce '' more broadly as "(t) o hold intercourse. '' The word "intercourse '' also had a different and wider meaning back in 1792 than it does now.
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) that the power to regulate interstate commerce also included the power to regulate interstate navigation: "Commerce, undoubtedly is traffic, but it is something more -- it is intercourse... (A) power to regulate navigation is as expressly granted, as if that term had been added to the word ' commerce '... (T) he power of Congress does not stop at the jurisdictional lines of the several states. It would be a very useless power if it could not pass those lines. '' The Court 's decision contains language supporting one important line of Commerce Clause jurisprudence, the idea that the electoral process of representative government represents the primary limitation on the exercise of the Commerce Clause powers:
The wisdom and the discretion of Congress, their identity with the people, and the influence which their constituents possess at elections, are, in this, as in many other instances, as that, for example, of declaring war, the sole restraints on which they have relied, to secure them from its abuse. They are the restraints on which the people must often rely solely, in all representative governments...
In Gibbons, the Court struck down New York 's attempt to grant a steamboat monopoly to Robert Fulton, which he had then ultimately franchised to Ogden. Ogden claimed river traffic was not "commerce '' under the Commerce Clause and further that Congress could not interfere with New York State 's grant of an exclusive monopoly within its own borders. Ogden 's assertion was untenable: he contended New York could control river traffic within New York all the way to the border with New Jersey, that New Jersey could control river traffic within New Jersey all the way to the border with New York, leaving Congress with the power to control the traffic as it crossed the state line.
Thus, Ogden contended, Congress could not invalidate his monopoly as long as he only transported passengers within New York. The Supreme Court, however, found that Congress could invalidate his monopoly since it was operational on an interstate channel of navigation.
In its decision, the Court assumed interstate commerce required movement of the subject of regulation across state borders. The decision contains the following principles, some of which have since been altered by subsequent decisions:
Additionally, the Marshall Court limited the extent of federal maritime and admiralty jurisdiction to tidewaters in The Steamboat Thomas Jefferson.
In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831), the Supreme Court addressed whether the Cherokee nation is a foreign state in the sense in which that term is used in the constitution. The Court provided a definition of Indian tribe that clearly made the rights of tribes far inferior to those of foreign states. In part the court said:
"Though the Indians are acknowledged to have an unquestionable, and, heretofore, unquestioned right to the lands they occupy, until that right shall be extinguished by a voluntary cession to our government; yet it may well be doubted whether those tribes which reside within the acknowledged boundaries of the United States can, with strict accuracy, be denominated foreign nations. They may, more correctly be denominated domestic dependent nations. They occupy a territory to which we assert a title independent of their will, which must take effect in point of possession when their right of possession ceases. Meanwhile, they are in a state of pupilage. Their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian. ''
As explained in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995), "For nearly a century thereafter (that is, after Gibbons), the Court 's Commerce Clause decisions dealt but rarely with the extent of Congress ' power, and almost entirely with the Commerce Clause as a limit on state legislation that discriminated against interstate commerce. Under this line of precedent, the Court held that certain categories of activity such as "exhibitions '', "production '', "manufacturing '', and "mining '' were within the province of state governments, and thus were beyond the power of Congress under the Commerce Clause. When Congress began to engage in economic regulation on a national scale, the Court 's dormant Commerce Clause decisions influenced its approach to Congressional regulation.
In this context, the Court took a formalistic approach, which distinguished between services and commerce, manufacturing and commerce, direct and indirect effects on commerce, and local and national activities. See concurring opinion of Justice Kennedy in United States v. Lopez. ("One approach the Court used to inquire into the lawfulness of state authority was to draw content - based or subject - matter distinctions, thus defining by semantic or formalistic categories those activities that were commerce and those that were not. '') The Dormant Commerce Clause formalisms spilled over into its Article I jurisprudence. While Congress had the power to regulate commerce, it could not regulate manufacturing, which was seen as being entirely local. In Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U.S. 1 (1888), the Court struck a federal law which prohibited the manufacture of liquor for shipment across state lines. Similar decisions were issued with regard to agriculture, mining, oil production, and generation of electricity. In Swift v. United States, 196 U.S. 375 (1905), the Court ruled that the clause covered meatpackers; although their activity was geographically "local '', they had an important effect on the "current of commerce '', and thus could be regulated under the Commerce Clause. The Court 's decision halted price fixing. Stafford v. Wallace (1922) upheld a federal law (the Packers and Stockyards Act) regulating the Chicago meatpacking industry, because the industry was part of the interstate commerce of beef from ranchers to dinner tables. The stockyards "are but a throat through which the current (of commerce) flows, '' Chief Justice Taft wrote, referring to the stockyards as "great national public utilities. '' As Justice Kennedy wrote: (in a concurring opinion to United States v. Lopez), "Though that (formalistic) approach likely would not have survived even if confined to the question of a State 's authority to enact legislation, it was not at all propitious when applied to the quite different question of what subjects were within the reach of the national power when Congress chose to exercise it. ''
Similarly, the court excluded most services by distinguishing them from commerce. In Federal Baseball Club v. National League, 259 U.S. 200 (1922), which was later upheld in Toolson v. New York Yankees (1953) and Flood v. Kuhn (1973), the court excluded nonproduction - related services, such as live entertainment, from the definition of commerce:
In 1935 the Supreme Court of the United States, in Schecter Poultry Corporation v. United States, invalidated regulations of the poultry industry according to the nondelegation doctrine and as an invalid use of Congress 's power under the commerce clause. This was a unanimous decision that rendered the National Industrial Recovery Act, a main component of President Roosevelt 's New Deal, unconstitutional. Again in 1936, in Carter v. Carter Coal Company, the Supreme Court struck down a key element of the New Deal 's regulation of the mining industry, on the grounds that mining was not "commerce. '' In the preceding decades, the Court had struck down a laundry list of Progressive legislation -- minimum - wage laws, child labor laws, agricultural relief laws, and virtually every element of the New Deal legislation that had come before it. After winning re-election in 1936, Roosevelt proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill, wherein the President could appoint an additional Justice for each sitting Justice over age 70. Given the age of the current Justices, this allowed a Supreme Court size of up to 15 Justices. Roosevelt claimed that this was intended to lessen the load on the older Justices, rather than being an attempt to achieve a majority that would cease to strike his New Deal acts.
Ultimately, there was widespread opposition to this "court packing '' plan and in the end Roosevelt abandoned it. However, in what became known as "the switch in time that saved nine '', shortly after the "court packing '' plan was proposed, Justice Owen Roberts joined the 5 - 4 majority opinion in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937). The majority narrowly upheld a Washington state minimum wage law, abandoning prior jurisprudence, ending the Lochner era. This essentially marked the beginning of the end of Supreme Court opposition to the New Deal, obviating the political need for the "court packing '' scheme as well.
In United States v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941), the Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act which regulated the production of goods shipped across state lines. The Court stated that the Tenth Amendment "is but a truism '' and was not considered to be an independent limitation on Congressional power.
In United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co. (1942) the Court upheld federal price regulation of intrastate milk commerce, stating:
The commerce power is not confined in its exercise to the regulation of commerce among the states. It extends to those activities intrastate which so affect interstate commerce, or the exertion of the power of Congress over it, as to make regulation of them appropriate means to the attainment of a legitimate end, the effective execution of the granted power to regulate interstate commerce. (...) The power of Congress over interstate commerce is plenary and complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution. (...) It follows that no form of state activity can constitutionally thwart the regulatory power granted by the commerce clause to Congress. Hence, the reach of that power extends to those intrastate activities which in a substantial way interfere with or obstruct the exercise of the granted power.
In Wickard v. Filburn (1942) the Court upheld the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, which sought to stabilize wide fluctuations in the market price for wheat. The Court found that Congress could apply national quotas to wheat grown on one 's own land, for one 's own consumption, because the total of such local production and consumption could potentially be sufficiently large as to affect the overall national goal of stabilizing prices. The Court cited its recent Wrightwood decision and decided that "(w) hether the subject of the regulation in question was "production, '' "consumption, '' or "marketing '' is, therefore, not material for purposes of deciding the question of federal power before us. '' The Court re-iterated Marshall 's decision in Gibbons: "He made emphatic the embracing and penetrating nature of this power by warning that effective restraints on its exercise must proceed from political, rather than from judicial, processes. '' The Court also stated that "(t) he conflicts of economic interest between the regulated and those who advantage by it are wisely left under our system to resolution by the Congress under its more flexible and responsible legislative process. Such conflicts rarely lend themselves to judicial determination. And with the wisdom, workability, or fairness, of the plan of regulation, we have nothing to do. ''
Thereafter, the Court began to defer to the Congress on the theory that determining whether legislation affected commerce appropriately was a political and legislative, not a judicial, decision. This overall change in the Court 's jurisprudence, beginning with Parrish, is often referred to as the Constitutional Revolution of 1937, in which the Court shifted from exercising judicial review of legislative acts to protect economic rights, to a paradigm which focused most strongly on protecting civil liberties.
It was not until United States v. Lopez (1995) decision, after nearly 60 years of leaving any restraint on the use of the Commerce Clause to political means only, that the Court again ruled that a regulation enacted under the Clause was unconstitutional.
The wide interpretation of the scope of the Commerce Clause continued following the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which aimed to prevent business from discriminating against black customers. The United States Supreme Court issued several opinions which supported this use of the Commerce Clause. Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, 379 U.S. 241 (1964), ruled that Congress could regulate a business that served mostly interstate travelers. Daniel v. Paul, 395 U.S. 298 (1969), ruled that the federal government could regulate a recreational facility because three out of the four items sold at its snack bar were purchased from outside the state.
The Rehnquist Court 's Commerce Clause jurisprudence restored limits to the Interstate Commerce Clause that were removed in post-New Deal decisions, based primarily on concerns of federalism and encroachment by Congress on the several States ' police powers. It upheld Congress 's plenary authority to legislate in Indian affairs that was derived from the Worcester decision 's interpretation of the Indian Commerce Clause, but modified Worcester by giving the several states some jurisdiction over Indian affairs beyond what had been granted to them by Congress. Another view is that the Court was compelled to define limits to address Congressional legislation which sought to use the Interstate Commerce Clause power in new and unprecedented ways. In United States v. Lopez, the Court confronted conviction of a 12th Grade student for carrying a concealed handgun into school in violation of the Gun - Free School Zones Act of 1990, 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (1) (A). The Gun - Free School Zones Act made it a federal offense for any individual knowingly to possess a firearm at a place that individual knows or has reasonable cause to believe is a school zone. The legislation posed several challenging problems for Commerce Clause jurisprudence. Education is a traditionally local government activity, and while education undoubtedly has an economic aspect, the nexus between regulating gun violence and the Commerce Clause power to regulate interstate commerce seems particularly strained. In Wickard v. Filburn, the Court ruled Congress was exercising its Commerce Clause power to regulate local economic activity in ways that the States were powerless to regulate, because only the federal government could effectively control the national wheat supply. The Court reasoned that if Wickard could be applied to acts of gun violence, simply because crime impaired education, Congress might conclude that crime in schools substantially affects commerce, and may be regulated. Under this logic, all police power could be nationalized and local police and criminal courts eliminated on the theory that all crime affects commerce.
As the majority explained:
Section 922 (q) is a criminal statute that by its terms has nothing to do with "commerce '' or any sort of economic enterprise, however broadly one might define those terms. Section 922 (q) is not an essential part of a larger regulation of economic activity, in which the regulatory scheme could be undercut unless the intrastate activity were regulated. It can not, therefore, be sustained under our cases upholding regulations of activities that arise out of or are connected with a commercial transaction, which viewed in the aggregate, substantially affects interstate commerce.
The opinion pointed out that prior decisions had identified three broad categories of activity that Congress may regulate under its commerce power.
Thus the federal government did not have the power to regulate relatively unrelated things such as the possession of firearms near schools, as in Lopez. This was the first time in sixty years, since the conflict with President Roosevelt in 1936 -- 37, that the Court had overturned a putative regulation on interstate commerce because it exceeded Congress 's commerce power. Justice Clarence Thomas, in a separate concurring opinion, argued that allowing Congress to regulate intrastate, noncommercial activity under the Commerce Clause would confer on Congress a general "police power '' over the entire nation.
The Lopez decision was clarified in United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000), in which the Supreme Court invalidated § 40302 of the Violence Against Women Act ("VAWA ''). The VAWA created civil liability for the commission of a gender - based violent crime, but without any jurisdictional requirement of a connection to Interstate Commerce or commercial activity. 42 U.S.C. § 13981 (c). Once again, the Court was presented with a Congressional attempt to criminalize traditional local criminal conduct. As in Lopez, it could not be argued that State regulation alone would be ineffective to protect the aggregate effects of local violence. The Court explained that in both Lopez and Morrison "the noneconomic, criminal nature of the conduct at issue was central to our decision. '' Furthermore, the Court pointed out that in neither case was there an "' express jurisdictional element which might limit its reach (to those instances that) have an explicit connection with or effect on interstate commerce. ' '' Id. at 1751. In both cases, Congress criminalized activity that was not commercial in nature without including a jurisdictional element establishing the necessary connection between the criminalized activity and Interstate Commerce.
The Court found in Seminole Tribe v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996) that, unlike the Fourteenth Amendment, the Commerce Clause does not give the federal government the power to abrogate the sovereign immunity of the states.
Many described the Rehnquist Court 's Commerce Clause cases as a doctrine of "New Federalism ''. The outer limits of that doctrine were delineated by Gonzales v. Raich, in which Justices Antonin Scalia and Anthony Kennedy departed from their previous positions as parts of the Lopez and Morrison majorities to uphold a federal law regarding marijuana. The Court found the federal law valid, although the marijuana in question had been grown and consumed within a single state, and had never entered Interstate Commerce. The court held Congress may regulate an intrastate economic good if it does so as part of a complete scheme of legislation designed to regulate Interstate Commerce.
During the Rehnquist court and to present, the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution has played an integral part in the Court 's view of the Commerce Clause. The Tenth Amendment states that the federal government has only the powers specifically delegated to it by the Constitution while other powers are reserved to the states, or to the people. The Commerce Clause is an important source of those powers delegated to Congress, and therefore its interpretation is very important in determining the scope of federal power in controlling innumerable aspects of American life. The Commerce Clause has been the most broadly interpreted clause in the Constitution, making way for many laws which, some argue, contradict the original intended meaning of the Constitution. Justice Clarence Thomas has gone so far as to state in his dissent to Gonzales,
Respondents Diane Monson and Angel Raich use marijuana that has never been bought or sold, that has never crossed state lines, and that has had no demonstrable effect on the national market for marijuana. If Congress can regulate this under the Commerce Clause, then it can regulate virtually anything -- and the federal Government is no longer one of limited and enumerated powers.
The evolving level of scrutiny applied by Federal courts to Commerce Clause cases should be considered in the context of rational basis review. The idea behind rational basis review is that the judiciary must show deference to the elected representatives of the people. A respect for the democratic process requires that the Courts uphold legislation if there are rational facts and reasons that could support Congressional judgment, even if the Justices would come to different conclusions. Throughout the 20th century, in a variety of contexts, courts sought to avoid second guessing the legislative branch, and Commerce Clause jurisprudence can be seen as a part of this trend. Lawrence Tribe states:
Since 1937, in applying the factual test in Jones & Laughlin to hold a broad range of activities sufficiently related to interstate commerce, the Supreme Court has exercised little independent judgment, choosing instead to defer to the expressed or implied findings of Congress to the effect that regulated activities have the requisite "economic effect ''. Such findings have been upheld whenever they could be said to rest upon some rational basis. (Citing Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v United States (1964).)
Justice Rehnquist echoed this point in his opinion in United States v. Lopez, stating: "Since (Wickard), the Court has... undertaken to decide whether a rational basis existed for concluding that a regulated activity sufficiently affected interstate commerce. See, e.g., Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association, 452 U.S. 264, 276 -- 280 (1981); Perez v. United States, 402 U.S. 146, 155 -- 156 (1971); Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U.S. 241, 252 -- 253 (1964). ''
Rational basis review begins with establishing the factual predicate upon which the exercise of Congressional power is based. This factual basis might come from a variety of sources. It might come from factual determinations made by Congress, passed in the legislation itself, or found in the Congressional Reports issued to accompany the legislation. It might come from the record of testimony compiled in Committee Hearings. It might come from facts posited by proponents in their briefs in support of the legislation. For example, the Court referenced extensive testimony presented in hearings in support of the conclusion that discrimination in public accommodations reduces interstate commerce. The Court wrote:
Of course, the mere fact that Congress has said when particular activity shall be deemed to affect commerce does not preclude further examination by this Court. But where we find that the legislators, in light of the facts and testimony before them, have a rational basis for finding a chosen regulatory scheme necessary to the protection of commerce, our investigation is at an end.
Similarly, in Gonzales v. Raich the Court upheld a ban on growing marijuana intended for medical use on the grounds that Congress could rationally conclude that such cultivation might make enforcement of drug laws more difficult by creating an otherwise lawful source of marijuana that could be diverted into the illicit market:
In assessing the scope of Congress ' authority under the Commerce Clause, we stress that the task before us is a modest one. We need not determine whether respondents ' activities, taken in the aggregate, substantially affect interstate commerce in fact, but only whether a "rational basis '' exists for so concluding. Given the enforcement difficulties that attend distinguishing between marijuana cultivated locally and marijuana grown elsewhere, 21 U.S.C. § 801 (5), and concerns about diversion into illicit channels, we have no difficulty concluding that Congress had a rational basis for believing that failure to regulate the intrastate manufacture and possession of marijuana would leave a gaping hole in the CSA.
Since its decision in Gibbons, the Supreme Court has held that Congress may regulate only those activities within a state that arise out of or are connected with a commercial transaction and that, viewed in the aggregate, substantially affect interstate commerce. Since judicial interpretations of constitutional limitations on Congressional exercise of its Commerce Clause powers represent an invasion of the democratic process which may not be overturned through ordinary democratic means, the Court has continued to assert that the primary limitation on the unwise exercise of Congressional Commerce Clause power by Congress must be found at the ballot box. Thus in Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 U.S. 528 (1985), the Court stated:
Of course, we continue to recognize that the States occupy a special and specific position in our constitutional system and that the scope of Congress ' authority under the Commerce Clause must reflect that position. But the principal and basic limit on the federal commerce power is that inherent in all congressional action -- the built - in restraints that our system provides through state participation in federal governmental action. The political process ensures that laws that unduly burden the States will not be promulgated.
Questions over the range and applicability of the Commerce Clause have arisen in debate over the constitutionality of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ("PPACA ''). The debate centers around whether Congress is authorized to require citizens to purchase health insurance from the private market, known as the individual mandate. Congress claims authority from the Commerce Clause. However, many opponents of the PPACA have claimed that the individual mandate exceeds Congress 's authority thereunder, primarily on the position that the law attempts to define the non-purchase of insurance as "commerce ''.
Twenty - six state attorneys general filed a lawsuit against the federal government claiming the insurance mandate is unconstitutional. On June 8, 2011, a panel of three judges from the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals in Atlanta held hearings on the issue. On August 12, 2011. The 11th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the Individual Mandate portion unconstitutional, stating that Congress had exceeded its authority by requiring Americans to buy coverage.
Differing court opinions have clashed over the question of whether failure to purchase insurance can be considered an economic activity that affects interstate commerce. In Virginia v. Sebelius, Judge Henry Hudson overturned the law, claiming that failure to purchase health insurance coverage could not be considered economic activity, being rather economic "inactivity. '' In Liberty University v. Geithner, Judge Norman Moon upheld the law, countering:
Similarly, in Thomas More Law Center v. Obama, judge George Steeh ruled that such decisions have "a documented impact on interstate commerce. ''
In response to the Virginia decision, Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli petitioned the Supreme Court to hear the appeal immediately, rather than going through the Fourth Circuit. On November 14, 2011, the Supreme Court announced it would hear the case in the spring of 2012. The Supreme Court heard arguments on March 26 -- 28, 2012. Its majority opinion agreed that upholding the PPACA under the commerce clause "would open a new and potentially vast domain to congressional authority '' and that "the power to regulate commerce presupposes the existence of commercial activity to be regulated ''. The Court held that Congress did not have authority under the Commerce Clause to require citizens to purchase health insurance, but still upheld the law 's "individual mandate '' provision under Congress ' taxing authority.
|
what is the name of the island in jurassic world | Jurassic World - Wikipedia
Jurassic World is a 2015 American science fiction adventure film, the fourth installment of the Jurassic Park film series, and the first film in a planned Jurassic World trilogy. It was directed by Colin Trevorrow, written by Derek Connolly and Trevorrow, produced by Frank Marshall and Patrick Crowley, and stars Chris Pratt, Bryce Dallas Howard, Vincent D'Onofrio, Ty Simpkins, Nick Robinson, Omar Sy, BD Wong, and Irrfan Khan.
Set 22 years after the events of Jurassic Park, Jurassic World takes place on the same fictional Central American island of Isla Nublar, which is located off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, where a theme park of cloned dinosaurs has operated for nearly a decade. The park plunges into chaos when a genetically - engineered dinosaur escapes from its enclosure and goes on a rampage.
Universal Pictures intended to begin production of a fourth Jurassic Park film in 2004 for a mid-2005 release but development stalled while the script underwent several revisions. Following a suggestion from Spielberg, writers Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver explored the idea of a functional dinosaur park. Once Trevorrow was hired as director in 2013, he followed the same idea while developing a new script with Derek Connolly. Filming lasted from April to August 2014 in Louisiana and at the original Jurassic Park locations in Hawaii. The dinosaurs were created by Industrial Light & Magic using CGI and by Legacy Effects using life - sized animatronics.
Production was completed on May 10, 2015, and Jurassic World was released in over 60 countries beginning on June 10, 2015. After a record - breaking opening weekend during which it became the first film to gross over $500 million, Jurassic World generated $1.6 billion in box office revenue, ranking fifth among the highest - grossing films of all time. It was also the second - highest - grossing film of 2015 and the highest - grossing in the franchise. A sequel titled Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom was released in June 2018.
Teenaged brothers Zach and Gray Mitchell visit Jurassic World, a dinosaur theme park at the original Jurassic Park site on Isla Nublar. Their aunt Claire Dearing is the park 's operations manager. Claire assigns her assistant as the boys ' guide but they evade her and explore on their own. Elsewhere on the island, U.S. Navy veteran Owen Grady has been training four Velociraptors and researching their intelligence. Based on the raptors ' ability to follow commands, Vic Hoskins, the head of InGen Security, believes the animals can be weaponized, an idea Owen and his assistant Barry strongly oppose.
Prior to its opening, Claire and park owner Simon Masrani inspect the park 's newest attraction Indominus rex, a genetically - engineered dinosaur created by geneticist Dr. Henry Wu. Masrani tasks Owen with evaluating the enclosure. Owen warns Claire the Indominus lacks social skills, making it dangerous and unpredictable. When it appears the Indominus has escaped, Owen and two park workers enter the enclosure. The Indominus, which can camouflage itself and mask its heat signature, suddenly appears. Owen survives the attack, but it kills the other two men before escaping into the island 's interior. Owen tells Masrani to have the Indominus killed; to protect his company 's investment, however, Masrani dispatches a specialized unit to subdue it with non-lethal weaponry. After most of the unit is wiped out, Claire orders the evacuation of island 's northern sector.
While exploring the park in a vehicle, Zach and Gray enter a restricted area. The Indominus arrives and destroys the vehicle but the boys escape. They find the ruins of the original Jurassic Park facility, repair an old Jeep Wrangler, and drive back to the park resort. As Claire and Owen search for the boys, they barely escape the Indominus. Masrani and two troopers hunt the Indominus by helicopter but it breaks into the park 's aviary, releasing pterosaurs -- Pteranodon and Dimorphodon species -- which collide with the helicopter, causing it to crash. Gray and Zach find Owen and Claire at the resort as armed personnel shoot down swarming pterosaurs with tranquilizers.
Assuming command, Hoskins orders that the raptors be used to track the Indominus; Owen, forced to comply, leads the raptors. They find the Indominus and the animals begin communicating among themselves. Owen realizes the Indominus has Velociraptor DNA; it becomes the pack 's new alpha, usurping Owen 's dominance. Troops fire on the Indominus but it escapes. The raptors kill most of the troops, but one raptor is killed. Hoskins evacuates Wu and the dinosaur embryos from the island to protect Wu 's research. Owen, Claire, and the boys find Hoskins at the lab but a raptor breaks in and kills him.
Owen re-establishes his bond with the three raptors before the Indominus reappears. They attack the Indominus but two are killed. Claire releases the park 's Tyrannosaurus rex and lures it into a battle with the Indominus, which gains the advantage until the surviving raptor joins the fight. Overwhelmed, the Indominus is cornered at the lagoon 's edge, where it is dragged underwater by the Mosasaurus. The survivors are evacuated and the island is abandoned again. Zach and Gray are reunited with their parents; Owen and Claire decide to stay together.
Additionally, Jimmy Fallon and Jimmy Buffett cameo as themselves. Patrick Crowley, the film 's producer, cameos as Masrani 's flight instructor while Colin Trevorrow briefly provides the voice of Mr. DNA, an animated DNA helix who explains the park 's technology to visitors. The character was previously voiced by Greg Burson in Jurassic Park. Brad Bird provides a voice cameo as the park 's monorail announcer and Jack Horner, the film 's technical advisor, also cameos.
Director Colin Trevorrow stated that the Indominus rex, the synthetic hybrid dinosaur at the center of the film 's story, is symbolic of consumer and corporate excess. The dinosaur was "meant to embody (humanity 's) worst tendencies. We 're surrounded by wonder and yet we want more, and we want it bigger, faster, louder, better. And in the world of the movie, the animal is designed based on a series of corporate focus groups. '' He also stated, "There 's something in the film about our greed and our desire for profit. The Indominus rex, to me, is very much that desire, that need to be satisfied. '' Film journalists have noted parallels between the workings of the park in Jurassic World and of the film and entertainment industry. Actor James DuMont said "the person (and) the environment are one '' is an obvious theme; another theme is "those who do not stop evil are supporting and encouraging it ''.
The film also explores the concept of raising an animal in a particular way; the Indominus rex was raised in captivity without the presence of siblings, making the creature "not fully functional ''.
In March 2001, Jurassic Park III director Joe Johnston said he and executive producer Steven Spielberg had discussed a story idea for a fourth Jurassic Park film, which Johnston was not interested in directing. In May 2001, Spielberg had Amblin Entertainment commence development of ideas for Jurassic Park IV, which he planned to produce. Late in Jurassic Park III 's production, Spielberg devised a story idea he believed should have been used for the third film. In June 2001, Johnston announced he would not direct the film and that Spielberg had a story idea that would extend the series ' mythology. Johnston said the film would feel like a departure from the previous films, implying it would not be set on an island. Johnston also said it would not involve the Pteranodons from the ending of Jurassic Park III, then later hinted it would.
Actor Sam Neill, who portrayed Dr. Alan Grant in two previous films in the series, said he could not imagine a way for his character to be involved in another film. Neill was contracted for three films; other actors from Jurassic Park III were also contracted for a potential fourth film. In April 2002, it was reported that the fourth Jurassic Park film would be the last in the series and that it would ignore events portrayed in its predecessor. In June 2002, Spielberg confirmed plans for a fourth film, which he hoped Johnston would direct. Spielberg also said he considered a story idea for the film was the best one since the first film. In November 2002, Neill said there was a chance he would appear in the film, while William Monahan was announced as the screenwriter, with Spielberg as executive producer and Kathleen Kennedy as producer. A month later, the film was announced for a mid-2005 release.
In January 2003, Jeff Goldblum said he had been asked to stay available for a possible return of his character Ian Malcolm. At the end of the month, it was reported the story would involve dinosaurs migrating to the Costa Rican mainland. A team of experts, including Alan Grant and Ian Malcolm, chart an expedition to an offshore island and discover the dinosaurs breeding freely. The plot would involve the characters devising a way to restrict the spread of the dinosaurs and prevent an ecological disaster. Early concept art depicted genetically engineered human - dinosaur mercenaries. Stan Winston 's special effects studio, which worked on the previous films, was in the design phase for the film as of April 2003. Winston said Spielberg wanted to adapt several unfilmed scenes from Michael Crichton 's Jurassic Park novel and its sequel The Lost World. By July 2003, Keira Knightley was in consideration for two roles, including a small role as a granddaughter. Monahan 's first draft of the script was finished later that month; the story was not set in a jungle, as in previous films. Neill confirmed he would reprise his character; filming was set to begin in 2004 in California and Hawaii.
In September 2003, Richard Attenborough said he would reprise his role as John Hammond. The following month, paleontologist Jack Horner said he would return as technical adviser for the fourth film, hinting it would feature a Velociraptor. He was later asked about a hypothetical idea of humans evolving from dinosaurs rather than mammals; Horner responded, "Keep thinking about that, and in a couple of years go see Jurassic Park 4 ''. Knightley 's character was written out in late 2003. In March 2004, Johnston said he had not been asked to direct the film and hoped Spielberg would direct it. Johnston said a story that would take the series in a completely different direction "away from the island and away from the T. rex and all this '' was being written. In April 2004, script doctors were being sought to work on the film 's story, which involved dinosaurs being trained by the government to carry and use weapons in battles. As of May 2004, screenwriter John Sayles was writing the script, after being hired to finish earlier work done by Monahan, who had left the project to work on Kingdom of Heaven.
Sayles wrote two drafts for the film. In his first draft, Isla Nublar and InGen have been taken over by Grendel Corporation, a Swiss holdings company, while creatures from the island have begun attacking people on the mainland of Central and North America. The script featured a brief return to Isla Nublar and would focus on a mercenary named Nick Harris, a new character who is sent by John Hammond to the island to retrieve a canister of dinosaur DNA that was lost during the events of the first film. With the DNA, Hammond intends to have his scientists create a new group of infertile dinosaurs that can kill the extant ones. Harris retrieves the canister but is kidnapped and taken to Grendel Corporation 's headquarters in the Swiss Alps, where he is persuaded into helping the company train a team of genetically modified Deinonychus and two Dilophosaurus for use on rescue missions and to combat drug dealers. The dinosaurs would be equipped with body armor and would use their teeth and claws as weapons. The script focused mostly on the efforts of Harris and a team of experts as they train the dinosaurs. Hammond would be the only returning character in this draft. The concept of a human who trains raptors came from Spielberg.
By June 2004, Frank Marshall had joined the project as a producer while Alex Proyas was in discussions to direct, with filming expected to begin in March 2005 for a late - 2005 release. Filming would begin at Pinewood Studios, where a massive tank was to be constructed for scenes involving marine reptiles. In July 2004, the script was being rewritten and Jeremy Piven and Emmy Rossum were being considered for two of the lead roles and Attenborough reprising his character. Later that month, Proyas said he was not interested in directing the film. In August 2004, Drew McWeeny of Ai n't It Cool News published a review of Sayles 's initial draft, calling it "well - written and inventive '' but "bugfuck crazy ''. Sayles later confirmed this was an early draft of the script that had been intercepted through Spielberg 's email by a hacker. In late August 2004, David Boreanaz was rumored and later reported to have the lead role, although he was actually in consideration for Fantastic Four. Sayles was still rewriting the script in September 2004, with the film on track for a late - 2005 release.
In April 2005, Winston confirmed the film was on hold because of repeated revisions to the film 's script, none of which satisfied Spielberg. According to Winston, "He felt neither of (the drafts) balanced the science and adventure elements effectively... too much science will make the movie too talky, but too much adventure will make it seem hollow ''. Progress on the film stalled during 2005 as Marshall and Spielberg were busy with other film projects. At the end of the year, Spielberg said he planned to include a scene inspired by Crichton 's novel The Lost World that would involve characters on motorcycles as they flee from raptors. In January 2006, Johnston and Horner were working on a new screenplay, with filming expected to begin after the 2008 release of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. In February 2006, Marshall said the film now had a good script, with filming expected to begin in 2007 for a 2008 release. In March 2006, Marshall said the film had a script and was getting a director; Johnston was a possible candidate. In April 2006, Marshall said there was an idea for the film but no script. Marshall said Crichton would not write the script and that Spielberg would not direct it. The script was still being worked on in June 2006. The following month, Spielberg denied an Internet rumor that Breck Eisner would direct, saying Johnston was standing by for the job.
In December 2006, Laura Dern said she was open to reprising her role as Ellie Sattler but had not been contacted about appearing in the film. In March 2007, Neill said he knew nothing about the project. By April 2007, Dern had been contacted about appearing in the film, with filming expected to begin that year for release in 2008. By that time, Johnston no longer planned to direct the film. In December 2007, Marshall said further work on the script would begin at the end of the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike, with filming potentially starting in 2008 for a release in mid-2009. Horner 's 2009 book, How to Build a Dinosaur, was originally planned for release at the same time as the film as a scientific companion volume. During 2008, Attenborough and Goldblum expressed interest in reprising their roles, although Attenborough suffered a fall at his home later that year and subsequently retired from acting. In a 2008 interview, Johnston discussed the possibility of Jurassic Park IV, stating that the film 's story was completely different from that of its predecessors and would not be set on an island. Johnston also said the film would take the franchise into a new trilogy.
In December 2008, a month after Crichton 's death, Marshall and Kennedy said the planned fourth film in the sequence had been abandoned. In early 2010, Johnston said Jurassic Park IV would essentially be the beginning of a second Jurassic Park trilogy. Johnston also said the film would feature new characters and a story that did not involve a dinosaur theme park, and would not use the story from Sayles 's initial 2004 draft. Johnston hoped to further develop the project with Spielberg after they finished other projects, including Johnston 's 2011 film, Captain America: The First Avenger.
By June 15, 2011, Spielberg had met twice with writer Mark Protosevich to work on a story for a potential fourth Jurassic Park film. In July 2011, Johnston said he was in discussions about the fourth film, which was still planned as the start of a new trilogy. Later that month at the San Diego Comic - Con International, Spielberg said a writer was working on a treatment for the film, which he said might be released "within the next two or three years ''. A representative of Universal said 2013 would be the preferred deadline for completion. Over the next three months, Mark Protosevich wrote two story treatments for the film. Spielberg had hoped to have a writer working on a full screenplay for Jurassic Park IV by October 2011; he and Kennedy felt neither of Protosevich 's treatments had the right story for a fourth film.
Despite this, Spielberg said in October 2011 that the script was being written by Protosevich, and that he felt the story they were working on was stronger than that of Jurassic Park III. In December 2011, Kennedy said a script had not yet been written because story ideas were still being discussed. In January 2012, Kennedy said a story had been chosen and that work on the script would begin. That month, Spielberg said he would not direct the film but would produce it. In June 2012, it was announced that writers Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver would be scripting Jurassic Park 4.
On January 11, 2013, Universal said the film would be made in 3D and released on June 13, 2014. In February, it was reported that Kathleen Kennedy would not be producing the film in favor of focusing on Star Wars: The Force Awakens for 2015. Frank Marshall took over as the primary producer. Shortly after, the director of studio operations at Raleigh Studios in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, confirmed that Universal Pictures had reserved space there from April to November 2013, without specifying the reason.
Marshall was impressed with Colin Trevorrow 's first film Safety Not Guaranteed and at the end of February 2013, he arranged a meeting between himself, Trevorrow and Spielberg regarding the Jurassic Park job. Trevorrow was subsequently hired without reading Jaffa and Silver 's script, which was still being written. Universal announced Trevorrow as director on March 14, 2013, and Patrick Crowley as a producer. A year had been spent searching for a director. Spielberg, Marshall, and Kennedy had previously considered Juan Antonio Bayona to direct Jurassic World, but he declined because he felt there was not enough time for production. In April 2013, Jack Horner said a new, previously extinct creature would rise to stardom in the film.
After reading Jaffa and Silver 's draft, Trevorrow insisted on completely rewriting the script with writing partner Derek Connolly, who had never seen any of the Jurassic Park films prior to that point. Trevorrow had told the filmmakers, "if I direct this screenplay, it 's going to be a bad movie. I 'm gon na do a bad job, because I just do n't get it. '' Trevorrow and Connolly wrote their own draft of the script over a couple of weeks. The studio received the draft on May 6, 2013, and found the script changes more large - scale than anticipated. On May 8, 2013, the studio announced it was pushing the release from June 13, 2014, to an unspecified future date. Filming had been set to begin on June 24, 2013. Delaying the film allowed Trevorrow and Connolly more time to work on the script, as Spielberg felt that it needed improvement. Another reason for the delay was to allow time for the construction of practical sets for the fictional theme park; it was previously intended to add in these buildings using computer effects.
In May 2013, Trevorrow tweeted a picture of Kauai taken during location scouting with the caption "Nublar '', the name of the island in the original film. Later that month, Sam Neill said it was unlikely he would be a part of the film, stating, "I 'm told it 's a big reboot, a total re-jig. '' Trevorrow eventually tweeted that "Reboot is a strong word. This is a new sci - fi terror adventure set 22 years after the horrific events of Jurassic Park. '' In June 2013, a new release date of 2015 was announced, and it was reported that the film would revolve around a fully functional dinosaur theme park.
On September 10, 2013, Universal Pictures confirmed the film would be titled Jurassic World and would be released on June 12, 2015. Trevorrow chose to rename the film from its previous title, Jurassic Park IV, to differentiate it from previous films in the series. Trevorrow also said that within the story, "if you named a theme park ' Jurassic Park ' after the disaster that had happened it would be a horrible PR mistake. '' By February 7, 2014, Legendary Pictures had agreed to co-finance the film, and provided about 20 % of the budget. China Film Group has been reported as also having financed the film. Thomas Tull of Legendary Pictures served as executive producer for the film with Spielberg.
Spielberg had three ideas he wanted Jaffa and Silver to incorporate into the script; a fully functioning dinosaur theme park, a human who has a relationship with trained raptors (from Sayles 's earlier draft), and a human - eating dinosaur that escapes and has to be stopped. Jaffa and Silver 's draft, titled Jurassic Park IV, included an opening scene set in China, where the fossilized remains of a new dinosaur species are discovered by a Chinese paleontologist. In the draft, the remains are stolen by a corporation with malicious intentions, leading the paleontologist and her two sons to visit Jurassic Park. Jaffa and Silver worked on the script for approximately a year, with input from Spielberg.
After the film was delayed in May 2013, Trevorrow and Connolly continued rewriting the script and worked with Spielberg to perfect it. Throughout the writing period, Trevorrow, Connolly and Spielberg discussed in meetings the film 's story. David Koepp also met with Trevorrow and Connolly to advise them on the script. Koepp wrote the first two films in the series; he declined an offer to write the fourth film because he felt he had nothing left to contribute to the series. Trevorrow said perfecting the script was the hardest part because Jurassic Park films "do n't fit into a specific genre. They 're sci - fi adventures that also have to be funny, emotional and scary as hell. That takes a lot of construction, but it ca n't feel designed. ''
To write the film 's story, Trevorrow and Connolly discussed major news events that occurred in the past twenty years. Trevorrow said two main ideas emerged; the ill - advised pursuit of money leading to environmental disaster and the ubiquity of technology leading to ignorance and the taking for granted of scientific wonders. According to Trevorrow; "(w) e take so much for granted... we imagined a teenager texting his girlfriend with his back to a T - Rex behind protective glass. For us, that image captured the way much of the audience feels about the movies themselves. ' We 've seen CG dinosaurs. What else you got? ' '' Trevorrow also said Jurassic World was inspired by a quotation from Ian Malcolm in the first film; "You stood on the shoulders of geniuses to accomplish something as fast as you could, and before you even knew what you had, you patented it, and packaged it, and slapped it on a plastic lunchbox, and now you wan na sell it ''. Trevorrow said the quotation from Malcolm inspired the large amount of product placement in the film.
Trevorrow and Connolly retained Spielberg 's three ideas, although Trevorrow felt the concept of trained raptors was, in its original form, too extreme and had to be "pulled way, way, way back ''. A few months after being hired, Trevorrow read through each of the previous drafts for the film. Trevorrow said each of the previous drafts "tried to do something different '' from the previous films in the series. Trevorrow called Sayles 's initial draft "fascinating in a lot of ways. There were a lot of things I loved about it. It was properly bonkers. In a way, I aspired for our film, in its fearlessness and willingness, to go there ''. Trevorrow further stated that he was "interested in what the Sayles script was trying to do because it was so daring. It was trying to set a tone for how far forward we needed to push... it took us too far forward with man 's progressions with dinosaurs. '' Owen 's relationship with raptors was inspired by real - life relationships between humans and dangerous animals such as lions and alligators. In their first appearance in the film, the raptors are ordered not to eat a live pig in their enclosure; Trevorrow said that this "was as far as we should be able to go '' with the concept of trained raptors.
Trevorrow 's and Connelly 's rewrite of the script introduced new characters. Trevorrow wrote the characters Hoskins, Masrani, and Wu while Connelly wrote the children and female characters. In Jaffa and Silver 's draft, the main character, who would become Owen, actively supported the militarization of the raptors from the beginning of the story. Trevorrow said "if anyone 's gon na militarize raptors that 's what the bad guy does, he 's insane ''. Trevorrow 's and Connolly 's script redraft changed the story so viewers would first see the theme park from the perspective of a child. Trevorrow said one of his goals was for the child characters of Zach and Gray to "not be annoying. And I think we pulled it off. '' Gray was initially written as a child with autism, a trait that was removed from the final draft.
Trevorrow and Connolly did not want to include previous characters in the new film without a good reason for their return to the series; they considered Dr. Henry Wu, the scientist responsible for recreating dinosaurs, a logical choice. In the first novel, Henry Wu had a much larger role, which was trimmed down for the film adaptation. Trevorrow said that the characters Alan Grant, Ian Malcolm, and Ellie Sattler were not included in the script because "I respect those actors too much to shoehorn them into this story for my own sentimental reasons. Jurassic Park is n't about the bad luck of three people who keep getting thrown into the same situation. The only reason they 'd go back to that island is if the screenwriters contrived a reason for them to go. '' Trevorrow said viewers could feel nostalgia without having an actor reprise a role after so many years, which he believed "might make you feel old and remind you that you 're on a slow march towards death, like the rest of us! ''
Initially, the film 's new dinosaur was known as Malusaurus. In Jaffa 's and Silver 's draft, the new dinosaur -- a non-existent species -- was depicted as a real animal. Trevorrow made the dinosaur a genetically modified hybrid named Indominus rex to maintain consistency with earlier films in the series, which had incorporated the latest paleontological discoveries; he said, "I did n't wan na make up a new dinosaur and tell kids it was real ''. Trevorrow said the idea of a hybrid dinosaur was "not tremendously different from (those in) the first film, by adding frog DNA. It 's the next level. '' In addition to the Indominus rex, the earlier draft by Trevorrow and Connelly also included a second hybrid dinosaur named Stegoceratops, which is bred using DNA from Stegosaurus and Triceratops. Trevorrow, however, removed the animal from the final script after his son persuaded him featuring multiple hybrids would make the Indominus unique.
Trevorrow and Connelly shortened the raptor hunt for the park 's new, escaped dinosaur, which in the Jaffa / Silver draft occupied the second half of the film. One scene, which was inspired by Crichton 's novel The Lost World, involves Owen riding a motorcycle while his raptors race accompany him during their search for the Indominus. Spielberg had intended to include the scene as early as 2005, although his initial vision for the scene was more similar to its counterpart in the novel, in which humans on a motorcycle flee from raptors rather than cooperating with them. The Indominus 's camouflage ability is also present in The Lost World, which features Carnotaurus with the same ability.
According to Trevorrow, the film "is n't a sequel or a reboot or a remake, it 's all of those things in a strange way ''. He did not wish to make a "carbon copy of Jurassic Park ''. Jurassic World features various references to Jurassic Park, and is considered a direct sequel to the first film; Trevorrow stated that the events of the previous two films were not relevant to the new film 's story because they take place on a different island. He also said the events depicted in the film 's predecessors are still canon in the film series.
Trevorrow suggested the idea of including a Mosasaurus as part of a theme - park feeding show in which park - goers would watch from bleachers as the animal leaps out of a lagoon and catches its prey: a shark hanging above the water. Spielberg suggested lowering the bleachers afterwards to give park guests a view of the creature in its aquatic habitat. The theme park 's ball - shaped gyrosphere rides were another of Spielberg 's ideas; he approved Trevorrow 's and Connolly 's draft in September 2013.
Prior to the production delay in May 2013, actors Bryce Dallas Howard, David Oyelowo and Garrett Hedlund had been considered for roles in the film. By August 15, 2013, John Krasinski was in talks for a role as a dinosaur tamer. In September 2013, Howard was in early negotiations for a role and was cast in early November. By mid-October, Ty Simpkins had been cast as the child lead, while Nick Robinson was cast as the older brother of Simpkins 's character. Robinson and Simpkins had to perform a "scream test '' before being cast. During mid-October, Jake Johnson was being considered for a role while Josh Brolin was in talks to play Owen. Brolin had been considered earlier but he was not offered the role and no final casting decision had been made.
By mid-November 2013, Brolin was no longer in talks for the film and Chris Pratt was in negotiations for the role of Owen. By mid-January 2014, Pratt had been cast in the role. Trevorrow had been impressed by Pratt 's acting in Zero Dark Thirty. In 2010, Pratt had joked that Spielberg had cast him in the film. Trevorrow said that when Pratt was cast, "we had no idea he 'd become as big a star as he has. I just cast a bunch of character actors, as all Jurassic Park movies have. And somehow we ended up with a movie star. '' Trevorrow considered Owen to be a combination of Alan Grant and Ian Malcolm. Pratt said about the character; "He 's got a little bit of the Goldblum cynicism but also the Sam Neill excitement at the wonder of the biology of it all, so it 's a combination ''. Although Pratt received top billing in the cast, Trevorrow stated that Howard 's character Claire is the lead character.
Vincent D'Onofrio, Irrfan Khan and Omar Sy were cast in early 2014. Trevorrow had admired Sy 's acting and wrote the character of Barry with him in mind for the role. Trevorrow also said he cast actors such as Sy because they were well - known internationally, stating that "this is a global film and Jurassic Park does n't belong to just America ''. In March 2014, Johnson confirmed he would have a role in the film. The same month, Trevorrow announced BD Wong would reprise his role as Dr. Henry Wu, stating that the character would have a more significant role than he did in the original film. A week before filming began, it was announced that Judy Greer, Katie McGrath and Lauren Lapkus had joined the cast. Over the next two months, it was announced Andy Buckley and James DuMont had joined the cast.
Principal photography began on April 10, 2014, at Hawaii 's Honolulu Zoo, where an elephant paddock was used as a set for Jurassic World 's petting zoo. Filming continued for four weeks on Oʻahu. Filming in Hawaii was limited to three hours on some days because of torrential rain. The 40 - foot (12 m) - high Indominus paddock and the Gyrosphere departure platform were built at Oʻahu 's Kualoa Ranch; both sets were left standing after production to become tourist attractions. Owen 's motorcycle sequence with the raptors was filmed along a dirt road at Kualoa Ranch; with computer - generated jungle foliage was added during post-production. Pratt crashed his motorcycle during filming, resulting in minor injuries. At the end of April, interior scenes were filmed at the Hawaii Convention Center. The film 's ending, in which park guests are evacuated to an airplane hangar set up as a shelter, was filmed at the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor on Ford Island. Filming moved to Kaua ʻi on May 15, 2014, and concluded there on June 6, 2014.
Jurassic World was also shot in Louisiana to take advantage of the state 's tax incentives, making it the first film in the series not to be shot at studios in Los Angeles. Filming was scheduled to remain in Louisiana for eleven weeks beginning in June 2014 at New Orleans 's abandoned Six Flags theme park, and continuing there for approximately two weeks. Jurassic World 's Main Street and boardwalk, measuring 300 ft × 200 ft (91 m × 61 m), was constructed in the Six Flags parking lot but the theme park itself was not used for filming. One of Main Street 's restaurants is named Winston 's after Stan Winston, who died in 2008. A statue of Attenborough 's character John Hammond is also seen in the film. Although Goldblum did not reprise his role as Ian Malcolm, the character is twice shown in an image on a fictional book written by the character.
Singer Jimmy Buffett, a friend of Marshall, has a brief, non-speaking cameo appearance during the film 's pterosaur attack sequence. A Margaritaville restaurant, part of a chain owned by Buffett, was constructed as part of Jurassic World 's Main Street; it is destroyed during the battle between the T. rex and the Indominus. Trevorrow based the pterosaur attack sequence on triptych paintings by Hieronymus Bosch that include details for their admirers to observe. Trevorrow said about the scene, "I wanted to be able to step back and look at these tableaus of chaotic action and allow people who watch the movie over and over again... to always see a different story as you look specifically at different parts of the frame. '' The sequence includes a scene in which Claire 's assistant Zara (McGrath) is carried off by several Pteranodons before falling into the park 's lagoon, where she is eaten by the Mosasaurus, marking the first female death in the series. Trevorrow wanted to make it "the most spectacular death we can possibly imagine '', while also wanting to surprise moviegoers, stating, "Let 's have someone die who just does n't deserve to die at all. '' McGrath performed her own stunts for the scene, which involved the fall and submersion into the park 's lagoon.
Most of the filming in New Orleans took place at Big Easy Studios inside NASA 's Michoud Assembly Facility complex in East New Orleans. Interior scenes, including the visitor 's center, control room and laboratories, were filmed at the Michoud facility. Jack Horner helped designed the educational displays in the Jurassic World visitor center. Approximately 200 extras, acting as park guests sitting on bleachers, were doused with water as part of a scene depicting the Mosasaurus feeding show, which was filmed on an outdoor set at the Michoud facility. The raptor enclosure, an octagonal, 20 ft (6.1 m) - high outdoor structure, was also constructed at the Michoud facility. One jungle scene was filmed on a soundstage in Louisiana, while the rest were filmed earlier in Hawaii. On June 30, 2014, Robinson, Simpkins and Greer filmed scenes at Louis Armstrong International Airport in New Orleans. In July 2014, fake snow was used in New Orleans for scenes that depict Zach and Gray 's house in Wisconsin. An evacuation scene was filmed at Audubon Zoo in New Orleans, while swamp scenes were filmed in Slidell, Louisiana.
Scroggins Aviation Mockup & Effects was hired to fabricate and build the Blue Eurocopter EC130 T2 airframe body known as "JW001 '' in the film, while 32TEN Studios created the automatic Jurassic World gates and various practical effects such as explosions. To aid in the design of the Jurassic World control room, Trevorrow and Crowley visited the control rooms at various Universal and Disney theme parks prior to filming. Trevorrow and Crowley were disappointed by the unexciting appearances of real - life control rooms and made the Jurassic World control room more elaborate than its real - life counterparts. The control room set included many television monitors displaying miscellaneous information; footage for the monitors was filmed in Hawaii and at the NASA facility, and some was also obtained from Universal Orlando. Production designers based parts of the control room set on the NASA facility 's control room. During filming, Trevorrow confirmed reports that the story involved a functioning dinosaur theme park and a hybrid dinosaur; he was disappointed these details could not be kept secret until the film 's release. During filming, the Indominus rex was also known as Diabolus rex, a name Trevorrow devised to maintain secrecy on the project.
In contrast to the prevalence of digital cinematography in the 2010s, cinematographer John Schwartzman used Panavision cameras with a combination of Kodak 35mm and 65mm film stocks. One of the 65mm cameras used on the production was used in the filming of Stanley Kubrick 's 2001: A Space Odyssey. The filmmakers chose to shoot Jurassic World on film stock, in addition to Spielberg 's and Schwartzman 's personal preference for the format, was to match the visual aesthetic of the previous three film - shot Jurassic Park pictures, and because the film 's exterior jungle scenes required a greater dynamic range of light than digital cameras could accommodate. Most of Jurassic World was made on 35mm film and large exteriors in Hawaii were shot using 65mm film, which was used for visual effect sequences and as location shots where the filmmakers wanted extra visual impact. The film is presented in a 2.00: 1 aspect ratio, an intermediate ratio that falls between the two industry standard widescreen aspect ratios of 1.85: 1 and 2.35: 1. This was chosen because it allowed enough height for humans and dinosaurs to fit into the same frame without giving up a sense of scope, and closely matches the ratio of digital IMAX screens. Schwartzman made extensive use of the Technocrane telescopic crane, which Crowley described as fitting for a thriller, "being able to march into people, to get in closer and closer, as they realize that there 's something out there ''. Tracking shots, particularly those that would serve as reference to the visual effects team, used a Spydercam.
The film was made under the working title Ebb Tide, which Spielberg chose before Trevorrow was hired. Spielberg did not visit the set, although he watched each day 's footage at the end of each production day and sometimes advised Trevorrow on the filming of certain scenes. Filming wrapped on August 5, 2014, after 78 shooting days.
Trevorrow filmed two versions of many scenes so he could choose which version to use for the final film. One scene that was deleted from the final film featured a kiss between Vivian 's and Lowery 's characters. The scene was removed because the film already contained such a scene between Owen and Claire; Trevorrow said, "I knew I could only pull off one kiss in this movie. '' A comedic scene featuring Howard 's character and dinosaur feces, which is similar to Laura Dern 's scene in the original Jurassic Park, was cut from the cinematic release. Another deleted scene occurs during the fight between the T. rex and the Indominus, which initially would have been watched by park guests. Trevorrow chose not to include the scene because it could not be seamlessly included without disrupting the fight scene, most of which filmed in a single take.
During a conversation scene between Wu and Masrani, a line of dialogue in which Wu asks "How long do you think you can control it? We wo n't always be the only ones who can make a dinosaur '' was cut. An unfilmed scene would have shown the Indominus rex being startled by an animatronic T. rex at the park and subsequently tearing the head off of the animatronic animal. Spielberg objected to the scene because he believed it would be disrespectful to Stan Winston for suggesting computer - animated dinosaurs are better than animatronics.
Jurassic World is the first film in the series without the involvement of Stan Winston, who died in 2008. The animatronic dinosaurs were handled by Winston 's former colleagues at Legacy Effects, many of whom worked on the previous three films. Legacy Effects contributed lighting reference models and a practically built animatronic. Visual effects supervisor Phil Tippett and Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) also returned to create dinosaurs using computer - generated imagery (CGI). Image Engine also worked on the film 's creatures. Tim Alexander served as visual effects supervisor and Jurassic Park supervisor Dennis Muren provided advice to the ILM crew on matters such as lighting the dinosaurs.
The computer - generated creatures, including those seen in the park 's petting zoo, were created with motion capture using human actors to perform the animals ' movements, marking the first time that motion capture technology had been used in the making of a dinosaur film. Trevorrow said, "We got to build everyone from the ground up because technology has changed so much that everything is a rebuild ''. New technology such as subsurface scattering allowed the creatures ' skin and muscle tissue to be given additional detail that could not be achieved in the earlier films. As with previous films in the series, actors had to imagine many of the film 's creatures, which were digitally added during post-production. Actors were aided by cardboard cut - outs and tennis balls on sticks, all of which represented the creatures that would later be added into the film. ILM used its V - scout application, which used an iPad to digitally depict dinosaur models in the filming environment, to further aid the actors. ILM also used the V - scout during location scouting.
Part of the fight scene between the T. rex and the Indominus was inspired by a video clip that Spielberg shot of his dogs growling and lunging at each other. Early in pre-production, Tippett helped Trevorrow plan and choreograph the battle sequence by having a scale model created for the scene. Previsualizations of the scene were then created to assist in filming it. Tippett also visited the set during production and later discussed the creature animations with ILM. Trevorrow included several creatures he felt had always deserved an in - franchise big scene in the film; he stated, "I did n't want to just throw the kitchen sink at it. Each of these movies has done a good job at just very carefully, in a measured way, increasing the new dinosaurs that you see. '' Several creatures make notable appearances in the film:
The musical score was composed by Michael Giacchino, who had previously scored the video games Warpath: Jurassic Park and The Lost World: Jurassic Park. John Williams 's themes from previous Jurassic Park scores were incorporated by Giacchino, who said; "It was a really targeted approach, as to where to (include Williams 's themes) and where would make the most sense and where would we most appreciate it, as fans ourselves ''. A soundtrack album was released on June 9, 2015, by Back Lot Music.
The first official pictures of the film set were released on April 23, 2014, and were followed by the release of the first film stills in June 2014. During the San Diego Comic - Con convention in July 2014, 500 copies of a limited - edition Jurassic World poster by Mark Englert were given out. Audiences at the convention were disappointed by the lack of Jurassic World footage; what they thought to be footage for the film was a teaser trailer announcement for Legendary Pictures ' upcoming film, Skull Island.
Two viral marketing websites, one for the fictional Masrani Global Corporation and one for the Jurassic World theme park, were launched on November 17, 2014. The Masrani website was created by Jack Anthony Ewins and Timothy Glover, two Jurassic Park fans who had earlier created a website for the fictional Patel Corporation. Khan was initially reported to be playing a park owner with the surname Patel; after some fans mistook the Patel website for an official website associated with the film, Universal hired Ewins and Glover in April 2014 to design the official Masrani website and to add their own backstory details to it.
The Masrani website included information that was absent from the film; it contained details of the company 's purchase of InGen and about the park 's origins. The Masrani website also included videos showing D'Onofrio and Wong talking in - character about the fictional company. Paleontologist Brian Switek was hired in early 2015 to ensure the accuracy of dinosaur information on the film 's theme park website. Trevorrow wrote fictional customer comments for the theme park website; he said, "It was then that I realized I 'd gone too far down the rabbit hole ''. Closed circuit video shown on the control room monitors was filmed during production and was also added to the theme park website.
A short teaser trailer was released online on November 23, 2014. The first full trailer was released online on November 25, 2014; it had initially been scheduled to air on NBC two days later during a Thanksgiving football game. A television advertisement for the film premiered during Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015. A clip from the film was aired on MTV on April 8, 2015, and depicted the character Owen arguing with Claire about the treatment of the park 's dinosaurs. Film director and writer Joss Whedon criticized the clip, calling it "' 70s - era sexist '' and, referring to Pratt 's and Howard 's characters, stated; "She 's a stiff, he 's a life - force -- really? Still? '' Trevorrow later stated he was not bothered by Whedon 's comments and that "to be honest, I do n't totally disagree with him. I wonder why (Universal) chose a clip like that, that shows an isolated situation within a movie that has an internal logic. That starts with characters that are almost archetypes, stereotypes that are deconstructed as the story progresses. '' Howard also considered the clip to be a marketing mistake.
Later in April 2015, three new posters for the film were released during a three - day period leading up to the premiere of the final trailer. Trevorrow was disappointed with Universal because he felt the trailers showed "far more of this movie than I would have ever wanted ''. Trevorrow stated that because of the film 's cost, the trailers included scenes Universal felt were necessary to ensure its financial success after the studio 's disappointment with Jurassic Park III 's box - office performance. Universal spent $34.9 million on television advertisements for the film. Companies including Kellogg 's, Dairy Queen and Barbasol served as promotional partners for the film, and Lego and Hasbro released toys based on it. Two video games, Lego Jurassic World and Jurassic World: The Game, were released in 2015. Tippett Studio worked with Universal and Efexio to create an application titled "Jurassic World Mobile MovieMaker '', which adds images of dinosaurs to a background photograph.
In October 2016, a 24 - minute animated children 's film titled Lego Jurassic World: The Indominus Escape was released as part of a Jurassic World DVD bundle set, receiving shared billing with the 2015 film; it is the first animated film spin - off from Jurassic Park to be released. The film is a prequel to Jurassic World and features most of the primary adult characters attempting to capture a hotdog - loving Indominus rex. Its voice cast consists of Zachary Levi, Sendhil Ramamurthy and Fred Tatasciore joined Jake Johnson, Lauren Lapkus, Bryce Dallas Howard and BD Wong. The animation received a 36 % audience score on Rotten Tomatoes.
With the individual release of The Indominus Escape, a short film titled Lego Jurassic World: Employee Safety Video featuring BD Wong, David Gunning, Jake Johnson and Lauren Lapkus reprising their roles from The Indominus Escape was released.
The first premiere of Jurassic World was held on May 29, 2015, at the Grand Rex cinema in Paris, France. The film was theatrically released in 66 territories from June 10 to 12. In North America, advance screenings were held at Majestic 10 Cinemas in Williston, Vermont on the 10th, before opening two days later in 4,273 venues, the largest - ever screen count for Universal. The film was released in Japan on August 5; the last market in which it was released.
Worldwide, Jurassic World was released across 809 IMAX theaters -- 364 of which were in North America -- making it the third - largest worldwide release for any movie in IMAX 's history and the largest day - and - date IMAX release ever. Universal relaunched the film in IMAX 3D in theaters for one week on August 28, 2015, in the United States and Canada.
Jurassic World was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and Blu - ray 3D on October 20, 2015. Upon release, it sold nearly three million Blu - ray and DVD units in its first week, making it the highest - selling home entertainment live - action film; both for Universal and of 2015. Across all digital and physical formats, Jurassic World collected $82.6 million in its first week. At the end of 2015, it was named the second - highest - selling video of the year in the UK, selling 1.05 million copies since its release. It was the third - highest - selling DVD and the second - highest - selling Blu - ray in the country. Jurassic World is included in the Jurassic Park 4K UHD Blu - Ray collection, which was released on May 22, 2018.
The DVD debuted at number - one on the UK DVD Charts.
Jurassic World grossed $652.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $1.019 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1.672 billion against a production budget of $150 million. It set a box office record during its opening weekend, becoming the first film to collect over $500 million in a single weekend and was the third - highest - grossing film of all time in both the U.S. and Canada and the world during its theatrical run. It is the second - highest - grossing film released in 2015 and the most lucrative in the Jurassic Park franchise. It is the second of three films following Furious 7 and Minions to surpass $1 million in 4DX admissions worldwide. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $474.63 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Predictions for the opening of Jurassic World in the U.S. and Canada were continuously revised upwards, starting from $125 million to $200 million. It opened on Friday, June 12, 2015, in 4,274 theaters and earned $81.9 million on its opening day, marking the fifth - biggest opening day and the fifth - biggest single - day gross. The film 's Friday gross included $18.5 million from 3,229 theaters in its early Thursday showings -- a record for Universal. Excluding Thursday - night grosses, the film earned the largest opening - day gross ($63.5 million). It also set a single - day IMAX record of $8.6 million and a Saturday - and - Sunday gross record of $69.6 million and $57.2 million, respectively. In total, it earned $208,806,270 for its debut weekend, setting an opening - weekend record and an IMAX opening record of $20.6 million -- 10.2 % of the total opening gross -- from 363 IMAX theaters. 3D accounted for 48 % of the total opening gross. RealD 3D comprised $70 million of the opening gross. It is also the biggest opening for Chris Pratt. The opening - weekend audience was evenly split between under - 25s over-25s -- 39 % were under age 25, 61 % age 25 years and above. 52 % of the audience were male and 48 % were female.
The film set a record for the largest second - weekend gross, its revenue dropping by 49 % to $106.6 million and it topped the North American box office for three consecutive weekends. Other records set by the film at the time include the biggest weekend - per - theater average for a wide release -- $48,855 per theater -- the fastest film to reach $100 million and each additional $50 million through $600 million, and the largest cumulative gross through every day of release until and including its fifty - third day -- with the exception of its first day.
As of June 21, 2015, screenings in RealD, IMAX and premium large format had grossed $132 million, $42 million and $23.1 million, respectively. On Friday, July 17, 2015, the movie 's revenue reached $600 million, becoming the fourth and quickest to do so in 36 days. On Friday, August 28, 2015, the film was re-launched in 350 IMAX theaters, earning $3.1 million during the weekend. By September 5, 2015, IMAX screenings contributed 9 % or $56 million of its total revenue. It ended its theatrical run on November 19, 2015, playing for 161 days in theaters and earning $652,270,625, 39 % of its total worldwide gross. It became the fourth - highest - grossing film of all time, the second - highest - grossing film of 2015, the highest - grossing Universal Pictures film, the highest - grossing Legendary Pictures film, and the highest - grossing film in the Jurassic Park franchise. Box Office Mojo estimates the film sold more than 70 million tickets in the U.S.
Jurassic World was released in 63 countries. Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened on Wednesday, June 10, 2015, in eight countries, earning $24 million. On Thursday, June 11, it grossed another $46 million from 37 markets for a two - day total of $70 million from 45 countries. It was released in 21 more countries on June 12, earning $60 million, which is Universal 's highest - grossing international Friday of all time, for a three - day total of $130 million from 66 countries. Until Sunday, June 14, it had a five - day opening weekend total of $316.1 million from 66 countries from 19,612 screens, representing 31 % of its overseas gross and setting an opening - weekend record. This included an IMAX opening record of $23.5 million from 443 IMAX theaters in 56 countries. 3D showings accounted for 65 % of the film 's revenue. (equivalent to $205 million). Additional records include the highest single - day IMAX gross with $6.5 million on Saturday, June 12, 2015. Revenues in its second weekend dropped by 47.4 % to $166.7 million, according to Box Office Mojo. Deadline.com reported a 48.3 % drop to $163.4 million. Jurassic World topped the box office outside of North America for three consecutive weekends.
The film had the biggest opening day of all time for Universal in Hong Kong; the second - biggest in Australia, France, Indonesia, the Philippines, Russia, and South Korea; and the biggest opening day of all time in Panama. It also scored the biggest opening for Universal in nine countries, including Australia, China, Ecuador, France, Hong Kong, and Malta. In China, it grossed $17.77 million on its opening day (including $1.39 million from midnight runs), which is the tenth - biggest of all time and went on to earn $100.1 million in its opening weekend, which is the third - biggest of all time. It also scored the second - biggest IMAX opening there with $11.8 million. Following China, its largest openings outside of the U.S. and Canada occurred in the UK, Ireland and Malta ($30.1 million), France and the Maghreb region ($14.7 million), Mexico ($14.6 million), South Korea ($14.2 million) and Japan ($13 million). In South Korea, the film was released during the 2015 MERS outbreak, which resulted in a fall in film attendance from late May of 2015; local film distributors changed or postponed local films ' release dates. Because U.S. film studios are debarred from altering their scheduled dates, the film had to be released on its scheduled date.
In 25 countries, Jurassic World became the highest - grossing film in the Jurassic Park film series. IMAX tickets sales grossed $42.1 million as of June 21, 2015. In total earnings, its largest markets outside of the U.S. were China with $228 million; the UK, Ireland and Malta ($97.8 million); Japan ($69.2 million); South Korea ($41.79 million); Mexico ($41.73 million); India ($24.07 million) and Germany ($41.6 million).
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Jurassic World has an approval rating of 71 % based on 315 reviews and an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Jurassic World ca n't match the original for sheer inventiveness and impact, but it works in its own right as an entertaining -- and visually dazzling -- popcorn thriller ''. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 59 out of 100 based on 49 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film four stars out of five and said it is a "terrifically enjoyable and exciting summer spectacular '' and "savvy, funny, ridiculous in just the right way ''. Robbie Collin of The Telegraph also awarded it four stars, deeming it a worthy sequel to the original Jurassic Park and calling it "methodically paced and shot with an awestruck visual sense that 's pure Spielberg ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave it three stars out of four and wrote; "It 's not the cynical, cash - in cheesefest you feared. OK, Jurassic World is a little of that. But this state - of - the - art dino epic is also more than a blast of rumbling, roaring, ' did you effing see that! ' fun. '' He praised Trevorrow 's direction, Pratt 's and Howard 's performances and the effects. Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy criticized the romance between Owen and Claire; he said the film is not terribly scary but praised the CGI and score, and wrote that despite its shortcomings it would be appealing to audiences everywhere.
The Associated Press rated the film two stars out of four and called it "an ugly, over-saturated movie '' that lacks the "deft sense of wonderment, wit and suspense that guided the original ''. The review, however, praised the film 's score as well as Pratt and Howard 's performances. Spielberg said, "To see Jurassic World come to life is almost like seeing Jurassic Park come true, '' while Sam Neill also praised the film and its acting. Several news publications, as well as Neill, noted the violence of Zara 's death scene, although Entertainment Weekly wrote, "There 's nothing amusing about the demise of Zara, who 's as close to ' real people ' as Jurassic World gets, and it 's that unsettling quality about her death that more Hollywood disaster epics need in order to reclaim their visceral emotional prowess ''. Several news outlets, including The New York Times, New York and Slate, considered the film 's depiction of Claire, including her use of high heels throughout the film, to be sexist. UK film website Movie Metropolis called Jurassic World a tasteful homage to the original but said it lacks some of that film 's soul and rated it four stars out of five.
Several journalists have noted plot and character similarities between Jurassic World and the 1999 film Deep Blue Sea. Christopher Rosen, Senior News Director at Entertainment Weekly, tweeted that "Jurassic World is my favorite Deep Blue Sea remake of 2015 ''. Entertainment website Dark Horizons stated in its coverage of Jurassic World that "some are n't warming to the Deep Blue Sea meets Jaws 3 - D storyline '', while entertainment website Flickering Myth posted the story "Deja Vu: Is n't Jurassic World just Deep Blue Sea with dinosaurs? '', which outlined plot and character similarities between the two films. Pop culture website The Complex stated Jurassic World is "basically going to be the big budget Deep Blue Sea re-imagining that we all deserve. Scientists, driven by a cold near - heartless leader, tinkering with already smart animals. The beast whisperer who warns against fucking with nature. It 's like watching Saffron Burrows and Thomas Jane flirt all over again. ''
In December 2015, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences placed Jurassic World on its shortlist of potential nominees for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 88th Academy Awards but was not nominated for an Academy Award. The film received the following nominations and awards from other organizations:
A Twitter post attributed to Trevorrow stated there would be no feathered dinosaurs in the film. The first Jurassic Park film was lauded by paleontologists for depicting dinosaurs accurately and in keeping with the science of the time but later discoveries have challenged the view of dinosaurs as enormous, slow, lizard - like reptiles. Jurassic World was criticized for purposely ignoring new discoveries and knowledge. Several dinosaur researchers called the film a "dumb monster movie '' for failing to include new discoveries about the creatures; for example, the feathers or proto - feathers that covered some dinosaurs and the way Velociraptor held its front limbs. Since the film 's teaser trailer release, many paleontologists expressed their disappointment on Twitter, Facebook and their own blogs, calling the dinosaurs that were featured a retrograde step from the original Jurassic Park.
In response to these criticisms, Trevorrow said, "the film is scientifically ' inaccurate ' because it is a science - fiction movie and not a documentary ''. The filmmakers had planned to depict feathered dinosaurs early in the film 's development. A fictional review on the film 's theme park website speculates that the use of amphibian DNA to fill the gaps in the dinosaur DNA -- a plot point in the original novel and film -- prevented the dinosaurs from growing feathers.
At the end of March 2015, a Writers Guild of America (WGA) arbitration panel ruled that Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver would receive credit for writing the screenplay with Trevorrow and Connolly, who disagreed with the decision, although they decided that under WGA rules they had no grounds to appeal. They accepted the ruling on March 31, 2015. On April 2, 2015, it was reported that Universal Pictures originally wanted Trevorrow and Connolly to be credited for the screenplay; they were credited in the film 's Super Bowl trailer as the only writers. It was then reported that they appealed the WGA 's decision, that they wrote an entirely new screenplay that was not based on Jaffa and Silver 's draft, and that they wanted full writing credit for the script.
On April 7, 2015, it was reported that the arbiters had unanimously denied Trevorrow 's and Connolly 's appeal in a second hearing held on April 3, and that they gave Jaffa and Silver an additional credit for writing the original story. Trevorrow and Connolly appealed the decision. Later that day, Trevorrow said he and Connolly had not appealed the WGA 's original decision to give Jaffa and Silver co-credit for the screenplay, despite disagreeing with it. He also stated that he and Connolly were not informed of the second hearing until it was already over. The credits of the screenplay ultimately went to both writing teams; Jaffa and Silver were also being credited for writing the original story.
A sequel to Jurassic World, titled Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, was released in June 2018. Trevorrow and Connolly returned to write the script for the sequel, which features Pratt and Howard reprising their roles. Trevorrow said in 2014, "We wanted to create something that would be a little bit less arbitrary and episodic, and something that could potentially arc into a series that would feel like a complete story ''. In May 2015, Trevorrow confirmed he would not direct a sequel, and he acted as an executive producer with Spielberg. J.A. Bayona directed the film, which will serve as the middle chapter of a planned Jurassic World trilogy. Filming took place from February to July 2017.
|
what is the meaning of mizpah in the bible | Mizpah (emotional bond) - Wikipedia
Mizpah (מִצְפָּה) is Hebrew for "watchtower. '' As mentioned in the Bible story of Jacob and Laban, making a pile of stones marked an agreement between two people, with God as their watching witness.
Jacob had secretly fled the house of Laban, his father - in - law, in the middle of the night, taking flocks of animals, all his other assets, and his two wives and their children (the daughters and grandchildren of Laban) with him, intending never to return. Laban discovered this and pursued Jacob. After discussion, the two decided to formalize the separation.
Laban admitted that his daughters had voluntarily left, saying "(W) hat can I do to these daughters or to the children which they have bore? '' (Genesis 31: 43). He agreed to let Jacob go in peace, but exacted a promise from Jacob to never abuse his daughters or take additional wives (Genesis 31: 50).
The two men then determined to erect a pile of stones, a figurative watchtower, called a mizpah, to commemorate this promise, even though no person was present other than the two men when it was made, for "God is witness between you and me. '' Both of the men also agreed that they would consider the mizpah a border between their respective territories, and that would not pass the watchtower to visit one another "to do evil '' (Genesis 31: 52).
Since that time, the mizpah has come to connote an emotional bond between people who are separated (either physically or by death). Mizpah jewelry is often made in the form of a coin - shaped pendant cut in two with a zig - zag line bearing the words "The LORD watch between me and thee, when we are absent one from another '' (Genesis 31: 49). This is worn to signify the bond. Additionally, the word "mizpah '' can often be found on headstones in cemeteries and on other memorials. From Genesis 31: 49 of the Bible:
And Mizpah; for he said, The Lord watch between me and thee, when we are absent one from another.
Side note: This has nothing to do with further information on the word Mizpah. I 'm merely trying to express the significance of the beauty of this word. It is essentially a way of saying good - bye without truly telling a person that it is the end. It embodies the hope of another meeting, a desire for something to last or begin again. This is a word drenched in longing and wistfulness. You may call me a hopeless romantic and so shoot me for looking for the beauty those two syllables contain. I 'm finished with this edit and to whoever is reading this, mizpah. I do n't know you, but you have seen a snippet of myself and at least I (sort of) have the knowledge that you read this far, either to mock me or because you relate to my sentiment. I hope some higher power watches over you (if there is one that is.) So therefore, mizpah.
|
who do you play as in god of war | God of War (2018 video game) - Wikipedia
God of War is an action - adventure video game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment (SIE). Released on April 20, 2018, for the PlayStation 4 (PS4) console, it is the eighth installment in the God of War series, the eighth chronologically, and the sequel to 2010 's God of War III. Unlike previous games, which were loosely based on Greek mythology, this game is loosely based on Norse mythology. The main protagonists are Kratos, the former Greek God of War, and his young son Atreus. Following the death of Kratos ' second wife and Atreus ' mother, they journey to fulfill her promise and spread her ashes at the highest peak of the nine realms. Kratos keeps his troubled past a secret from Atreus, who is unaware of his divine nature. Along their journey, they encounter monsters and gods of the Norse world.
Described by creative director Cory Barlog as a reimagining of the franchise, a major gameplay change is that Kratos prominently uses a magical battle axe instead of his signature double - chained blades. God of War also uses an over-the - shoulder free camera, with the game in one shot, as opposed to the fixed cinematic camera of the previous entries. The game includes role - playing video game elements, and Kratos ' son Atreus provides assistance in combat. The majority of the original game 's development team worked on God of War and designed the game to be accessible and grounded. A separate short text - based game, God of War: A Call from the Wilds released in February 2018, follows Atreus on his first adventure.
God of War received universal acclaim from critics, being praised for its narrative, world design, art direction, graphics, characters, and combat system. It received perfect scores from multiple reviewers, making it the highest - rated game in the God of War series, as well the third highest - rated PS4 game on Metacritic. The game performed well commercially, selling five million copies within a month of release.
The gameplay is vastly different from the previous installments, as it was rebuilt from the ground up. Although the previous main installment, Ascension (2013), introduced multiplayer to the series, this installment is single - player - only. The game features a third - person, over-the - shoulder free camera, a departure from the previous installments, which featured a third - person, fixed cinematic camera (with the exception of 2007 's 2D side - scroller Betrayal). Cinematographically, the game is presented in a continuous shot, with no camera cuts. The game is open, but it is not open - world. Due to it being open, players can fast travel to different locations through Mystic Gateways. As the ability to swim was cut from the game, players instead use a boat to traverse bodies of water. Just like previous entries, there are puzzles for players to solve to progress through parts of the game. Enemies in the game stem from Norse mythology, such as variants of trolls, ogres, dark elves and their king, wolves, wulvers, nightmares, draugrs, tatzelwurms, as well as Gullveig and the revenants, beings warped by seiðr magic, among other original creatures. Valkyries appear as optional boss battles, and players can free the dragons Fáfnir, Otr, and Reginn -- dwarfs that were turned into dragons -- in addition to battling a dragon called Hræzlyr.
A major change is that Kratos no longer uses his signature double - chained blades, the Blades of Chaos, as his default weapon. Instead, he uses a magical battle axe, called the Leviathan Axe, which is infused with ice elemental magic. The axe can be thrown at enemies and magically summoned back to his hand (similar to Thor 's hammer Mjölnir). Larger enemies have precision targets and throwing the axe at those targets stuns the enemy. The weapon can also be thrown at environmental objects to trigger a damaging explosion and it can freeze objects and some enemies in place for puzzle solving until the axe is summoned back to Kratos ' hand. The axe has standard light and heavy attacks, and over time, it can be upgraded with runes to allow for special runic attacks, with one slot being for a light runic attack and the other for heavy. This provides players with a variety of options to cater to their own play style. For example, one of the light runic attacks allows Kratos to charge the axe and let out a burst of energy and one of the heavy runic attacks allows Kratos to summon a swirling ice storm. Another new weapon that Kratos utilizes is the Guardian Shield. When not in use, it folds up and appears like a vambrace on Kratos ' left forearm. When summoned, the shield can be used offensively and defensively, similar to the Golden Fleece in previous games. Kratos also utilizes hand - to - hand combat, a feature originally introduced in Ascension. The Blades of Chaos are acquired late into the game via a plot device and perform similarly as they did in previous installments, but can also be upgraded with light and heavy runic attacks.
Similar to previous games, there is a "Rage '' ability called Spartan Rage. Like the previous versions, the Rage ability has a meter that gradually fills during combat. With this ability, Kratos uses powerful bare - handed attacks, as opposed to weapons, to greatly damage enemies. The game also features elements similar to role - playing video games (RPGs). There are crafting resources for the player to find that allow them to create new or upgrade existing armor with better perks. Players also accumulate a currency called Hacksilver, a key component in crafting and purchasing new items. Experience points (XP) are used for learning new combat skills. Throughout the game world, players find chests containing random items, such as Hacksilver and enchantments for improving armor and weapons, as well as two special items, Iðunn 's Apples and Horns of Blood Mead, which increase the maximum length of the health and rage meters, respectively. Quick time events have changed from previous games. Enemies display two meters above their heads, one for health and the other for stun. Filling up the stun meter helps to defeat more difficult enemies. When the stun meter is full, a grab - prompt will appear. Depending on the enemy, Kratos may rip it in half or grab them and throw them into other enemies, among other possible outcomes.
Although the game is played entirely as Kratos, there are times when the player may choose to passively control Kratos ' son, Atreus. One button is dedicated to Atreus and its use depends on the context. For example, if the player needs assistance, they can look at an enemy, press the button, and Atreus will use his Talon Bow to shoot arrows at the enemy. The arrows have little effect on an enemy 's health, but do increase the stun meter. Over the course of the game, Atreus helps in combat, traversal, exploration, and puzzle - solving. When facing a large number of enemies, he distracts the weaker ones as Kratos fights the stronger ones. If too many enemies gang up on Atreus, he is knocked out for the remainder of that combat. Just like Kratos, Atreus acquires new skills, armor, special arrows, such as lightning arrows, as well as runic attacks for his Talon Bow, but it only has one slot instead of two. Atreus ' runic attacks summon different spectral animals with different abilities. For example, one summons a wolf that attacks enemies, while another summons the squirrel Ratatoskr that will dig up orbs to replenish Kratos ' health or rage meters.
While the first seven games were loosely based on Greek mythology, this installment takes the series to Norse mythology, but predates the Vikings. Six of the nine realms of Norse mythology can be explored. The majority of the game takes place in the realm of Midgard, inhabited by humans and other creatures and is the same realm that the Greek world had existed in. As more creatures began appearing, many humans fled. Other realms visited as part of the story include Alfheim, the mystical home of the light and dark elves, Helheim, the icy land of the dead, and Jötunheim, the mountainous land of the giants. Other explorable realms include Niflheim, a realm of poisonous fog with a maze - like structure of rewards, and the fire realm Muspelheim, featuring the six Trials of Muspelheim; completing each trial grants rewards and advances Kratos and Atreus closer to the top of a large volcano. Access to the other three realms -- Asgard, home of the Æsir gods, Vanaheim, home of the Vanir gods, and Svartalfheim, home of the dwarves -- have been blocked by the ruler of Asgard and the Æsir gods, Odin. At the center of the realms is the mythical tree Yggdrasil, which connects each realm together. Although each realm is a different world, they simultaneously exist in the same space. Travel to and from realms can be done by the use of the Bifröst from a root of Yggdrasil contained within a temple located at the center of the Lake of the Nine. The temple was created by the now dead Týr, a peaceful God of War who had traveled to other lands and learned about their mythologies; Odin had him killed as he believed Týr was secretly aiding the giants and would try to overthrow him.
The protagonists of the game are Kratos (voiced by Christopher Judge) and his young son Atreus (Sunny Suljic). Kratos is a warrior originally from Sparta who became the Greek God of War and is the son of Zeus. After ending up in Midgard, he met his second and now deceased wife, Laufey (addressed as Faye), and they bore their son, Atreus, who does not know about Kratos ' past or his divine nature, but can hear other beings ' thoughts. The main antagonist is the Æsir god Baldur (Jeremy Davies), the brother of Thor, whose sons Modi and Magni (Nolan North and Troy Baker, respectively) assist Baldur. His parents are Odin and the Vanir god Freya (Danielle Bisutti). Freya tried leaving Odin, as she did not truly love him, and Odin had her banished to Midgard, after which she became known as the Witch of the Woods. To protect her son from a prophecy that foretold his death, Freya cast a spell of immortality on Baldur, which also caused him to not feel pain or any feeling of pleasure, which he resented her for. The only thing that she could not prevent from breaking the spell was mistletoe, which she kept secret. Other characters include Mímir (Alastair Duncan), who claims to be the smartest man alive, and the Huldra Brothers Brok (Roger Craighead) and Sindri (Adam J. Harrington), a pair of dwarves who appear at various points in the world and assist Kratos and Atreus with forging new gear. Their weapons, including Thor 's hammer Mjölnir, were used by the Æsir gods and they also had forged Kratos ' Leviathan Axe, which originally belonged to Faye, who also gifted Kratos his Guardian Shield. The spirit of the Greek goddess Athena (Carole Ruggier) makes a cameo appearance, and Zeus (Corey Burton) appears as an illusion to Kratos in Helheim.
Many years have passed since Kratos took his vengeance against the Olympian gods, and he now lives with his young son Atreus in Midgard. The game opens following the death of Kratos ' second wife and Atreus ' mother, Faye, whose last wish was for her ashes to be spread at the highest peak of the nine realms. Before beginning their journey, Kratos is confronted by a mysterious man with godlike powers. After seemingly killing him, Kratos and Atreus set out on their journey.
Reaching the Lake of the Nine, Kratos and Atreus encounter the friendly World Serpent, Jörmungandr. After running into impenetrable black mist which can only be extinguished with the Light of Alfheim, they receive aid from the Witch of the Woods to use the Bifröst in order to travel to Alfheim and secure the Light. Upon vanquishing the mist and reaching Midgard 's peak, they overhear a conversation between the mysterious man, revealed to be Baldur, his nephews Modi and Magni, and the imprisoned Mímir. After they leave, Kratos and Atreus confront Mímir, who reveals that their goal is actually in Jötunheim, but travel there has been blocked to keep out Odin and Thor. Mímir, however, knows another passage. He instructs Kratos to cut off his head and have it revived by the Witch of the Woods, revealed to be Freya. Kratos immediately distrusts her, but both Freya and Mímir warn him that he must tell Atreus about his true nature.
Kratos, Atreus, and Mímir 's head journey to collect needed components to open Jötunheim 's portal when they are attacked by Modi and Magni. After Kratos kills Magni, Modi flees, but later returns and ambushes them. Atreus collapses ill, which Mímir and Freya explain is a mental contradiction of a god believing himself to be mortal. She tells Kratos that he must retrieve the heart of the Keeper of the Bridge of the Damned in Helheim, but his Leviathan Axe is useless there. Kratos then returns home to unearth his old weapons, the Blades of Chaos, and is haunted by Athena 's spirit, who goads him about his past. After retrieving the heart, he has a haunting vision of Zeus. Atreus is cured and Kratos tells him that he is a god. Atreus then becomes increasingly arrogant on their journey, and he murders a weakened Modi, despite Kratos ordering not to. At Midgard 's peak, they are ambushed by Baldur, resulting in Jötunheim 's portal being destroyed and the group falling into Helheim.
Atreus makes amends with Kratos and they find out about Freya and Baldur 's familial relationship. Returning to Midgard, Mímir realizes there is another way to reach Jötunheim, but it requires recovering his missing eye. After obtaining it from Jörmungandr 's belly, who had inadvertently swallowed it when he ate a statue of Thor, they are attacked by Baldur again, but Freya intervenes in an attempt to protect her son. During the fight, Baldur is pierced by Atreus ' mistletoe arrowhead, breaking Freya 's spell on him. Baldur is defeated, and although Kratos gives him an opportunity to retreat, he instead attempts to strangle Freya, forcing Kratos to kill him. A grieving Freya swears revenge on Kratos and taunts him about hiding his true nature from Atreus. Kratos finally tells Atreus about his past and how he had killed his fellow Greek gods, including his father Zeus. Atreus laments if all gods are good for is committing parricide. Kratos tells Atreus that they should both learn from their experiences and not repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. A silent Freya leaves with Baldur 's corpse and Mímir hopefully suggests that she will eventually move on from the tragedy and that Kratos did the right thing.
In Jötunheim, they find a temple with a mural depicting their adventures, showing that the giants had foreseen everything that would happen and vaguely foretold what was to come. In addition, they discover that Faye was a giant who decided to stay behind in Midgard, making Atreus a hybrid of giant, god, and mortal. Their fight with Baldur was shown, revealing he was actually after Faye the whole time. It is also revealed that Atreus was named Loki by his mother. Wondering if Faye planned this in advance, Kratos and Atreus fulfill their promise and spread her ashes at the peak. Afterwards, Kratos reveals to Atreus that his given name was also the name of a compassionate Spartan comrade. When they return to Midgard, Mímir warns them that the three - year long Fimbulwinter has started, meaning Ragnarök is soon to follow, which was not supposed to occur for another hundred years.
In the game 's secret ending, Kratos and Atreus return home and slumber. Atreus has a vision that at the end of Fimbulwinter, Thor will arrive at their home to confront them.
At the first annual PlayStation Experience on December 6, 2014, Santa Monica Studios 's creative director Cory Barlog confirmed that a new God of War was in very early development. He said that the game would not be a prequel, but it might be a reboot. In April 2016, Polygon reported that concept art of the next installment had been leaked. The images showed Kratos in the world of Norse mythology; a concept originally considered by series creator David Jaffe after Kratos eliminated the Greek gods. At the 2016 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), the next installment was officially announced with a gameplay demo and confirmed the concept art to be true. The demo showed a fully bearded Kratos with a son, and Kratos was teaching the boy how to hunt. The pair also battled a troll. The end of the demo showed the title God of War and confirmed it was in development for the PlayStation 4. E3 also confirmed that Barlog had returned to the series as game director for the new installment. Barlog has been a major contributor in the development of the God of War series since the original installment in 2005, with his prior most notable role being game director of God of War II (2007). This new installment was his fifth God of War game.
In naming the game, Barlog stated that it was deliberately titled God of War with no numeral or subtitle because although it is a continuation of the series, "we are reimagining everything. '' Head of Santa Monica Studio Shannon Studstill and Barlog said that Sony Interactive Entertainment had to be convinced to do another God of War game as a lot of people at Sony wanted the series to "sleep and rest '' due to the lackluster response of the previous game, Ascension. In explaining why Barlog was brought back, Studstill said that he knew the series very well, "and bringing in someone that understands that history is the respect the franchise deserves. '' Barlog followed up and said that "You got ta know the rules to break the rules. '' Series creator David Jaffe was also considered, but was unavailable.
In explaining the transition from Greek mythology to Norse mythology, Barlog said: "it 's kind of this BC -- AD change over kind of thing. We 're moving and starting from zero and kind of moving forward on that. '' Before settling on Norse mythology, Egyptian mythology was also considered. Barlog said that half of the team was for it, but since "there 's a lot more about civilization - it 's less isolated, less barren '', he had to make the decision and decided on the Norse setting because they wanted the focus to stay on Kratos: "Having too much around distracts from that central theme of a stranger in a strange land. '' In explaining why Kratos was now in the Norse world, Barlog said that different cultures ' belief systems coexisted, but they were "separated by geography '', suggesting that Kratos traveled from Greece to Norway (Scandinavia) after the conclusion of God of War III; in clarifying the conclusion of that game, Barlog said that Kratos did not destroy what was believed to be the entire world, but only the portion that was ruled over by the Greeks. Barlog said that the new game predates the Vikings; it is the time in which their gods walked the Earth. It was also confirmed that this would not be Kratos ' last game. Barlog said that future games could see the series tackling Egyptian or Mayan mythology, and that although this game focuses on Norse mythology, it alludes to the fact that there are other mythologies co-existing in the world. Barlog also said that he liked the idea of having different directors for each game, seen throughout the first seven games, and although he may not direct another God of War, he would still be at Santa Monica to work on future games.
Most of the development team that worked on the original God of War worked on the new installment. They claimed that they matched the new gameplay with the same level of accessibility as the previous installments. It was confirmed that the game would not feature any morality system or branching story; all players have the same story experience. The developers also confirmed that some of the more controversial mini-games found in previous entries (such as the sex mini-game) would not return. Some gameplay characteristics found in the previous installments were cut, such as jumping, swimming, and instant - death platforming challenges; these were cut due to the camera being closer to Kratos. Although the previous installment, Ascension, introduced multiplayer to the series, the team decided to drop the mode to focus on the single - player experience. In changing the gameplay, Studstill said "I felt like, in order to reinvent, we really needed to turn a lot of things around. '' In regards to the camera change, Barlog said "We wanted a much more intimate experience, a much more up close, and a much more player - controlled experience, so the camera really is a mechanic that (we leaned) into heavily for everything in the game. '' Explaining Kratos ' axe, lead gameplay designer Jason McDonald, who has worked on the series since the original game, said the axe was chosen because they wanted a more grounded direction for the game. Initially, they were unsure how to make it unique, like how the double - chained blades were. After they came up with the concept of throwing the axe and having it return to Kratos, "things started to fall into place. '' McDonald said that combat with the axe is a little slower than what it was with the blades, "but it 's just as fluid and just as brutal as it 's ever been. '' Barlog took inspiration from Dark Souls (2011), which influenced the game 's combat system, particularly its gameplay loop and strategic decision - making, as well as the game 's approach to storytelling. In addition, designers Anthony Dimento and Luis Sanchez revealed how God of War 's level design and exploration was influenced by Bloodborne (2015), as they wanted to "just have the world breathe a little bit '' and expand upon player discovery by including "micro-loops where you 're unlocking paths, unlocking shortcuts... '' that gave purpose.
The entire game was done in a single shot, as in no camera cuts, meaning there are no loading screens or fade - to - black between gameplay and cutscenes. The frame rate was confirmed as 30 frames per second, and the enemy count was increased to up to 100 enemies on - screen; God of War III and Ascension could do up to 50. Unlike the previous games, Santa Monica did not make a demo specifically for public release. Barlog explained that doing so would have delayed the game by a couple of months. He also confirmed that the game was built for the standard PlayStation 4, but the game would "benefit from the power '' of the PlayStation 4 Pro; an updated version of the PlayStation 4 that can render games in 4K and was released a few months after God of War was announced. In late December 2016, Barlog confirmed that the game was playable from start to finish. At the 2017 PlayStation Experience, Barlog said that the game 's story would take 25 -- 35 hours to complete, which is significantly more than the previous four main installments, which each took an average of 10 hours to complete.
At E3 2017, a new trailer was shown featuring new gameplay, cinematics, and characters. In the trailer, Kratos was shown using a shield that he could use offensively and defensively. At one point in the trailer, Kratos finds a Greek vase with himself on it, wielding his infamous double - chained blades. During the trailer, an unnamed woman warns Kratos about the Norse gods, as they know what he did to the Greek gods, while a pair of wolves were also shown. The trailer ends with Kratos and Atreus encountering the World Serpent. Atreus was able to translate what it said, which was that it wanted to help the pair. It was confirmed that the game would release in early 2018. Since E3 2017 until the game 's launch, Santa Monica included a section on the God of War website titled "The Lost Pages '', detailing some of the lore of God of War 's Nordic world. In January 2018, the game 's release date was confirmed for April 20, 2018. A trailer was also released that showed that the character Mímir from the mythology would have a role in the game. On March 22, God of War went gold.
During early development, there was talk about having a different protagonist for the game, but it was decided to keep Kratos. Referencing the Nintendo character Mario and the Mario games, Barlog said that just like Mario, "Kratos is intrinsically tied '' to the God of War series. In regards to the new changes, Barlog said that:
I knew I did n't want to simply reboot the franchise, starting over with a retelling of the origin story. I wanted to reimagine the gameplay, give players a fresh perspective and a new tactile experience while delving deeper into the emotional journey of Kratos to explore the compelling drama that unfolds when an immortal demigod makes a decision to change.
Barlog explained that Kratos had to change his cycle of violence and learn how to control his rage. He said that Kratos had made many bad decisions, which led to the destruction of Olympus, and wanted to know what would happen if Kratos made a good decision. The birth of Barlog 's own son influenced the idea of Kratos ' character change. The canceled live - action Star Wars television series was also an influence. The bond between Kratos and his son is at the heart of the game and Barlog said "This game is about Kratos teaching his son how to be a god, and his son teaching Kratos how to be human again. '' Referencing the Marvel Comics character Hulk, Barlog said that in regards to Kratos, "We 've already told the story of The Hulk. We want to tell the story of (Bruce) Banner now. '' One of their goals was to make Kratos "a more nuanced and interesting character. '' In changing the narrative focus, Studstill said "I think we inherently knew the franchise needed to evolve in that emotional beat and be something meatier for the older generation of gamers. ''
Christopher Judge, best known as Teal'c from Stargate SG - 1, replaced T.C. Carson as the voice of Kratos; Carson had voiced Kratos since the original God of War. Commenting in response to the change, Carson said, "Sony went in a new direction. '' Barlog explained that the way the previous games were made, they were able to have someone else do the motion capture instead of the voice actor. Although Carson had done the motion capture for Kratos in Ascension, Barlog said the actor change was made because of the type of camera work they wanted to do. For the new camera work, they needed someone who was closer to Kratos ' size to do the motion capture along with a child. Carson was unsuitable for this because he was much shorter than Kratos, who is over 6 - feet tall: "Offsetting (Carson 's height) for the size of a child, it turned out it was going to be almost impossible to try and actually shoot them and go in and redo the animations. '' Judge was chosen because he was 6 - foot - 3 and had the body of a professional football player. He was also chosen because of the chemistry with his then - 10 - year - old co-star, Sunny Suljic, who plays Kratos ' son Atreus; Suljic 's opinion was also sought in making the decision, and out of all the auditions, he liked Judge the most. The two bonded well, and Judge described his time with Suljic as time he had missed with his own children. In stepping into the role of Kratos, Judge took it as an opportunity to add something new to the character. He researched the character and Carson 's performance, but decided not to imitate it. Since Santa Monica were going in a new direction, he decided to start fresh and go from there. Judge was thrown off when he first read the script, stating it "was a real script '', and not just "a way to get into battles. '' He said "it was really this great story of this relationship and this crazy mythology. '' While Judge did all of Kratos ' motion capture for the cinematic scenes, stuntman Eric Jacobus did all of Kratos ' combat motion capture; Jacobus was found by God of War 's animators on YouTube. Instead of going directly to Santa Monica to audition, Jacobus recorded an audition tape and they immediately hired him.
During E3 2016, GameSpot mistakenly reported that Kratos ' son 's name was Charlie, which Barlog laughingly denied. In January 2017, after a fan downloaded the God of War overture and saw the track 's details that said "An introduction to Kratos and Atreus '', Barlog confirmed on Twitter that Atreus was in fact the son 's name. Barlog said that Atreus was unaware that Kratos was a demigod, and did not know about his past. They did not reveal details of Atreus ' mother prior to release due to her being a critical part of the story. Barlog stated that during gameplay, Atreus would be "like magic, an additional combat resource, and (the player is) training him and teaching him. '' The developers stated that Atreus would not be a burden during gameplay. The team experimented with several different approaches for Atreus to ensure that he was an empowering presence. Barlog said he did not want the game to be an escort - mission where the A.I. caused a problem for the player. Their goal was for Atreus to enhance Kratos ' capabilities without Atreus becoming a liability. This resulted in the developers designating a command button for Atreus as well as for him to act freely. During combat, Atreus was also designed to call out enemy locations, as due to the camera being closer to Kratos, some enemies may be difficult for the player to see. Jason McDonald said it took a lot of iterations with the enemies and Atreus to make it all work together.
Early in development, it was suggested for Atreus to be cut or to significantly minimize his role due to the many developmental challenges and financial expense. Barlog stated that the game could have worked without Atreus, but it would have been completely different, likening it to that of the 2013 film All Is Lost. Barlog said that with just Kratos, it would have been "one character who talks to himself occasionally, but generally, it will be very silent and everyone will talk in old Norse, so that you wo n't understand anything anybody 's saying. '' After hearing Barlog 's case, Sony gave him the freedom to incorporate Atreus. Lead level designer Rob Davis also noted that with Atreus, it allowed for "significant gameplay and storytelling opportunities that might not otherwise (been) possible. ''
Bear McCreary, best known for his work on television shows such as Battlestar Galactica and The Walking Dead, scored God of War and composed themes for the game. McCreary said that he was called into Santa Monica Studio in November 2014 to meet with music producers Peter Scaturro and Keith Leary to discuss "a secret project ''; McCreary had previously collaborated with Scaturro and Leary on 2011 's SOCOM 4: U.S. Navy SEALs. Ideas of folk music, mythology, Nordic ethnic instruments, vocal writing, and classical thematic development were discussed, to which McCreary correctly guessed that the discussions were about a new God of War. He met with Barlog early on, and they discussed Barlog 's narrative vision for the game. After meeting with Barlog, he felt that the franchise was in good hands because God of War II, which Barlog also directed, was his favorite installment.
McCreary 's initial efforts focused on writing the new main theme, or what he called the Kratos Theme. He spent several months working with Barlog, Scaturro, Leary, Sony music director Chuck Doud, and the rest of the development team in making this new theme. McCreary described the Kratos Theme as "arguably one of my most structurally satisfying and catchy melodies. '' The main theme features low orchestral instruments, Icelandic choir, deep male vocals, powerful female vocals (in particular Faroese singer Eivør Pálsdóttir), folk percussion, and Nordic stringed instruments, such as the nyckelharpa and hurdy gurdy. When it was decided that God of War would be revealed at E3 2016, Sony wanted McCreary to perform his original score with a live orchestra at the press conference. McCreary opened the show with the new main theme before the unveiling of God of War, and performed the gameplay demo 's music live during the presentation. On January 13, 2017, a live recording from E3 2016 of God of War 's overture was released for free for a limited time. Barlog released the overture as a thank you to fans for God of War 's E3 2016 trailer reaching fifteen million views on YouTube.
The game was released worldwide on April 20, 2018, for the PlayStation 4. In addition to the standard base game, there were three special editions: the Stone Mason Edition, the Collector 's Edition, and the Digital Deluxe Edition. Only available in the United States and Canada, the Stone Mason Edition came with several physical items, including the base game in a SteelBook case, a 9 - inch (230 mm) statue of Kratos and Atreus that was created by Gentle Giant, 2 - inch (51 mm) carvings of the Huldra Brothers, a horse, and a troll, an exclusive lithograph, a cloth map, a stone mason 's ring, and a keychain of Mímir 's head that talks. There was also various downloadable content (DLC), including an exclusive shield skin, in addition to an armor set and another shield skin for Kratos, a PlayStation 4 dynamic theme, a digital artbook, and God of War # 0 by Dark Horse Comics. The Collector 's Edition came with many of the same items, minus the ring, the keychain, the 2 - inch (51 mm) carvings of the horse and troll, and the exclusive shield skin. The Digital Deluxe Edition comes with all of the digital content, minus the exclusive shield skin. U.S. and Canadian customers also received a Kratos and Atreus pin for pre-ordering the Digital Deluxe Edition. Pre-orders at select retailers received three skins for Kratos ' shield, while pre-orders from GameStop or EB Games also received a "Luck of Ages XP Talisman '', granting increased XP gain, increased Hacksilver gain, and increased ability to trigger perks.
In addition to the special editions of the game, a Limited Edition PlayStation 4 Pro bundle was also available the same day as the game 's release. The bundle included the standard base game, a PlayStation 4 Pro console decorated with the runes as on Kratos ' axe, and a similarly themed DualShock 4 controller with the God of War logo. Game Director Cory Barlog confirmed that God of War would not have microtransactions post-launch, a feature that has become prominent with other recent games and negatively criticized. Since launch, Santa Monica has supported the game via patch updates to address software bugs. Additionally, the developers added a Photo Mode in update patch 1.20, released on May 9, 2018. Photo Mode allows players to take customized in - game screenshots. Players can adjust the field of view, depth of view, filters, borders, the visibility of characters, and the ability to change the facial expressions of Kratos and Atreus. At E3 2018, it was confirmed that a New Game Plus mode would be added in a future update. In addition to players having access to their fully upgraded gear upon the start of a new game, the difficulty will be increased.
God of War: A Call from the Wilds is a text - based game playable through Facebook Messenger. To help further promote God of War, Sony partnered with Facebook to develop the play - by - web game, which released on February 1, 2018. Completing the game unlocks downloadable concept art. The short story follows Atreus on his first adventure in the Norse wilds. After archery training and learning runes with his mother, Atreus adventures into the wilderness after telepathically hearing the voice of a dying deer; he finds it covered in blood and stays with it during its final moments. A couple of draugrs appear and Atreus attempts to fight them, but is injured. He is saved by his father, Kratos, who was out hunting. The two then battle a revenant before returning home.
God of War received "universal acclaim '' according to review aggregator Metacritic, tying it with the original God of War for the highest score in the franchise. It has the third highest score of all - time for a PlayStation 4 game, and the highest score for an original, non-remastered PlayStation 4 game. It is the highest rated PlayStation 4 game of 2018, and is tied with the Xbox One version of Celeste for the highest score of 2018, regardless of platform. God of War received particular praise for its art direction, graphics, combat system, music, story, use of Norse mythology, characters, and cinematic feeling. Critics called the game a "technical achievement '' and one of the most impressive - looking games developed for consoles. Many also felt that it had successfully revitalized the series without losing the core identity of its predecessors.
During its release week in the UK, God of War became the fastest - selling entry in the franchise, selling 35 % more physical copies than God of War III. The game remained at the top of the all format sales chart throughout April and May for six consecutive weeks, setting a record for a PlayStation 4 exclusive having the most consecutive weeks at number one. It sold 46,091 copies within its first week on sale in Japan, which placed it at number two on the sales chart.
The game sold over 3 million copies in three days after its release, making it the fastest - selling PlayStation 4 exclusive. The game was the fastest selling game of the month of its release and contributed to the PS4 being the best selling console of that month. In total, the game sold over five million copies in its first month, with 2.1 million in digital sales.
|
when does it's a small world close | It 's a Small World - wikipedia
It 's a Small World (officially styled as "it 's a small world '') is a water - based dark ride located in the Fantasyland area at the various Walt Disney Parks and Resorts worldwide; these include: Disneyland Park in Anaheim, California, the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista, Florida, Tokyo Disneyland, Disneyland Paris, and Hong Kong Disneyland. The ride features over 300 audio - animatronic children in traditional costumes from cultures around the world, frolicking in a spirit of international unity, and singing the attraction 's title song, which has a theme of global peace. According to Time.com, the song "It 's A Small World '' is the most performed song of all time.
Fabricated at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank as Children of the World, it was created by WED Enterprises, then shipped to the 1964 New York World 's Fair 's UNICEF pavilion, sponsored by Pepsi, where it featured at its entrance a kinetic sculpture, The Tower of the Four Winds, a 120 - foot perpetually spinning mobile created by WED designer Rolly Crump. It was added to four attractions -- Magic Skyway (Ford), Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln (Illinois), The Carousel of Progress (General Electric), and CircleVision 360 (Kodak) -- already under development, which were used by Disney to sponsor, fund, and test concepts and develop ride systems and innovative entertainment intended to be moved and re-built at Disneyland after the World 's Fair closed in 1966.
The Pepsi Board of Directors took so long to agree on what type of attraction to sponsor that then - board member and widow of past company president Alfred Steele, actress Joan Crawford, prevailed upon her longtime Hollywood friend Walt Disney to design such an attraction as would be suitable for Pepsi. Because of the short lead - time to design, create, and construct such an attraction, she insisted that the Board of Directors accept his proposal, seeing as he was already designing attractions for the state of Illinois, Ford, General Electric, and Kodak and knew Walt was the only one who could accomplish such a feat in the short time left until the fair was scheduled to open. The WED Enterprises company was given only 11 months to create and build the pavilion.
Mary Blair was responsible for the attraction 's whimsical design and color styling. Blair had been an art director on several Disney animated features, including Cinderella, Alice In Wonderland, and Peter Pan. Like many Disneyland attractions, scenes and characters were designed by Marc Davis, while his wife, Alice Davis, designed the costumes for the dolls. Rolly Crump designed the toys and other supplemental figures on display. The animated dolls were designed and sculpted by Blaine Gibson. Walt was personally involved with Gibson 's and Greg S. Marinello development of the dolls ' facial design; each animated doll face is completely identical in shape.
Arrow Development was deeply involved in the design of the passenger - carrying boats and propulsion system of the attraction. Two patents that were filed by Arrow Development staff and assigned to The Walt Disney Company illustrate passenger boats and vehicle guidance systems with features very similar to those later utilized on the Disneyland installation of the attraction. The firm is credited with manufacturing the Disneyland installation.
"Children of the World '' was the working title of the attraction. Its tentative soundtrack, which can be heard on the album, featured the national anthems of each country represented throughout the ride all playing all at once, which resulted in disharmonic cacophony. Walt conducted a walk - through of the attraction scale model with his staff songwriters Robert B. Sherman and Richard M. Sherman, saying, "I need one song that can be easily translated into many languages and be played as a round. '' The Sherman brothers then wrote "It 's a Small World (After All) '' in the wake of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, which influenced the song 's message of peace and brotherhood. When they first presented it to Walt, they played it as a slow ballad. Walt requested something more cheerful, so they sped up the tempo and sang in counterpoint. Walt was so delighted with the final result that he renamed the attraction "It 's a Small World '' after the Sherman Brothers ' song.
Robert J. Sherman, youngest son of Robert B. Sherman, has claimed that this song is the single most - performed and most - translated piece of music on Earth. In 2014, it was estimated that the song had played nearly 50 million times worldwide on the attractions alone, beating out the radio and TV estimates for You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' and Yesterday, which were believed to have been played at least eight and seven million times respectively.
A third verse celebrating the attraction 's 45th anniversary was written and popularized, but not incorporated into the ride. In 1965, an album of folk songs from around the world, that included the title track, "It 's a Small World (After All) '', was recorded by the St. Charles Boys Choir under the direction of Paul Salamunovich using the name, "The Disneyland Boys Choir ''. It is available for purchase in the theme park.
The first incarnation of It 's a Small World, which debuted at the 1964 New York World 's Fair, was an afterthought and nearly did not happen. Ford and General Electric had engaged Disney early on to create their pavilions for the 1964 New York World 's Fair. WED Enterprises had already long been at work developing a "dancing - doll '' designed to reproduce human movement resulting in a crude early audio - animatronics fashioned as Abraham Lincoln when the State of Illinois approached Disney to create the Illinois Pavilion, representatives of the state instantly approved after being "introduced '' to the robotic figurehead. A nine wide - screen CircleVision 360 ° exhibit for Kodak 's pavilion was also being planned as an improvement over the existing Disneyland eleven 4: 3 format screen Circarama (which later failed the installation deadline for opening) when Pepsi approached Disney with a plan to tribute UNICEF.
Disney seemed to be the showman to give us the package we want... He 's terrific. He 's got his hands in more bowls than anyone I 've ever seen, but he accomplishes what he sets out to do. -- J.G. Mullaly, Ford 's World 's Fair program manager.
The attraction was incredibly successful. Ten million 60 ¢ and 95 ¢ tickets for children and adults, respectively, were collected in two half - year seasons and the proceeds were donated to UNICEF. While other attractions had lines out the doors, there seemed to always be a seat available aboard It 's a Small World. Its high rider - per - hour capacity was recognized as a valuable innovation and was incorporated indirectly and directly into future attractions. Pirates of the Caribbean had been under construction at Disneyland as a subterranean walk - through. That design was scrapped as concrete was broken out so similar boats could sail past scenes which (because the original walk - through scene length was not shortened) were now different each voyage, another concept which forever influenced attraction design and popularity.
The boats enter the show building through a tunnel under the Small World clock and emerge from the attraction fifteen minutes later. The show building interior is larger than the façade. Voyagers see animatronic dolls in traditional local costumes singing "It 's a Small World (After All) '' together, each in their native language. Boats carry voyagers as they visit the regions of the world.
Other Disney park installations wind the flume around one large room, emphasizing its theme that the world is small and interconnected. Each installation may vary the countries which are represented and the order in which they appear. The boats are stored behind the facade and go in and out backstage in between the Spanish room.
The Tower of the Four Winds was not relocated to Disneyland 's It 's a Small World after the New York World 's Fair; in its place is an outdoor oval flume and boarding queue decorated with topiary backed by a large, flat facade with stylized cutout turrets, towers and minarets which are vaguely reminiscent of world landmarks (such as the Eiffel Tower and the Leaning Tower of Pisa). The facade was designed by Disney Imagineer Rolly Crump, who was inspired by Mary Blair 's styling. Walt Disney asked Rolly to design a large 30 - foot clock, a central feature of the exterior facade, with a smiling face that rocks back and forth to a ticking sound.
A parade of wooden dolls in native culture costumes dance out from doors at the base of the Small World clock to an instrumental toy soldier version of "It 's a Small World (After All) '' in preparation for each quarter - hour, reminiscent of a European automaton clock. As the last doll returns into the clock, the parade doors close and the large central pair of doors open to reveal two giant toy blocks -- the large block displays stylized numerals of the hour, the small one displays the minutes, while large and small bells toll to count the hours and quarters.
The exterior has been subtly repainted over the years, first as all - white with a gold / silver trim, then in various shades of blue, then in pink and white with pastel accents. Portions of the left side of the original facade were removed in 1993 to make room for the entrance to Mickey 's Toontown. As of 2015, the facade is white with a gold trim as it was in 1966, except the original gold and silver paint of the clock, the smiling clock face, is now entirely gold leaf. The gardens around the building are decorated with topiary animals.
During the 2005 -- 2006 holiday season, an elaborate multimedia presentation was projected on the outdoor façade which registered colored patterns matched to the façade each quarter - hour after dusk. Guests were encouraged to view the popular Remember... Dreams Come True fireworks presentation from the It 's a Small World Mall and nearby parade viewing platform built for Light Magic (which had included a smoking area, now relocated under the Monorail track between the Matterhorn Bobsleds and Autopia) to decrease overwhelming crowds gathered for viewing the fireworks spectacular in Plaza and Main Street.
Disneyland 's "It 's a Small World '' was closed from January to November 2008 (closed and reopening in holiday version, skipping the summer season) to receive a major refurbishment. The building 's structure was improved, permanent attachments created for the "It 's a Small World Holiday '' overlay, the water flume replaced and its propulsion upgraded to electric water jet turbines, and the attraction 's aging fiberglass boats redesigned in durable plastic. The refurbishment added 29 new Disney characters, each in their native land in a similar manner to the Hong Kong Disneyland version.
Sylvania has agreed to a twelve - year sponsorship. In 2014, the sponsor logo at the attraction 's entrance changed to that of Siemens, the parent company of Sylvania.
As part of Disney 's "Let the Memories Begin '' campaign for 2011, a nighttime projection show premiered at Disneyland 's It 's a Small World in Anaheim on January 27, 2011. The Magic, the Memories and You show projected sequences of classic Disney attractions and characters set to Disney music onto the exterior façade of It 's a Small World to fill its architectural features, personalized with exclusive photographs and videos of park guests taken that day by Disney 's PhotoPass cast members. The show also existed in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom, but was projected onto Cinderella Castle. As the "Let the Memories Begin '' campaign drew to a close, the show ended its run on Labor Day, September 3, 2012 at both locations. The Florida version was eventually replaced by Once Upon a Time
On October 1, 1971, a version of the ride opened in Florida 's Walt Disney World Fantasyland within the Magic Kingdom. The boarding queue was built inside, and the three - dimensional facade that is seen outdoors in the other Disney parks was instead located in a slightly smaller scale along the far wall. The clock lacks the parade of wooden dolls, and instead goes straight to opening the central pair of doors to reveal the time. The toy company Mattel sponsored the attraction from 1988 until 1998, when it transferred its sponsorship to another Magic Kingdom attraction, Buzz Lightyear 's Space Ranger Spin in nearby Tomorrowland from that attraction 's opening in 1998 until 1999, when it also dropped its sponsorship of that attraction, thus ending Mattel 's history as a Walt Disney World sponsor.
The Tokyo Disneyland version of the attraction is identical to the Magic Kingdom version except for these differences:
On March 1, 2017, Tokyo Disneyland 's version of "It 's a Small World '' closed down for refurbishment for its first major update since the park 's opening in 1983. Reopening on April 15, 2018 coinciding with Tokyo Disneyland 's 35th anniversary, the attraction will feature 40 characters from Disney properties including Cinderella, Alice in Wonderland, Peter Pan, The Aristocats, The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, The Lion King, Mulan, Tangled, Frozen, and Moana similar to its counterparts in California and Hong Kong.
The attraction was initially set to be relocated to another area in Fantasyland with a new facade similar to the California counterpart as part of original expansion plans announced in October 2014 for the resort within the next ten years before being revised and updated.
The attraction at Disneyland Paris is a departure from other versions of the attraction. The façade features rearranged and slightly redesigned landmarks with a completely different clock tower. The exterior clock face features a wide - awake sun on its left half and a sleeping moon on its right half. Unlike all other versions of the ride, every scene is housed in one room with arches being used to define sections of the ride. The scenery design is a complete departure from Mary Blair 's distinctive style, though the dolls used remain identical to all other versions. The ride also uses a completely different soundtrack composed by John Debney (which was also used for roughly a decade at the Californian version from the early 1990s to the early 2000s), which can be described as more ornate compared to the original soundtrack. This is the first version of the ride to incorporate a scene for North America with dolls representing Canada and the United States, and a distinct Middle Eastern section with dolls singing in Arabic. In the Finale room, in addition to the song being sung in English, it is also sung in French and German. Also, the attraction had a post-show area called World Chorus that was sponsored by France Télécom, which opened with the park in 1992 and then closed in 2010 to make way for the Princess Pavilion meet and greet area.
As part of an ongoing plan to refurbish several attractions for the park 's 25th anniversary, this version went under an extensive refurbishment for six months before it reopened on December 19, 2015. The refurbishment included a different color scheme for the façade that is identical to the color scheme when it first opened, restored assets and special effects, refurbished boats, new LED lighting to replace the old stage lighting, and all 176 dolls in the ride being progressively replaced through 2017. The entrance and exit rooms have been completely revamped, being identical to the entrance scene in Hong Kong Disneyland 's version and the exit scene in the Magic Kingdom and Hong Kong Disneyland versions (rendered in the Mary Blair style similar to the other parks). The soundtrack has been completely remastered with the base instrumental removed from the majority of the ride 's audio except for the finale, making the soundtrack more similar to the original version. Additionally, new audio tracks are added including a new recording of someone yodeling to the tune of the song in the Switzerland scene.
The Hong Kong Disneyland version of the attraction is mostly modeled after the original Disneyland counterpart, using a canal for the boats to travel through instead of the open - ended water track found in the Magic Kingdom, Tokyo, and Paris versions. Some of this version 's prominent and unique characteristics include:
The attraction is the largest indoor attraction at Hong Kong Disneyland. It is situated beyond the Hong Kong Disneyland Railroad, next to Disney 's Storybook Theater where Mickey and the Wondrous Book is performed daily.
Since 1997, Disneyland has featured "It 's a Small World holiday '' during the end - of - the - year Christmas and holiday season. The attraction is closed in late October to receive temporary holiday decorations inside and outside, and reopens in early November before the start of the busy holiday tourist season. Almost one million lights are included during the holidays. The overlay has proved very popular and at one point during its run needed the use of Fastpass machines (which have since been removed). The attraction is the same boat voyage through many regions of the world, though the main theme song is not played in full. Instead, the children sing "Jingle Bells '' and a bridge of "Deck the Halls '' in addition to the main theme. The holiday overlay has since been implemented at Tokyo Disneyland with similar decorations.
Since the holiday 2009 season, the Disney characters and The Spirit of America room (formerly the covered transition room) have joined in the "It 's a Small World holiday '' at Disneyland.
Disneyland Paris ' version used to add subtle decorations around the attraction and changed the music in the North American area to "Deck The Halls ''. For the 2009 winter season, Disneyland Paris has added "It 's a Small World celebration '', a variation of "It 's a Small World holiday '' highlighting winter season frolic shared by people worldwide. It includes new costumes, lighting, sounds, decorations and uses the Disneyland (California) version "It 's a Small World holiday '' music -- Jingle Bells, Deck the Halls. Following the 2015 renovation, "It 's a Small World celebration '' was planned to use an updated soundtrack originally set for Winter 2016. However, it was delayed for unknown reasons. "It 's a Small World celebration '' resumed once again for the 2017 holiday season, featuring the updated soundtrack revealing that the base instrumental for the soundtrack was removed for every scene except the North America and finale scenes, similar to the non-holiday soundtrack.
Hong Kong Disneyland 's "It 's a Small World Christmas '' changes the music seasonally and subtly adds a few Christmas decorations as well as an abridged version of the Holiday soundtrack, only ran from 2009 - 10.
Tokyo Disneyland also has a version of "It 's a Small World holiday '' called "It 's a Small World Very Merry Holidays ''. It ran seasonally from November to January from 2003 to 2014. Due to damaged set pieces as a result of the 2011 earthquake, the overlay did not take place that year.
The Magic Kingdom does not have its own holiday edition of "It 's a Small World '', and the regular ride operates continuously through the holiday season.
|
when did operation desert shield become operation desert storm | Gulf War - wikipedia
Coalition victory
United States Kuwait United Kingdom France Saudi Arabia
George H.W. Bush Dick Cheney Colin Powell Norman Schwarzkopf John J. Yeosock Walter E. Boomer Charles Horner Stanley Arthur J. William Kime
Sheikh Jaber Al Ahmad Sheikh Saad Al Abdullah King Fahd Saleh Al - Muhaya Khalid bin Sultan Margaret Thatcher John Major Peter de la Billière Brian Mulroney Hussain Muhammad Ershad François Mitterrand
Saddam Hussein Ali Hassan al - Majid Izzat Ibrahim al - Douri Salah Aboud Mahmoud Hussein Kamel al - Majid
Coalition: 292 killed (147 killed by enemy action, 145 non-hostile deaths) 467 wounded in action 776 wounded 31 Tanks destroyed / disabled 32 Bradley IFVs destroyed / damaged 1 M113 APC destroyed 2 British Warrior APCs destroyed 1 Artillery Piece destroyed 75 Aircraft destroyed Kuwait: 4,200 killed 12,000 captured ≈ 200 tanks destroyed / captured 850 + other armored vehicles destroyed / captured 57 aircraft lost At least 8 aircraft captured (Mirage F1s)
Kuwaiti civilian losses: Over 1,000 killed 600 missing people Iraqi civilian losses: About 3,664 killed
Coalition intervention
Naval operations
Air campaign
Liberation of Kuwait
Post-ceasefire
President of the United States
Legacy
The Gulf War (2 August 1990 -- 28 February 1991), codenamed Operation Desert Shield (2 August 1990 -- 17 January 1991) for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defence of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm (17 January 1991 -- 28 February 1991) in its combat phase, was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq 's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.
The war is also known under other names, such as the Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War, Gulf War I, Kuwait War, First Iraq War or Iraq War, before the term "Iraq War '' became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War (also referred to in the US as "Operation Iraqi Freedom ''). The Iraqi Army 's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H.W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the coalition 's military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors, in that order. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US $32 billion of the US $60 billion cost.
The war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm.
The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991, continuing for five weeks. This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a decisive victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the ground campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on Saudi Arabia 's border. Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel.
The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself:
Most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the war 's operational phases. These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict 's overall name, especially the US Desert Storm:
In addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name.
The US divided the conflict into three major campaigns:
Throughout the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The US was concerned with Iraq 's position on Israeli -- Palestinian politics. The US also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to Iraq 's inclusion on the developing US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on 29 December 1979. The US remained officially neutral after Iraq 's invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran -- Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some "non-military '' aircraft to Iraq. In March 1982, Iran began a successful counteroffensive (Operation Undeniable Victory), and the US increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime 's record, although former US Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated: "No one had any doubts about (the Iraqis ') continued involvement in terrorism... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran. '' With Iraq 's newfound success in the war, and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the US 's request in November 1983, the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq was heavily debt - ridden and tensions within society were rising. Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused.
The Iraq -- Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory. Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire 's province of Basra, something that Iraq claimed made it rightful Iraqi territory. Its ruling dynasty, the al - Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between the two countries in 1922, making Iraq virtually landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region.
Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $18 a barrel, discipline was required. The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran -- Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal. The result was a slump in the oil price -- as low as $10 a barrel -- with a resulting loss of $7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit. Resulting revenues struggled to support the government 's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq 's damaged infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant - drilling across the border into Iraq 's Rumaila oil field. At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war. This was supported by the US, who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the US ' sphere of influence.
In 1989, it appeared that Saudi -- Iraqi relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti - Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected. Saudi - backed development projects were hampered by Iraq 's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq 's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC 's controls mounted.
Iraq 's relations with its Arab neighbors -- in particular Egypt -- were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, well - employed during the war, by Iraqi unemployed, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast - moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq 's human rights record, including the well - known use of torture. The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft, a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer. Following Saddam 's declaration that "binary chemical weapons '' would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding. A UN mission to the Israeli - occupied territories, where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the US, making Iraq deeply skeptical of US foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the US ' reliance on Middle Eastern energy reserves.
In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait 's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq - Kuwait border, and the US naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing -- Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq 's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. Upon review by the Secretary of Defense, it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days. Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimately prevented the impending air strike. On 15 July 1990, Saddam 's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its "Arab brothers ''. He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE, saying: "The policies of some Arab rulers are American... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security. '' The US sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League 's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.
On the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie, the US Ambassador to Iraq, in Baghdad. The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the UAE:
So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights... If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We can not come all the way to you in the United States, but individual Arabs may reach you... We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends.
Glaspie replied:
I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have the opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab - Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see the Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the UAE and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned.
Saddam stated that he would attempt last - ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq "would not accept death ''.
According to Glaspie 's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, "... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before; ' then, as now, we took no position on these Arab affairs '. '' Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.
The result of the Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila; Kuwait offered $9 billion. The Iraqi response was to immediately order the invasion, which started on 2 August 1990 with the bombing of Kuwait 's capital, Kuwait City.
At the time of the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanised infantry and one under - strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 fixed - wing aircraft and 40 helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber - rattling, Kuwait did not mobilize its force; the army had been stood down on 19 July, and at the time of the Iraqi invasion many Kuwaiti military personnel were on leave.
By 1988, at the Iran -- Iraq war 's end, the Iraqi Army was the world 's fourth largest army; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters. According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; and held 53 divisions, 20 special - forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had a strong air defense.
Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country 's southern half. The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade, deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense at the Battle of the Bridges near Al Jahra, west of Kuwait City.
Kuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20 % were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces.
The main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace, the Royal Residence of Kuwait 's Emir, Jaber Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M - 84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al - Ahmed Al - Jaber Al - Sabah, the Emir 's youngest brother.
Within 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait and the royal family had fled, leaving Iraq in control of most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard, or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The Emir and key ministers were able to get out and head south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City, then headed south and redeployed along the Saudi border. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait '' before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al - Majid as Kuwait 's governor on 8 August.
Kuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The Kuwaiti resistance 's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.
A key element of US political - military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984. The Iran -- Iraq war had been going on for five years by that time and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching into the hundreds of thousands. Within President Ronald Reagan 's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed, chaired by then Vice President George H.W. Bush to review US options. It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region. Furthermore, it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study. The full declassified presentation can be seen here. The conclusions were threefold: first oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region and thirdly an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The plan was approved by the President Reagan and later affirmed by the G - 7 leaders headed by Great Britain 's Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the London Summit of 1984. The plan was implemented and became the basis for US preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991.
Within hours of the invasion, Kuwait and US delegations requested a meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, condemning the invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August, the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the league, and warned against outside intervention; Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states which opposed a resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait. The PLO opposed it as well. The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan -- a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on the country for economic support -- opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. The Arab state of Sudan aligned itself with Saddam.
On 6 August, Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions. It said the "use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661. ''
From the beginning, US officials insisted on a total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems, fearing any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come.
On 12 August 1990, Saddam "propose (d) that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously ''. Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and "mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait. '' He also called for a replacement of US troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait 's invasion with "an Arab force '', as long as that force did not involve Egypt. Additionally, he requested an "immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions '' and a general normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of the crisis, President Bush was strongly opposed to any "linkage '' between Iraq 's occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue.
On 23 August, Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he asks a young British boy, Stuart Lockwood, whether he is getting his milk, and goes on to say, through his interpreter, "We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war. ''
Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to US National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would "withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave '' provided that the UN lifted sanctions, allowed "guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah '', and allowed Iraq to "gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory ''. The proposal also "include (d) offers to negotiate an oil agreement with the United States ' satisfactory to both nations ' national security interests, ' develop a joint plan ' to alleviate Iraq 's economical and financial problems ' and ' jointly work on the stability of the gulf. ' ''
In December 1990, Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that foreign troops left the region and that an agreement was reached regarding the Palestinian problem and the dismantlement of both Israel 's and Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction. The White House rejected the proposal. The PLO 's Yasser Arafat expressed that neither he nor Saddam insisted that solving the Israel -- Palestine issues should be a precondition to solving the issues in Kuwait, though he did acknowledge a "strong link '' between these problems.
Ultimately, the US stuck to its position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not grant Iraq concessions, lest they give the impression that Iraq benefited from its military campaign. Also, when US Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva, Switzerland, for last minute peace talks in early 1991, Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves.
On 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use "all necessary means '' to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline.
On 14 January 1991, France proposed that the UN Security Council call for "a rapid and massive withdrawal '' from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring their "active contribution '' to a settlement of the region 's other problems, "in particular, of the Arab -- Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by convening, at an appropriate moment, an international conference '' to assure "the security, stability and development of this region of the world. '' The French proposal was supported by Belgium (at the moment one of the rotating Council members), Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and several non-aligned nations. The US, the UK, and the Soviet Union rejected it; US Ambassador to the UN Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable, because it went beyond previous Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion. France dropped this proposal when it found "no tangible sign of interest '' from Baghdad.
One of the West 's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following Kuwait 's conquest, the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world 's oil reserves. Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran 's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he should n't have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran.
Soon after his conquest of Kuwait, Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis. He argued that the US - supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis.
Acting on the Carter Doctrine 's policy, and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, US President George H.W. Bush quickly announced that the US would launch a "wholly defensive '' mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when US troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd, who had earlier called for US military assistance. This "wholly defensive '' doctrine was quickly abandoned when, on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq 's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al - Majid, as its military - governor.
The US Navy dispatched two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carriers USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USS Independence to the Persian Gulf, where they were ready by 8 August. The US also sent the battleships USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin to the region. A total of 48 US Air Force F - 15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia, and immediately commenced round the clock air patrols of the Saudi -- Kuwait -- Iraq border to discourage further Iraqi military advances. They were joined by 36 F - 15 A-Ds from the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg, Germany. The Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately an hour south east of Riyadh. The 36th TFW would be responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. There were also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard 's 169th Fighter Wing flew bombing missions with 24 F - 16s flying 2,000 combat missions and dropping 4 million pounds of munitions, and the New York Air National Guard 's 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F - 16s on bombing missions. Military buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was airlifted or carried to the staging areas via fast sealift ships, allowing a quick buildup.
A series of UN Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed regarding Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait. One of the most important was Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990, which gave Iraq a withdrawal deadline until 15 January 1991, and authorized "all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660 '', and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.
To ensure that economic backing, Baker went on an 11 - day journey to nine countries that the press dubbed "The Tin Cup Trip ''. The first stop was Saudi Arabia, which a month before had already granted permission to the United States to use its facilities. However, Baker believed that Saudi Arabia, an immensely wealthy nation, should assume some of the cost of the military efforts, since one of the most important military objectives was to defend Saudi Arabia. When Baker asked King Fahd for 15 billion dollars, the King readily agreed, with the promise that Baker ask Kuwait for the same amount.
The next day, 7 September, he did just that, and the Emir of Kuwait, displaced in a Sheraton hotel outside his invaded country, easily agreed. Baker then moved to enter talks with Egypt, whose leadership he considered to be "the moderate voice of the middle east ''. President Mubarak of Egypt was furious with Saddam for his invasion of Kuwait, and for the fact that Saddam had assured Mubarak that an invasion was not his intention. Therefore, he was willing to commit troops to the coalition forces to quell Saddam, as well as relieved the United States was willing to forgive his country 's 7.1 billion dollar debt.
After stops in Helsinki and Moscow to smooth out Iraqi demands for a middle - eastern peace conference with the Soviet Union, Baker traveled to Syria to discuss its role in the crisis with its President Hafez Assad. Assad had a deep personal enmity towards Saddam, which was defined by the fact that "Saddam had been trying to kill him (Assad) for years ''. Harboring this animosity and being impressed with Baker 's diplomatic initiative to visit Damascus (relations had been severed since the 1983 bombing of US Marine barracks in Beirut), Assad agreed to pledge up to 100,000 Syrian troops to the coalition effort. This was a vital step in ensuring Arab states were represented in the coalition.
Baker flew to Rome for a brief visit with the Italians in which he was promised the use of some military equipment, before journeying to Germany to meet with American ally Chancellor Kohl. Although Germany 's constitution (which was brokered essentially by the United States) prohibited military involvement in outside nations, Kohl was willing to repay his gratitude for the United States with a two billion dollar contribution to the coalition 's war effort, as well as further economic and military support of coalition ally Turkey, and the execution of the transport of Egyptian soldiers and ships to the Persian Gulf.
A coalition of forces opposing Iraq 's aggression was formed, consisting of forces from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the US itself. It was the largest coalition since World War II. US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was designated to be the commander of the coalition forces in the Persian Gulf area. The Soviet Union also supported United States intervention.
Although they did not contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $10 billion and $6.6 billion respectively. US troops represented 73 % of the coalition 's 956,600 troops in Iraq.
Many of the coalition countries were reluctant to commit military forces. Some felt that the war was an internal Arab affair or did not want to increase US influence in the Middle East. In the end, however, many nations were persuaded by Iraq 's belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid.
The US and the UN gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most prominent being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territorial integrity. In addition, the US moved to support its ally Saudi Arabia, whose importance in the region, and as a key supplier of oil, made it of considerable geopolitical importance. Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested US military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the US Congress given on 11 September 1990, US President George H.W. Bush summed up the reasons with the following remarks: "Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression. ''
The Pentagon stated that satellite photos showing a buildup of Iraqi forces along the border were this information 's source, but this was later alleged to be false. A reporter for the St. Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert.
Other justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq 's history of human rights abuses under Saddam. Iraq was also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran -- Iraq War and against his own country 's Kurdish population in the Al - Anfal campaign. Iraq was also known to have a nuclear weapons program, but the report about it from January 1991 was partially declassified by the CIA on 26 May 2001.
Although there were human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the invading Iraqi military, the alleged incidents which received most publicity in the US were inventions of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence US opinion in favor of military intervention. Shortly after Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the US. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait 's government.
Among many other means of influencing US opinion, such as distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to US soldiers deployed in the region, "Free Kuwait '' T - shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations, the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the US Congress in which a woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.
The story was an influence in tipping both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52 -- 47 vote. However, a year after the war, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait 's Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait 's ambassador to the US. She had n't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.
The details of the Hill & Knowlton public relations campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in John R. MacArthur 's Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), and came to wide public attention when an Op - ed by MacArthur was published in The New York Times. This prompted a reexamination by Amnesty International, which had originally promoted an account alleging even greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support it, the organization issued a retraction. President Bush then repeated the incubator allegations on television.
At the same time, the Iraqi Army committed several well - documented crimes during its occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after which their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street. Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes; one residence was repeatedly defecated in. A resident later commented: "The whole thing was violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí ''.
The Gulf War began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 16 January 1991. For 42 consecutive days and nights, the coalition forces subjected Iraq to one of the most intensive air bombardment in military history. The coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs, and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure. The air campaign was commanded by USAF Lieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as US Central Command 's Commander - in - Chief -- Forward while General Schwarzkopf was still in the US.
A day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the coalition launched a massive air campaign, which began the general offensive codenamed Operation Desert Storm. The first priority was the destruction of Iraq 's Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities. The sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six carrier battle groups (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.
The next targets were command and communication facilities. Saddam Hussein had closely micromanaged Iraqi forces in the Iran -- Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels was discouraged. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control.
The air campaign 's third and largest phase targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About a third of the coalition 's air power was devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to locate. US and British special operations forces had been covertly inserted into western Iraq to aid in the search for and destruction of Scuds.
Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses, including man - portable air - defense systems, were surprisingly ineffective against enemy aircraft and the coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 due to Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while evading Iraqi ground fired weapons. One of these losses is a confirmed air - air victory.
Iraq 's government made no secret that it would attack if invaded. Prior to the war 's start, in the aftermath of the failed US -- Iraq peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, a reporter asked Iraq 's English - speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz: "Mr. Foreign Minister, if war starts... will you attack? '' His response was: "Yes, absolutely, yes. ''
Five hours after the first attacks, Iraq 's state radio broadcast declaring that "The dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins. '' Iraq fired eight missiles the next day. These missile attacks were to continue throughout the war. A total of 88 Scud missiles were fired by Iraq during the war 's seven weeks.
Iraq hoped to provoke a military response from Israel. The Iraqi government hoped that many Arab states would withdraw from the Coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight alongside Israel. Following the first attacks, Israeli Air Force jets were deployed to patrol the northern airspace with Iraq. Israel prepared to militarily retaliate, as its policy for the previous 40 years had always been retaliation. However, President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to retaliate and withdraw Israeli jets, fearing that if Israel attacked Iraq, the other Arab nations would either desert the coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to attack Iraq, they would intervene in the war on Iraq 's side or attack Israel. The coalition promised to deploy Patriot missiles to defend Israel if it refrained from responding to the Scud attacks.
The Scud missiles targeting Israel were relatively ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and payload. According to the Jewish Virtual Library, a total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks: two directly and the rest from suffocation and heart attacks. Approximately 230 Israelis were injured. Extensive property damage was also caused, and according to Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Damage to general property consisted of 1,302 houses, 6,142 apartments, 23 public buildings, 200 shops and 50 cars. '' It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents such as sarin. As a result, Israel 's government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. It has been suggested that the sturdy construction techniques used in Israeli cities, coupled with the fact that Scuds were only launched at night, played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks.
In response to the threat of Scuds on Israel, the US rapidly sent a Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion to Israel along with two batteries of MIM - 104 Patriot missiles for the protection of civilians. The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed a Patriot missile squadron to Israel and Turkey. The Dutch Defense Ministry later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but its psychological value for the affected populations was high.
Coalition air forces were also extensively exercised in "Scud hunts '' in the Iraqi desert, trying to locate the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles at Israel or Saudi Arabia. On the ground, special operations forces also infiltrated Iraq, tasked with locating and destroying Scuds. Once special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks fell sharply, then increased slightly as Iraqi forces adjusted to coalition tactics.
As the Scud attacks continued, the Israelis grew increasingly impatient, and considered taking unilateral military action against Iraq. On 22 January 1991, a Scud missile hit the Israeli city of Ramat Gan, after two coalition Patriots failed to intercept it. Three elderly people suffered fatal heart attacks, another 96 people were injured, and 20 apartment buildings were damaged. After this attack, the Israelis warned that if the US failed to stop the attacks, they would. At one point, Israeli commandos boarded helicopters prepared to fly into Iraq, but the mission was called off after a phone call from US Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, reporting on the extent of coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and emphasizing that Israeli intervention could endanger US forces.
In addition to the attacks on Israel, 47 Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. The missiles were fired at both military and civilian targets. One Saudi civilian was killed, and 78 others were injured. No casualties were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. The Saudi government issued all its citizens and expatriates with gas masks in the event of Iraq using missiles with chemical or biological warheads. The government broadcast alerts and ' all clear ' messages over television to warn citizens during Scud attacks.
On 25 February 1991, a Scud missile hit a US Army barracks of the 14th Quartermaster Detachment, out of Greensburg, Pennsylvania, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and injuring over 100.
On 29 January, Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. The Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard, supported by Qatari forces and US Marines. The allied forces used extensive artillery fire.
Both sides suffered casualties, although Iraqi forces sustained substantially more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 US airmen were killed when their AC - 130 gunship was shot down by an Iraqi surface - to - air missile, and two US soldiers were captured during the battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 dead. Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60 -- 300 dead and 400 captured.
The Battle of Khafji was an example of how air power could single - handedly hinder the advance of enemy ground forces. Upon learning of Iraqi troop movements, 140 coalition aircraft were diverted to attack an advancing column consisting of two armored divisions in battalion - sized units. Precision stand - off attacks were conducted during the night and through to the next day. Iraqi vehicle losses included 357 tanks, 147 armored personnel carriers, and 89 mobile artillery pieces. Some crews simply abandoned their vehicles upon realizing that they could be destroyed by guided bombs without warning, stopping the divisions from massing for an organized attack on the town. One Iraqi soldier, who had fought in the Iran - Iraq War, remarked that his brigade "had sustained more punishment from allied airpower in 30 minutes at Khafji than in eight years of fighting against Iran. ''
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry was a heavy battalion task force from the 2nd Armored Division (Forward). It was the spearhead of VII Corps. It consisted primarily of the 1st Battalion, 41st Infantry Regiment, 3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, and the 4th Battalion, 3rd Field Artillery Regiment. Task Force 1 -- 41 was the first coalition force to breach the Saudi Arabian border on 15 February 1991 and conduct ground combat operations in Iraq engaging in direct and indirect fire fights with the enemy on 17 February 1991. Shortly after arrival in theatre Task Force 1 -- 41 Infantry received a counter-reconnaissance mission. 1 -- 41 Infantry was assisted by the 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment. This joint effort would become known as Task Force Iron. Counter-reconnaissance generally includes destroying or repelling the enemy 's reconnaissance elements and denying their commander any observation of friendly forces. On 15 February 1991 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment fired on a trailer and a few trucks in the Iraqi sector that was observing American forces. On 16 February 1991 several groups of Iraqi vehicles appeared to be performing reconnaissance on the Task Force and were driven away by fire from 4 -- 3 FA. Another enemy platoon, including six vehicles, was reported as being to the northeast of the Task Force. They were engaged with artillery fire from 4 -- 3 FA. Later that evening another group of Iraqi vehicles was spotted moving towards the center of the Task Force. They appeared to be Iraqi Soviet - made BTRs and tanks. For the next hour the Task Force fought several small battles with Iraqi reconnaissance units. TF 1 -- 41 IN fired TOW missiles at the Iraqi formation destroying one tank. The rest of the formation was destroyed or driven away by artillery fire from 4 -- 3 FA. On 17 February 1991 the Task Force took enemy mortar fire, however, the enemy forces managed to escape. Later that evening the Task Force received enemy artillery fire but suffered no casualties.
The breach was preceded by a heavy artillery barrage, led by 4th Battalion of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment and the 210th Field Artillery Brigade, to soften up Iraqi defenses. Around 300 guns from multiple nations participated in the barrage. Over 14,000 rounds of artillery and over 4,900 MLRS rockets were fired at Iraqi forces during these raids. Iraq lost close to 22 artillery battalions during the initial stages of this barrage. This would include the destruction of approximately 396 Iraqi artillery pieces. By the end of these raids Iraqi artillery assets had all but ceased to exist. These raids were supplemented by air attacks by B - 52 Stratofortress bombers and C - 130 cargo aircraft.
Task Force 1 - 41 Infantry and the 1st Squadron, 4th Armored Cavalry Regiment was given the task of breaching Iraq 's initial defensive positions along the Iraq - Saudi Arabia border. Once into Iraqi territory the Task Force encountered multiple Iraqi defensive positions and bunkers. These defensive positions were occupied by a brigade - sized element. TF 1 -- 41 IN elements dismounted and prepared to engage the enemy soldiers which occupied these well - prepared and heavily fortified bunkers. The Task Force found itself engaged in six hours of combat in order to clear the extensive bunker complex. The Iraqis engaged the Task Force with small arms fire, RPGs, mortar fire, and what was left of Iraqi artillery assets. A series of battles unfolded which resulted in heavy Iraqi casualties and the Iraqis being removed from their defensive positions with many becoming prisoners of war. Some escaped to be killed or captured by other coalition forces. In the process of clearing the bunkers Task Force 1 -- 41 captured two brigade command posts and the command post of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division. The Task Force also captured a brigade commander, several battalion commanders, company commanders, and staff officers. As combat operations progressed Task Force 1 -- 41 Infantry engaged at short range multiple dug in enemy tanks in ambush positions. For a few hours, bypassed Iraqi RPG equipped anti-tank teams, T - 55 tanks, and dismounted Iraqi infantry fired at passing American vehicles, only to be destroyed by other US tanks and fighting vehicles following the initial forces. Task Force 1 -- 41 earned a Valorous Unit Award for its efforts.
Coalition forces dominated the air with their technological advantages. Air supremacy was achieved before the start of the main ground offensive. Coalition forces also had two key technological advantages:
US decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night before Kuwait 's liberation were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main coalition ground attack would focus on central Kuwait.
For months, American units in Saudi Arabia had been under almost constant Iraqi artillery fire, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On 24 February 1991, the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions, and the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They encountered trenches, barbed wire, and minefields. However, these positions were poorly defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but apart from that, coalition troops encountered minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. The general pattern was that the Iraqis would put up a short fight before surrendering. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine US aircraft. Meanwhile, forces from Arab states advanced into Kuwait from the east, encountering little resistance and suffering few casualties.
Despite the successes of coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait 15 hours ahead of schedule, and to send US forces after the Republican Guard. The coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against US troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam Hussein himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City.
Kuwaiti forces were tasked with liberating the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. The Kuwaitis lost one soldier and one plane was shot down, and quickly liberated the city. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President Bush declared it liberated. However, an Iraqi unit at Kuwait International Airport appeared not to have received the message and fiercely resisted. US Marines had to fight for hours before securing the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a scorched earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells and placed land mines around the wells to make extinguishing the fires more difficult.
The war 's ground phase was officially designated Operation Desert Saber.
The first units to move into Iraq were three patrols of the British Special Air Service 's B squadron, call signs Bravo One Zero, Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January. These eight - man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud mobile missile launchers, which could not be detected from the air, as they were hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber - optic communications arrays that lay in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. The operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and was later compromised, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria.
Elements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division of the US Army performed a direct attack into Iraq on 15 February 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through seven Iraqi divisions which were caught off guard. On 17 January 1991 the 101st Airborne Division Aviation Regiment, fired the first shots of the war when eight AH - 64 helicopters successfully destroyed two Iraqi early warning radar sites. From 15 -- 20 February, the Battle of Wadi Al - Batin took place inside Iraq; this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division. It was a feint attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a coalition invasion would take place from the south. The Iraqis fiercely resisted, and the Americans eventually withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al - Batin. Three US soldiers were killed and nine wounded, with one M2 Bradley IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and successfully deceived the Iraqis. This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps to sweep around behind the 1st Cav and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On 22 February 1991, Iraq agreed to a Soviet - proposed ceasefire agreement. The agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops to pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total ceasefire, and called for monitoring of the ceasefire and withdrawal to be overseen by the UN Security Council.
The coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces would not be attacked, and gave 24 hours for Iraq to withdraw its forces. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the capture of 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq -- Kuwait border and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and four Americans were killed.
Shortly afterwards, the US VII Corps, in full strength and spearheaded by the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the US XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping "left - hook '' attack across southern Iraq 's largely undefended desert, led by the US 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). This movement 's left flank was protected by the French Division Daguet. The 101st Airborne Division conducted a combat air assault into enemy territory. The 101st Airborne Division had struck 155 miles behind enemy lines. It was the deepest air assault operation in history. Approximately 400 helicopters transported 2,000 soldiers into Iraq where they destroyed Iraqi columns trying to flee westward and prevented the escape of Iraqi forces. The Screaming Eagles would travel an additional fifty to sixty miles into Iraq. By nightfall, the 101st cut off Highway 8 which was a vital supply line running between Basra and the Iraqi forces. The 101st had lost 16 soldiers in action during the 100 - hour war and captured thousands of enemy prisoners of war.
The French force quickly overcame Iraq 's 45th Infantry Division, suffering light casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counterattack on the coalition 's flank. The movement 's right flank was protected by the United Kingdom 's 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. The Iraqis resisted fiercely from dug - in positions and stationary vehicles, and even mounted armored charges.
Unlike many previous engagements, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in a mass surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while US casualties were comparatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Coalition forces pressed another 10 km into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating Iraq 's 26th Infantry Division. A US soldier was killed by an Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and 30 wounded during the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked Iraq 's Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the war 's most intense fighting, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured a division commander.
Meanwhile, US forces attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meeting fierce resistance. The US force destroyed a considerable amount of military hardware and took prisoners, while suffering no casualties.
On 25 February 1991, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at an American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 US military personnel.
The coalition 's advance was much swifter than US generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set 737 of its oil wells on fire. A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq - Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Hundreds of Iraqi troops were killed. American, British, and French forces continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad, before withdrawing back to Iraq 's border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
One hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated.
In coalition - occupied Iraqi territory, a peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement was negotiated and signed by both sides. At the conference, Iraq was authorized to fly armed helicopters on their side of the temporary border, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to civilian infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and much of Iraq 's military were used to fight an uprising in the south. The rebellions were encouraged by an airing of "The Voice of Free Iraq '' on 2 February 1991, which was broadcast from a CIA - run radio station out of Saudi Arabia. The Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the uprising by stating that the rebellion was well supported, and that they soon would be liberated from Saddam.
In the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support an uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'état. However, when no US support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crushed the Kurdish uprising. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran. These events later resulted in no - fly zones being established in northern and southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, because of PLO support of Saddam. Yasser Arafat did n't apologize for his support of Iraq, but after his death, the Fatah under Mahmoud Abbas ' authority formally apologized in 2004.
There was some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam to remain in power instead of pushing on to capture Baghdad and overthrowing his government. In their co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course would have fractured the alliance, and would have had many unnecessary political and human costs associated with it.
In 1992, the US Defense Secretary during the war, Dick Cheney, made the same point:
I would guess if we had gone in there, we would still have forces in Baghdad today. We 'd be running the country. We would not have been able to get everybody out and bring everybody home.
And the final point that I think needs to be made is this question of casualties. I do n't think you could have done all of that without significant additional US casualties, and while everybody was tremendously impressed with the low cost of the (1991) conflict, for the 146 Americans who were killed in action and for their families, it was n't a cheap war.
And the question in my mind is, how many additional American casualties is Saddam (Hussein) worth? And the answer is, not that damned many. So, I think we got it right, both when we decided to expel him from Kuwait, but also when the President made the decision that we 'd achieved our objectives and we were not going to go get bogged down in the problems of trying to take over and govern Iraq.
Instead of a greater involvement of its own military, the US hoped that Saddam would be overthrown in an internal coup d'état. The CIA used its assets in Iraq to organize a revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort.
On 10 March 1991, 540,000 US troops began moving out of the Persian Gulf.
Coalition members included Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.
Germany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, although they did not send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy.
Australia contributed a Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a US hospital ship, and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait 's port facilities following the end of combat operations. Australian forces experienced a number of incidents in the first number of weeks of the Desert Storm Campaign including the detection of significant air threats from Iraq as a part of the outer perimeter of Battle Force Zulu; the detection of free sea floating mines and assistance to the aircraft carrier USS Midway. The Australian Task Force was also placed at great risk with regard to the sea mine threat, with HMAS Brisbane narrowly avoiding a mine by a small distance. The Australians played a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following Kuwait 's invasion. Following the war 's end, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat to northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort.
Argentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer, ARA Almirante Brown (D - 10), a corvette, ARA Spiro (P - 43) (later replaced by another corvette, ARA Rosales (P - 42)) and a supply ship (ARA Bahía San Blas (B - 4)) to participate on the United Nations blockade and sea control effort of the Persian Gulf. The success of "Operación Alfil '' (English: "Operation Bishop '') as it was known, with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed in the theatre of operations helped to overcome the so - called "Malvinas syndrome ''. Argentina was later classified as major non-NATO ally due to her contributions during the war.
Canada was one of the first countries to condemn Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the US - led coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. The destroyers HMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship HMCS Protecteur in Operation Friction. The Canadian Task Group led the coalition 's maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in - theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.
Following the UN-authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF - 18 Hornet and CH - 124 Sea King squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, the CF - 18s were integrated into the coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. This was the first time since the Korean War that Canada 's military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF - 18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy.
The Canadian Commander in the Middle East was Commodore Kenneth J. Summers.
The second largest European contingent was from France, which committed 18,000 troops. Operating on the left flank of the US XVIII Airborne Corps, the French Army force was the Division Daguet, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans (via CENTCOM) and Saudis. In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the XVIII Airborne Corps. France also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. The French called their contribution Opération Daguet.
The United Kingdom committed the largest contingent of any European state that participated in the war 's combat operations. Operation Granby was the code name for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the 1st Armoured Division), Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels were mobilized in the Persian Gulf. The Royal Air Force, using various aircraft, operated from airbases in Saudi Arabia. The United Kingdom played a major role in the Battle of Norfolk where its forces destroyed over 200 Iraqi tanks and a large quantity of other vehicles. After 48 hours of combat the British 1st Armoured Division destroyed or isolated four Iraqi infantry divisions (the 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th) and overran the Iraqi 52nd Armored Division in several sharp engagements.
Chief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the Persian Gulf included Broadsword - class frigates, and Sheffield - class destroyers, other R.N. and R.F.A. ships were also deployed. The light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.
Special operations forces were deployed in the form of several SAS squadrons.
A British Challenger 1 achieved the longest range confirmed tank kill of the war, destroying an Iraqi tank with an armour - piercing fin - stabilized discarding - sabot (APFSDS) round fired over a distance of 4,700 metres (2.9 mi) -- the longest tank - on - tank kill shot recorded.
Over 1,000 Kuwaiti civilians were killed by Iraqis. More than 600 Kuwaitis went missing during Iraq 's occupation, and approximately 375 remains were found in mass graves in Iraq. The increased importance of air attacks from both coalition warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during Desert Storm 's initial stages. Within Desert Storm 's first 24 hours, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. The city was the target of heavy bombing, as it was the seat of power for Saddam and the Iraqi forces ' command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties.
In one noted incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed a bunker in Amiriyah, causing the deaths of 408 Iraqi civilians who were in the shelter. Scenes of burned and mutilated bodies were subsequently broadcast, and controversy arose over the bunker 's status, with some stating that it was a civilian shelter, while others contended that it was a center of Iraqi military operations, and that the civilians had been deliberately moved there to act as human shields.
Saddam 's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from Islamic countries. The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign. According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, 3,664 Iraqi civilians were killed in the conflict. An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimated total civilian fatalities at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 from the war 's other effects.
The exact number of Iraqi combat casualties is unknown, but is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities. A report commissioned by the US Air Force, estimated 10,000 -- 12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war. This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports.
According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, between 20,000 and 26,000 Iraqi military personnel were killed in the conflict while 75,000 others were wounded.
The Department of Defense reports that US forces suffered 148 battle - related deaths (35 to friendly fire), with one pilot listed as MIA (his remains were found and identified in August 2009). A further 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents. The UK suffered 47 deaths (nine to friendly fire, all by US forces), France nine, and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Saudis, one Egyptian, six UAE and three Qataris). At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers were still missing 10 years after their capture.
The largest single loss of life among coalition forces happened on 25 February 1991, when an Iraqi Al Hussein missile hit a US military barrack in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 US Army Reservists from Pennsylvania. In all, 190 coalition troops were killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom were American, out of a total of 358 coalition deaths. Another 44 soldiers were killed and 57 wounded by friendly fire. 145 soldiers died of exploding munitions or non-combat accidents.
The largest accident among coalition forces happened on 21 March 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C - 130H crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al - Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers and six Saudi crew members were killed.
The number of coalition wounded in combat was 776, including 458 Americans.
190 coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 coalition deaths being from friendly fire or accidents. This number was much lower than expected. Among the American dead were three female soldiers.
While the death toll among coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a substantial number of deaths were caused by accidental attacks from other Allied units. Of the 148 US troops who died in battle, 24 % were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations of coalition munitions. Nine British military personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II destroyed a group of two Warrior IFVs.
Many returning coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. Common symptoms that were reported are chronic fatigue, Fibromyalgia, and Gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the reported birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Gulf War veterans ' children born after the war had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans ' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure to depleted uranium, chemical weapons, anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and / or infectious diseases. Major Michael Donnelly, a USAF officer during the War, helped publicize the syndrome and advocated for veterans ' rights in this regard.
Depleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20 -- 30 mm cannon ordnance. Significant controversy regarding the long term safety of depleted uranium exists, although detractors claim pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal effects. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict 's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.
Depleted uranium has 40 % less radioactivity than natural uranium, but the negative effects should not be overlooked. Some say that depleted uranium is not a significant health hazard unless it is taken into the body. External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is generally not a major concern because the alpha particles emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium - 235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low - energy gamma radiation. However, if allowed to enter the body, depleted uranium, like natural uranium, has the potential for both chemical and radiological toxicity with the two important target organs being the kidneys and the lungs.
On the night of 26 -- 27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM - 8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked by two A-10 aircraft, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris -- the Highway of Death. New York Times reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, "With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable. ''
Chuck Horner, Commander of US and allied air operations, has written:
(By February 26), the Iraqis totally lost heart and started to evacuate occupied Kuwait, but airpower halted the caravan of Iraqi Army and plunderers fleeing toward Basra. This event was later called by the media "The Highway of Death. '' There were certainly a lot of dead vehicles, but not so many dead Iraqis. They 'd already learned to scamper off into the desert when our aircraft started to attack. Nevertheless, some people back home wrongly chose to believe we were cruelly and unusually punishing our already whipped foes.
(...) By February 27, talk had turned toward terminating the hostilities. Kuwait was free. We were not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop the killing. ''
Another incident during the war highlighted the question of large - scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the "bulldozer assault '', wherein two brigades from the US 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified "Saddam Hussein Line ''. After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. Not a single American was killed during the attack. Reporters were banned from witnessing the attack, near the neutral zone that touches the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Every American in the assault was inside an armored vehicle. One newspaper story reported that US commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two - day assault 24 -- 26 February 1991. Patrick Day Sloyan of Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. ' I came through right after the lead company, ' (Col. Anthony) Moreno said. ' What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples ' arms and things sticking out of them... ' '' However, after the war, the Iraqi government said that only 44 bodies were found. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that US forces attempted to cover up the incident. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: "I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets. '' Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney did not mention the First Division 's tactics in an interim report to Congress on Operation Desert Storm. In the report, Cheney acknowledged that 457 enemy soldiers were buried during the ground war.
A Palestinian exodus from Kuwait took place during and after the Gulf War. During the Gulf War, more than 200,000 Palestinians voluntarily fled Kuwait during the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait due to harassment and intimidation by Iraqi security forces, in addition to getting fired from work by Iraqi authority figures in Kuwait. After the Gulf War, the Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait in 1991. Kuwait 's policy, which led to this exodus, was a response to alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein.
The Palestinians who fled Kuwait were Jordanian citizens. In 2013, there were 280,000 Jordanian citizens of Palestinian origin in Kuwait. In 2012, 80,000 Palestinians (without Jordanian citizenship) lived in Kuwait.
Saudi Arabia expelled Yemeni workers after Yemen supported Saddam during the Gulf War.
In the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: "Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of (Iraq)... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society... They deliberately did great harm to Iraq 's ability to support itself as an industrial society... '' In the Jan / Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: "(T) he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government 's madness... Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies. '' However, the UN subsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.
During the conflict, coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment, USAF Captain Richard Storr was allegededly tortured by Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War. Iraqi secret police broke his nose, dislocated his shoulder and punctured his eardrum. Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to coalition forces. Only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group 's other surviving members were violently tortured. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors after the Black Hawk helicopter in which she was riding was shot down while searching for a downed F - 16 pilot.
Since the war, the US has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia -- a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq. Operation Southern Watch enforced the no - fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf 's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain - based US Fifth Fleet.
Since Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam 's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of US troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 US embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that US troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama bin Laden interpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia ''. In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for US troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca '' and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.
On 6 August 1990, after Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council 's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition.
During the late 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.
The draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris -- Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90 % of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over 7,500 square miles (19,000 km).
The draining of the Qurna Marshes also called The Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes occurred in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris - Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi), the large complex of wetlands was 90 % drained prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The marshes are typically divided into three main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar Marshes and all three were drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later all three marshes would become a tool of war and revenge.
Many international organizations such as the UN Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.
On 23 January, Iraq dumped 400 million US gallons (1,500,000 m) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time. It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep US Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). About 30 -- 40 % of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.
The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991, and the last one was extinguished by November.
The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m) of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US $1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately 10 months, causing widespread pollution.
The cost of the war to the United States was calculated by the US Congress to be $61.1 billion. About $52 billion of that amount was paid by other countries: $36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf; $16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat forces due to their constitutions). About 25 % of Saudi Arabia 's contribution was paid in the form of in - kind services to the troops, such as food and transportation. US troops represented about 74 % of the combined force, and the global cost was therefore higher.
Apart from the impact on Arab States of the Persian Gulf, the resulting economic disruptions after the crisis affected many states. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) undertook a study in 1991 to assess the effects on developing states and the international community 's response. A briefing paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draws on their findings which had two main conclusions: Many developing states were severely affected and while there has been a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution of assistance was highly selective.
The ODI factored in elements of "cost '' which included oil imports, remittance flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt, the cost totaled $1 billion, 3 % of GDP. Yemen had a cost of $830 million, 10 % of GDP, while it cost Jordan $1.8 billion, 32 % of GDP.
International response to the crisis on developing states came with the channeling of aid through The Gulf Crisis Financial Co-ordination Group. They were 24 states, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse $14 billion in development assistance.
The World Bank responded by speeding up the disbursement of existing project and adjustment loans. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities -- the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Compensatory & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). The European Community offered $2 billion in assistance.
The war was heavily televised. For the first time, people all over the world were able to watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters departing from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate their weapons ' accuracy.
In the United States, the "big three '' network anchors led the war 's network news coverage: ABC 's Peter Jennings, CBS 's Dan Rather, and NBC 's Tom Brokaw were anchoring their evening newscasts when air strikes began on 16 January 1991. ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings of the city 's quietness. But, moments later, Shepard was back on the air as flashes of light were seen on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.
On CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. On the NBC Nightly News, correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to his viewers that the air attack had begun.
Still, it was CNN whose coverage gained the most popularity and indeed its wartime coverage is often cited as one of the landmark events in the network 's history, ultimately leading to the establishment of CNN International. CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from Baghdad 's Al - Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. The network had previously convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of a permanent audio circuit in their makeshift bureau. When the telephones of all of the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN was the only service able to provide live reporting. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was, for a time, the only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq.
In the United Kingdom, the BBC devoted the FM portion of its national speech radio station BBC Radio 4 to an 18 - hour rolling news format creating Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared the ceasefire and Kuwait 's liberation. However, it paved the way for the later introduction of Radio Five Live.
Two BBC journalists, John Simpson and Bob Simpson (no relation), defied their editors and remained in Baghdad to report on the war 's progress. They were responsible for a report which included an "infamous cruise missile that travelled down a street and turned left at a traffic light. ''
Newspapers all over the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline "War in the Gulf '' emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began.
US policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. The policy had been spelled out in a Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front lines or conduct interviews with soldiers. Those visits were always conducted in the presence of officers, and were subject to both prior approval by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from being revealed to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military 's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the US grew throughout the war 's course. It was not only the limitation of information in the Middle East; media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke 's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage.
At the same time, the war 's coverage was new in its instantaneousness. About halfway through the war, Iraq 's government decided to allow live satellite transmissions from the country by Western news organizations, and US journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. NBC 's Tom Aspell, ABC 's Bill Blakemore, and CBS News ' Betsy Aaron filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles was broadcast almost immediately.
A British crew from CBS News, David Green and Andy Thompson, equipped with satellite transmission equipment, traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures of the fighting en route, arrived the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab forces the next day.
Alternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the war. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the US and abroad, and produced a 10 - hour series that was distributed internationally, called The Gulf Crisis TV Project. The series ' first program War, Oil and Power was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. News World Order was the title of another program in the series; it focused on the media 's complicity in promoting the war, as well as Americans ' reactions to the media coverage. In San Francisco, as a local example, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with highlights of mass demonstrations, artists ' actions, lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the country screened similar oppositional media.
The organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the war in various articles and books, such as the 1991 Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home.
Precision - guided munitions were heralded as key in allowing military strikes to be made with a minimum of civilian casualties compared to previous wars, although they were not used as often as more traditional, less accurate bombs. Specific buildings in downtown Baghdad could be bombed while journalists in their hotels watched cruise missiles fly by.
Precision - guided munitions amounted to approximately 7.4 % of all bombs dropped by the coalition. Other bombs included cluster bombs, which disperse numerous submunitions, and daisy cutters, 15,000 - pound bombs which can disintegrate everything within hundreds of yards.
Global Positioning System (GPS) units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the "selective availability '' feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.
Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) and satellite communication systems were also important. Two examples of this are the US Navy 's Grumman E-2 Hawkeye and the US Air Force 's Boeing E-3 Sentry. Both were used in command and control area of operations. These systems provided essential communications links between air, ground, and naval forces. It is one of several reasons why coalition forces dominated the air war.
American - made color photocopiers were used to produce some of Iraq 's battle plans. Some of the copiers contained concealed high - tech transmitters that revealed their positions to American electronic warfare aircraft, leading to more precise bombings.
The role of Iraq 's Scud missiles featured prominently in the war. Scud is a tactical ballistic missile that the Soviet Union developed and deployed among the forward deployed Red Army divisions in East Germany. The role of the Scuds which were armed with nuclear and chemical warheads was to destroy command, control, and communication facilities and delay full mobilization of Western German and Allied Forces in Germany. It could also be used to directly target ground forces.
Scud missiles utilize inertial guidance which operates for the duration that the engines operate. Iraq used Scud missiles, launching them into both Saudi Arabia and Israel. Some missiles caused extensive casualties, while others caused little damage. Concerns were raised of possible chemical or biological warheads on these rockets, but if they existed, they were not used.
The US Patriot missile was used in combat for the first time. The US military claimed a high effectiveness against Scuds at the time, but later analysis gives figures as low as 9 %, with 45 % of the 158 Patriot launches being against debris or false targets. The Dutch Ministry of Defense, which also sent Patriot missiles to protect civilians in Israel and Turkey, later disputed the higher claim. Further, there is at least one incident of a software error causing a Patriot missile 's failure to engage an incoming Scud, resulting in deaths. Both the US Army and the missile manufacturers maintained the Patriot delivered a "miracle performance '' in the Gulf War.
Regional wars:
General:
Games:
Works cited
|
when do you have to be born to be a millennial | Millennials - wikipedia
Millennials (also known as Generation Y) are the demographic cohort following Generation X. There are no precise dates for when this cohort starts or ends; demographers and researchers typically use the early 1980s as starting birth years and the mid-1990s to early 2000s as ending birth years.
Millennials are sometimes referred to as "Echo Boomers '' due to a major surge in birth rates in the 1980s and 1990s, and because Millennials are often the children of the Baby boomers. The 20th - century trend toward smaller families in developed countries continued, however, so the relative impact of the "baby boom echo '' was generally less pronounced than the post -- World War II baby boom.
Although Millennial characteristics vary by region, depending on social and economic conditions, the generation is generally marked by an increased use and familiarity with communications, media, and digital technologies. In most parts of the world, their upbringing was marked by an increase in a liberal approach to politics and economics; the effects of this environment are disputed. The Great Recession has had a major impact on this generation because it has caused historically high levels of unemployment among young people, and has led to speculation about possible long - term economic and social damage to this generation.
Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe are widely credited with naming the Millennials. They coined the term in 1987, around the time children born in 1982 were entering preschool, and the media were first identifying their prospective link to the new millennium as the high school graduating class of 2000. They wrote about the cohort in their books Generations: The History of America 's Future, 1584 to 2069 (1991) and Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation (2000).
In August 1993, an Advertising Age editorial coined the phrase Generation Y to describe those who were aged 11 or younger as well as the teenagers of the upcoming ten years who were defined as different from Generation X. According to journalist Bruce Horovitz, in 2012, Ad Age "threw in the towel by conceding that Millennials is a better name than Gen Y '', and by 2014, a past director of data strategy at Ad Age said to NPR "the Generation Y label was a placeholder until we found out more about them ''. Millennials are sometimes called Echo Boomers, due to their being the offspring of the baby boomers and due to the significant increase in birth rates from the early 1980s to mid 1990s, mirroring that of their parents. In the United States, birth rates peaked in August 1990 and a 20th - century trend toward smaller families in developed countries continued. In his book The Lucky Few: Between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boom, author Elwood Carlson called this cohort the "New Boomers ''.
Psychologist Jean Twenge described Millennials as "Generation Me '' in her 2006 book Generation Me: Why Today 's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled -- and More Miserable Than Ever Before, which was updated in 2014. In 2013, Time magazine ran a cover story titled Millennials: The Me Me Me Generation. Newsweek used the term Generation 9 / 11 to refer to young people who were between the ages of 10 and 20 years during the terrorist acts of 11 September 2001. The first reference to "Generation 9 / 11 '' was made in the cover story of the 12 November 2001 issue of Newsweek. Alternative names for this group proposed include Generation We, Global Generation, Generation Next and the Net Generation.
Chinese Millennials are commonly called the 1980s and 1990s generations. At a 2015 conference in Shanghai organized by University of Southern California 's US - China Institute, Millennials in China were examined and contrasted with American Millennials Findings included Millennials ' marriage, childbearing, and child raising preferences, life and career ambitions, and attitudes towards volunteerism and activism.
A minority of demographers and researchers start the generation in the mid-to - late 1970s, such as Synchrony Financial which describes Millennials as starting as early as 1976, Mobilize.org which uses 1976 -- 1996, MetLife which uses birth dates ranging from 1977 -- 1994, and Nielsen Media Research which uses 1977 -- 1995.
The majority of researchers and demographers start the generation in the early 1980s, with many ending the generation in the mid-1990s. Australia 's McCrindle Research regards 1980 -- 1994 as Generation Y birth years. A 2013 PricewaterhouseCoopers report and Edelman Berland use 1980 -- 1995. Gallup Inc., Eventbrite and Dale Carnegie Training and MSW Research all use 1980 -- 1996. Ernst and Young uses 1981 -- 1996. Manpower Group uses 1982 -- 1996.
Others end the generation in the late 1990s or early 2000s. A 2017 viral video from BuzzFeed, detailing the seven living generations of Americans, described Millennials as those born between 1981 -- 1997. On the American television program Survivor, for their 33rd season, subtitled Millennials vs. Gen X, the "Millennial tribe '' consisted of individuals born between 1984 and 1997. Goldman Sachs, Resolution Foundation, and a 2013 Time magazine cover story all use 1980 -- 2000. SYZYGY, a digital service agency partially owned by WPP, uses 1981 -- 1998, and the United States Census Bureau uses 1982 -- 2000. Pew Research Center defines Millennials as being born from 1981 onwards, with no chronological end point set yet.
Demographers William Straus and Neil Howe define Millennials as born between 1982 -- 2004. However, Howe described the dividing line between Millennials and the following Generation Z as "tentative '', saying "you ca n't be sure where history will someday draw a cohort dividing line until a generation fully comes of age ''. He noted that the Millennials ' range beginning in 1982 would point to the next generation 's window starting between 2000 and 2006.
In his 2008 book The Lucky Few: Between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boom, author Elwood Carlson defined this cohort as born between 1983 -- 2001 based on the upswing in births after 1983 and finishing with the "political and social challenges '' that occurred after the September 11 terrorist acts. In 2016, U.S Pirg described Millennials as those born between 1983 and 2000.
Due to birth - year overlap between definitions of Generation X and Millennials, some individuals born in the late 1970s and early 1980s see themselves as being "between '' the two generations. Names given to those born in the Generation X and Millennial cusp years include Xennials, The Lucky Ones, Generation Catalano, and the Oregon Trail Generation.
Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe believe that each generation has common characteristics that give it a specific character with four basic generational archetypes, repeating in a cycle. According to their hypothesis, they predicted Millennials will become more like the "civic - minded '' G.I. Generation with a strong sense of community both local and global. Strauss and Howe ascribe seven basic traits to the Millennial cohort: special, sheltered, confident, team - oriented, conventional, pressured, and achieving. Arthur E. Levine, author of When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today 's College Student describes these generational images as "stereotypes ''.
Strauss and Howe 's research has been influential, but it also has critics. Psychologist Jean Twenge says Strauss and Howe 's assertions are overly - deterministic, non-falsifiable, and unsupported by rigorous evidence. Twenge, the author of the 2006 book Generation Me, considers Millennials, along with younger members of Generation X, to be part of what she calls "Generation Me ''. Twenge attributes Millennials with the traits of confidence and tolerance, but also describes a sense of entitlement and narcissism, based on personality surveys showing increased narcissism among Millennials compared to preceding generations when they were teens and in their twenties. She questions the predictions of Strauss and Howe that this generation will turn out civic - minded. A 2016 study by SYZYGY a digital service agency, found Millennials in the U.S. continue to exhibit elevated scores on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory as they age, finding millennials exhibited 16 % more narcissism than older adults, with males scoring higher on average than females. The study examined two types of narcissism: grandiose narcissism, described as "the narcissism of extraverts, characterized by attention - seeking behavior, power and dominance '', and vulnerable narcissism, described as "the narcissism of introverts, characterized by an acute sense of self - entitlement and defensiveness. ''
The University of Michigan 's "Monitoring the Future '' study of high school seniors (conducted continually since 1975) and the American Freshman survey, conducted by UCLA 's Higher Education Research Institute of new college students since 1966, showed an increase in the proportion of students who consider wealth a very important attribute, from 45 % for Baby Boomers (surveyed between 1967 and 1985) to 70 % for Gen Xers, and 75 % for Millennials. The percentage who said it was important to keep abreast of political affairs fell, from 50 % for Baby Boomers to 39 % for Gen Xers, and 35 % for Millennials. The notion of "developing a meaningful philosophy of life '' decreased the most across generations, from 73 % for Boomers to 45 % for Millennials. The willingness to be involved in an environmental cleanup program dropped from 33 % for Baby Boomers to 21 % for Millennials.
A 2013 Pew Research Poll found that 84 % of Millennials, born since 1980, who were at that time between the ages of 18 and 32, favored legalizing the use of marijuana. In 2015, the Pew Research Center also conducted research regarding generational identity that said a majority did not like the "Millennial '' label.
In March 2014, the Pew Research Center issued a report about how "Millennials in adulthood '' are "detached from institutions and networked with friends. '' The report said Millennials are somewhat more upbeat than older adults about America 's future, with 49 % of Millennials saying the country 's best years are ahead though they 're the first in the modern era to have higher levels of student loan debt and unemployment.
Fred Bonner, a Samuel DeWitt Proctor Chair in Education at Rutgers University and author of Diverse Millennial Students in College: Implications for Faculty and Student Affairs, believes that much of the commentary on the Millennial Generation may be partially accurate, but overly general and that many of the traits they describe apply primarily to "white, affluent teenagers who accomplish great things as they grow up in the suburbs, who confront anxiety when applying to super-selective colleges, and who multitask with ease as their helicopter parents hover reassuringly above them. '' During class discussions, Bonner listened to black and Hispanic students describe how some or all of the so - called core traits did not apply to them. They often said that the "special '' trait, in particular, is unrecognizable. Other socio - economic groups often do not display the same attributes commonly attributed to Millennials. "It 's not that many diverse parents do n't want to treat their kids as special, '' he says, "but they often do n't have the social and cultural capital, the time and resources, to do that. ''
In his book Fast Future, author David Burstein describes Millennials ' approach to social change as "pragmatic idealism '' with a deep desire to make the world a better place, combined with an understanding that doing so requires building new institutions while working inside and outside existing institutions.
There are vast, and conflicting, amounts of literature and empirical studies discussing the existence of generational differences as it pertains to the workplace. The majority of research concludes Millennials differ from both their generational cohort predecessors, and can be characterized by a preference for a flat corporate culture, an emphasis on work - life balance and social consciousness.
According to authors from Florida International University, original research performed by Howe and Strauss as well as Yu & Miller suggest Baby Boomers resonate primarily with loyalty, work ethic, steady career path, and compensation when it comes to their professional lives. Generation X on the other hand, started shifting preferences towards an improved work - life balance with a heightened focus on individual advancement, stability, and job satisfaction. Meanwhile, Millennials place an emphasis on producing meaningful work, finding a creative outlet, and have a preference for immediate feedback. Findings also suggest the introduction of social media has augmented collaborative skills and created a preference for a team - oriented environment.
In the 2010 the Journal of Business and Psychology, contributors Myers and Sadaghiani find Millennials "expect close relationships and frequent feedback from supervisors '' to be a main point of differentiation. Multiple studies observe Millennials ' associating job satisfaction with free flow of information, strong connectivity to supervisors, and more immediate feedback. Hershatter and Epstein, researches from Emory University, argue a lot of these traits can be linked to Millennials entering the educational system on the cusp of academic reform, which created a much more structured educational system. Some argue in the wake of these reforms, such as the No Child Left Behind Act, Millennials have increasingly sought the aid of mentors and advisers, leading to 66 % of Millennials seeking a flat work environment.
Hershatter and Epstein also stress a growing importance on work - life balance. Studies show nearly one - third of students ' top priority is to "balance personal and professional life ''. The Brain Drain Study shows nearly 9 out of 10 Millennials place an importance on work - life balance, with additional surveys demonstrating the generation to favor familial over corporate values. Studies also show a preference for work - life balance, which contrasts to the Baby Boomers ' work - centric attitude.
Data also suggests Millennials are driving a shift towards the public service sector. In 2010, Myers and Sadaghiani published research in the Journal of Business and Psychology stating heightened participation in the Peace Corps and MeriCorps as a result of Millennials, with volunteering being at all - time highs. Volunteer activity between 2007 and 2008 show the Millennial age group experienced almost three - times the increase of the overall population, which is consistent with a survey of 130 college upperclassmen depicting an emphasis on altruism in their upbringing. This has led, according to a Harvard University Institute of Politics, six out of ten Millennials to consider a career in public service.
The 2014 Brookings publication shows a generational adherence to corporate social responsibility, with the National Society of High School Scholars (NSHSS) 2013 survey and Universum 's 2011 survey, depicting a preference to work for companies engaged in the betterment of society. Millennials ' shift in attitudes has led to data depicting 64 % of Millennials would take a 60 % pay cut to pursue a career path aligned with their passions, and financial institutions have fallen out of favor with banks comprising 40 % of the generation 's least liked brands.
In 2008, author Ron Alsop called the Millennials "Trophy Kids, '' a term that reflects a trend in competitive sports, as well as many other aspects of life, where mere participation is frequently enough for a reward. It has been reported that this is an issue in corporate environments. Some employers are concerned that Millennials have too great expectations from the workplace. Some studies predict they will switch jobs frequently, holding many more jobs than Gen Xers due to their great expectations. Psychologist Jean Twenge reports data suggests there are differences between older and younger Millennials regarding workplace expectations, with younger Millennials being "more practical '' and "more attracted to industries with steady work and are more likely to say they are willing to work overtime '' which Twenge attributes to younger Millennials coming of age following the financial crisis of 2007 - 2008.
There is also a contention that the major differences are found solely between Millennials and Generation X. Researchers from the University of Missouri and The University of Tennessee conducted a study based on measurement equivalence to determine if such a difference does in fact exist. The study looked at 1,860 participants who had completed the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (MWEP), a survey aimed at measuring identification with work - ethic characteristics, across a 12 - year period spanning from 1996 to 2008. The results of the findings suggest the main difference in work ethic sentiments arose between the two most recent generational cohorts, Generation X and Millennials, with relatively small variances between the two generations and their predecessor, the Baby Boomers.
That said, some research fails to find convincing differences. A meta study conducted by researchers from The George Washington University and The U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences questions the validity of workplace differences across any generational cohort. According to the researchers, disagreement in which events to include when assigning generational cohorts, as well as varied opinions on which age ranges to include in each generational category are the main drivers behind their skepticism. The analysis of 20 research reports focusing on the three work - related factors of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and intent to turn over proved any variation was too small to discount the impact of employee tenure and aging of individuals. Newer research shows that Millennials change jobs for the same reasons as other generations -- namely, more money and a more innovative work environment. They look for versatility and flexibility in the workplace, and strive for a strong work -- life balance in their jobs and have similar career aspirations to other generations, valuing financial security and a diverse workplace just as much as their older colleagues.
Surveys of political attitudes among Millennials in the United Kingdom have suggested increasingly social liberal views, as well as higher overall support for classical liberal economic policies than preceding generations. They are more likely to support same - sex marriage and the legalization of drugs. The Economist parallels this with Millennials in the United States, whose attitudes are more supportive of social liberal policies and same - sex marriage relative to other demographics. They are also more likely to oppose animal testing for medical purposes than older generations. Bernie Sanders, a self - proclaimed democratic socialist and democratic candidate in the 2016 United States presidential election, was the most popular candidate among Millennial voters in the primary phase, having garnered more votes from people under 30 in 21 states than the major parties ' candidates, Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton, did combined. In April 2016, The Washington Post viewed him as changing the way Millennials viewed politics, saying, "He 's not moving a party to the left. He 's moving a generation to the left. '' Bernie Sanders referred to Millennials as "the least prejudiced generation in the history of the United States ''. A 2014 poll for the libertarian Reason magazine suggested that American Millennials were social liberals and fiscal centrists, more often than their global peers. The magazine predicted that Millennials would become more conservative on fiscal issues once they started paying taxes.
In the United Kingdom, the majority of Millennials opposed the British withdrawal from the European Union. Blaming Baby boomers, who largely supported the referendum, one commenter said: "The younger generation has lost the right to live and work in 27 other countries. We will never know the full extent of the lost opportunities, friendships, marriages and experiences we will be denied. '' The Washington Post phrased this as "we let you steal our future '', reporting high voter turnout among those over 55 years of age and low voter turnout among those under 34 years of age.
In some countries, like the U.S. and UK, Millennials are more likely to support political correctness than their elders. In 2015, a Pew Research study found 40 % of Millennials in the United States supported government restriction of public speech offensive to minority groups; agreeing with this were 27 % of Gen Xers, 24 % of Baby Boomers and only 12 % of the Silent Generation. Pew Research noted similar age related trends in the United Kingdom, but not in Germany and Spain, where Millennials were less supportive of restricting offensive speech than older groups, or France, Italy and Poland, where there were no noticeable age differences. In the U.S. and UK, Millennials have brought changes to higher education via drawing attention to microaggressions and advocating implementation of safe spaces and trigger warnings in the university setting. Critics of such changes have raised concerns regarding their impact on free speech, asserting these changes can promote censorship, while proponents have described these changes as promoting inclusiveness.
Millennial population size varies, depending on the definition used. William Strauss and Neil Howe projected in their 1991 book Generations that the U.S. Millennial population would be 76 million. Later, using dates ranging from 1982 to 2004, Neil Howe revised the number to over 95 million people (in the U.S.). In a 2012 Time magazine article, it was estimated that there were approximately 80 million U.S. Millennials. The United States Census Bureau, using birth dates ranging from 1982 to 2000, stated the estimated number of U.S. Millennials in 2015 was 83.1 million people.
In 2016, the Pew Research Center found that Millennials surpassed Baby Boomers to become the largest living generation in the United States. By analyzing 2015 U.S Census data they found there were 75.4 million Millennials, based on Pew 's definition of the generation which ranges from 1981 to 1997, compared to 74.9 million Baby Boomers.
Economic prospects for some Millennials have declined largely due to the Great Recession in the late 2000s. Several governments have instituted major youth employment schemes out of fear of social unrest due to the dramatically increased rates of youth unemployment. In Europe, youth unemployment levels were very high (56 % in Spain, 44 % in Italy, 35 % in the Baltic states, 19.1 % in Britain and more than 20 % in many more countries). In 2009, leading commentators began to worry about the long - term social and economic effects of the unemployment. Unemployment levels in other areas of the world were also high, with the youth unemployment rate in the U.S. reaching a record 19.1 % in July 2010 since the statistic started being gathered in 1948. In Canada, unemployment among youths in July 2009 was 15.9 %, the highest it had been in 11 years. Underemployment is also a major factor. In the U.S. the economic difficulties have led to dramatic increases in youth poverty, unemployment, and the numbers of young people living with their parents. In April 2012, it was reported that half of all new college graduates in the US were still either unemployed or underemployed. It has been argued that this unemployment rate and poor economic situation has given Millennials a rallying call with the 2011 Occupy Wall Street movement. However, according to Christine Kelly, Occupy is not a youth movement and has participants that vary from the very young to very old.
A variety of names have emerged in various European countries hard hit following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 to designate young people with limited employment and career prospects. These groups can be considered to be more or less synonymous with Millennials, or at least major sub-groups in those countries. The Generation of € 700 is a term popularized by the Greek mass media and refers to educated Greek twixters of urban centers who generally fail to establish a career. In Greece, young adults are being "excluded from the labor market '' and some "leave their country of origin to look for better options ''. They 're being "marginalized and face uncertain working conditions '' in jobs that are unrelated to their educational background, and receive the minimum allowable base salary of € 700 per month. This generation evolved in circumstances leading to the Greek debt crisis and some participated in the 2010 -- 2011 Greek protests. In Spain, they 're referred to as the mileurista (for € 1,000 per month), in France "The Precarious Generation, '' and as in Spain, Italy also has the "milleurista ''; generation of 1,000 euros (per month).
In 2015, Millennials in New York City were reported as earning 20 % less than the generation before them, as a result of entering the workforce during the great recession. Despite higher college attendance rates than Generation X, many were stuck in low - paid jobs, with the percentage of degree - educated young adults working in low - wage industries rising from 23 % to 33 % between 2000 and 2014. In 2016, research from the Resolution Foundation found Millennials in the UK earned £ 8,000 less in their 20s than Generation X, describing Millennials as "on course to become the first generation to earn less than the one before ''.
Generation Flux is a neologism and psychographic (not demographic) designation coined by Fast Company for American employees who need to make several changes in career throughout their working lives due to the chaotic nature of the job market following the Great Recession. Societal change has been accelerated by the use of social media, smartphones, mobile computing, and other new technologies. Those in "Generation Flux '' have birth - years in the ranges of both Generation X and Millennials. "Generation Sell '' was used by author William Deresiewicz to describe Millennials ' interest in small businesses.
Millennials are expected to make up approximately half of the U.S. workforce by 2020. Millennials are the most highly educated and culturally diverse group of all generations, and have been regarded as hard to please when it comes to employers. To address these new challenges, many large firms are currently studying the social and behavioral patterns of Millennials and are trying to devise programs that decrease intergenerational estrangement, and increase relationships of reciprocal understanding between older employees and Millennials. The UK 's Institute of Leadership & Management researched the gap in understanding between Millennial recruits and their managers in collaboration with Ashridge Business School. The findings included high expectations for advancement, salary and for a coaching relationship with their manager, and suggested that organizations will need to adapt to accommodate and make the best use of Millennials. In an example of a company trying to do just this, Goldman Sachs conducted training programs that used actors to portray Millennials who assertively sought more feedback, responsibility, and involvement in decision making. After the performance, employees discussed and debated the generational differences they saw played out.
Millennials have benefited the least from the economic recovery following the Great Recession, as average incomes for this generation have fallen at twice the general adult population 's total drop and are likely to be on a path toward lower incomes for at least another decade. A Bloomberg L.P. article wrote that "Three and a half years after the worst recession since the Great Depression, the earnings and employment gap between those in the under - 35 population and their parents and grandparents threatens to unravel the American dream of each generation doing better than the last. The nation 's younger workers have benefited least from an economic recovery that has been the most uneven in recent history. ''
In 2014, Millennials were entering an increasingly multi-generational workplace. Even though research has shown that Millennials are joining the workforce during a tough economic time they still have remained optimistic, as shown when about nine out of ten Millennials surveyed by the Pew Research Center said that they currently have enough money or that they will eventually reach their long - term financial goals.
American sociologist Kathleen Shaputis labeled Millennials as the Boomerang Generation or Peter Pan generation, because of the members ' perceived tendency for delaying some rites of passage into adulthood for longer periods than most generations before them. These labels were also a reference to a trend toward members living with their parents for longer periods than previous generations. Kimberly Palmer regards the high cost of housing and higher education, and the relative affluence of older generations, as among the factors driving the trend. Questions regarding a clear definition of what it means to be an adult also impacts a debate about delayed transitions into adulthood and the emergence of a new life stage, Emerging Adulthood. A 2012 study by professors at Brigham Young University found that college students were more likely to define "adult '' based on certain personal abilities and characteristics rather than more traditional "rite of passage '' events. Larry Nelson noted that "In prior generations, you get married and you start a career and you do that immediately. What young people today are seeing is that approach has led to divorces, to people unhappy with their careers... The majority want to get married (...) they just want to do it right the first time, the same thing with their careers. ''
Their expectations have had a dampening effect on Millennials ' rate of marriage. In 2016, the average American couple spent more than $14,000 on their wedding. A 2013 joint study by sociologists at the University of Virginia and Harvard University found that the decline and disappearance of stable full - time jobs with health insurance and pensions for people who lack a college degree has had profound effects on working - class Americans, who now are less likely to marry and have children within marriage than those with college degrees. Data from a 2014 study of US Millennials revealed over 56 % of this cohort considers themselves as part of the working class, with only approximately 35 % considering themselves as part of the middle class; this class identity is the lowest polling of any generation.
Research by the Urban Institute conducted in 2014, projected that if current trends continue, Millennials will have a lower marriage rate compared to previous generations, predicting that by age 40, 30.7 % of millennial women will remain single, approximately twice the share of their single Gen X counterparts. The data showed similar trends for males. A 2016 study from Pew Research showed Millennials delay some activities considered rites of passage of adulthood with data showing young adults aged 18 -- 34 were more likely to live with parents than with a relationship partner, an unprecedented occurrence since data collection began in 1880. Data also showed a significant increase in the percentage of young adults living with parents compared to the previous demographic cohort, Generation X, with 23 % of young adults aged 18 -- 34 living with parents in 2000, rising to 32 % in 2014. Additionally, in 2000, 43 % of those aged 18 -- 34 were married or living with a partner, with this figure dropping to 31.6 % in 2014. High student debt is described as one reason for continuing to live with parents, but may not be the dominant factor for this shift as the data shows the trend is stronger for those without a college education. Richard Fry, a senior economist for Pew Research said of Millennials, "they 're the group much more likely to live with their parents. '' furthering "they 're concentrating more on school, careers and work and less focused on forming new families, spouses or partners and children ''.
According to a cross-generational study comparing Millennials to Generation X conducted at Wharton School of Business, more than half of Millennial undergraduates surveyed do not plan to have children. The researchers compared surveys of the Wharton graduating class of 1992 and 2012. In 1992, 78 % of women planned to eventually have children dropping to 42 % in 2012. The results were similar for male students. The research revealed among both genders the proportion of undergraduates who reported they eventually planned to have children had dropped in half over the course of a generation.
In the U.S., Millennials are the least likely to be religious. There is a trend towards irreligion that has been increasing since the 1940s. 29 percent of Americans born between 1983 and 1994 are irreligious, as opposed to 21 percent born between 1963 and 1981, 15 percent born between 1948 and 1962 and only 7 percent born before 1948. A 2005 study looked at 1,385 people aged 18 to 25 and found that more than half of those in the study said that they pray regularly before a meal. One - third said that they discussed religion with friends, attended religious services, and read religious material weekly. Twenty - three percent of those studied did not identify themselves as religious practitioners. A Pew Research Center study on Millennials shows that of those between 18 -- 29 years old, only 3 % of these emerging adults self - identified as "atheists '' and only 4 % self - identified as "agnostics ''. Overall, 25 % of Millennials are "Nones '' and 75 % are religiously affiliated.
Over half of Millennials polled in the United Kingdom in 2013 said they had "no religion nor attended a place of worship '', other than for a wedding or a funeral. 25 % said they "believe in a God '', while 19 % believed in a "spiritual greater power '' and 38 % said they did not believe in God nor any other "greater spiritual power ''. The poll also found 41 % thought religion was "the cause of evil '' in the world more often than good.
In their 2007 book, authors Junco and Mastrodicasa expanded on the work of William Strauss and Neil Howe to include research - based information about the personality profiles of Millennials, especially as it relates to higher education. They conducted a large - sample (7,705) research study of college students. They found that Next Generation college students, born between 1983 -- 1992, were frequently in touch with their parents and they used technology at higher rates than people from other generations. In their survey, they found that 97 % of these students owned a computer, 94 % owned a mobile phone, and 56 % owned an MP3 player. They also found that students spoke with their parents an average of 1.5 times a day about a wide range of topics. Other findings in the Junco and Mastrodicasa survey revealed 76 % of students used instant messaging, 92 % of those reported multitasking while instant messaging, 40 % of them used television to get most of their news, and 34 % of students surveyed used the Internet as their primary news source. Older Millennials came of age prior to widespread usage and availability of smartphones, defined as those born 1988 and earlier, in contrast to younger Millennials, those born in 1989 and later, who were exposed to this technology in their teen years.
Gen Xers and Millennials were the first to grow up with computers in their homes. In a 1999 speech at the New York Institute of Technology, Microsoft Chairman and CEO Bill Gates encouraged America 's teachers to use technology to serve the needs of the first generation of kids to grow up with the Internet. Some Millennials enjoy having hundreds of channels from cable TV. However, some other Millennials do not even have a TV, so they watch media over the Internet using smartphones and tablets. One of the most popular forms of media use by Millienials is social networking. In 2010, research was published in the Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research which claimed that students who used social media and decided to quit showed the same withdrawal symptoms of a drug addict who quit their stimulant. Marc Prensky coined the term "digital native '' to describe "K through college '' students in 2001, explaining they "represent the first generations to grow up with this new technology. '' Millennials are identified as "digital natives '' by the Pew Research Center which conducted a survey titled Millennials in Adulthood.
Millennials use social networking sites, such as Facebook, to create a different sense of belonging, make acquaintances, and to remain connected with friends. In the Frontline episode "Generation Like '' there is discussion about Millennials, their dependence on technology, and the ways the social media sphere is commoditized.
Strauss & Howe 's book titled Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation describes the Millennial generation as "civic - minded '', rejecting the attitudes of the Baby Boomers and Generation X. Since the 2000 U.S. Census, which allowed people to select more than one racial group, Millennials in abundance have asserted the ideal that all their heritages should be respected, counted, and acknowledged. Millennials are the children of Baby Boomers or Generation Xers, while some older members may have parents from the Silent Generation. A 2013 poll in the United Kingdom found that Generation Y was more "open - minded than their parents on controversial topics ''. Of those surveyed, nearly 75 % supported same - sex marriage.
A 2013 Pew Research Poll found that 84 % of Millennials, born since 1980, who were at that time between the ages of 18 and 32, favored legalizing the use of marijuana. In 2015, the Pew Research Center also conducted research regarding generational identity. It was discovered that Millennials, or members of Generation Y, are less likely to strongly identify with the generational term when compared to Generation X or to the baby boomers, with only 40 % of those born between 1981 and 1997 identifying as part of the Millennial Generation. Among older Millennials, those born 1981 -- 1988, Pew Research found 43 % personally identified as members of the older demographic cohort, Generation X, while only 35 % identified as Millennials. Among younger Millennials (born 1989 -- 1997), generational identity was not much stronger, with only 45 % personally identifying as Millennials. It was also found that Millennials chose most often to define itself with more negative terms such as self - absorbed, wasteful or greedy. In this 2015 report, Pew defined Millennials with birth years ranging from 1981 onwards.
Millennials came of age in a time where the entertainment industry began to be affected by the Internet. In addition to Millennials being the most ethnically and racially diverse compared to the generations older than they are, they are also on pace to be the most formally educated. As of 2008, 39.6 % of Millennials between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, which was an American record. Along with being educated, Millennials also tend to upbeat. As stated above in the economic prospects section, about 9 out of 10 Millennials feel as though they have enough money or that they will reach their long - term financial goals, even during the tough economic times, and they are more optimistic about the future of the U.S. Additionally, Millennials are also more open to change than older generations. According to the Pew Research Center that did a survey in 2008, Millennials are the most likely of any generation to self - identify as liberals and are also more supportive of progressive domestic social agenda than older generations. Finally, Millennials are less overtly religious than the older generations. About one in four Millennials are unaffiliated with any religion, a considerably higher ratio than that of older generations when they were the ages of Millennials.
|
when does next star trek discovery come out | Star Trek: Discovery - Wikipedia
Star Trek: Discovery is an American television series created for CBS All Access by Bryan Fuller and Alex Kurtzman. It is the first series developed specifically for that service, and the first Star Trek series since Star Trek: Enterprise concluded in 2005. Set roughly a decade before the events of the original Star Trek series and separate from the timeline of the concurrently produced feature films, Discovery explores the Federation -- Klingon war while following the crew of the USS Discovery. Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts serve as showrunners on the series, with producing support from Akiva Goldsman.
Sonequa Martin - Green stars as Michael Burnham, a science specialist on the USS Discovery. Doug Jones, Shazad Latif, Anthony Rapp, Mary Wiseman, and Jason Isaacs also star. The new series was announced in November 2015, with Fuller joining as showrunner and wanting to make an anthology series. CBS asked him to make a single, serialized show first, with the prequel to the original series idea further developed. After further disagreements with CBS and struggles with other commitments, Fuller left the series in October 2016, replaced as showrunner by Berg and Harberts.
Star Trek: Discovery premiered on September 19, 2017, at ArcLight Hollywood, before debuting on CBS and CBS All Access on September 24. The rest of the 15 - episode first season was streamed weekly on All Access. The series ' release led to record subscriptions for All Access, and positive reviews from critics who highlighted Martin - Green 's performance. A second season was ordered in October 2017.
Set roughly ten years before the events of Star Trek: The Original Series, the show sees the united Klingon houses in a war with the United Federation of Planets that involves the crew of the USS Discovery.
On November 2, 2015, CBS announced a new Star Trek television series to premiere in January 2017, "on the heels '' of the original series ' 50th anniversary in 2016. It is the first Star Trek series since Star Trek: Enterprise concluded in 2005, and the first show to be developed specifically for the CBS All Access on demand service. Alex Kurtzman, co-writer of the films Star Trek and Star Trek Into Darkness, and Heather Kadin were set as executive producers on the series, which is "not related '' to the 2016 film Star Trek Beyond. The January 2017 date was the earliest that CBS could release a new Star Trek series after an agreement the company made when it split with Viacom in 2005. Showtime, Netflix, and Amazon Video all offered "a lot of money '' for the rights to release the series, but after heavily investing in the new All Access service, CBS believed that a returning Star Trek could be "the franchise that really puts All Access on the map '' and could earn more money in the long run.
In January 2016, CBS president Glenn Geller revealed that he and the CBS network were not involved in the production of the series, saying, "It really is for All Access. While the network will be broadcasting the pilot, I actually ca n't answer any creative questions about it. '' The next month, Bryan Fuller, who began his career writing for the series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager, was announced as the new series ' showrunner and co-creator alongside Kurtzman. Nicholas Meyer, writer and director of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, also joined the series as a writer and consulting producer. In March, Rod Roddenberry, the son of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry, and Trevor Roth of Roddenberry Entertainment also joined the series, as executive producers. Fuller said that working with people previously involved with Star Trek was "really about making sure that we maintain authenticity '', and said that Meyer -- who is widely considered to have made the best Star Trek film in The Wrath of Khan -- brings "a clarity and a cleanliness to the storytelling. An ability to ground science - fiction in a relatable way, and also making sure that we 're telling character stories. '' Fuller had publicly called for Star Trek to return to television for years, particularly because of its impact on minority groups, as he explained, "I could n't stop thinking about how many black people were inspired by seeing Nichelle Nichols on the bridge of a ship. I could n't stop thinking about how many Asian people were inspired by seeing George Takei and feeling that gave them hope for their place in the future. I wanted to be part of that representation for a new era. '' When Fuller first met with CBS about the series, the company did not have a plan for what the new show would be. He proposed an anthology series with each season being a standalone, serialized show set in a different era, beginning with a prequel to the original series, then stories set during the original series, during Star Trek: The Next Generation, and then "beyond to a time in Trek that 's never been seen before ''. Fuller compared this to what American Horror Story did for horror, and described the proposal as a platform for "a universe of Trek shows ''. CBS instead suggested a single serialized show to see how that performed first, and he began further developing the concept of a prequel to the original series.
Fuller announced in June 2016 that the first season would consist of 13 episodes, though he would prefer to produce 10 episodes a season. A month later, Fuller announced the series ' title to be Star Trek: Discovery, and revealed that it would be set in the "Prime Timeline '' (which includes the previous Star Trek series, but not the modern reboot films) to keep the concurrent series and films separate, so "we do n't have to track anything (happening in the films) and they do n't have to track what we 're doing ''. Also in July, CBS Studios International licensed the series to Netflix for release outside the United States and Canada, a "blockbuster '' deal that paid for the show 's entire budget (around US $6 -- 7 million per episode). During pre-production on the series, Fuller and CBS continued to disagree on the direction of the show, which was starting to overrun its per - episode budget, and was falling behind schedule due to Fuller supervising all aspects of the series as well as another new show, American Gods. This caused frustration among CBS executives who felt Fuller should be focused on having Discovery ready for release by the January 2017 premiere date. By August 2016, Fuller had hired Gretchen J. Berg and Aaron Harberts, who he had worked with on Pushing Daisies, to serve as co-showrunners with him. A month later, he and Kurtzman asked CBS to delay the series ' release so they could meet the high expectations for it, and the studio pushed the series premiere back to May 2017. '' At the end of October, CBS asked Fuller to step down as showrunner, and announced a restructuring of the production: Berg and Harberts were made sole showrunners, working from a broad story arc and overall mythology established by Fuller; Kurtzman and Fuller would continue as executive producers, but with Fuller moving his attention fully to American Gods; and Akiva Goldsman would join the series in a supporting producer role, similar to the role he held on Fringe alongside Kurtzman. CBS reiterated that they were "extremely happy with (Fuller 's) creative direction '' for the series, though some elements of the series that came directly from Fuller were dropped, including some designs and "more heavily allegorical and complex story '' points. Fuller later confirmed that he was no longer involved with the series, but expressed interest in returning for future seasons.
With production set to finally begin in January, "a lot of careful deliberation (was) continuing to go into making Discovery special, from the choice of directors, to set design, to the special effects. '' Ted Sullivan also joined the series to serve as supervising writing producer. At CBS 's 2017 upfront presentation, CBS Interactive president Marc DeBevoise confirmed a "fall '' release date for the series, and announced that the episode order for the first season had been expanded to 15 episodes. In June, CBS announced a new premiere date of September 24, 2017, with the season airing through November 2017, and then beginning again in January 2018. This break gave more time to complete post-production on the second half of the season. Also that month, Kurtzman said that he and Fuller had discussed future seasons before the latter 's departure, and promised that "what 's there in terms of story and certainly in terms of set - up, character, big ideas, the big movement of the season, that 's all stuff that Bryan and I talked about '' and would not be altered. Goldsman said in August that the producers wanted "a hybridized (anthology) approach. I do n't think we 're looking for an endless, continuing nine or 10 year story. We 're looking at arcs which will have characters that we know and characters that we do n't know. '' Kurtzman added that the success of Discovery could lead to other new Star Trek series that could potentially use the anthology format. By the end of August, Berg and Harberts had developed a "road map '' for a second season, and "the beginnings of one '' for a third. It was also revealed that an average episode of the first season had ultimately cost US $8 -- 8.5 million each, making it one of the most expensive television series ever and exceeding the original Netflix deal, though CBS still considered the series to be paid for already due to the number of new All Access subscribers that the show was expected to draw. After the series ' premiere, Kurtzman said that the producers wanted to avoid announcing release dates and having to delay those for any future seasons, due to the external pressure that caused with the first season, but that he hoped a second season would be available in early 2019. The second season was officially ordered a month later in October 2017.
-- Executive producer Alex Kurtzman on the balance between classic Star Trek and new elements in Discovery
The series ' writers are based in Los Angeles, and include "fans who all have very different relationships to Trek, '' which Kurtzman said is "a healthy thing and it 's a good thing ''. Fuller wanted to differentiate the series from the previous 700 + episodes of Star Trek by taking advantage of the streaming format of All Access and telling a single story arc across the entire first season. He and Kurtzman developed this story from "so many elements of Star Trek '', taking certain episodes of the original series and using their "DNA '' to find "the spirit of what Star Trek offers, both in terms of high - concept science fiction storytelling and really wonderful metaphors for the human condition ''. Berg said that the series ' writers "are so in love with '' The Original Series, The Next Generation, and the family aspect of those series, while Harberts added that Meyer 's Star Trek films were an especial influence on Discovery because "his storytelling is complex and intellectual and yet there 's a lot of room for character voices ''.
The titular ship was named after Discovery One from 2001: A Space Odyssey, NASA 's Space Shuttle Discovery, and "the sense of discovery... what (that) means to Star Trek audiences who have been promised a future by Gene Roddenberry where we come together as a planet and seek new worlds and new alien races to explore and understand and collaborate with ''. Fuller saw the series as a bridge between Enterprise and the original series -- which are set around 150 years apart -- but set much closer to the latter to allow the series to "play with all the iconography of those ships and those uniforms ''. In May 2017, Sullivan described the series as "a genuine prequel '' to the original series, with Goldsman later adding that there were many classic Star Trek elements that fans among the writers wished to include in the series, but could n't because they were included in the original series as something being discovered by Starfleet for the first time then. The choice to feature a single serialized story throughout the first season was inspired by the general change in television to tell more realistic and serialized stories rather than the "new destination - based adventure each week '' format mostly used in previous Star Trek series. Fuller had been one of several writers during the 1990s pushing for Deep Space Nine and Voyager to move towards this style. Also inspired by modern, "peak television '' series such as Game of Thrones was a willingness to kill off major characters for dramatic reasons, though the writers wanted to avoid doing so gratuitously or for "shock value ''.
Fuller said the series could "push the content envelope since it wo n't be constrained by broadcast standards '', but "it 's still Star Trek. It will probably be slightly more graphic content... I imagine we 're going to shoot scenes a couple of ways and see what feels more authentic in the editing room. '' Harberts ultimately described the series as a "hard PG - 13 '', saying the series could include "some violent things or (a) tiny bit of language '' but they still wanted the show to be for families and to "honor what the franchise is. '' On using time travel in the series, a plot device used in at least two episodes of every previous live - action Star Trek season, Fuller said that it had not yet been used for any episode by the end of August 2016, and, "You never know when you want to pull out that device but I am not anticipating an over-reliance on time travel to tell this season 's stories. '' The series ' writers also chose to ignore Gene Roddenberry 's longstanding rule that Starfleet crew members not have any significant conflict with one another or be depicted negatively (a rule that Roddenberry himself did not always strictly follow). Harberts explained, "We 're trying to do stories that are complicated, with characters with strong points of view and strong passions. People have to make mistakes -- mistakes are still going to be made in the future. We 're still going to argue in the future... the thing we 're taking from Roddenberry is how we solve those conflicts. '' Because of the show 's position as a prequel to the original series, the producers felt it was more important for Discovery to build towards Roddenberry 's ideals, and to show that "you ca n't simply be accepting and tolerant without working for it, and so this show is about that struggle. ''
By June 2016, Fuller had met with several actors, and said that "we want to carry on what Star Trek does best, which is being progressive. So it 's fascinating to look at all of these roles through a colorblind prism and a gender - blind prism ''. A month later, Kadin clarified that the series would feature minority, female, and LGBTQ characters. In August, Fuller said the series would feature "about seven '' lead characters, and would star a lieutenant commander, rather than a starship captain like previous Star Trek series, to be played by a non-white actress. He said the series would also include more alien characters than other Star Trek series, and would feature at least one openly gay character. Fuller, who is gay himself, had been determined to see this happen since receiving hate mail while working on Voyager when a character on that show was rumored to be coming out as gay. By this time, Fuller had discussed the series ' casting with Mae Jemison, the first black woman in space (who made a cameo appearance in an episode of The Next Generation).
Fuller anticipated casting announcements in October 2016, but none had been made by the end of that month. The majority of the series main characters were believed to have been cast by then, but no actress had been cast for the series ' lead role. This was a source of "some internal stress '' at CBS. Several African American and Latina actresses were being looked at for the role, with CBS "not seeking a huge star and (preferring) a fresh face for the part. '' In October, the cast was believed to include "a female admiral, a male Klingon captain, a male admiral, a male adviser and a British male doctor '', with one of those male leads played by an openly gay actor. The next month, Doug Jones and Anthony Rapp were revealed to be cast, as Science Officers Saru and Stamets, respectively. The former is a Kelpien, an alien race created for the series, while the latter is the first Star Trek character to be conceived and announced as gay. Sonequa Martin - Green was cast in the lead role in December, which was officially confirmed in April 2017, with the character 's name revealed to be Michael Burnham. Also in December, Shazad Latif was cast as the Klingon Kol. In March 2017, Jason Isaacs was cast as Captain Lorca of the USS Discovery, and Mary Wiseman joined as Tilly, a cadet. At the end of April, Latif was revealed to have been recast to the role of Starfleet Lieutenant Tyler. In the series, this role is shown to be an undercover persona used by the Klingon Voq, who was initially credited as being portrayed by the invented actor Javid Iqbal to hide the fact that Latif was portraying both Voq and Tyler.
Mark Worthington and Todd Cherniawsky served as initial production designers for the series; Gersha Phillips and Suttirat Anne Larlarb designed the costumes; veteran Star Trek designer John Eaves designed starships, along with Scott Schneider; and Glenn Hetrick and Neville Page of Alchemy Studios provided prosthetics, props, and armor. Page previously served as the concept and creature designer on the three "Kelvin Timeline '' Star Trek films. The series also employed seven art directors, over nine illustrators, more than thirty - five set designers, and over four hundred and fifty painters, carpenters, sculptors, model makers, welders, set dressers, and prop builders.
Fuller said on the general approach to design on the show, "we 're producing the show in 2016. We have to update the style of the effects, the style of the sets, the style of the makeup... all of the other series have been produced (at a time that) is n't as sophisticated as we are now with what we can do production-wise, we 're going to be reestablishing an entire look for the series '' and for Star Trek moving forward. Fuller had wanted the series ' uniforms to reflect the primary colors of the original series, but this was discarded after his departure. However, Fuller 's designs for the Klingons, which he "really, really wanted '' to redesign, were retained. 3D Systems ' "cutting edge '' 3D printing techniques were widely used in the making of the series. For the prosthetics, Page and Hetrick took detailed laser scans of the actors so they could simulate make - up and prosthetics in a virtual environment before creating the practical version. Fabric for the Starfleet uniforms seen in the series were custom - dyed in Switzerland; the costumes were cut and assembled in Toronto by Phillips and her department. The main uniforms seen in the series are a navy blue specifically mixed for the show, with gold or silver embellishments depending on the division of the officer. Medical officers wear a "hospital white '' variant, also custom - dyed in Switzerland, while the captain 's uniform is the standard navy blue but with additional gold piping on the shoulders. Starfleet insignia badges were molded from silicon bronze, and then polished and plated by a jeweler to create custom colors for the series, based on the division of the officer wearing the uniform: gold for command, silver for sciences and medical, and copper for operations. Props such as tricorders and hand scanners, communicators, and phasers were produced with 3D printing and heavily inspired by their designs in the original Star Trek series.
The design of the USS Discovery is based on an unused Ralph McQuarrie design for the USS Enterprise from the unproduced film Star Trek: Planet of the Titans, which Fuller had noted in July 2016 was "to a point that we ca n't legally comment on it until (our legal team) figures out some things ''. McQuarrie 's designs were based on the concepts created by Ken Adam to feature a vessel with a flattened secondary hull. Fuller wanted "something distinct about what our Star Trek was going to look '' like, and after seeing McQuarrie 's design "saw sort of harder lines of a ship and started talking about race cars and Lamborghinis in the ' 70s and James Bond cars and started working on the designs, taking those inspirations and coming up with something completely unique to us. '' The design for the Discovery went through several revisions and refinements before the final version was approved in December 2016. The sickbay on the Discovery was inspired by that of the Enterprise from the original series. Other Federation starships created for the show include the USS Shenzhou and the USS Europa. Sets for the Discovery 's interiors were described as a "tangle of corridors and rooms '', and were designed to match with the exterior design of the ship, so "the rooms (could believably) fit inside the house '', but there was some artistic license taken in places. The graphics used for the Starfleet computer systems were designed to be believably more advanced than modern technology, but to also "honor the look and feel '' of the designs used in previous series. The initial colors allowed for the graphics were mostly restricted to blues, with the intention of these becoming more colorful the closer the series gets to the time period of the original series.
The opening title sequence for the show was created by Prologue using 2D motion graphics. The sequence, which uses a "vivid, sepia - soaked palette '', depicts elements from throughout the history of Star Trek -- such as phasers, communicators, and the Vulcan salute -- and deconstructs them, which was intended to be an homage to past Star Trek series as well as an introduction to the more grounded and gritty tone of Discovery.
Star Trek: Discovery is filmed at Pinewood Toronto Studios. Some of the series ' sets took over six weeks to create, and new sets were being built up until the end of production of the season. Discovery took advantage of multiple soundstages at the studio, including the largest soundstage in North America. Some episodes for the show were filmed solely on existing sets, making them bottle episodes, though Harberts said the series would not do anything "as bottle - y as ' everyone is stuck in the mess hall! ' ''
For the visual scope of the series, Kurtzman felt that the show had to "justify being on a premium cable service ''. The showrunners were particularly inspired by Star Trek: The Motion Picture and its "wider scope '', with Harberts explaining that the series is shot in a 2: 1 aspect ratio which "just lends itself to a very lyrical way of telling the story. '' He added that some of the series ' visuals were influenced by the modern Star Trek films from J.J. Abrams. Some of these influences, per Goldsman, are "the ability to be creative cinematically... the intimate discourse, the humanistic storytelling with the giant canvas that is Star Trek. A more kinetic camera, a more dynamic way of existing, a much greater use of practical sets so when you 're running down a corridor, you 're running down a corridor. A sense of rhythm... there is a sense of litheness, a kind of fluidity in the characterizations. '' The producers worked closely with pilot director David Semel to make the series look as cinematic as possible, including filming the bridge of Starfleet 's ships in such a way as "not to shoot in a sort of proscenium box... to be able to get the camera into spaces where, you know, to shoot it in interesting ways, which is a combination of choreographing a scene to motivate the camera moving, and also lighting. '' The cinematographers for the series wanted to emphasize on set sourcing, with lighting built in wherever it would naturally appear to help create a more realistic feel, and distance the series from the "stage '' feel of the original series. The lighting could also be controlled to create completely different situations, such as the lighting of a Starfleet red alert. Harberts said that the cinematographers wanted the series to have a "Rembrandt texture ''.
Visual effects producers were hired to begin work on the series during the initial writing period, with Fuller explaining that the series would require such things as "digital augmentation on certain alien species '' and "the transporter beams ''. He said, "We 're trying to cultivate distinct looks for all of those things that are unique to our version of Star Trek and carry through the themes we love seeing in fifty years of Star Trek, but doing a slightly different approach. '' Pixomondo is the primary visual effects vendor for the series, with Spin VFX and Crafty Apes also working on the show. Kurtzman noted that the series utilizes multiple CG environments which take several months to properly render. The shuttle bay of the Discovery is completely computer - generated, with actors performing in front of a green screen for scenes in that environment; using the digital set is more expensive than any other set created for the series, including the practically - built ones.
The first teaser for the series featured music composed by Fil Eisler, which he "threw together as an audition '' within three weeks. Before production on the series began, Charles Henri Avelange had also composed and recorded music for the series, which he described as "a showcase for CBS ''. In July 2017, Jeff Russo was announced as composer for the series. Russo recorded the series ' score with a 60 - piece orchestra. The show 's main theme incorporates elements from the original Star Trek theme. A soundtrack album for Chapter 1 of the first season was released on December 15th, 2017.
The first episode of Star Trek: Discovery aired in a "preview broadcast '' on CBS in the United States on September 24, as well as being made available with the second episode on CBS All Access. Subsequent first - run episodes, making up the first chapter of the season, were streamed weekly on All Access through November 12. The second chapter began streaming in January 2018.
CBS Studios International licensed the series to Bell Media for broadcast in Canada, and to Netflix for another 188 countries. In Canada, the premiere was simulcast with CBS on September 24, 2017, on both the CTV Television Network and on the specialty channel Space before being streamed on CraveTV; it was also broadcast in French on the specialty channel Z. Subsequent episodes will be released through Space, Z, and CraveTV, with Space airing each episode 30 minutes before it 's streamed on All Access. In the other countries, Netflix will release each episode of the series for streaming within 24 hours of its U.S. debut. This agreement also saw Bell Media and Netflix acquire all previous Star Trek series to stream in their entirety, and to broadcast on Bell Media television channels.
The first full trailer for the series was released in May 2017. Forbes 's Merrill Barr noted that the trailer was a good sign for many who believed the series would never be released following the many production setbacks and delays, saying, "Having a legitimate trailer that can be watched over and over again brings signs of hope, particularly for fans that have been waiting over a year for this moment. Star Trek: Discovery is real, and now we have proof. '' Chris Harnick of E! News described the trailer as "gorgeous '' and "truly cinematic '', and because of the appearances of Sarek and the Klingons in the footage, "this is the Star Trek you know and love. '' Aja Romano at Vox called the trailer 's visuals "sumptuous '' and "modern, but still very much in keeping with the aesthetic of previous Trek series ''. She continued, "What gets short shrift in this trailer is the series ' overarching plot... In any case, seeing the Klingons in all their combative glory feels a bit like coming home for Trek fans. '' Also in May, McFarlane Toys signed a toy license deal with CBS to produce "figures, role play weapons and accessories '' for Discovery. CBS Consumer Products senior vice president Veronica Hart explained that McFarlane was chosen as the first licensee for the series because of its "commitment to quality and dedication to fans ''. The deal will also see the company "create merchandise from the entire Star Trek universe, ranging from the classic Star Trek: The Original Series to its popular movie franchise. '' The first merchandise produced under the deal are set for release in mid-2018.
According to Nielsen Media Research, the CBS broadcast of the first episode was watched by a "decent '' audience of 9.5 million viewers. The premiere of the series led to record subscriptions for All Access, with the service having its biggest day of signups, as well as its biggest week and month of signups thanks to the series. According to "app analytics specialist '' App Annie, the premiere of the series also caused the number of downloads of the All Access mobile app to more than double, with revenue from the app for CBS doubling compared to the average in - app revenue during the previous 30 days.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 82 % approval rating for the first season, with an average rating of 7.07 / 10 based on 61 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Although it takes an episode to achieve liftoff, Star Trek: Discovery delivers a solid franchise installment for the next generation -- boldly led by the charismatic Sonequa Martin - Green. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 72 out of 100 based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
By July 2016, CBS was working on an aftershow companion series to Discovery similar in format to AMC 's Talking Dead, a companion to The Walking Dead. The show would air live after each episode of Discovery, and would feature "guests, celebrity Trekkies, former Star Trek actors, along with cast members and crew '' from Discovery. The companion series was confirmed in 2017, with the title After Trek and host Matt Mira. It is produced by Embassy Row in association with Roddenberry Entertainment.
In September 2016, Discovery writer Kirsten Beyer announced that CBS was working with IDW and Simon & Schuster to produce more content revolving around the setting of the series, starting with at least one novel and a comic series tied to the television show. Beyer, the writer of many Star Trek: Voyager novels, explained that she would work with fellow Star Trek novelist David Mack and Star Trek comic writer Mike Johnson to ensure that all three media "are coming from the same place ''. The release of the books and comics was set to coincide with the series ' premiere. Mack described writing around the continuity of Discovery as "tricky to get right '', as the time period "is light on detail and almost unique within the Star Trek continuity. That made it a challenge to represent that era faithfully while also staying true to the new elements being introduced '' in the new series.
In August 2017, Beyer explained the series ' writers ' intentions for the additional content, saying, "We want to be able to take the story opportunities that we 're just frankly not going to have time to cover in the show, and go as deep into those into the various formats as we can. It 's not that you have to read these stories to understand everything, but the story will be incredibly enhanced if you do. '' Regarding whether this content would be considered canonical, Beyer said that the stories of the comics and novels are briefed back to the show 's writing staff so "the stories we created get integrated into their brains '', but she also said, "Because of the collaborative nature of this process, we 're able to go farther, take bigger risks. The danger is that, in the future, somebody will come upon with an amazing story idea that would be incompatible with what we 've already established and just like always, the series is going to take priority. But the hope is that we can carve out these places that are safe and that we can continue to protect because as much as possible we want this to be one integrated universe... we 're doing what we can to make sure these stories all fit together moving forward. ''
The first tie - in to the show is Desperate Hours, a prequel set a year before Discovery and a year after "The Cage ''. Written by Mack, the novel was released on September 26, and follows Burnham as she serves aboard the Shenzhou. Fuller had asked for a book to be written based on that premise, and Mack had worked with the Discovery writers to stay "in the loop throughout the season with all the scripts and the story development. There were a few false starts, but eventually it allowed us to collaboratively create this story ''. Mack hinted that the USS Enterprise could also appear in the novel.
The second Discovery novel, Drastic Measures, was written by Dayton Ward and is set 10 years before the show, following the characters Georgiou and Lorca as they hunt for "the man whom history will one day brand ' Kodos the Executioner ' ''. It was released on February 6, 2018. A third novel, Fear Itself, will be released on June 5, 2018. Written by veteran Star Trek author James Swallow, it will focus on Lieutenant Saru 's attempts to overcome his fears as a Kelpien and become a successful Starfleet officer.
In July 2017, IDW announced the first tie - in comic series, also titled Star Trek: Discovery, to be written by Johnson and Beyer with art by Tony Shasteen, who previously worked with Johnson on the comic Star Trek: Boldly Go. IDW described the comic as "Klingon - centric '', and set the first issue for release on October 25. Johnson compared working with Beyer on the comic to his work on the Star Trek: Countdown comic, a tie - in to the 2009 Star Trek film that he wrote with Kurtzman and Roberto Orci, saying that her position as a staff writer on the Discovery show "means we have all the inside access that we need. So the story in the comic will really matter and not just feel like a one - off. It is actually able to expand the story you guys are going to see in the show itself. ''
In August, it was clarified that the first comic would be a four - issue miniseries focused on T'Kuvma and his followers and that IDW intended to create a series of comic miniseries based on different aspects of the series to create "targeted stories on some different subjects ''. Johnson stated that they were "building out the characters in the Klingon world with these comics, and we ca n't wait to show you. '' He added that discussions were being held regarding the subject of the next miniseries. IDW editor Sarah Gaydos said, "The access we 're getting to the show to create these comics that are integral to fleshing out the backstories of the characters is unheard of, and I do a lot of licensed comics. '' The next four - issue miniseries was announced in February 2018. Given the subtitle Succession, the miniseries will begin release on April 25, 2018, and will be set in the Mirror Universe, expanding on the Mirror story arc from the second half of the first season. Additionally, a Star Trek: Discovery annual comic is set for publication March 2018, and will focus on Stamets ' mycelial research.
By August 2017, "hours '' of Discovery - based content was set to be added to the role playing video game Star Trek Timelines, including Michael Burnham and Saru as new crew members for the game and new ships from the show, both Federation and otherwise. A month - long "Mega-Event '' based on the series was also planned.
|
write 1-1 paragraph on different types of soil | Soil - wikipedia
Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Earth 's body of soil is the pedosphere, which has four important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier of Earth 's atmosphere; it is a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil.
The pedosphere interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. The term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, translates to ground stone. Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a porous phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere) and water (the soil solution). Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three - state system of solids, liquids, and gases.
Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain), organisms, and its parent materials (original minerals) interacting over time. It continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness, it is considered an ecosystem by soil ecologists.
Most soils have a dry bulk density (density of soil taking into account voids when dry) between 1.1 and 1.6 g / cm, while the soil particle density is much higher, in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 g / cm. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, although fossilized soils are preserved from as far back as the Archean.
Soil science has two basic branches of study: edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things. Pedology is focused on the formation, description (morphology), and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader concept of regolith, which also includes other loose material that lies above the bedrock, as can be found on the Moon and other celestial objects, as well. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt; technically, the term dirt should be restricted to displaced soil.
Soil is a major component of the Earth 's ecosystem. The world 's ecosystems are impacted in far - reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth 's carbon cycle, soil is an important carbon reservoir, and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance and climate change. As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures, a positive feedback (amplification). This prediction has, however, been questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.
Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains most of the Earth 's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and in the main still unexplored. Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 10 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 10 procaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. Organic carbon held in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil organic matter; tillage usually increases the rate of soil respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for uptake by plants. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water - holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.
Soils can effectively remove impurities, kill disease agents, and degrade contaminants, this latter property being called natural attenuation. Typically, soils maintain a net absorption of oxygen and methane, and undergo a net release of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. Soils offer plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection from toxins. Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms.
Components of a loam soil by percent volume
A typical soil is about 50 % solids (45 % mineral and 5 % organic matter), and 50 % voids (or pores) of which half is occupied by water and half by gas. The percent soil mineral and organic content can be treated as a constant (in the short term), while the percent soil water and gas content is considered highly variable whereby a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a reduction in the other. The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air and water, both of which are critical for life in soil. Compaction, a common problem with soils, reduces this space, preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil organisms.
Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil profile which consists of two or more layers, referred to as soil horizons, that differ in one or more properties such as in their texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, color, and reactivity. The horizons differ greatly in thickness and generally lack sharp boundaries; their development is dependent on the type of parent material, the processes that modify those parent materials, and the soil - forming factors that influence those processes. The biological influences on soil properties are strongest near the surface, while the geochemical influences on soil properties increase with depth. Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master horizons: A, B and C. The solum normally includes the A and B horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon.
The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil. The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic matter, water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes those particles to flocculate (stick together) to form aggregates or peds. Where these aggregates can be identified, a soil can be said to be developed, and can be described further in terms of color, porosity, consistency, reaction (acidity), etc.
Water is a critical agent in soil development due to its involvement in the dissolution, precipitation, erosion, transport, and deposition of the materials of which a soil is composed. The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended materials that occupy the soil pore space is called the soil solution. Since soil water is never pure water, but contains hundreds of dissolved organic and mineral substances, it may be more accurately called the soil solution. Water is central to the dissolution, precipitation and leaching of minerals from the soil profile. Finally, water affects the type of vegetation that grows in a soil, which in turn affects the development of the soil, a complex feedback which is exemplified in the dynamics of banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions.
Soils supply plants with nutrients, most of which are held in place by particles of clay and organic matter (colloids) The nutrients may be adsorbed on clay mineral surfaces, bound within clay minerals (absorbed), or bound within organic compounds as part of the living organisms or dead soil organic matter. These bound nutrients interact with soil water to buffer the soil solution composition (attenuate changes in the soil solution) as soils wet up or dry out, as plants take up nutrients, as salts are leached, or as acids or alkalis are added.
Plant nutrient availability is affected by soil pH, which is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. Soil pH is a function of many soil forming factors, and is generally lower (more acid) where weathering is more advanced.
Most plant nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate from the minerals that make up the soil parent material. Some nitrogen originates from rain as dilute nitric acid and ammonia, but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria. Once in the soil - plant system, most nutrients are recycled through living organisms, plant and microbial residues (soil organic matter), mineral - bound forms, and the soil solution. Both living microorganisms and soil organic matter are of critical importance to this recycling, and thereby to soil formation and soil fertility. Microbial activity in soils may release nutrients from minerals or organic matter for use by plants and other microorganisms, sequester (incorporate) them into living cells, or cause their loss from the soil by volatilisation (loss to the atmosphere as gases) or leaching.
The history of the study of soil is intimately tied to humans ' urgent need to provide food for themselves and forage for our animals. Throughout history, civilizations have prospered or declined as a function of the availability and productivity of their soils.
The Greek historian Xenophon (450 -- 355 BCE) is credited with being the first to expound upon the merits of green - manuring crops: "But then whatever weeds are upon the ground, being turned into earth, enrich the soil as much as dung. ''
Columella 's "Husbandry, '' circa 60 CE, advocated the use of lime and that clover and alfalfa (green manure) should be turned under, and was used by 15 generations (450 years) under the Roman Empire until its collapse. From the fall of Rome to the French Revolution, knowledge of soil and agriculture was passed on from parent to child and as a result, crop yields were low. During the European Dark Ages, Yahya Ibn al - ' Awwam 's handbook, with its emphasis on irrigation, guided the people of North Africa, Spain and the Middle East; a translation of this work was finally carried to the southwest of the United States when under Spanish influence. Olivier de Serres, considered as the father of French agronomy, was the first to suggest the abandonment of fallowing and its replacement by hay meadows within crop rotations, and he highlighted the importance of soil (the French terroir) in the management of vineyards. His famous book Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et mesnage des champs contributed to the rise of modern, sustainable agriculture and to the collapse of old agricultural practices such as the lifting of forest litter for the amendment of crops (the French soutrage) and assarting, which ruined the soils of western Europe during Middle Ages and even later on according to regions.
Experiments into what made plants grow first led to the idea that the ash left behind when plant matter was burned was the essential element but overlooked the role of nitrogen, which is not left on the ground after combustion, a belief which prevailed until the 19th century. In about 1635, the Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont thought he had proved water to be the essential element from his famous five years ' experiment with a willow tree grown with only the addition of rainwater. His conclusion came from the fact that the increase in the plant 's weight had apparently been produced only by the addition of water, with no reduction in the soil 's weight. John Woodward (d. 1728) experimented with various types of water ranging from clean to muddy and found muddy water the best, and so he concluded that earthy matter was the essential element. Others concluded it was humus in the soil that passed some essence to the growing plant. Still others held that the vital growth principal was something passed from dead plants or animals to the new plants. At the start of the 18th century, Jethro Tull demonstrated that it was beneficial to cultivate (stir) the soil, but his opinion that the stirring made the fine parts of soil available for plant absorption was erroneous.
As chemistry developed, it was applied to the investigation of soil fertility. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier showed in about 1778 that plants and animals must (combust) oxygen internally to live and was able to deduce that most of the 165 - pound weight of van Helmont 's willow tree derived from air. It was the French agriculturalist Jean - Baptiste Boussingault who by means of experimentation obtained evidence showing that the main sources of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for plants were air and water, while nitrogen was taken from soil. Justus von Liebig in his book Organic chemistry in its applications to agriculture and physiology (published 1840), asserted that the chemicals in plants must have come from the soil and air and that to maintain soil fertility, the used minerals must be replaced. Liebig nevertheless believed the nitrogen was supplied from the air. The enrichment of soil with guano by the Incas was rediscovered in 1802, by Alexander von Humboldt. This led to its mining and that of Chilean nitrate and to its application to soil in the United States and Europe after 1840.
The work of Liebig was a revolution for agriculture, and so other investigators started experimentation based on it. In England John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert worked in the Rothamsted Experimental Station, founded by the former, and (re) discovered that plants took nitrogen from the soil, and that salts needed to be in an available state to be absorbed by plants. Their investigations also produced the "superphosphate '', consisting in the acid treatment of phosphate rock. This led to the invention and use of salts of potassium (K) and nitrogen (N) as fertilizers. Ammonia generated by the production of coke was recovered and used as fertiliser. Finally, the chemical basis of nutrients delivered to the soil in manure was understood and in the mid-19th century chemical fertilisers were applied. However, the dynamic interaction of soil and its life forms still awaited discovery.
In 1856 J. Thomas Way discovered that ammonia contained in fertilisers was transformed into nitrates, and twenty years later Robert Warington proved that this transformation was done by living organisms. In 1890 Sergei Winogradsky announced he had found the bacteria responsible for this transformation.
It was known that certain legumes could take up nitrogen from the air and fix it to the soil but it took the development of bacteriology towards the end of the 19th century to lead to an understanding of the role played in nitrogen fixation by bacteria. The symbiosis of bacteria and leguminous roots, and the fixation of nitrogen by the bacteria, were simultaneously discovered by the German agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck.
Crop rotation, mechanisation, chemical and natural fertilisers led to a doubling of wheat yields in western Europe between 1800 and 1900.
The scientists who studied the soil in connection with agricultural practices had considered it mainly as a static substrate. However, soil is the result of evolution from more ancient geological materials, under the action of biotic and abiotic (not associated with life) processes. After studies of the improvement of the soil commenced, others began to study soil genesis and as a result also soil types and classifications.
In 1860, in Mississippi, Eugene W. Hilgard studied the relationship among rock material, climate, and vegetation, and the type of soils that were developed. He realised that the soils were dynamic, and considered soil types classification. Unfortunately his work was not continued. At the same time Vasily Dokuchaev (about 1870) was leading a team of soil scientists in Russia who conducted an extensive survey of soils, finding that similar basic rocks, climate and vegetation types lead to similar soil layering and types, and established the concepts for soil classifications. Due to language barriers, the work of this team was not communicated to western Europe until 1914 through a publication in German by Konstantin Dmitrievich Glinka, a member of the Russian team.
Curtis F. Marbut was influenced by the work of the Russian team, translated Glinka 's publication into English, and as he was placed in charge of the U.S. National Cooperative Soil Survey, applied it to a national soil classification system.
Soil formation, or pedogenesis, is the combined effect of physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic processes working on soil parent material. Soil is said to be formed when organic matter has accumulated and colloids are washed downward, leaving deposits of clay, humus, iron oxide, carbonate, and gypsum, producing a distinct layer called the B horizon. This is a somewhat arbitrary definition as mixtures of sand, silt, clay and humus will support biological and agricultural activity before that time. These constituents are moved from one level to another by water and animal activity. As a result, layers (horizons) form in the soil profile. The alteration and movement of materials within a soil causes the formation of distinctive soil horizons. However, more recent definitions of soil embrace soils without any organic matter, such as those regoliths that formed on Mars and analogous conditions in planet Earth deserts.
An example of the development of a soil would begin with the weathering of lava flow bedrock, which would produce the purely mineral - based parent material from which the soil texture forms. Soil development would proceed most rapidly from bare rock of recent flows in a warm climate, under heavy and frequent rainfall. Under such conditions, plants (in a first stage nitrogen - fixing lichens and cyanobacteria then epilithic higher plants) become established very quickly on basaltic lava, even though there is very little organic material. The plants are supported by the porous rock as it is filled with nutrient - bearing water that carries minerals dissolved from the rocks. Crevasses and pockets, local topography of the rocks, would hold fine materials and harbour plant roots. The developing plant roots are associated with mineral - weathering mycorrhizal fungi that assist in breaking up the porous lava, and by these means organic matter and a finer mineral soil accumulate with time. Such initial stages of soil development have been described on volcanoes, inselbergs, and glacial moraines.
How soil formation proceeds is influenced by at least five classic factors that are intertwined in the evolution of a soil. They are: parent material, climate, topography (relief), organisms, and time. When reordered to climate, relief, organisms, parent material, and time, they form the acronym CROPT.
The mineral material from which a soil forms is called parent material. Rock, whether its origin is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, is the source of all soil mineral materials and the origin of all plant nutrients with the exceptions of nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. As the parent material is chemically and physically weathered, transported, deposited and precipitated, it is transformed into a soil.
Typical soil parent mineral materials are:
Parent materials are classified according to how they came to be deposited. Residual materials are mineral materials that have weathered in place from primary bedrock. Transported materials are those that have been deposited by water, wind, ice or gravity. Cumulose material is organic matter that has grown and accumulates in place.
Residual soils are soils that develop from their underlying parent rocks and have the same general chemistry as those rocks. The soils found on mesas, plateaux, and plains are residual soils. In the United States as little as three percent of the soils are residual.
Most soils derive from transported materials that have been moved many miles by wind, water, ice and gravity.
Cumulose parent material is not moved but originates from deposited organic material. This includes peat and muck soils and results from preservation of plant residues by the low oxygen content of a high water table. While peat may form sterile soils, muck soils may be very fertile.
The weathering of parent material takes the form of physical weathering (disintegration), chemical weathering (decomposition) and chemical transformation. Generally, minerals that are formed under high temperatures and pressures at great depths within the Earth 's mantle are less resistant to weathering, while minerals formed at low temperature and pressure environment of the surface are more resistant to weathering. Weathering is usually confined to the top few meters of geologic material, because physical, chemical, and biological stresses and fluctuations generally decrease with depth. Physical disintegration begins as rocks that have solidified deep in the Earth are exposed to lower pressure near the surface and swell and become mechanically unstable. Chemical decomposition is a function of mineral solubility, the rate of which doubles with each 10 ° C rise in temperature, but is strongly dependent on water to effect chemical changes. Rocks that will decompose in a few years in tropical climates will remain unaltered for millennia in deserts. Structural changes are the result of hydration, oxidation, and reduction. Chemical weathering mainly results from the excretion of organic acids and chelating compounds by bacteria and fungi, thought to increase under present - day greenhouse effect.
Of the above, hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective, in particular in regions of high rainfall, temperature and physical erosion. Chemical weathering becomes more effective as the surface area of the rock increases, thus is favoured by physical disintegration. This stems in latitudinal and altitudinal climate gradients in regolith formation.
Saprolite is a particular example of a residual soil formed from the transformation of granite, metamorphic and other types of bedrock into clay minerals. Often called (weathered granite), saprolite is the result of weathering processes that include: hydrolysis, chelation from organic compounds, hydration (the solution of minerals in water with resulting cation and anion pairs) and physical processes that include freezing and thawing. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary bedrock material, its physical features, including grain size and degree of consolidation, and the rate and type of weathering transforms the parent material into a different mineral. The texture, pH and mineral constituents of saprolite are inherited from its parent material. This process is also called arenization, resulting in the formation of sandy soils (granitic arenas), thanks to the much higher resistance of quartz compared to other mineral components of granite (micas, amphiboles, feldspars).
The principal climatic variables influencing soil formation are effective precipitation (i.e., precipitation minus evapotranspiration) and temperature, both of which affect the rates of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of soil through their effects on the balance between primary production and decomposition: the colder or drier the climate the lesser atmospheric carbon is fixed as organic matter while the lesser organic matter is decomposed.
Climate is the dominant factor in soil formation, and soils show the distinctive characteristics of the climate zones in which they form, with a feedback to climate through transfer of carbon stocked in soil horizons back to the atmosphere. If warm temperatures and abundant water are present in the profile at the same time, the processes of weathering, leaching, and plant growth will be maximized. According to the climatic determination of biomes, humid climates favor the growth of trees. In contrast, grasses are the dominant native vegetation in subhumid and semiarid regions, while shrubs and brush of various kinds dominate in arid areas.
Water is essential for all the major chemical weathering reactions. To be effective in soil formation, water must penetrate the regolith. The seasonal rainfall distribution, evaporative losses, site topography, and soil permeability interact to determine how effectively precipitation can influence soil formation. The greater the depth of water penetration, the greater the depth of weathering of the soil and its development. Surplus water percolating through the soil profile transports soluble and suspended materials from the upper layers (eluviation) to the lower layers (illuviation), including clay particles and dissolved organic matter. It may also carry away soluble materials in the surface drainage waters. Thus, percolating water stimulates weathering reactions and helps differentiate soil horizons. Likewise, a deficiency of water is a major factor in determining the characteristics of soils of dry regions. Soluble salts are not leached from these soils, and in some cases they build up to levels that curtail plant and microbial growth. Soil profiles in arid and semi-arid regions are also apt to accumulate carbonates and certain types of expansive clays (calcrete or caliche horizons). In tropical soils, when the soil has been deprived of vegetation (e.g. by deforestation) and thereby is submitted to intense evaporation, the upward capillary movement of water, which has dissolved iron and aluminum salts, is responsible for the formation of a superficial hard pan of laterite or bauxite, respectively, which is improper for cutivation, a known case of irreversible soil degradation (lateritization, bauxitization).
The direct influences of climate include:
Climate directly affects the rate of weathering and leaching. Wind moves sand and smaller particles (dust), especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover, depositing it close or far from the entrainment source. The type and amount of precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil, and aid in the development of different soil profiles. Soil profiles are more distinct in wet and cool climates, where organic materials may accumulate, than in wet and warm climates, where organic materials are rapidly consumed. The effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material depends on seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations, which favour tensile stresses in rock minerals, and thus their mechanical disaggregation, a process called thermal fatigue. By the same process freeze - thaw cycles are an effective mechanism which breaks up rocks and other consolidated materials.
Climate also indirectly influences soil formation through the effects of vegetation cover and biological activity, which modify the rates of chemical reactions in the soil.
The topography, or relief, is characterized by the inclination (slope), elevation, and orientation of the terrain. Topography determines the rate of precipitation or runoff and rate of formation or erosion of the surface soil profile. The topographical setting may either hasten or retard the work of climatic forces.
Steep slopes encourage rapid soil loss by erosion and allow less rainfall to enter the soil before running off and hence, little mineral deposition in lower profiles. In semiarid regions, the lower effective rainfall on steeper slopes also results in less complete vegetative cover, so there is less plant contribution to soil formation. For all of these reasons, steep slopes prevent the formation of soil from getting very far ahead of soil destruction. Therefore, soils on steep terrain tend to have rather shallow, poorly developed profiles in comparison to soils on nearby, more level sites.
In swales and depressions where runoff water tends to concentrate, the regolith is usually more deeply weathered and soil profile development is more advanced. However, in the lowest landscape positions, water may saturate the regolith to such a degree that drainage and aeration are restricted. Here, the weathering of some minerals and the decomposition of organic matter are retarded, while the loss of iron and manganese is accelerated. In such low - lying topography, special profile features characteristic of wetland soils may develop. Depressions allow the accumulation of water, minerals and organic matter and in the extreme, the resulting soils will be saline marshes or peat bogs. Intermediate topography affords the best conditions for the formation of an agriculturally productive soil.
Soil is the most abundant ecosystem on Earth, but the vast majority of organisms in soil are microbes, a great many of which have not been described. There may be a population limit of around one billion cells per gram of soil, but estimates of the number of species vary widely from 50,000 per gram to over a million per gram of soil. The total number of organisms and species can vary widely according to soil type, location, and depth.
Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil formation (see soil biomantle and stonelayer). Soil animals, including soil macrofauna and soil mesofauna, mix soils as they form burrows and pores, allowing moisture and gases to move about, a process called bioturbation. In the same way, plant roots penetrate soil horizons and open channels upon decomposition. Plants with deep taproots can penetrate many metres through the different soil layers to bring up nutrients from deeper in the profile. Plants have fine roots that excrete organic compounds (sugars, organic acids, mucigel), slough off cells (in particular at their tip) and are easily decomposed, adding organic matter to soil, a process called rhizodeposition. Micro-organisms, including fungi and bacteria, effect chemical exchanges between roots and soil and act as a reserve of nutrients in a soil biological hotspot called rhizosphere. The growth of roots through the soil stimulates microbial populations, stimulating in turn the activity of their predators (notably amoeba), thereby increasing the mineralization rate, and in last turn root growth, a positive feedback called the soil microbial loop. Out of root influence, in the bulk soil, most bacteria are in a quiescent stage, forming micro aggregates, i.e. mucilaginous colonies to which clay particles are glued, offering them a protection against desiccation and predation by soil microfauna (bacteriophagous protozoa and nematodes). Microaggregates (20 - 250 μm) are ingested by soil mesofauna and macrofauna, and bacterial bodies are partly or totally digested in their guts.
Humans impact soil formation by removing vegetation cover with erosion, waterlogging, lateritization or podzolization (according to climate and topography) as the result. Their tillage also mixes the different soil layers, restarting the soil formation process as less weathered material is mixed with the more developed upper layers, resulting in net increased rate of mineral weathering.
Earthworms, ants, termites, moles, gophers, as well as some millipedes and tenebrionid beetles mix the soil as they burrow, significantly affecting soil formation. Earthworms ingest soil particles and organic residues, enhancing the availability of plant nutrients in the material that passes through their bodies. They aerate and stir the soil and create stable soil aggregates, after having disrupted links between soil particles during the intestinal transit of ingested soil, thereby assuring ready infiltration of water. In addition, as ants and termites build mounds, they transport soil materials from one horizon to another. Other important functions are fulfilled by earthworms in the soil ecosystem, in particular their intense mucus production, both within the intestine and as a lining in their galleries, exert a priming effect on soil microflora, giving them the status of ecosystem engineers, which they share with ants and termites.
In general, the mixing of the soil by the activities of animals, sometimes called pedoturbation, tends to undo or counteract the tendency of other soil - forming processes that create distinct horizons. Termites and ants may also retard soil profile development by denuding large areas of soil around their nests, leading to increased loss of soil by erosion. Large animals such as gophers, moles, and prairie dogs bore into the lower soil horizons, bringing materials to the surface. Their tunnels are often open to the surface, encouraging the movement of water and air into the subsurface layers. In localized areas, they enhance mixing of the lower and upper horizons by creating, and later refilling, underground tunnels. Old animal burrows in the lower horizons often become filled with soil material from the overlying A horizon, creating profile features known as crotovinas.
Vegetation impacts soils in numerous ways. It can prevent erosion caused by excessive rain that might result from surface runoff. Plants shade soils, keeping them cooler and slow evaporation of soil moisture, or conversely, by way of transpiration, plants can cause soils to lose moisture, resulting in complex and highly variable relationships between leaf area index (measuring light interception) and moisture loss: more generally plants prevent soil from desiccation during driest months while they dry it during moister months, thereby acting as a buffer against strong moisture variation. Plants can form new chemicals that can break down minerals, both directly and indirectly through mycorrhizal fungi and rhizosphere bacteria, and improve the soil structure. The type and amount of vegetation depends on climate, topography, soil characteristics and biological factors, mediated or not by human activities. Soil factors such as density, depth, chemistry, pH, temperature and moisture greatly affect the type of plants that can grow in a given location. Dead plants and fallen leaves and stems begin their decomposition on the surface. There, organisms feed on them and mix the organic material with the upper soil layers; these added organic compounds become part of the soil formation process.
Human activities widely influence soil formation. For example, it is believed that Native Americans regularly set fires to maintain several large areas of prairie grasslands in Indiana and Michigan, although climate and mammalian grazers (e.g. bisons) are also advocated to explain the maintenance of the Great Plains of North America. In more recent times, human destruction of natural vegetation and subsequent tillage of the soil for crop production has abruptly modified soil formation. Likewise, irrigating soil in an arid region drastically influences soil - forming factors, as does adding fertilizer and lime to soils of low fertility.
Time is a factor in the interactions of all the above. While a mixture of sand, silt and clay constitute the texture of a soil and the aggregation of those components produces peds, the development of a distinct B horizon marks the development of a soil or pedogenesis. With time, soils will evolve features that depend on the interplay of the prior listed soil - forming factors. It takes decades to several thousand years for a soil to develop a profile, although the notion of soil development has been criticized, soil being in a constant state - of - change under the influence of fluctuating soil - forming factors. That time period depends strongly on climate, parent material, relief, and biotic activity. For example, recently deposited material from a flood exhibits no soil development as there has not been enough time for the material to form a structure that further defines soil. The original soil surface is buried, and the formation process must begin anew for this deposit. Over time the soil will develop a profile that depends on the intensities of biota and climate. While a soil can achieve relative stability of its properties for extended periods, the soil life cycle ultimately ends in soil conditions that leave it vulnerable to erosion. Despite the inevitability of soil retrogression and degradation, most soil cycles are long.
Soil - forming factors continue to affect soils during their existence, even on "stable '' landscapes that are long - enduring, some for millions of years. Materials are deposited on top or are blown or washed from the surface. With additions, removals and alterations, soils are always subject to new conditions. Whether these are slow or rapid changes depends on climate, topography and biological activity.
The physical properties of soils, in order of decreasing importance for ecosystem services such as crop production, are texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and resistivity. Soil texture is determined by the relative proportion of the three kinds of soil mineral particles, called soil separates: sand, silt, and clay. At the next larger scale, soil structures called peds or more commonly soil aggregates are created from the soil separates when iron oxides, carbonates, clay, silica and humus, coat particles and cause them to adhere into larger, relatively stable secondary structures. Soil bulk density, when determined at standardized moisture conditions, is an estimate of soil compaction. Soil porosity consists of the void part of the soil volume and is occupied by gases or water. Soil consistency is the ability of soil materials to stick together. Soil temperature and colour are self - defining. Resistivity refers to the resistance to conduction of electric currents and affects the rate of corrosion of metal and concrete structures which are buried in soil. It also helps to estimate soil moisture. These properties vary through the depth of a soil profile, i.e. through soil horizons. Most of these properties determine the aeration of the soil and the ability of water to infiltrate and to be held within the soil.
The mineral components of soil are sand, silt and clay, and their relative proportions determine a soil 's texture. Properties that are influenced by soil texture include porosity, permeability, infiltration, shrink - swell rate, water - holding capacity, and susceptibility to erosion. In the illustrated USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil in which neither sand, silt nor clay predominates is called loam. While even pure sand, silt or clay may be considered a soil, from the perspective of conventional agriculture a loam soil with a small amount of organic material is considered "ideal '', inasmuch as fertilizers or manure are currently used to mitigate nutrient losses due to crop yields in the long term. The mineral constituents of a loam soil might be 40 % sand, 40 % silt and the balance 20 % clay by weight. Soil texture affects soil behaviour, in particular its retention capacity for nutrients (e.g., cation exchange capacity) and water.
Sand and silt are the products of physical and chemical weathering of the parent rock; clay, on the other hand, is most often the product of the precipitation of the dissolved parent rock as a secondary mineral, except when derived from the weathering of mica. It is the surface area to volume ratio (specific surface area) of soil particles and the unbalanced ionic electric charges within those that determine their role in the fertility of soil, as measured by its cation exchange capacity. Sand is least active, having the least specific surface area, followed by silt; clay is the most active. Sand 's greatest benefit to soil is that it resists compaction and increases soil porosity, although this property stands only for pure sand, not for sand mixed with smaller minerals which fill the voids among sand grains. Silt is mineralogically like sand but with its higher specific surface area it is more chemically and physically active than sand. But it is the clay content of soil, with its very high specific surface area and generally large number of negative charges, that gives a soil its high retention capacity for water and nutrients. Clay soils also resist wind and water erosion better than silty and sandy soils, as the particles bond tightly to each other, and that with a strong mitigation effect of organic matter.
Sand is the most stable of the mineral components of soil; it consists of rock fragments, primarily quartz particles, ranging in size from 2.0 to 0.05 mm (0.0787 to 0.0020 in) in diameter. Silt ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.002 mm (0.002 to 0.00008 in). Clay can not be resolved by optical microscopes as its particles are 0.002 mm (7.9 × 10 in) or less in diameter and a thickness of only 10 angstroms (10 m). In medium - textured soils, clay is often washed downward through the soil profile (a process called eluviation) and accumulates in the subsoil (a process called illuviation). There is no clear relationship between the size of soil mineral components and their mineralogical nature: sand and silt particles can be calcareous as well as siliceous, while textural clay (0.002 mm (7.9 × 10 in)) can be made of very fine quartz particles as well as of multi-layered secondary minerals. Soil mineral components belonging to a given textural class may thus share properties linked to their specific surface area (e.g. moisture retention) but not those linked to their chemical composition (e.g. cation exchange capacity).
Soil components larger than 2.0 mm (0.079 in) are classed as rock and gravel and are removed before determining the percentages of the remaining components and the textural class of the soil, but are included in the name. For example, a sandy loam soil with 20 % gravel would be called gravelly sandy loam.
When the organic component of a soil is substantial, the soil is called organic soil rather than mineral soil. A soil is called organic if:
The clumping of the soil textural components of sand, silt and clay causes aggregates to form and the further association of those aggregates into larger units creates soil structures called peds (a contraction of the word pedolith). The adhesion of the soil textural components by organic substances, iron oxides, carbonates, clays, and silica, the breakage of those aggregates from expansion - contraction caused by freezing - thawing and wetting - drying cycles, and the build - up of aggregates by soil animals, microbial colonies and root tips shape soil into distinct geometric forms. The peds evolve into units which have various shapes, sizes and degrees of development. A soil clod, however, is not a ped but rather a mass of soil that results from mechanical disturbance of the soil such as cultivation. Soil structure affects aeration, water movement, conduction of heat, plant root growth and resistance to erosion. Water, in turn, has a strong effect on soil structure, directly via the dissolution and precipitation of minerals, the mechanical destruction of aggregates (slaking) and indirectly by promoting plant, animal and microbial growth.
Soil structure often gives clues to its texture, organic matter content, biological activity, past soil evolution, human use, and the chemical and mineralogical conditions under which the soil formed. While texture is defined by the mineral component of a soil and is an innate property of the soil that does not change with agricultural activities, soil structure can be improved or destroyed by the choice and timing of farming practices.
Soil structural classes:
At the largest scale, the forces that shape a soil 's structure result from swelling and shrinkage that initially tend to act horizontally, causing vertically oriented prismatic peds. This mechanical process is mainly exemplified in the development of vertisols. Clayey soil, due to its differential drying rate with respect to the surface, will induce horizontal cracks, reducing columns to blocky peds. Roots, rodents, worms, and freezing - thawing cycles further break the peds into smaller peds of a more or less spherical shape.
At a smaller scale, plant roots extend into voids (macropores) and remove water causing macroporosity to increase and microporosity to decrease, thereby decreasing aggregate size. At the same time, root hairs and fungal hyphae create microscopic tunnels that break up peds.
At an even smaller scale, soil aggregation continues as bacteria and fungi exude sticky polysaccharides which bind soil into smaller peds. The addition of the raw organic matter that bacteria and fungi feed upon encourages the formation of this desirable soil structure.
At the lowest scale, the soil chemistry affects the aggregation or dispersal of soil particles. The clay particles contain polyvalent cations which give the faces of clay layers localized negative charges. At the same time, the edges of the clay plates have a slight positive charge, thereby allowing the edges to adhere to the negative charges on the faces of other clay particles or to flocculate (form clumps). On the other hand, when monovalent ions, such as sodium, invade and displace the polyvalent cations, they weaken the positive charges on the edges, while the negative surface charges are relatively strengthened. This leaves negative charge on the clay faces that repel other clay, causing the particles to push apart, and by doing so deflocculate clay suspensions. As a result, the clay disperses and settles into voids between peds, causing those to close. In this way the open structure of the soil is destroyed and the soil is made impenetrable to air and water. Such sodic soil (also called haline soil) tends to form columnar peds near the surface.
Soil particle density is typically 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cm and is usually unchanging for a given soil. Soil particle density is lower for soils with high organic matter content, and is higher for soils with high iron - oxides content. Soil bulk density is equal to the dry mass of the soil divided by the volume of the soil; i.e., it includes air space and organic materials of the soil volume. Thereby soil bulk density is always less than soil particle density and is a good indicator of soil compaction. The soil bulk density of cultivated loam is about 1.1 to 1.4 g / cm (for comparison water is 1.0 g / cm). Contrary to particle density, soil bulk density is highly variable for a given soil, with a strong causal relationship with soil biological activity and management strategies. However, it has been shown that, depending on species and the size of their aggregates (faeces), earthworms may either increase or decrease soil bulk density. A lower bulk density by itself does not indicate suitability for plant growth due to the confounding influence of soil texture and structure. A high bulk density is indicative of either soil compaction or a mixture of soil textural classes in which small particles fill the voids among coarser particles. Hence the positive correlation between the fractal dimension of soil, considered as a porous medium, and its bulk density, that explains the poor hydraulic conductivity of silty clay loam in the absence of a faunal structure.
Pore space is that part of the bulk volume of soil that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter but is open space occupied by either gases or water. In a productive, medium - textured soil the total pore space is typically about 50 % of the soil volume. Pore size varies considerably; the smallest pores (cryptopores; < 0.1 μm) hold water too tightly for use by plant roots; plant - available water is held in ultramicropores, micropores and mesopores (0.1 -- 75 μm); and macropores (> 75 μm) are generally air - filled when the soil is at field capacity.
Soil texture determines total volume of the smallest pores; clay soils have smaller pores, but more total pore space than sands, despite of a much lower permeability. Soil structure has a strong influence on the larger pores that affect soil aeration, water infiltration and drainage. Tillage has the short - term benefit of temporarily increasing the number of pores of largest size, but these can be rapidly degraded by the destruction of soil aggregation.
The pore size distribution affects the ability of plants and other organisms to access water and oxygen; large, continuous pores allow rapid transmission of air, water and dissolved nutrients through soil, and small pores store water between rainfall or irrigation events. Pore size variation also compartmentalizes the soil pore space such that many microbial and faunal organisms are not in direct competition with one another, which may explain not only the large number of species present, but the fact that functionally redundant organisms (organisms with the same ecological niche) can co-exist within the same soil.
Consistency is the ability of soil to stick to itself or to other objects (cohesion and adhesion, respectively) and its ability to resist deformation and rupture. It is of approximate use in predicting cultivation problems and the engineering of foundations. Consistency is measured at three moisture conditions: air - dry, moist, and wet. In those conditions the consistency quality depends upon the clay content. In the wet state, the two qualities of stickiness and plasticity are assessed. A soil 's resistance to fragmentation and crumbling is assessed in the dry state by rubbing the sample. Its resistance to shearing forces is assessed in the moist state by thumb and finger pressure. Additionally, the cemented consistency depends on cementation by substances other than clay, such as calcium carbonate, silica, oxides and salts; moisture content has little effect on its assessment. The measures of consistency border on subjective compared to other measures such as pH, since they employ the apparent feel of the soil in those states.
The terms used to describe the soil consistency in three moisture states and a last not affected by the amount of moisture are as follows:
Soil consistency is useful in estimating the ability of soil to support buildings and roads. More precise measures of soil strength are often made prior to construction.
Soil temperature depends on the ratio of the energy absorbed to that lost. Soil has a temperature range between - 20 to 60 ° C, with a mean annual temperature from - 10 to 26 ° C according to biomes. Soil temperature regulates seed germination, breaking of seed dormancy, plant and root growth and the availability of nutrients. Soil temperature has important seasonal, monthly and daily variations, fluctuations in soil temperature being much lower with increasing soil depth. Heavy mulching (a type of soil cover) can slow the warming of soil in summer, and, at the same time, reduce fluctuations in surface temperature.
Most often, agricultural activities must adapt to soil temperatures by:
Soil temperatures can be raised by drying soils or the use of clear plastic mulches. Organic mulches slow the warming of the soil.
There are various factors that affect soil temperature, such as water content, soil color, and relief (slope, orientation, and elevation), and soil cover (shading and insulation), in addition to air temperature. The color of the ground cover and its insulating properties have a strong influence on soil temperature. Whiter soil tends to have a higher albedo than blacker soil cover, which encourages whiter soils to have lower soil temperatures. The specific heat of soil is the energy required to raise the temperature of soil by 1 ° C. The specific heat of soil increases as water content increases, since the heat capacity of water is greater than that of dry soil. The specific heat of pure water is ~ 1 calorie per gram, the specific heat of dry soil is ~ 0.2 calories per gram, hence, the specific heat of wet soil is ~ 0.2 to 1 calories per gram (0.8 to 4.2 kJ per kilogram). Also, a tremendous energy (~ 540 cal / g or 2260 kJ / kg) is required to evaporate water (known as the heat of vaporization). As such, wet soil usually warms more slowly than dry soil -- wet surface soil is typically 3 to 6 ° C colder than dry surface soil.
Soil heat flux refers to the rate at which heat energy moves through the soil in response to a temperature difference between two points in the soil. The heat flux density is the amount of energy that flows through soil per unit area per unit time and has both magnitude and direction. For the simple case of conduction into or out of the soil in the vertical direction, which is most often applicable the heat flux density is:
In SI units
Heat flux is in the direction opposite the temperature gradient, hence the minus sign. That is to say, if the temperature of the surface is higher than at depth x the negative sign will result in a positive value for the heat flux q, and which is interpreted as the heat being conducted into the soil.
Soil temperature is important for the survival and early growth of seedlings. Soil temperatures affect the anatomical and morphological character of root systems. All physical, chemical, and biological processes in soil and roots are affected in particular because of the increased viscosities of water and protoplasm at low temperatures. In general, climates that do not preclude survival and growth of white spruce above ground are sufficiently benign to provide soil temperatures able to maintain white spruce root systems. In some northwestern parts of the range, white spruce occurs on permafrost sites and although young unlignified roots of conifers may have little resistance to freezing, the root system of containerized white spruce was not affected by exposure to a temperature of less than 30 ° C.
Optimum temperatures for tree root growth range between 10 ° C and 25 ° C in general and for spruce in particular. In 2 - week - old white spruce seedlings that were then grown for 6 weeks in soil at temperatures of 15 ° C, 19 ° C, 23 ° C, 27 ° C, and 31 ° C; shoot height, shoot dry weight, stem diameter, root penetration, root volume, and root dry weight all reached maxima at 19 ° C.
However, whereas strong positive relationships between soil temperature (5 ° C to 25 ° C) and growth have been found in trembling aspen and balsam poplar, white and other spruce species have shown little or no changes in growth with increasing soil temperature. Such insensitivity to soil low temperature may be common among a number of western and boreal conifers.
Soil temperatures are increasing worldwide under the influence of present - day global climate warming, with opposing views about expected effects on carbon capture and storage and feedback loops to climate change Most threats are about permafrost thawing and attended effects on carbon destocking and ecosystem collapse.
Soil colour is often the first impression one has when viewing soil. Striking colours and contrasting patterns are especially noticeable. The Red River of the South carries sediment eroded from extensive reddish soils like Port Silt Loam in Oklahoma. The Yellow River in China carries yellow sediment from eroding loess soils. Mollisols in the Great Plains of North America are darkened and enriched by organic matter. Podsols in boreal forests have highly contrasting layers due to acidity and leaching.
In general, color is determined by the organic matter content, drainage conditions, and degree of oxidation. Soil color, while easily discerned, has little use in predicting soil characteristics. It is of use in distinguishing boundaries of horizons within a soil profile, determining the origin of a soil 's parent material, as an indication of wetness and waterlogged conditions, and as a qualitative means of measuring organic, iron oxide and clay contents of soils. Color is recorded in the Munsell color system as for instance 10YR3 / 4 Dusky Red, with 10YR as hue, 3 as value and 4 as chroma. Munsell color dimensions (hue, value and chroma) can be averaged among samples and treated as quantitative parameters, displaying significant correlations with various soil and vegetation properties.
Soil color is primarily influenced by soil mineralogy. Many soil colours are due to various iron minerals. The development and distribution of colour in a soil profile result from chemical and biological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary minerals in soil parent material weather, the elements combine into new and colourful compounds. Iron forms secondary minerals of a yellow or red colour, organic matter decomposes into black and brown humic compounds, and manganese and sulfur can form black mineral deposits. These pigments can produce various colour patterns within a soil. Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual colour changes, while reducing environments (anaerobic) result in rapid colour flow with complex, mottled patterns and points of colour concentration.
Soil resistivity is a measure of a soil 's ability to retard the conduction of an electric current. The electrical resistivity of soil can affect the rate of galvanic corrosion of metallic structures in contact with the soil. Higher moisture content or increased electrolyte concentration can lower resistivity and increase conductivity, thereby increasing the rate of corrosion. Soil resistivity values typically range from about 1 to 100000 Ω m, extreme values being for saline soils and dry soils overlaying cristalline rocks, respectively.
Water that enters a field is removed from a field by runoff, drainage, evaporation or transpiration. Runoff is the water that flows on the surface to the edge of the field; drainage is the water that flows through the soil downward or toward the edge of the field underground; evaporative water loss from a field is that part of the water that evaporates into the atmosphere directly from the field 's surface; transpiration is the loss of water from the field by its evaporation from the plant itself.
Water affects soil formation, structure, stability and erosion but is of primary concern with respect to plant growth. Water is essential to plants for four reasons:
In addition, water alters the soil profile by dissolving and re-depositing minerals, often at lower levels, and possibly leaving the soil sterile in the case of extreme rainfall and drainage. In a loam soil, solids constitute half the volume, gas one - quarter of the volume, and water one - quarter of the volume of which only half will be available to most plants, with a strong variation according to matric potential.
A flooded field will drain the gravitational water under the influence of gravity until water 's adhesive and cohesive forces resist further drainage at which point it is said to have reached field capacity. At that point, plants must apply suction to draw water from a soil. The water that plants may draw from the soil is called the available water. Once the available water is used up the remaining moisture is called unavailable water as the plant can not produce sufficient suction to draw that water in. A plant must produce suction that increases from zero for a flooded field to 1 / 3 bar at field dry condition (one bar is a little less than one atmosphere pressure). At 15 bar suction, wilting point, seeds will not germinate, plants begin to wilt and then die. Water moves in soil under the influence of gravity, osmosis and capillarity. When water enters the soil, it displaces air from interconnected macropores by buoyancy, and breaks aggregates into which air is entrapped, a process called slaking.
The rate at which a soil can absorb water depends on the soil and its other conditions. As a plant grows, its roots remove water from the largest pores (macropores) first. Soon the larger pores hold only air, and the remaining water is found only in the intermediate - and smallest - sized pores (micropores). The water in the smallest pores is so strongly held to particle surfaces that plant roots can not pull it away. Consequently, not all soil water is available to plants, with a strong dependence on texture. When saturated, the soil may lose nutrients as the water drains. Water moves in a draining field under the influence of pressure where the soil is locally saturated and by capillarity pull to drier parts of the soil. Most plant water needs are supplied from the suction caused by evaporation from plant leaves (transpiration) and a lower fraction is supplied by suction created by osmotic pressure differences between the plant interior and the soil solution. Plant roots must seek out water and grow preferentially in moister soil microsites, but some parts of the root system are also able to remoisten dry parts of the soil. Insufficient water will damage the yield of a crop. Most of the available water is used in transpiration to pull nutrients into the plant.
Water is retained in a soil when the adhesive force of attraction that water 's hydrogen atoms have for the oxygen of soil particles is stronger than the cohesive forces that water 's hydrogen feels for other water oxygen atoms. When a field is flooded, the soil pore space is completely filled by water. The field will drain under the force of gravity until it reaches what is called field capacity, at which point the smallest pores are filled with water and the largest with water and gases. The total amount of water held when field capacity is reached is a function of the specific surface area of the soil particles. As a result, high clay and high organic soils have higher field capacities. The total force required to pull or push water out of soil is termed suction and usually expressed in units of bars (10 pascal) which is just a little less than one - atmosphere pressure. Alternatively, the terms "soil moisture tension '' or water potential may be used.
The forces with which water is held in soils determine its availability to plants. Forces of adhesion hold water strongly to mineral and humus surfaces and less strongly to itself by cohesive forces. A plant 's root may penetrate a very small volume of water that is adhering to soil and be initially able to draw in water that is only lightly held by the cohesive forces. But as the droplet is drawn down, the forces of adhesion of the water for the soil particles produce increasingly higher suction, finally up to 15 bar. At 15 bar suction, the soil water amount is called wilting point. At that suction the plant can not sustain its water needs as water is still being lost from the plant by transpiration, the plant 's turgidity is lost, and it wilts, although stomatal closure may decrease transpiration and thus may retard wilting below the wilting point, in particular under adaptation or acclimatization to drought. The next level, called air - dry, occurs at 1000 bar suction. Finally the oven dry condition is reached at 10,000 bar suction. All water below wilting percentage is called unavailable water.
When the soil moisture content is optimal for plant growth, the water in the large and intermediate size pores can move about in the soil and be easily used by plants. The amount of water remaining in a soil drained to field capacity and the amount that is available are functions of the soil type. Sandy soil will retain very little water, while clay will hold the maximum amount. The time required to drain a field from flooded condition for a clay loam that begins at 43 % water by weight to a field capacity of 22 % is six days, whereas a sand loam that is flooded to its maximum of 22 % water will take two days to reach field capacity of 11 % water. The available water for the clay loam might be 11 % whereas for the sand loam it might be only 8 % by weight.
The above are average values for the soil textures as the percentages of sand, silt and clay vary.
Water moves through soil due to the force of gravity, osmosis and capillarity. At zero to one - third bar suction, water is pushed through soil from the point of its application under the force of gravity and the pressure gradient created by the pressure of the water; this is called saturated flow. At higher suction, water movement is pulled by capillarity from wetter toward drier soil. This is caused by water 's adhesion to soil solids, and is called unsaturated flow.
Water infiltration and movement in soil is controlled by six factors:
Water infiltration rates range from 0.25 cm (0.098 in) per hour for high clay soils to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) per hour for sand and well stabilised and aggregated soil structures. Water flows through the ground unevenly, in the form of so - called "gravity fingers '', because of the surface tension between water particles.
Tree roots, whether living or dead, create preferential channels for rainwater flow through soil, magnifying infiltration rates of water up to 27 times.
Flooding temporarily increases soil permeability in river beds, helping to recharge aquifers.
Water applied to a soil is pushed by pressure gradients from the point of its application where it is saturated locally, to less saturated areas, such as the vadose zone. Once soil is completely wetted, any more water will move downward, or percolate out of the range of plant roots, carrying with it clay, humus, nutrients, primarily cations, and various contaminants, including pesticides, pollutants, viruses and bacteria, potentially causing groundwater contamination. In order of decreasing solubility, the leached nutrients are:
In the United States percolation water due to rainfall ranges from zero inches just east of the Rocky Mountains to twenty or more inches in the Appalachian Mountains and the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
Soil physics (Darcy - type model) predicts that at suctions less than one - third bar, water moves theoretically in all directions via unsaturated flow at a rate that is dependent on the square of the diameter of the water - filled pores, but there is still not an adequate physical theory linking all types of waterflow in soil. Preferential flow occurs along interconnected macropores, crevices, root and worm channels, which drain water under gravity. Water is also pulled by capillary action due to the adhesion force of water to the soil solids, producing a suction gradient from wet towards drier soil and from macropores to micropores. Water flow (also called hydraulic conductivity) is primarily from coarse - textured soil into fine - textured soil horizons and is slowest in fine - textured soils such as clay.
Of equal importance to the storage and movement of water in soil is the means by which plants acquire it and their nutrients. Most soil water is taken up by plants as passive absorption caused by the pulling force of water evaporating (transpiring) from the long column of water (xylem sap flow) that leads from the plant 's roots to its leaves, according to the cohesion - tension theory. The upward movement of water and solutes (hydraulic lift) is regulated in the roots by the endodermis and in the plant foliage by stomatal conductance, and can be interrupted in root and shoot xylem vessels by cavitation, also called xylem embolism. In addition, the high concentration of salts within plant roots creates an osmotic pressure gradient that pushes soil water into the roots. Osmotic absorption becomes more important during times of low water transpiration caused by lower temperatures (for example at night) or high humidity, and the reverse occurs under high temperature or low humidity. It is these process that cause guttation and wilting, respectively.
Root extension is vital for plant survival. A study of a single winter rye plant grown for four months in one cubic foot of loam soil showed that the plant developed 13,800,000 roots, a total of 385 miles in length with 2,550 square feet in surface area; and 14 billion hair roots of 6,600 miles total length and 4,320 square feet total area; for a total surface area of 6,870 square feet (83 ft squared). The total surface area of the loam soil was estimated to be 560,000 square feet. In other words, the roots were in contact with only 1.2 % of the soil. However, root extension should be viewed as a dynamic process, allowing new roots to explore a new volume of soil each day, increasing dramatically the total volume of soil explored over a given growth period, and thus the volume of water taken up by the root system over this period. Root architecture, i.e. the spatial configuration of the root system, plays a prominent role in the adaptation of plants to soil water and nutrient availabiity, and thus in plant productivity.
Roots must seek out water as the unsaturated flow of water in soil can move only at a rate of up to 2.5 cm (one inch) per day; as a result they are constantly dying and growing as they seek out high concentrations of soil moisture. Insufficient soil moisture, to the point of causing wilting, will cause permanent damage and crop yields will suffer. When grain sorghum was exposed to soil suction as low as 13.0 bar during the seed head emergence through bloom and seed set stages of growth, its production was reduced by 34 %.
Only a small fraction (0.1 % to 1 %) of the water used by a plant is held within the plant. The majority is ultimately lost via transpiration, while evaporation from the soil surface is also substantial, the transpiration: evaporation ratio varying according to vegetation type and climate, peaking in tropical rainforests and dipping in steppes and deserts. Transpiration plus evaporative soil moisture loss is called evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration plus water held in the plant totals to consumptive use, which is nearly identical to evapotranspiration.
The total water used in an agricultural field includes surface runoff, drainage and consumptive use. The use of loose mulches will reduce evaporative losses for a period after a field is irrigated, but in the end the total evaporative loss (plant plus soil) will approach that of an uncovered soil, while more water is immediately available for plant growth. Water use efficiency is measured by the transpiration ratio, which is the ratio of the total water transpired by a plant to the dry weight of the harvested plant. Transpiration ratios for crops range from 300 to 700. For example, alfalfa may have a transpiration ratio of 500 and as a result 500 kilograms of water will produce one kilogram of dry alfalfa.
The atmosphere of soil, or soil gas, is radically different from the atmosphere above. The consumption of oxygen by microbes and plant roots, and their release of carbon dioxide, decrease oxygen and increase carbon dioxide concentration. Atmospheric CO concentration is 0.04 %, but in the soil pore space it may range from 10 to 100 times that level, thus potentially contributing to the inhibition of root respiration. Calcareous soils regulate CO concentration thanks to carbonate buffering, contrary to acid soils in which all CO respired accumulates in the soil pore system. At extreme levels CO is toxic. This suggests a possible negative feedback control of soil CO concentration through its inhibitory effects on root and microbial respiration (also called ' soil respiration '). In addition, the soil voids are saturated with water vapour, at least until the point of maximal hygroscopicity, beyond which a vapour - pressure deficit occurs in the soil pore space. Adequate porosity is necessary, not just to allow the penetration of water, but also to allow gases to diffuse in and out. Movement of gases is by diffusion from high concentrations to lower, the diffusion coefficient decreasing with soil compaction. Oxygen from above atmosphere diffuses in the soil where it is consumed and levels of carbon dioxide in excess of above atmosphere diffuse out with other gases (including greenhouse gases) as well as water. Soil texture and structure strongly affect soil porosity and gas diffusion. It is the total pore space (porosity) of soil, not the pore size, and the degree of pore interconnection (or conversely pore sealing), together with water content, air turbulence and temperature, that determine the rate of diffusion of gases into and out of soil. Platy soil structure and soil compaction (low porosity) impede gas flow, and a deficiency of oxygen may encourage anaerobic bacteria to reduce (strip oxygen) from nitrate NO to the gases N, N O, and NO, which are then lost to the atmosphere, thereby depleting the soil of nitrogen. Aerated soil is also a net sink of methane CH but a net producer of methane (a strong heat - absorbing greenhouse gas) when soils are depleted of oxygen and subject to elevated temperatures.
Soil atmosphere is also the seat of emissions of volatiles other than carbon and nitrogen oxides from various soil organisms, e.g. roots, bacteria, fungi, animals. These volatiles are used as chemical cues, making soil atmosphere the seat of interaction networks playing a decisive role in the stability, dynamics and evolution of soil ecosystems. Biogenic soil volatile organic compounds are exchanged with the aboveground atmosphere, in which they are just 1 -- 2 orders of magnitude lower than those from aboveground vegetation.
We humans can get some idea of the soil atmosphere through the well - known ' after - the - rain ' scent, when infiltering rainwater flushes out the whole soil atmosphere after a drought period, or when soil is excavated, a bulk property attributed in a reductionist manner to particular biochemical compounds such as petrichor or geosmin.
Soil particles can be classified by their chemical composition (mineralogy) as well as their size. The particle size distribution of a soil, its texture, determines many of the properties of that soil, but the mineralogy of those particles can strongly modify those properties. The mineralogy of the finest soil particles, clay, is especially important.
Gravel, sand and silt are the larger soil particles, and their mineralogy is often inherited from the parent material of the soil, but may include products of weathering (such as concretions of calcium carbonate or iron oxide), or residues of plant and animal life (such as silica phytoliths). Quartz is the most common mineral in the sand or silt fraction as it is resistant to chemical weathering; other common minerals are feldspars, micas and ferromagnesian minerals such as pyroxenes, amphiboles and olivines.
Due to its high specific surface area and its unbalanced negative charges, clay is the most active mineral component of soil. It is a colloidal and most often a crystalline material. In soils, clay is a soil textural class and is defined in a physical sense as any mineral particle less than 2 μm (8 × 10 in) in effective diameter. Many soil minerals, such as gypsum, carbonates, or quartz, are small enough to be classified as clay based on their physical size, but chemically they do not afford the same utility as do clay minerals. Chemically, clay is a range of minerals with certain reactive properties.
Clay was once thought to be very small particles of quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende or augite, but it is now known to be (with the exception of mica - based clays) a precipitate with a mineralogical composition that is dependent on but different from its parent materials and is classed as a secondary mineral. The type of clay that is formed is a function of the parent material and the composition of the minerals in solution. Clay minerals continue to be formed as long as the soil exists. Mica - based clays result from a modification of the primary mica mineral in such a way that it behaves and is classed as a clay. Most clays are crystalline, but some are amorphous. The clays of a soil are a mixture of the various types of clay, but one type predominates.
There are four groups of clay: layer silicates; crystalline chain silicates; metal oxides and hydroxides and oxy - oxides; and amorphous; and allophanes. Most clays are crystalline and most are made up of three or four planes of oxygen held together by planes of aluminium and silicon by way of ionic bonds that together form a single layer of clay. The spatial arrangement of the oxygen atoms determines clay 's structure. Half of the weight of clay is oxygen, but on a volume basis oxygen is ninety percent. The layers of clay are sometimes held together through hydrogen bonds or potassium bridges and as a result will swell less in the presence of water. Other clays, such as montmorillonite, have layers that are loosely attached and will swell greatly when water intervenes between the layers.
There are four groups of clays:
Alumino - silica clays are characterised by their regular crystalline structure. Oxygen in ionic bonds with silicon forms a tetrahedral coordination (silicon at the center) which in turn forms sheets of silica. Two sheets of silica are bonded together by a plane of aluminium which forms an octahedral coordination, called alumina, with the oxygens of the silica sheet above and that below it. Hydroxyl ions (OH) sometimes substitute for oxygen. During the clay formation process, Al may substitute for Si in the silica layer, and as much as one fourth of the aluminium Al may be substituted by Zn, Mg or Fe in the alumina layer. The substitution of lower - valence cations for higher - valence cations (isomorphous substitution) gives clay a local negative charge on an oxygen atom that attracts and holds water and positively charged soil cations, some of which are of value for plant growth. Isomorphous substitution occurs during the clay 's formation and does not change with time.
The carbonate and sulfate minerals are much more soluble and hence are found primarily in desert soils where leaching is less active.
Amorphous clays are young, and commonly found in volcanic ash. They are mixtures of alumina and silica which have not formed the ordered crystal shape of alumino - silica clays which time would provide. The majority of their negative charges originates from hydroxyl ions, which can gain or lose a hydrogen ion (H) in response to soil pH, in such way was as to buffer the soil pH. They may have either a negative charge provided by the attached hydroxyl ion (OH), which can attract a cation, or lose the hydrogen of the hydroxyl to solution and display a positive charge which can attract anions. As a result, they may display either high CEC in an acid soil solution, or high anion exchange capacity in a basic soil solution.
Sesquioxide clays are a product of heavy rainfall that has leached most of the silica from alumino - silica clay, leaving the less soluble oxides iron hematite (Fe O), iron hydroxide (Fe (OH)), aluminium hydroxide gibbsite (Al (OH)), hydrated manganese birnessite (MnO). It takes hundreds of thousands of years of leaching to create sesquioxide clays. Sesqui is Latin for "one and one - half '': there are three parts oxygen to two parts iron or aluminium; hence the ratio is one and one - half (not true for all). They are hydrated and act as either amorphous or crystalline. They are not sticky and do not swell, and soils high in them behave much like sand and can rapidly pass water. They are able to hold large quantities of phosphates. Sesquioxides have low CEC but are able to hold anions as well as cations. Such soils range from yellow to red in colour. Such clays tend to hold phosphorus so tightly that it is unavailable for absorption by plants.
Humus is the final state of decomposition of organic matter. While it may linger for a thousand years, on the larger scale of the age of the mineral soil components, it is temporary. It is composed of the very stable lignins (30 %) and complex sugars (polyuronides, 30 %), proteins (30 %), waxes, and fats that are resistant to breakdown by microbes. Its chemical assay is 60 % carbon, 5 % nitrogen, some oxygen and the remainder hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. On a dry weight basis, the CEC of humus is many times greater than that of clay.
In the extreme environment of high temperatures and the leaching caused by the heavy rain of tropical rain forests, the clay and organic colloids are largely destroyed. The heavy rains wash the alumino - silicate clays from the soil leaving only sesquioxide clays of low CEC. The high temperatures and humidity allow bacteria and fungi to virtually dissolve any organic matter on the rain - forest floor overnight and much of the nutrients are volatilized or leached from the soil and lost. However, carbon in the form of charcoal is far more stable than soil colloids and is capable of performing many of the functions of the soil colloids of sub-tropical soils. Soil containing substantial quantities of charcoal, of an anthropogenic origin, is called terra preta. Research into terra preta is still young but is promising. Fallow periods "on the Amazonian Dark Earths can be as short as 6 months, whereas fallow periods on oxisols are usually 8 to 10 years long ''
The chemistry of a soil determines its ability to supply available plant nutrients and affects its physical properties and the health of its microbial population. In addition, a soil 's chemistry also determines its corrosivity, stability, and ability to absorb pollutants and to filter water. It is the surface chemistry of mineral and organic colloids that determines soil 's chemical properties. "A colloid is a small, insoluble, nondiffusible particle larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in a fluid medium without settling. Most soils contain organic colloidal particles called humus as well as the inorganic colloidal particles of clays. '' The very high specific surface area of colloids and their net charges, gives soil its ability to hold and release ions. Negatively charged sites on colloids attract and release cations in what is referred to as cation exchange. Cation - exchange capacity (CEC) is the amount of exchangeable cations per unit weight of dry soil and is expressed in terms of milliequivalents of positively charged ions per 100 grams of soil (or centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil; cmol / kg). Similarly, positively charged sites on colloids can attract and release anions in the soil giving the soil anion exchange capacity (AEC).
The cation exchange, that takes place between colloids and soil water, buffers (moderates) soil pH, alters soil structure, and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types, both useful and harmful.
The negative or positive charges on colloid particles make them able to hold cations or anions, respectively, to their surfaces. The charges result from four sources.
Cations held to the negatively charged colloids resist being washed downward by water and out of reach of plants ' roots, thereby preserving the fertility of soils in areas of moderate rainfall and low temperatures.
There is a hierarchy in the process of cation exchange on colloids, as they differ in the strength of adsorption by the colloid and hence their ability to replace one another. If present in equal amounts in the soil water solution:
Al replaces H replaces Ca replaces Mg replaces K same as NH replaces Na
If one cation is added in large amounts, it may replace the others by the sheer force of its numbers. This is called mass action. This is largely what occurs with the addition of fertiliser.
As the soil solution becomes more acidic (low pH, and an abundance of H), the other cations more weakly bound to colloids are pushed into solution as hydrogen ions occupy those sites. A low pH may cause hydrogen of hydroxyl groups to be pulled into solution, leaving charged sites on the colloid available to be occupied by other cations. This ionisation of hydroxyl groups on the surface of soil colloids creates what is described as pH - dependent charges. Unlike permanent charges developed by isomorphous substitution, pH - dependent charges are variable and increase with increasing pH. Freed cations can be made available to plants but are also prone to be leached from the soil, possibly making the soil less fertile. Plants are able to excrete H into the soil and by that means, change the pH of the soil near the root and push cations off the colloids, thus making those available to the plant.
Cation exchange capacity should be thought of as the soil 's ability to remove cations from the soil water solution and sequester those to be exchanged later as the plant roots release hydrogen ions to the solution. CEC is the amount of exchangeable hydrogen cation (H) that will combine with 100 grams dry weight of soil and whose measure is one milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (1 meq / 100 g). Hydrogen ions have a single charge and one - thousandth of a gram of hydrogen ions per 100 grams dry soil gives a measure of one milliequivalent of hydrogen ion. Calcium, with an atomic weight 40 times that of hydrogen and with a valence of two, converts to (40 / 2) x 1 milliequivalent = 20 milliequivalents of hydrogen ion per 100 grams of dry soil or 20 meq / 100 g. The modern measure of CEC is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol / kg) of oven - dry soil.
Most of the soil 's CEC occurs on clay and humus colloids, and the lack of those in hot, humid, wet climates, due to leaching and decomposition respectively, explains the relative sterility of tropical soils. Live plant roots also have some CEC.
Anion exchange capacity should be thought of as the soil 's ability to remove anions from the soil water solution and sequester those for later exchange as the plant roots release carbonate anions to the soil water solution. Those colloids which have low CEC tend to have some AEC. Amorphous and sesquioxide clays have the highest AEC, followed by the iron oxides. Levels of AEC are much lower than for CEC. Phosphates tend to be held at anion exchange sites.
Iron and aluminum hydroxide clays are able to exchange their hydroxide anions (OH) for other anions. The order reflecting the strength of anion adhesion is as follows:
The amount of exchangeable anions is of a magnitude of tenths to a few milliequivalents per 100 g dry soil. As pH rises, there are relatively more hydroxyls, which will displace anions from the colloids and force them into solution and out of storage; hence AEC decreases with increasing pH (alkalinity).
Soil reactivity is expressed in terms of pH and is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. More precisely, it is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution and ranges in values from 0 to 14 (acidic to basic) but practically speaking for soils, pH ranges from 3.5 to 9.5, as pH values beyond those extremes are toxic to life forms.
At 25 ° C an aqueous solution that has a pH of 3.5 has 10 moles H (hydrogen ions) per litre of solution (and also 10 mole / litre OH). A pH of 7, defined as neutral, has 10 moles hydrogen ions per litre of solution and also 10 moles of OH per litre; since the two concentrations are equal, they are said to neutralise each other. A pH of 9.5 has 10 moles hydrogen ions per litre of solution (and also 10 mole per litre OH). A pH of 3.5 has one million times more hydrogen ions per litre than a solution with pH of 9.5 (9.5 - 3.5 = 6 or 10) and is more acidic.
The effect of pH on a soil is to remove from the soil or to make available certain ions. Soils with high acidity tend to have toxic amounts of aluminium and manganese. Plants which need calcium need moderate alkalinity, but most minerals are more soluble in acid soils. Soil organisms are hindered by high acidity, and most agricultural crops do best with mineral soils of pH 6.5 and organic soils of pH 5.5.
In high rainfall areas, soils tend to acidity as the basic cations are forced off the soil colloids by the mass action of hydrogen ions from the rain as those attach to the colloids. High rainfall rates can then wash the nutrients out, leaving the soil sterile. Once the colloids are saturated with H, the addition of any more hydrogen ions or aluminum hydroxyl cations drives the pH even lower (more acidic) as the soil has been left with no buffering capacity. In areas of extreme rainfall and high temperatures, the clay and humus may be washed out, further reducing the buffering capacity of the soil. In low rainfall areas, unleached calcium pushes pH to 8.5 and with the addition of exchangeable sodium, soils may reach pH 10. Beyond a pH of 9, plant growth is reduced. High pH results in low micro-nutrient mobility, but water - soluble chelates of those nutrients can correct the deficit. Sodium can be reduced by the addition of gypsum (calcium sulphate) as calcium adheres to clay more tightly than does sodium causing sodium to be pushed into the soil water solution where it can be washed out by an abundance of water.
There are acid - forming cations (hydrogen and aluminium) and there are base - forming cations. The fraction of the base - forming cations that occupy positions on the soil colloids is called the base saturation percentage. If a soil has a CEC of 20 meq and 5 meq are aluminium and hydrogen cations (acid - forming), the remainder of positions on the colloids (20 - 5 = 15 meq) are assumed occupied by base - forming cations, so that the percentage base saturation is 15 / 20 x 100 % = 75 % (the compliment 25 % is assumed acid - forming cations). When the soil pH is 7 (neutral), base saturation is 100 percent and there are no hydrogen ions stored on the colloids. Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH (increases with increasing pH). It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil. The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids not just those in the soil water solution. The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be insufficient to change the pH, as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added lime.
The resistance of soil to change in pH, as a result of the addition of acid or basic material, is a measure of the buffering capacity of a soil and (for a particular soil type) increases as the CEC increases. Hence, pure sand has almost no buffering ability, while soils high in colloids have high buffering capacity. Buffering occurs by cation exchange and neutralisation.
The addition of a small amount highly basic aqueous ammonia to a soil will cause the ammonium to displace hydrogen ions from the colloids, and the end product is water and colloidally fixed ammonium, but little permanent change overall in soil pH.
The addition of a small amount of lime, Ca (OH), will displace hydrogen ions from the soil colloids, causing the fixation of calcium to colloids and the evolution of CO and water, with little permanent change in soil pH.
The above are examples of the buffering of soil pH. The general principal is that an increase in a particular cation in the soil water solution will cause that cation to be fixed to colloids (buffered) and a decrease in solution of that cation will cause it to be withdrawn from the colloid and moved into solution (buffered). The degree of buffering is often related to the CEC of the soil; the greater the CEC, the greater the buffering capacity of the soil.
Sixteen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are carbon C, hydrogen H, oxygen O, nitrogen N, phosphorus P, potassium K, sulfur S, calcium Ca, magnesium Mg, iron Fe, boron B, manganese Mn, copper Cu, zinc Zn, molybdenum Mo, nickel Ni and chlorine Cl. Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant 's life cycle are considered non-essential. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water, and nitrogen, provided through nitrogen fixation, the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil.
Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in a plant - available form. In most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form from (or together with) soil water. Although minerals are the origin of most nutrients, and the bulk of most nutrient elements in the soil is held in crystalline form within primary and secondary minerals, they weather too slowly to support rapid plant growth. For example, The application of finely ground minerals, feldspar and apatite, to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate sufficient for good plant growth, as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those minerals.
The nutrients adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay colloids and soil organic matter provide a more accessible reservoir of many plant nutrients (e.g. K, Ca, Mg, P, Zn). As plants absorb the nutrients from the soil water, the soluble pool is replenished from the surface - bound pool. The decomposition of soil organic matter by microorganisms is another mechanism whereby the soluble pool of nutrients is replenished -- this is important for the supply of plant - available N, S, P, and B from soil.
Gram for gram, the capacity of humus to hold nutrients and water is far greater than that of clay minerals. All in all, small amounts of humus may remarkably increase the soil 's capacity to promote plant growth.
Nutrients in the soil are taken up by the plant through its roots. To be taken up by a plant, a nutrient element must be located near the root surface; however, the supply of nutrients in contact with the root is rapidly depleted. There are three basic mechanisms whereby nutrient ions dissolved in the soil solution are brought into contact with plant roots:
All three mechanisms operate simultaneously, but one mechanism or another may be most important for a particular nutrient. For example, in the case of calcium, which is generally plentiful in the soil solution, mass flow alone can usually bring sufficient amounts to the root surface. However, in the case of phosphorus, diffusion is needed to supplement mass flow. For the most part, nutrient ions must travel some distance in the soil solution to reach the root surface. This movement can take place by mass flow, as when dissolved nutrients are carried along with the soil water flowing toward a root that is actively drawing water from the soil. In this type of movement, the nutrient ions are somewhat analogous to leaves floating down a stream. In addition, nutrient ions continually move by diffusion from areas of greater concentration toward the nutrient - depleted areas of lower concentration around the root surface. That process is due to random motion of molecules. By this means, plants can continue to take up nutrients even at night, when water is only slowly absorbed into the roots as transpiration has almost stopped. Finally, root interception comes into play as roots continually grow into new, undepleted soil.
In the above table, phosphorus and potassium nutrients move more by diffusion than they do by mass flow in the soil water solution, as they are rapidly taken up by the roots creating a concentration of almost zero near the roots (the plants can not transpire enough water to draw more of those nutrients near the roots). The very steep concentration gradient is of greater influence in the movement of those ions than is the movement of those by mass flow. The movement by mass flow requires the transpiration of water from the plant causing water and solution ions to also move toward the roots. Movement by root interception is slowest as the plants must extend their roots.
Plants move ions out of their roots in an effort to move nutrients in from the soil. Hydrogen H is exchanged for other cations, and carbonate (HCO) and hydroxide (OH) anions are exchanged for nutrient anions. As plant roots remove nutrients from the soil water solution, they are replenished as other ions move off of clay and humus (by ion exchange or desorption), are added from the weathering of soil minerals, and are released by the decomposition of soil organic matter. Plants derive a large proportion of their anion nutrients from decomposing organic matter, which typically holds about 95 percent of the soil nitrogen, 5 to 60 percent of the soil phosphorus and about 80 percent of the soil sulfur. Where crops are produced, the replenishment of nutrients in the soil must usually be augmented by the addition of fertilizer or organic matter.
Because nutrient uptake is an active metabolic process, conditions that inhibit root metabolism may also inhibit nutrient uptake. Examples of such conditions include waterlogging or soil compaction resulting in poor soil aeration, excessively high or low soil temperatures, and above - ground conditions that result in low translocation of sugars to plant roots.
Plants obtain their carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide. About 45 % of a plant 's dry mass is carbon; plant residues typically have a carbon to nitrogen ratio (C / N) of between 13: 1 and 100: 1. As the soil organic material is digested by arthropods and micro-organisms, the C / N decreases as the carbonaceous material is metabolized and carbon dioxide (CO) is released as a byproduct which then finds its way out of the soil and into the atmosphere. The nitrogen is sequestered in the bodies of the living matter of those decomposing organisms and so it builds up in the soil. Normal CO concentration in the atmosphere is 0.03 %, this can be the factor limiting plant growth. In a field of maize on a still day during high light conditions in the growing season, the CO concentration drops very low, but under such conditions the crop could use up to 20 times the normal concentration. The respiration of CO by soil micro-organisms decomposing soil organic matter contributes an important amount of CO to the photosynthesising plants. Within the soil, CO concentration is 10 to 100 times that of atmospheric levels but may rise to toxic levels if the soil porosity is low or if diffusion is impeded by flooding.
Nitrogen is the most critical element obtained by plants from the soil and nitrogen deficiency often limits plant growth. Plants can use the nitrogen as either the ammonium cation (NH) or the anion nitrate (NO). Usually, most of the nitrogen in soil is bound within organic compounds that make up the soil organic matter, and must be mineralized to the ammonium or nitrate form before it can be taken up by most plants. The total nitrogen content depends largely on the soil organic matter content, which in turn depends on the climate, vegetation, topography, age and soil management. Soil nitrogen typically decreases by 0.2 to 0.3 % for every temperature increase by 10 ° C. Usually, grassland soils contain more soil nitrogen than forest soils. Cultivation decreases soil nitrogen by exposing soil organic matter to decomposition by microorganisms, and soils under no - tillage maintain more soil nitrogen than tilled soils.
Some micro-organisms are able to metabolise organic matter and release ammonium in a process called mineralisation. Others take free ammonium and oxidise it to nitrate. Nitrogen - fixing bacteria are capable of metabolising N into the form of ammonia in a process called nitrogen fixation. Both ammonium and nitrate can be immobilized by their incorporation into the microbes ' living cells, where it is temporarily sequestered in the form of amino acids and protein. Nitrate may also be lost from the soil when bacteria metabolise it to the gases N and N O. The loss of gaseous forms of nitrogen to the atmosphere due to microbial action is called denitrification. Nitrogen may also be leached from the soil if it is in the form of nitrate or lost to the atmosphere as ammonia due to a chemical reaction of ammonium with alkaline soil by way of a process called volatilisation. Ammonium may also be sequestered in clay by fixation. A small amount of nitrogen is added to soil by rainfall.
In the process of mineralisation, microbes feed on organic matter, releasing ammonia (NH), ammonium (NH) and other nutrients. As long as the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C / N) of fresh residues in the soil is above 30: 1, nitrogen will be in short supply and other bacteria will feed on the ammonium and incorporate its nitrogen into their cells in the immobilization process. In that form the nitrogen is said to be immobilised. Later, when such bacteria die, they too are mineralised and some of the nitrogen is released as ammonium and nitrate. If the C / N is less than 15, ammonia is freed to the soil, where it may be used by bacteria which oxidise it to nitrate (nitrification). Bacteria may on average add 25 pounds (11 kg) nitrogen per acre, and in an unfertilised field, this is the most important source of usable nitrogen. In a soil with 5 % organic matter perhaps 2 to 5 % of that is released to the soil by such decomposition. It occurs fastest in warm, moist, well aerated soil. The mineralisation of 3 % of the organic material of a soil that is 4 % organic matter overall, would release 120 pounds (54 kg) of nitrogen as ammonium per acre.
In nitrogen fixation, rhizobium bacteria convert N to ammonia (NH). Rhizobia share a symbiotic relationship with host plants, since rhizobia supply the host with nitrogen and the host provides rhizobia with nutrients and a safe environment. It is estimated that such symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules of legumes add 45 to 250 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year, which may be sufficient for the crop. Other, free - living nitrogen - fixing bacteria and blue - green algae live independently in the soil and release nitrate when their dead bodies are converted by way of mineralisation.
Some amount of usable nitrogen is fixed by lightning as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO). Nitrogen dioxide is soluble in water to form nitric acid (HNO) solution of H and NO. Ammonia, NH, previously released from the soil or from combustion, may fall with precipitation as nitric acid at a rate of about five pounds nitrogen per acre per year.
When bacteria feed on soluble forms of nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate), they temporarily sequester that nitrogen in their bodies in a process called immobilisation. At a later time when those bacteria die, their nitrogen may be released as ammonium by the processes of mineralisation.
Protein material is easily broken down, but the rate of its decomposition is slowed by its attachment to the crystalline structure of clay and when trapped between the clay layers. The layers are small enough that bacteria can not enter. Some organisms can exude extracellular enzymes that can act on the sequestered proteins. However, those enzymes too may be trapped on the clay crystals.
Ammonium fixation occurs when ammonium pushes potassium ions from between the layers of clay such as illite or montmorillonite. Only a small fraction of soil nitrogen is held this way.
Usable nitrogen may be lost from soils when it is in the form of nitrate, as it is easily leached. Further losses of nitrogen occur by denitrification, the process whereby soil bacteria convert nitrate (NO) to nitrogen gas, N or N O. This occurs when poor soil aeration limits free oxygen, forcing bacteria to use the oxygen in nitrate for their respiratory process. Denitrification increases when oxidisable organic material is available and when soils are warm and slightly acidic. Denitrification may vary throughout a soil as the aeration varies from place to place. Denitrification may cause the loss of 10 to 20 percent of the available nitrates within a day and when conditions are favourable to that process, losses of up to 60 percent of nitrate applied as fertiliser may occur.
Ammonium volatilisation occurs when ammonium reacts chemically with an alkaline soil, converting NH to NH. The application of ammonium fertiliser to such a field can result in volatilisation losses of as much as 30 percent.
After nitrogen, phosphorus is probably the element most likely to be deficient in soils. The soil mineral apatite is the most common mineral source of phosphorus. While there is on average 1000 lb of phosphorus per acre in the soil, it is generally in the form of phosphates with low solubility. Total phosphorus is about 0.1 percent by weight of the soil, but only one percent of that is available. Of the part available, more than half comes from the mineralisation of organic matter. Agricultural fields may need to be fertilised to make up for the phosphorus that has been removed in the crop.
When phosphorus does form solubilised ions of H PO, they rapidly form insoluble phosphates of calcium or hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. Phosphorus is largely immobile in the soil and is not leached but actually builds up in the surface layer if not cropped. The application of soluble fertilisers to soils may result in zinc deficiencies as zinc phosphates form. Conversely, the application of zinc to soils may immobilise phosphorus again as zinc phosphate. Lack of phosphorus may interfere with the normal opening of the plant leaf stomata, resulting in plant temperatures 10 percent higher than normal. Phosphorus is most available when soil pH is 6.5 in mineral soils and 5.5 in organic soils.
The amount of potassium in a soil may be as much as 80,000 lb per acre - foot, of which only 150 lb is available for plant growth. Common mineral sources of potassium are the mica biotite and potassium feldspar, KAlSi O. When solubilised, half will be held as exchangeable cations on clay while the other half is in the soil water solution. Potassium fixation often occurs when soils dry and the potassium is bonded between layers of illite clay. Under certain conditions, dependent on the soil texture, intensity of drying, and initial amount of exchangeable potassium, the fixed percentage may be as much as 90 percent within ten minutes. Potassium may be leached from soils low in clay.
Calcium is one percent by weight of soils and is generally available but may be low as it is soluble and can be leached. It is thus low in sandy and heavily leached soil or strongly acidic mineral soil. Calcium is supplied to the plant in the form of exchangeable ions and moderately soluble minerals. Calcium is more available on the soil colloids than is potassium because the common mineral calcite, CaCO, is more soluble than potassium - bearing minerals.
Magnesium is one of the dominant exchangeable cations in most soils (as are calcium and potassium). Primary minerals that weather to release magnesium include hornblende, biotite and vermiculite. Soil magnesium concentrations are generally sufficient for optimal plant growth, but highly weathered and sandy soils may be magnesium deficient due to leaching by heavy precipitation.
Most sulfur is made available to plants, like phosphorus, by its release from decomposing organic matter. Deficiencies may exist in some soils (especially sandy soils) and if cropped, sulfur needs to be added. The application of large quantities of nitrogen to fields that have marginal amounts of sulfur may cause sulfur deficiency in the rapidly growing plants by the plant 's growth outpacing the supply of sulfur. A 15 - ton crop of onions uses up to 19 lb of sulfur and 4 tons of alfalfa uses 15 lb per acre. Sulfur abundance varies with depth. In a sample of soils in Ohio, United States, the sulfur abundance varied with depths, 0 - 6 inches, 6 - 12 inches, 12 - 18 inches, 18 - 24 inches in the amounts: 1056, 830, 686, 528 lb per acre respectively.
The micronutrients essential in plant life, in their order of importance, include iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, chlorine and molybdenum. The term refers to plants ' needs, not to their abundance in soil. They are required in very small amounts but are essential to plant health in that most are required parts of some enzyme system which speeds up plants ' metabolisms. They are generally available in the mineral component of the soil, but the heavy application of phosphates can cause a deficiency in zinc and iron by the formation of insoluble zinc and iron phosphates. Iron deficiency may also result from excessive amounts of heavy metals or calcium minerals (lime) in the soil. Excess amounts of soluble boron, molybdenum and chloride are toxic.
Nutrients which enhance the health but whose deficiency does not stop the life cycle of plants include: cobalt, strontium, vanadium, silicon and nickel. As their importance are evaluated they may be added to the list of essential plant nutrients.
Soil organic matter is made up of organic compounds and includes plant, animal and microbial material, both living and dead. A typical soil has a biomass composition of 70 % microorganisms, 22 % macrofauna, and 8 % roots. The living component of an acre of soil may include 900 lb of earthworms, 2400 lb of fungi, 1500 lb of bacteria, 133 lb of protozoa and 890 lb of arthropods and algae.
A small part of the organic matter consists of the living cells such as bacteria, molds, and actinomycetes that work to break down the dead organic matter. Were it not for the action of these micro-organisms, the entire carbon dioxide part of the atmosphere would be sequestered as organic matter in the soil.
Chemically, organic matter is classed as follows:
Most living things in soils, including plants, insects, bacteria, and fungi, are dependent on organic matter for nutrients and / or energy. Soils have organic compounds in varying degrees of decomposition which rate is dependent on the temperature, soil moisture, and aeration. Bacteria and fungi feed on the raw organic matter, which are fed upon by amoebas, which in turn are fed upon by nematodes and arthropods. Organic matter holds soils open, allowing the infiltration of air and water, and may hold as much as twice its weight in water. Many soils, including desert and rocky - gravel soils, have little or no organic matter. Soils that are all organic matter, such as peat (histosols), are infertile. In its earliest stage of decomposition, the original organic material is often called raw organic matter. The final stage of decomposition is called humus.
In grassland, much of the organic matter added to the soil is from the deep, fibrous, grass root systems. By contrast, tree leaves falling on the forest floor are the principal source of soil organic matter in the forest. Another difference is the frequent occurrence in the grasslands of fires that destroy large amounts of aboveground material but stimulate even greater contributions from roots. Also, the much greater acidity under any forests inhibits the action of certain soil organisms that otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil. As a result, the soils under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of organic matter than in comparable soils under forests, which characteristically store most of their organic matter in the forest floor (O horizon) and thin A horizon.
Humus refers to organic matter that has been decomposed by soil flora and fauna to the point where it is resistant to further breakdown. Humus usually constitutes only five percent of the soil or less by volume, but it is an essential source of nutrients and adds important textural qualities crucial to soil health and plant growth. Humus also hold bits of undecomposed organic matter which feed arthropods and worms which further improve the soil. The end product, humus, is soluble in water and forms a weak acid that can attack silicate minerals. Humus is a colloid with a high cation and anion exchange capacity that on a dry weight basis is many times greater than that of clay colloids. It also acts as a buffer, like clay, against changes in pH and soil moisture.
Humic acids and fulvic acids, which begin as raw organic matter, are important constituents of humus. After the death of plants and animals, microbes begin to feed on the residues, resulting finally in the formation of humus. With decomposition, there is a reduction of water - soluble constituents, cellulose and hemicellulose, and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. As the residues break down, only stable molecules made of aromatic carbon rings, oxygen and hydrogen remain in the form of humin, lignin and lignin complexes collectively called humus. While the structure of humus has few nutrients, it is able to attract and hold cation and anion nutrients by weak bonds that can be released into the soil solution in response to changes in soil pH.
Lignin is resistant to breakdown and accumulates within the soil. It also reacts with amino acids, which further increases its resistance to decomposition, including enzymatic decomposition by microbes. Fats and waxes from plant matter have some resistance to decomposition and persist in soils for a while. Clay soils often have higher organic contents that persist longer than soils without clay as the organic molecules adhere to and are stabilised by the clay. Proteins normally decompose readily, but when bound to clay particles, they become more resistant to decomposition. Clay particles also absorb the enzymes exuded by microbes which would normally break down proteins. The addition of organic matter to clay soils can render that organic matter and any added nutrients inaccessible to plants and microbes for many years. High soil tannin (polyphenol) content can cause nitrogen to be sequestered in proteins or cause nitrogen immobilisation.
Humus formation is a process dependent on the amount of plant material added each year and the type of base soil. Both are affected by climate and the type of organisms present. Soils with humus can vary in nitrogen content but typically have 3 to 6 percent nitrogen. Raw organic matter, as a reserve of nitrogen and phosphorus, is a vital component affecting soil fertility. Humus also absorbs water, and expands and shrinks between dry and wet states, increasing soil porosity. Humus is less stable than the soil 's mineral constituents, as it is reduced by microbial decomposition, and over time its concentration diminshes without the addition of new organic matter. However, humus may persist over centuries if not millennia.
The production, accumulation and degradation of organic matter are greatly dependent on climate. Temperature, soil moisture and topography are the major factors affecting the accumulation of organic matter in soils. Organic matter tends to accumulate under wet or cold conditions where decomposer activity is impeded by low temperature or excess moisture which results in anaerobic conditions. Conversely, excessive rain and high temperatures of tropical climates enables rapid decomposition of organic matter and leaching of plant nutrients; forest ecosystems on these soils rely on efficient recycling of nutrients and plant matter to maintain their productivity. Excessive slope may encourage the erosion of the top layer of soil which holds most of the raw organic material that would otherwise eventually become humus.
Typical types and percentages of plant residue components
Cellulose and hemicellulose undergo fast decomposition by fungi and bacteria, with a half - life of 12 -- 18 days in a temperate climate. Brown rot fungi can decompose the cellulose and hemicellulose, leaving the lignin and phenolic compounds behind. Starch, which is an energy storage system for plants, undergoes fast decomposition by bacteria and fungi. Lignin consists of polymers composed of 500 to 600 units with a highly branched, amorphous structure. Lignin undergoes very slow decomposition, mainly by white rot fungi and actinomycetes; its half - life under temperate conditions is about six months.
A horizontal layer of the soil, whose physical features, composition and age are distinct from those above and beneath, is referred to as a soil horizon. The naming of a horizon is based on the type of material of which it is composed. Those materials reflect the duration of specific processes of soil formation. They are labelled using a shorthand notation of letters and numbers which describe the horizon in terms of its colour, size, texture, structure, consistency, root quantity, pH, voids, boundary characteristics and presence of nodules or concretions. No soil profile has all the major horizons. Some may have only one horizon.
The exposure of parent material to favourable conditions produces mineral soils that are marginally suitable for plant growth. That growth often results in the accumulation of organic residues. The accumulated organic layer called the O horizon produces a more active soil due to the effect of the organisms that live within it. Organisms colonise and break down organic materials, making available nutrients upon which other plants and animals can live. After sufficient time, humus moves downward and is deposited in a distinctive organic surface layer called the A horizon.
Soil is classified into categories in order to understand relationships between different soils and to determine the suitability of a soil for a particular use. One of the first classification systems was developed by Russian scientist Dokuchaev around 1880. It was modified a number of times by American and European researchers, and developed into the system commonly used until the 1960s. It was based on the idea that soils have a particular morphology based on the materials and factors that form them. In the 1960s, a different classification system began to emerge which focused on soil morphology instead of parental materials and soil - forming factors. Since then it has undergone further modifications. The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) aims to establish an international reference base for soil classification.
There are fourteen soil orders at the top level of the Australian Soil Classification. They are: Anthroposols, Organosols, Podosols, Vertosols, Hydrosols, Kurosols, Sodosols, Chromosols, Calcarosols, Ferrosols, Dermosols, Kandosols, Rudosols and Tenosols.
The EU 's soil taxonomy is based on a new standard soil classification in the World Reference Base for Soil Resources produced by the UN 's Food and Agriculture Organization. According to this, the major soils in the European Union are:
A taxonomy is an arrangement in a systematic manner; the USDA soil taxonomy has six levels of classification. They are, from most general to specific: order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family and series. Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system -- they include: depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, clay mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content. There are 12 soil orders (the top hierarchical level) in soil taxonomy. The names of the orders end with the suffix - sol. The criteria for the different soil orders include properties that reflect major differences in the genesis of soils. The orders are:
Alfisol
Andisol
Aridisol
Entisol
Gelisol
Histisol
Inceptisol
Mollisol
Oxisol
Spodosol
Utisol
Vertisol
The percentages listed above are for land area free of ice. "Soils of Mountains '', which constitute the balance (11.6 %), have a mixture of those listed above, or are classified as "Rugged Mountains '' which have no soil.
The above soil orders in sequence of increasing degree of development are Entisols, Inceptisols, Aridisols, Mollisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, and Oxisols. Histosols and Vertisols may appear in any of the above at any time during their development.
The soil suborders within an order are differentiated on the basis of soil properties and horizons which depend on soil moisture and temperature. Forty - seven suborders are recognized in the United States.
The soil great group category is a subdivision of a suborder in which the kind and sequence of soil horizons distinguish one soil from another. About 185 great groups are recognized in the United States. Horizons marked by clay, iron, humus and hard pans and soil features such as the expansion - contraction of clays (that produce self - mixing provided by clay), temperature, and marked quantities of various salts are used as distinguishing features.
The great group categories are divided into three kinds of soil subgroups: typic, intergrade and extragrade. A typic subgroup represents the basic or ' typical ' concept of the great group to which the described subgroup belongs. An intergrade subgroup describes the properties that suggest how it grades towards (is similar to) soils of other soil great groups, suborders or orders. These properties are not developed or expressed well enough to cause the soil to be included within the great group towards which they grade, but suggest similarities. Extragrade features are aberrant properties which prevent that soil from being included in another soil classification. About 1,000 soil subgroups are defined in the United States.
A soil family category is a group of soils within a subgroup and describes the physical and chemical properties which affect the response of soil to agricultural management and engineering applications. The principal characteristics used to differentiate soil families include texture, mineralogy, pH, permeability, structure, consistency, the locale 's precipitation pattern, and soil temperature. For some soils the criteria also specify the percentage of silt, sand and coarse fragments such as gravel, cobbles and rocks. About 4,500 soil families are recognised in the United States.
A family may contain several soil series which describe the physical location using the name of a prominent physical feature such as a river or town near where the soil sample was taken. An example would be Merrimac for the Merrimack River in New Hampshire. More than 14,000 soil series are recognised in the United States. This permits very specific descriptions of soils.
A soil phase of series, originally called ' soil type ' describes the soil surface texture, slope, stoniness, saltiness, erosion, and other conditions.
Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the anchor and primary nutrient base for plants; however, as demonstrated by hydroponics, it is not essential to plant growth if the soil - contained nutrients can be dissolved in a solution. The types of soil and available moisture determine the species of plants that can be cultivated.
Soil material is also a critical component in the mining, construction and landscape development industries. Soil serves as a foundation for most construction projects. The movement of massive volumes of soil can be involved in surface mining, road building and dam construction. Earth sheltering is the architectural practice of using soil for external thermal mass against building walls. Many building materials are soil based.
Soil resources are critical to the environment, as well as to food and fibre production. Soil provides minerals and water to plants. Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and drought. Soil cleans water as it percolates through it. Soil is the habitat for many organisms: the major part of known and unknown biodiversity is in the soil, in the form of invertebrates (earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, centipedes, snails, slugs, mites, springtails, enchytraeids, nematodes, protists), bacteria, archaea, fungi and algae; and most organisms living above ground have part of them (plants) or spend part of their life cycle (insects) below - ground. Above - ground and below - ground biodiversities are tightly interconnected, making soil protection of paramount importance for any restoration or conservation plan.
The biological component of soil is an extremely important carbon sink since about 57 % of the biotic content is carbon. Even on desert crusts, cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses capture and sequester a significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis. Poor farming and grazing methods have degraded soils and released much of this sequestered carbon to the atmosphere. Restoring the world 's soils could offset the effect of increases in greenhouse gas emissions and slow global warming, while improving crop yields and reducing water needs.
Waste management often has a soil component. Septic drain fields treat septic tank effluent using aerobic soil processes. Landfills use soil for daily cover. Land application of waste water relies on soil biology to aerobically treat BOD.
Organic soils, especially peat, serve as a significant fuel resource; but wide areas of peat production, such as sphagnum bogs, are now protected because of patrimonial interest.
Geophagy is the practice of eating soil - like substances. Both animals and human cultures occasionally consume soil for medicinal, recreational, or religious purposes. It has been shown that some monkeys consume soil, together with their preferred food (tree foliage and fruits), in order to alleviate tannin toxicity.
Soils filter and purify water and affect its chemistry. Rain water and pooled water from ponds, lakes and rivers percolate through the soil horizons and the upper rock strata, thus becoming groundwater. Pests (viruses) and pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants (chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls), oils (hydrocarbons), heavy metals (lead, zinc, cadmium), and excess nutrients (nitrates, sulfates, phosphates) are filtered out by the soil. Soil organisms metabolise them or immobilise them in their biomass and necromass, thereby incorporating them into stable humus. The physical integrity of soil is also a prerequisite for avoiding landslides in rugged landscapes.
Land degradation refers to a human - induced or natural process which impairs the capacity of land to function. Soils degradation involves the acidification, contamination, desertification, erosion or salination.
Soil acidification is beneficial in the case of alkaline soils, but it degrades land when it lowers crop productivity and increases soil vulnerability to contamination and erosion. Soils are often initially acid because their parent materials were acid and initially low in the basic cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium). Acidification occurs when these elements are leached from the soil profile by rainfall or by the harvesting of forest or agricultural crops. Soil acidification is accelerated by the use of acid - forming nitrogenous fertilizers and by the effects of acid precipitation.
Soil contamination at low levels is often within a soil 's capacity to treat and assimilate waste material. Soil biota can treat waste by transforming it; soil colloids can adsorb the waste material. Many waste treatment processes rely on this treatment capacity. Exceeding treatment capacity can damage soil biota and limit soil function. Derelict soils occur where industrial contamination or other development activity damages the soil to such a degree that the land can not be used safely or productively. Remediation of derelict soil uses principles of geology, physics, chemistry and biology to degrade, attenuate, isolate or remove soil contaminants to restore soil functions and values. Techniques include leaching, air sparging, chemical amendments, phytoremediation, bioremediation and natural degradation.
Desertification is an environmental process of ecosystem degradation in arid and semi-arid regions, often caused by human activity. It is a common misconception that droughts cause desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well - managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Soil management tools include maintaining soil nutrient and organic matter levels, reduced tillage and increased cover. These practices help to control erosion and maintain productivity during periods when moisture is available. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands accelerates desertification.
Erosion of soil is caused by water, wind, ice, and movement in response to gravity. More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil in transit may be described as sediment). Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially poor land use practices. These include agricultural activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds, overgrazing, deforestation, and improper construction activity. Improved management can limit erosion. Soil conservation techniques which are employed include changes of land use (such as replacing erosion - prone crops with grass or other soil - binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations, terrace building, use of erosion - suppressing cover materials (including cover crops and other plants), limiting disturbance during construction, and avoiding construction during erosion - prone periods.
A serious and long - running water erosion problem occurs in China, on the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. From the Yellow River, over 1.6 billion tons of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The sediment originates primarily from water erosion (gully erosion) in the Loess Plateau region of northwest China.
Soil piping is a particular form of soil erosion that occurs below the soil surface. It causes levee and dam failure, as well as sink hole formation. Turbulent flow removes soil starting at the mouth of the seep flow and the subsoil erosion advances up - gradient. The term sand boil is used to describe the appearance of the discharging end of an active soil pipe.
Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of the agricultural value of soils and vegetation. Consequences include corrosion damage, reduced plant growth, erosion due to loss of plant cover and soil structure, and water quality problems due to sedimentation. Salination occurs due to a combination of natural and human - caused processes. Arid conditions favour salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is saline. Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic. All irrigation water has some level of salinity. Irrigation, especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field, often raises the underlying water table. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the capillary fringe of saline groundwater. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage.
Desertification
Erosion control
Soils which contain high levels of particular clays, such as smectites, are often very fertile. For example, the smectite - rich clays of Thailand 's Central Plains are among the most productive in the world.
Many farmers in tropical areas, however, struggle to retain organic matter in the soils they work. In recent years, for example, productivity has declined in the low - clay soils of northern Thailand. Farmers initially responded by adding organic matter from termite mounds, but this was unsustainable in the long - term. Scientists experimented with adding bentonite, one of the smectite family of clays, to the soil. In field trials, conducted by scientists from the International Water Management Institute in cooperation with Khon Kaen University and local farmers, this had the effect of helping retain water and nutrients. Supplementing the farmer 's usual practice with a single application of 200 kg bentonite per rai (6.26 rai = 1 hectare) resulted in an average yield increase of 73 %. More work showed that applying bentonite to degraded sandy soils reduced the risk of crop failure during drought years.
In 2008, three years after the initial trials, IWMI scientists conducted a survey among 250 farmers in northeast Thailand, half of whom had applied bentonite to their fields. The average improvement for those using the clay addition was 18 % higher than for non-clay users. Using the clay had enabled some farmers to switch to growing vegetables, which need more fertile soil. This helped to increase their income. The researchers estimated that 200 farmers in northeast Thailand and 400 in Cambodia had adopted the use of clays, and that a further 20,000 farmers were introduced to the new technique.
If the soil is too high in clay, adding gypsum, washed river sand and organic matter will balance the composition. Adding organic matter (like ramial chipped wood for instance) to soil which is depleted in nutrients and too high in sand will boost its quality.
|
where does the phrase 40 winks come from | Forty winks - wikipedia
To take forty winks is to take a nap for a short period of time (usually not in bed), or to take a short sleep during the day. Related idiomatic sayings such as could not sleep a wink provide the mental picture of a wink being the shortest type of sleep available and "forty winks '' therefore gives an indication of an appropriate short sleep.
To emphasize that forty winks was a nap not taken in a bed Lewis Carroll used the idiom in his novel Sylvie and Bruno when the main protagonist is constantly nudged by the Master of Ceremonies who is saying, I ca n't let you sleep here! You 're not in bed, you know!; he replies, I know I 'm not, I 'm in an arm - chair, whereupon the Master says, Well, forty winks will do you no harm and walks off.
To emphasise that forty winks was just the right amount of sleep if a nap was to be taken F. Scott Fitzgerald in a short article titled "Gretchen 's Forty Winks '', published in the Saturday Evening Post on March 15, 1924 has the main protagonist, Roger Halsey say to his wife Gretchen, Just take forty winks, and when you wake up everything 'll be fine.
The idiom is used in everyday language also as a way of saying that a person may be refreshed by such a sleep. For example Frank De Silva, a member of the 6th Division rescued amongst 8,000 other troops from Greece in 1941 by HMAS Perth, tells of sitting next to a sailor who exhausted falls into a brief deep sleep next to his breakfast before being nudged by those around him. He immediately wakes and says, I just needed that forty winks, and then is able to return to his duties.
Finally almost so as to emphasize the link between forty winks and its biblical relationship William Ernest Henley and Robert Louis Stevenson in their play "King 's Evidence '', at Act III, have the characters Smith and Moore discussing the failings of a third person, Slink Ainslie. Smith says to Moore, Give him forty winks, and he 'll turn up as fresh as clean sawdust and as respectable as a new Bible.
|
when did steve urkel appear on family matters | Steve Urkel - wikipedia
Steven Quincy Urkel is a fictional character on the ABC / CBS sitcom Family Matters who was portrayed by Jaleel White. Originally slated to have been a one - time only character on the show, he soon became its most popular character and gradually became its protagonist.
Steve is the epitome of a geek / nerd, with large, thick eyeglasses, flood pants held up by suspenders, multi-colored cardigan sweaters, and a high - pitched voice. He professes an unrequited love for his neighbor Laura Winslow, and considered a nuisance by the Winslow family, though they come to accept him over time. Throughout the series ' run, Steve is central to many of its recurring gags, primarily property damage and / or personal injury as a result of his inventions going awry or his outright clumsiness. He becomes known for several catchphrases uttered after some humorous misfortune occurs, including "I 've fallen, and I ca n't get up! '', "Did I do that? '' "Whoa, Mama! '' and "Look what you did '' (on those rare occasions when someone else caused the damage).
In syndication, Steve Urkel first appeared on the 4th episode of the first season, "Rachel 's First Date '' (as the show staff wanted to more naturally introduce him to audiences upon repeated viewings). On the 12th episode of the first season, "Laura 's First Date '', he reappears as a nerdy young boy who takes Laura Winslow out on a date. While he is madly in love with her, Laura finds Steve grating and does n't return his affection. While intended as a minor character, Urkel became very popular for his oddball antics. He soon became a recurring character, and joined the main cast beginning with the season two premiere "Rachel 's Place ''.
Family Matters co-creator Michael Warren named the character after his friend, writer and director Steve Erkel. Due to the show and the character 's tremendous popularity during the early 1990s, Erkel encountered difficulties using his own name; he received many prank phone calls from "Laura '' asking for "Steve '', and businesses found his name to be suspicious. Warren stated that had he known that the character would reappear for years he would not have named him after his friend.
An archetypal nerd, Steve Urkel is characterized as kind and well - meaning, but bungling and a meddler. He is fiercely protective of and obsessed with his unrequited love Laura Winslow, and this admiration extends to the rest of the Winslow family. However, Steve is comically clumsy and inept and his attempts to help the Winslows usually go awry. This puts him at odds with the family patriarch Carl, who routinely throws Urkel out of his house.
Later episodes suggest that Steve 's attachment to the Winslows stems from his bad relationship with his own family. Urkel often hints that most of his relatives, including his (unseen) parents, despise him and refuse to associate with him. This culminates in the two moving to Russia without him, whereupon he moves in with the Winslows.
Urkel dresses unfashionably for someone his age (he is most commonly seen wearing suspenders, brightly colored shirts, and high water pants) and has a number of eccentric hobbies and interests, including Polka dancing and accordion playing. Unlike his friends, he has little interest in popular culture and athletic endeavors.
While he is unpopular with his schoolmates, Urkel is a brilliant student and is on a first - name basis with his teachers. He is a genius inventor as well, and his fantastical but unreliable gadgets (including a transformation device and a time machine) are central to many Family Matters plots and gags.
During the season five episode "Dr. Urkel and Mr. Cool, '' in a takeoff on The Nutty Professor films, Urkel devises a plan to win Laura 's heart: transforming his DNA using a serum, which suppresses his "nerd genes '' and brings out his "cool '' genes. This results in the alter ego known as Stefan Urquelle, played by Jaleel White in more casual attire. Initially, Laura is enamored with the smoother Stefan, but asks that he turn back into Steve when Stefan 's self - centeredness makes itself apparent.
Steve improves the formula in the season five episode "Stefan Returns '' to reduce its negative effects on his personality, and invents a "transformation chamber '' allowing him to become Stefan at will. He would change into Stefan several times -- even while dating Myra -- but some circumstance would force Steve to turn into his normal self again. With his narcissistic tendencies toned down, Laura falls deeply in love with Steve 's alter - ego.
In the seventh - season finale "Send in the Clones, '' Steve creates a cloning machine and winds up creating a perfect duplicate of himself. Myra is initially excited, but eventually realizes that two Steves are just too much. To clear up the situation, Laura proposes that one of the Steves be permanently turned into Stefan, so that she and Myra can both be with the one they love. This Stefan becomes a recurring character and eventually proposes to Laura in the ninth season. After weighing her choices in the flashback episode "Pop Goes the Question, '' Laura chooses Steve over Stefan. Stefan departs and is not seen again.
Steve had been in love with Laura since they were in kindergarten. However, she did not always reciprocate the feelings that he had for her and would date other guys more to her taste. Unlike Greta 's successful warding off of Myrtle, Laura 's would - be boyfriends would often bully Steve, but it always ends with him warding them off, especially when he knows most of them would end up hurting her in the end and refused to allow them to take advantage of her. Steve has shown that, unlike Myrtle, he does respect Laura 's personal space. However, she has shown appreciation for Steve when he selflessly risked himself to not only protect her, but also has saved her father 's life. In the ninth - season episode "Out With the Old, '' he finally gets himself a makeover in time for Laura 's charity bachelor auction, and, though it was not a success, her feelings for him finally changed, and they eventually become engaged to be married by "Pop Goes the Question '' later that season.
Steve had a short and brief relationship with Susie in season two, but their relationship ended when he introduced her to the president of the chess club. In the season three episode "The Love God, '' Vonda Mahoney also became interested in him after he tutored her for a class. Fearing that she wants to make herself "easy '' for Eddie to date, Steve teaches her the dangers of it and helps her have love and self - respect for herself. Although Vonda felt better about herself, this did not sit well with Eddie, who wanted to pound Steve for it.
In season four 's "A Thought In The Dark '', Steve was set up with Ted 's cousin, Myra Monkhouse (played by Michelle Thomas) so Laura could have some space from his infatuation. Although he was initially attracted to Myra because of her intelligence and sweet personality, he was soon disgusted by her jealous and possessive nature by the end of "Buds ' N Buns ''. This was explored in both seasons five and nine, when Steve finally saw what life was like in not only Laura 's shoes, but in sense the Winslows as well. Though in love with him, Myra was also frustrated with Steve and asked him why he even loves Laura. When he agrees to go steady with her in season six 's "Paradise Bluff '', she did somewhat revert to the sweet, intelligent girl he was originally attracted to. By season nine, he grows apart from her as he matures and Laura started to return the feelings he had for her. In "Breaking Up Is Hard To Do, '' during their date at the restaurant Amour, it became clear to Steve that Myra hated his makeover and demanded that he return to the sexy nerd she loved so much. When he refused, she broke up with him first, although it later turned out to be a ploy so she could get him to renounce his love for Laura and stay with her. When that failed, Myra resorted to stalking and spying on him with illegal surveillance gear in her room with a spy cam attached to his glasses. In "Crazy For You, '' she teamed up with Stefan to stop Steve and Laura 's date. Although initially successful, Laura still wanted to date him and Myra vowed never to stop stalking him until he took her back. In the following episode "Crazier For You, '' Steve has learned that Myra was spying on him and confronted her about it. He orders her to stop stalking him and renounce her love for him because he will never take her back and reaffirms his love for Laura. She refused and got Laura falsely arrested for stealing her watch. However, Steve was able to drop the charges when he exposed Myra for stalking him with illegal spy gear and the police pursued criminal charges against her. When she learned of his engagement to Laura, she continued to carry the torch even when he went into space. However, when she tried to pretend to be Urkel 's fiancée, she is caught by an unseen Stefan.
In syndication, Steve is incorporated into the teaser scene of "Rachel 's First Date ''; his first appearance in the original broadcasts is in the 1989 episode "Laura 's First Date '', in which Carl and Eddie separately set up dates for Laura for a dance or party (both terms are used in the episode), and the first thing known about him is that he allegedly ate a mouse, and he later makes reference to a mouse when speaking to Carl, implying that it might be true. Prior to Steve Urkel 's introduction, the show was on the brink of cancellation due to mediocre ratings. After Urkel was introduced, several scripts had to be hastily rewritten to accommodate the character, while several first - season episodes that had been completed had new opening gag sequences filmed featuring Steve trying to push open the Winslows ' front door while the family holds it shut. The addition of Steve immediately helped the show boost its modest ratings. White was credited as a guest star in the first season and became a regular member of the cast in season two.
The Urkel Dance was a novelty dance that originated in the season two episode "Life of the Party ''. It was based around the character of Steve Urkel and essentially incorporated movements which made the dancer 's posture more like his. The lyrics instructed the dancer how to pose:
"If you want to do the Steve Urkel dance, All you have to do is hitch up your pants, Bend your knees, and stick out your pelvis; (I 'm telling you, baby, it 's better than Elvis!) ".
The dance was popular enough to appear on another show, Step by Step, when the Steve Urkel character appeared in a crossover in the season one episode "The Dance ''.
Jaleel White also performed the song, in character as Steve Urkel, on the 5th Annual American Comedy Awards. Bea Arthur (from Maude & The Golden Girls) joined him on stage to "Do The Urkel, '' after which she said, "Hey MC Hammer, try and touch that! ''
A promotional cassette single of the song that accompanies the dance was pressed and distributed in limited numbers. A T - shirt was also produced featuring lyrics and Urkel 's likeness.
Rick Sanchez pays some form of homage to The Urkel Dance with "The Rick Dance '' in the Rick and Morty episode Ricksy Business.
In 2010, Westside Middle School in Memphis, Tennessee outlined its dress code policy on sagging pants, asking students to pull them up or get "Urkeled '', a reference to the character. In this practice, teachers would forcibly pull students ' pants up and attach them to their waist using zip ties. Students would also have their photo taken and posted on a board in the hallway, for all of their classmates to view. In an interview with NBC affiliate WMC - TV, Principal Bobby White stated that the general idea is to fight pop culture with pop culture. One teacher at the school claimed to have "Urkeled '' up to 80 students per week, although after five weeks the number dropped to 18.
At the height of his popularity, Urkel 's name was branded to several products including a short - lived fruit flavored cereal known as Urkel - Os and a Steve Urkel pullstring doll. There was also a T - shirt line that was created in 2002, but was discontinued shortly after its inception.
In 1999, TV Guide ranked Urkel # 27 on its list of the "50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time ''. In 2004, he was listed at # 98 in Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters.
|
we make our money the old fashioned way | John Houseman - wikipedia
John Houseman (born Jacques Haussmann; September 22, 1902 -- October 31, 1988) was a British - American actor and producer who became known for his highly publicized collaboration with director Orson Welles from their days in the Federal Theatre Project through to the production of Citizen Kane and his storied collaboration with writer Raymond Chandler 's intoxicated screenplay rendering as producer of The Blue Dahlia. He is perhaps best known for his role as Professor Charles W. Kingsfield in the film The Paper Chase (1973), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He reprised his role as Kingsfield in the subsequent 1978 television series adaptation.
Houseman was also known for his commercials for the brokerage firm Smith Barney. He had a distinctive Mid-Atlantic English accent, in common with many actors of his generation.
Houseman was born in Bucharest, Romania, on September 22, 1902, the son of May (née Davies) and Georges Haussmann, who ran a grain business. His mother was British, from a Christian family of Welsh and Irish descent. His father was an Alsatian - born Jew. He was educated in England at Clifton College, became a British subject, and worked in the grain trade in London before emigrating to the United States in 1925, where he took the stage name of John Houseman. He became a United States citizen in 1943.
Houseman himself worked as a speculator in the international grain markets, only turning to the theater following the 1929 stock market crash.
On Broadway he co-wrote Three and One (1933) and And Be My Love (1934). Composer Virgil Thomson recruited him to direct Four Saints in Three Acts (1934), Thomson 's collaboration with Gertrude Stein. He later directed The Lady from the Sea (1934), Valley Forge (1934).
In 1934, Houseman was looking to cast Panic, a play he was producing based on a drama by Archibald MacLeish concerning a Wall Street financier whose world crumbles about him when consumed by the crash of 1929. Although the central figure is a man in his late fifties, Houseman became obsessed by the notion that a young man named Orson Welles he had seen in Katharine Cornell 's production of Romeo and Juliet was the only person qualified to play the leading role. Welles consented and, after preliminary conversations, agreed to leave the play he was in after a single night to take the lead in Houseman 's production. Panic opened at the Imperial Theatre on March 15, 1935. Among the cast was Houseman 's ex-wife, Zita Johann, who had co-starred with Boris Karloff three years earlier in Universal 's The Mummy.
Although the play opened to indifferent notices and ran for a mere three performances, it nevertheless led to the forging of a theatrical team, a fruitful but stormy partnership in which Houseman said Welles "was the teacher, I, the apprentice. ''
He supervised the direction of Walk Together Chillun in 1936.
In 1936, the Federal Theatre Project of the Works Progress Administration put unemployed theatre performers and employees to work. The Negro Theatre Unit of the Federal Theatre Project was headed by Rose McClendon, a well - known black actress, and Houseman, a theatre producer. Houseman describes the experience in one of his memoirs:
Within a year of its formation, the Federal Theatre had more than fifteen thousand men and women on its payroll at an average wage of approximately twenty dollars a week. During the four years of its existence its productions played to more than thirty million people in more than two hundred theatres as well as portable stages, school auditoriums and public parks the country over.
Houseman immediately hired Welles and assigned him to direct Macbeth for the FTP 's Negro Theater Unit, a production that became known as the "Voodoo Macbeth '', as it was set in the Haitian court of King Henri Christophe (and with voodoo witch doctors for the three Weird Sisters) and starred Jack Carter in the title role. The incidental music was composed by Virgil Thomson. The play premiered at the Lafayette Theatre on April 14, 1936, to enthusiastic reviews and remained sold out for each of its nightly performances. The play was regarded by critics and patrons as an enormous, if controversial, success. After 10 months with the Negro Theater Project, however, Houseman felt he was faced with the dilemma of risking his future:
... on a partnership with a 20 - year - old boy in whose talent I had unquestioning faith but with whom I must increasingly play the combined and tricky roles of producer, censor, adviser, impresario, father, older brother and bosom friend.
Houseman later produced for the Negro Theatre Unit, Turpentine (1936), without Welles.
In 1936, Houseman and Wells were running a WPA unit in midtown Manhattan for classic productions called Project No. 891. Their first production would be Christopher Marlowe 's Tragical History of Dr. Faustus which Welles directed, also playing the title role.
Houseman and Welles put on Horse Eats Hat (1936). Houseman, without Welles, helped directed Leslie Howard 's production of Hamlet (1936).
In June 1937, Project No. 891 produced their most controversial work with The Cradle Will Rock. Written by Marc Blitzstein the musical was about Larry Foreman, a worker in Steeltown (played in the original production by Howard Da Silva), which is run by the boss, Mister Mister (played in the original production by Will Geer). The show was thought to have had left - wing and unionist sympathies (Foreman ends the show with a song about "unions '' taking over the town and the country), and became legendary as an example of a "censored '' show. Shortly before the show was to open, FTP officials in Washington announced that no productions would open until after July 1, 1937, the beginning of the new fiscal year.
In his memoir, Run - Through, Houseman wrote about the circumstances surrounding the opening night at the Maxine Elliott Theatre. All the performers had been enjoined not to perform on stage for the production when it opened on July 14, 1937. The cast and crew left their government - owned theatre and walked 20 blocks to another theatre, with the audience following. No one knew what to expect; when they got there Blitzstein himself was at the piano and started playing the introduction music. One of the non-professional performers, Olive Stanton, who played the part of Moll, the prostitute, stood up in the audience, and began singing her part. All the other performers, in turn, stood up for their parts. Thus the "oratorio '' version of the show was born. Apparently, Welles had designed some intricate scenery, which ended up never being used. The event was so successful that it was repeated several times on subsequent nights, with everyone trying to remember and reproduce what had happened spontaneously the first night. The incident, however, led to Houseman being fired and Welles 's resignation from Project No. 891.
That same year, 1937, after detaching themselves from the Federal Theatre Project, Houseman and Welles did The Cradle Will Rock as an independent production on Broadway. They also founded the acclaimed New York drama company, the Mercury Theatre. Houseman wrote of their collaboration at this time:
On the broad wings of the Federal eagle, we had risen to success and fame beyond ourselves as America 's youngest, cleverest, most creative and audacious producers to whom none of the ordinary rules of the theater applied.
Armed with a manifesto written by Houseman declaring their intention to foster new talent, experiment with new types of plays, and appeal to the same audiences that frequented the Federal Theater the company was designed largely to offer plays of the past, preferably those that "... seem to have emotion or factual bearing on contemporary life. '' The company mounted several notable productions, the most remarkable being its first commercial production of Julius Caesar. Houseman called the decision to use modern dress "an essential element in Orson 's conception of the play as a political melodrama with clear contemporary parallels. ''
Houseman and Welles later presented The Shoemakers ' Holiday (1938), Heartbreak House (1938) and Danton 's Death (1938).
Beginning in the summer of 1938, the Mercury Theatre was featured in a weekly dramatic radio program on the CBS network, initially promoted as First Person Singular before gaining the official title The Mercury Theatre on the Air. An adaptation of Treasure Island was scheduled for the program 's first broadcast, for which Houseman worked feverishly on the script. However, a week before the show was to air, Welles decided that a program far more dramatic was required. To Houseman 's horror, Treasure Island was abandoned in favor of Bram Stoker 's Dracula, with Welles playing the infamous vampire. During an all night session at Perkins ' Restaurant, Welles and Houseman hashed out a script.
The Mercury Theatre on the Air featured an impressive array of talents, including Agnes Moorehead, Bernard Herrmann, and George Coulouris.
The Mercury Theatre on the Air subsequently became famous for its notorious 1938 radio adaptation of H.G. Wells ' The War of the Worlds, which had put much of the country in a panic. By all accounts, Welles was shocked by the panic that ensued. According to Houseman, "he had n't the faintest idea what the effect would be ''. CBS was inundated with calls; newspaper switchboards were jammed.
Without Welles, Houseman staged The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939).
While Houseman was teaching at Vassar College, he produced Welles ' never - completed second short film, Too Much Johnson (1938). The film was never publicly screened and no print of the film was thought to have survived. Footage was rediscovered in 2013.
The Welles - Houseman collaboration continued in Hollywood. In the spring of 1939, Welles began preliminary discussions with RKO 's head of production, George Schaefer, with Welles and his Mercury players being given a two - picture deal, in which Welles would produce, direct, perform, and have full creative control of his projects.
For his motion picture debut, Welles first considered adapting Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness for the screen. A 200 - page script was written. Some models were constructed, while the shooting of initial test footage had begun. However, little, if anything, had been done either to whittle down the budgetary difficulties or begin filming. When RKO threatened to eliminate the payment of salaries by December 31 if no progress had been made, Welles announced that he would pay his cast out of his own pocket. Houseman proclaimed that there was n't enough money in their business account to pay anyone. During a corporate dinner for the Mercury crew, Welles exploded, calling his partner a "bloodsucker '' and a "crook ''. As Houseman attempted to leave, Welles began hurling dish heaters at him, effectively ending both their partnership and friendship.
Houseman would later, however, play a pivotal role in ushering Citizen Kane (1941), which starred Welles. Welles telephoned Houseman asking him to return uto Hollywood to "babysit '' screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz while he completed the script, and keep him away from alcohol. Still drawn to Welles, as was virtually everyone in his sphere, Houseman agreed. Although Welles took credit for the screenplay of Kane, Houseman stated that the credit belonged to Mankiewicz, an assertion that led to a final break with Welles. Houseman took some credit himself for the general shaping of the story line and for editing the script. In an interview with Penelope Huston for Sight & Sound magazine (Autumn, 1962) Houseman said that the writing of Citizen Kane was a delicate subject:
I think Welles has always sincerely felt that he, single - handed, wrote Citizen Kane and everything else that he has directed -- except, possibly, the plays of Shakespeare. But the script of Kane was essentially Mankiewicz 's. The conception and the structure were his, all the dramatic Hearstian mythology and the journalistic and political wisdom he had been carrying around with him for years and which he now poured into the only serious job he ever did in a lifetime of film writing. But Orson turned Kane into a film: the dynamics and the tensions are his and the brilliant cinematic effects -- all those visual and aural inventions that add up to make Citizen Kane one of the world 's great movies -- those were pure Orson Welles.
In 1975, during an interview with Kate McCauley, Houseman stated that film critic Pauline Kael in her essay "Raising Kane '', had caused an "idiotic controversy '' over the issue: "The argument is Orson 's own fault. He wanted to be given all the credit because he 's a hog. Actually, it is his film. So it 's a ridiculous argument. ''
After he and Welles went their separate ways, Houseman went on to direct The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939) and Liberty Jones (1941) and produced the Mercury Theatre 's stage production of Native Son (1941) on Broadway, directed by Welles.
In Hollywood he became a vice-president of David O. Selznick Productions. His most notable achievement during that time was helping adapt and produce the adaptation of Jane Eyre (1943) which starred Joan Fontaine and Welles.
In the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Houseman quit his job and became the head of the overseas radio division of the Office of War Information (OWI), working for the Voice of America whilst also managing its operations in New York City.
In 1945 Houseman signed a contract with Paramount Pictures to produce movies. His first credit for that studio was The Unseen (1945). He followed it with Miss Susie Slagle 's (1945) and The Blue Dahlia (1946), both with Veronica Lake. The latter, starring Alan Ladd and written by Raymond Chandler, has become a classic.
He left Paramount and returned to Broadway to direct Lute Song (1946) with Mary Martin.
Back in Hollywood he produced Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948) for Max Ophuls at Universal.
Houseman went to RKO where he produced They Live by Night (1948) the directorial debut of Nicholas Ray. He also did The Company She Keeps (1949) and On Dangerous Ground (1951).
He returned to Broadway to produce Joy to the World (1949) and King Lear (1950 - 51), the latter with Louis Calhern.
RKO 's head of production had been Dore Schary. When Schary moved to MGM he offered Houseman a contract at the studio, which the producer accepted.
Houseman 's stint at MGM began with Holiday for Sinners (1952) then he had a huge success with The Bad and the Beautiful (1952), directed by Vincente Minelli. He followed it with the film adaptation of Julius Caesar (1953) (for which he received an Academy Award nomination for "Best Picture)
Also popular was Executive Suite (1954), although Her Twelve Men (1954), Minelli 's The Cobweb (1955) and Fritz Lang 's Moonfleet (1955) all lost money. So too did Lust for Life (1956) a biopic directed by Minelli of Vincent van Gogh, although that was extremely well received critically.
Houseman moved into television producing, notably doing The Seven Lively Arts (1957) and episodes of Playhouse 90.
He also returned to theatre, producing revivals of Measure for Measure (1957) and The Duchess of Malfi (1957).
Houseman was enticed back to MGM as a producer, and given his own production company, John Houseman Productions. His films were All Fall Down (1962), Two Weeks in Another Town (1962) and In the Cool of the Day (1963).
Houseman returned to television where he made The Great Adventure and Journey to America (1964). He returned to Hollywood briefly to produce This Property Is Condemned (1966), then went back to TV for Evening Primrose (1966).
He went back to Broadway directing Pantagleize (1967).
Houseman became the founding director of the Drama Division at The Juilliard School, and held this position from 1968 until 1976. The first graduating class in 1972 included Kevin Kline and Patti LuPone; subsequent classes under Houseman 's leadership included Christopher Reeve, Mandy Patinkin, and Robin Williams.
Unwilling to see that very first class disbanded upon graduation, Houseman and his Juilliard colleague Margot Harley formed them into an independent, touring repertory company they named the "Group 1 Acting Company. '' The organization was subsequently renamed The Acting Company, and has been active for more than 40 years. Houseman served as the producing artistic director through 1986, and Harley has been the Company 's producer since its founding. Writing in The New York Times in 1996, Mel Gussow called it "the major touring classical theater in the United States. ''
Houseman continued to be involved in theatre, producing The School for Wives (1971), The Three Sisters (1973), The Beggar 's Opera (1973), Scapin (1973), Next Time I 'll Sing to You (1974), The Robber Bridegroom (1975), Edward II (1975), and The Time of Your Life (1975)
He directed The Country Girl (1972), Don Juan in Hell (1973), Measure for Measure (1973), and Clarence Darrow (1974) (with Henry Fonda).
Houseman had acted occasionally during the early part of his career and he had briefly appeared in Seven Days in May (1964).
Houseman first became widely known to the public for his Golden Globe and Academy Award - winning role as Professor Charles Kingsfield in the film The Paper Chase (1973). The film was a success and launched Houseman into an unexpected late career as a character actor.
Houseman played Energy Corporation Executive Bartholomew in the film Rollerball (1975), and was in the thrillers Three Days of the Condor (1975) and St Ives (1976).
Houseman appeared on TV in Fear on Trial (1975), The Adams Chronicles (1976), Truman at Potsdam (1976), Hazard 's People (1976) and Six Characters in Search of an Author (1976). Houseman was reunited in 1976 with The Paper Chase co-star Lindsay Wagner in "Kill Oscar '', a three - part joint episode of the popular science - fiction series The Bionic Woman and The Six Million Dollar Man as the scientific genius Dr. Franklin.
He continued appearing on TV in Captains and the Kings (1976), The Displaced Person (1977), a version of Our Town (1977), Washington: Behind Closed Doors (1977), The Best of Families (1977), Aspen, The Last Convertible (1978), The French Atlantic Affair (1978) and The Associates (1980).
In films he parodied Sydney Greenstreet in the Neil Simon film The Cheap Detective (1978) and was in Old Boyfriends (1980), John Carpenter 's The Fog (1980), Wholly Moses! (1981) and My Bodyguard (1981).
Houseman briefly returned to producing with the TV movie Gideon 's Trumpet (1980), which he also appeared in and Choices of the Heart (1983). He produced one more show on Broadway The Curse of an Aching Heart (1982).
He acted in The Babysitter (1980), A Christmas Without Snow (1980), Ghost Story (1981), Mork & Mindy, Murder by Phone (1982) (second billed), Marco Polo (1982), and American Playhouse (1982).
In the 1980s Houseman became more widely known for his role as grandfather Edward Stratton II in Silver Spoons, which starred Rick Schroder, and for his commercials for brokerage firm Smith Barney, which featured the catchphrase, "They make money the old fashioned way... they earn it. '' Another was Puritan brand cooking oil, with "less saturated fat than the leading oil '', featuring the famous ' tomato test '.
He played Jewish author Aaron Jastrow (loosely based on the real life figure of Bernard Berenson) in the highly acclaimed 1983 miniseries The Winds of War (receiving a fourth Golden Globe nomination). He declined to reprise the role when the sequel War and Remembrance was made into a miniseries (the role then went to Sir John Gielgud).
However he was in the miniseries A.D. (1984), Noble House (1986), and Lincoln (1986).
Having played a Harvard Law School professor in the film The Paper Chase (1973), he reprised the role in a television series of the same name which ran from 1978 to 1986. During that time he received two Golden Globe nominations for "Best Actor in a TV Series -- Drama ''.
Later film appearances included Bright Lights, Big City (1988) and Another Woman (1988).
In 1988, he appeared in his last two roles -- cameos in the films The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! and Scrooged. He played himself in the latter. Both films were released after his death.
On October 31, 1988, Houseman died at age 86 of spinal cancer at his home in Malibu, California.
Houseman was portrayed by Cary Elwes in the Tim Robbins - directed film Cradle Will Rock (1999). Actor Eddie Marsan plays the role of Houseman in Richard Linklater 's film Me & Orson Welles (2009). Houseman was played by actor Jonathan Rigby in the Doctor Who audio drama Invaders from Mars set around the War of the Worlds broadcast.
|
when does gone with the wind come on tv | Gone with the Wind (film) - wikipedia
Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film, adapted from Margaret Mitchell 's 1936 novel of the same name. The film was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures and directed by Victor Fleming. Set in the American South against the backdrop of the American Civil War and the Reconstruction era, the film tells the story of Scarlett O'Hara, the strong - willed daughter of a Georgia plantation owner. It follows her romantic pursuit of Ashley Wilkes, who is married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, and her subsequent marriage to Rhett Butler. The leading roles are played by Vivien Leigh (Scarlett), Clark Gable (Rhett), Leslie Howard (Ashley), and Olivia de Havilland (Melanie).
Production was difficult from the start. Filming was delayed for two years because of Selznick 's determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler, and the "search for Scarlett '' led to 1,400 women being interviewed for the part. The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard and underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length. The original director, George Cukor, was fired shortly after filming began and was replaced by Fleming, who in turn was briefly replaced by Sam Wood while Fleming took some time off due to exhaustion.
The film received positive reviews upon its release, in December 1939, although some reviewers found it overlong. The casting was widely praised, and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett. At the 12th Academy Awards, it received ten Academy Awards (eight competitive, two honorary) from thirteen nominations, including wins for Best Picture, Best Director (Fleming), Best Adapted Screenplay (posthumously awarded to Sidney Howard), Best Actress (Leigh), and Best Supporting Actress (Hattie McDaniel, becoming the first African American to win an Academy Award). It set records for the total number of wins and nominations at the time. The film has been criticized as historical revisionism glorifying slavery, and it has been credited with triggering changes in the way in which African Americans are depicted cinematically.
Gone with the Wind was immensely popular when first released. It became the highest - earning film made up to that point, and held the record for over a quarter of a century. When adjusted for monetary inflation, it is still the most successful film in box - office history. It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture. The film is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time; it has placed in the top ten of the American Film Institute 's list of the top 100 American films since the list 's inception in 1998; and, in 1989, the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry.
On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861, Scarlett O'Hara lives at Tara, her family 's cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents and two sisters. Scarlett learns that Ashley Wilkes -- whom she secretly loves -- is to be married to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton, and the engagement is to be announced the next day at a barbecue at Ashley 's home, the nearby plantation Twelve Oaks.
At the Twelve Oaks party, Scarlett privately declares her feelings to Ashley, but he rebuffs her by responding that he and Melanie are more compatible. Scarlett is incensed when she discovers another guest, Rhett Butler, has overheard their conversation. The barbecue is disrupted by the declaration of war and the men rush to enlist. As Scarlett watches Ashley kiss Melanie goodbye, Melanie 's younger brother Charles proposes to her. Although she does not love him, Scarlett consents and they are married before he leaves to fight.
Scarlett is widowed when Charles dies from a bout of pneumonia and measles while serving in the Confederate Army. Scarlett 's mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta to cheer her up, although the O'Haras ' outspoken house slave Mammy tells Scarlett she knows she is going there only to wait for Ashley 's return. Scarlett, who should not attend a party while in mourning, attends a charity bazaar in Atlanta with Melanie where she meets Rhett again, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy. Celebrating a Confederate victory and to raise money for the Confederate war effort, gentlemen are invited to bid for ladies to dance with them. Rhett makes an inordinately large bid for Scarlett and, to the disapproval of the guests, she agrees to dance with him.
The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg in which many of the men of Scarlett 's town are killed. Scarlett makes another unsuccessful appeal to Ashley while he is visiting on Christmas furlough, although they do share a private and passionate kiss in the parlor on Christmas Day, just before he returns to war.
Eight months later, as the city is besieged by the Union Army in the Atlanta Campaign, Scarlett and her young house slave Prissy must deliver Melanie 's baby without medical assistance after she goes into premature labor. Afterwards, Scarlett calls upon Rhett to take her home to Tara with Melanie, her baby, and Prissy; he collects them in a horse and wagon, but once out of the city chooses to go off to fight, leaving Scarlett and the group to make their own way back to Tara. Upon her return home, Scarlett finds Tara deserted, except for her father, her sisters, and two former slaves: Mammy and Pork. Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of typhoid fever and her father has become incompetent. With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself.
As the O'Haras work in the cotton fields, Scarlett 's father is killed after he is thrown from his horse in an attempt to chase away a scalawag from his land. With the defeat of the Confederacy Ashley also returns, but finds he is of little help at Tara. When Scarlett begs him to run away with her, he confesses his desire for her and kisses her passionately, but says he can not leave Melanie. Unable to pay the taxes on Tara implemented by Reconstructionists, Scarlett dupes her younger sister Suellen 's fiancé, the middle - aged and wealthy mill owner Frank Kennedy, into marrying her, by saying Suellen got tired of waiting and married another beau.
Frank, Ashley, Rhett and several other accomplices make a night raid on a shanty town after Scarlett is attacked while driving through it alone, resulting in Frank 's death. With Frank 's funeral barely over, Rhett proposes to Scarlett and she accepts. They have a daughter whom Rhett names Bonnie Blue, but Scarlett, still pining for Ashley and chagrined at the perceived ruin of her figure, lets Rhett know that she wants no more children and that they will no longer share a bed.
One day at Frank 's mill, Scarlett and Ashley are seen embracing by Ashley 's sister, India, and harboring an intense dislike of Scarlett she eagerly spreads rumors. Later that evening, Rhett, having heard the rumors, forces Scarlett to attend a birthday party for Ashley; incapable of believing anything bad of her beloved sister - in - law, Melanie stands by Scarlett 's side so that all know that she believes the gossip to be false. After returning home from the party, Scarlett finds Rhett downstairs drunk, and they argue about Ashley. Rhett kisses Scarlett against her will, stating his intent to have sex with her that night, and carries the struggling Scarlett to the bedroom. The next day, Rhett apologizes for his behavior and offers Scarlett a divorce, which she rejects, saying that it would be a disgrace. When Rhett returns from an extended trip to London, Scarlett informs him that she is pregnant, but an argument ensues which results in her falling down a flight of stairs and suffering a miscarriage. As she is recovering, tragedy strikes when Bonnie dies while attempting to jump a fence with her pony.
Scarlett and Rhett visit Melanie, who has suffered complications arising from a new pregnancy, on her deathbed. As Scarlett consoles Ashley, Rhett prepares to return to their home in Atlanta. Having realized that it was he she truly loved all along, and not Ashley, Scarlett pleads with Rhett to stay, but Rhett rebuffs her and storms off into the morning fog, leaving her weeping on the staircase and vowing to one day win back his love.
Despite receiving top - billing in the opening credits, Gable -- along with Leigh, Howard, and de Havilland who receive second, third and fourth billing respectively -- has a relatively low placing in the cast list, due to its unusual structure. Rather than ordered by conventional billing, the cast is broken down into three sections: the Tara plantation, Twelve Oaks, and Atlanta. The cast 's names are ordered according to the social rank of the characters; therefore Thomas Mitchell, who plays Gerald O'Hara, leads the cast list as the head of the O'Hara family, while Barbara O'Neil as his wife receives the second credit and Vivien Leigh as the eldest daughter the third credit, despite having the most screen time. Similarly, Howard C. Hickman as John Wilkes is credited over Leslie Howard who plays his son, and Clark Gable, who plays only a visitor at Twelve Oaks, receives a relatively low credit in the cast list, despite being presented as the "star '' of the film in all the promotional literature. Following the death of Mary Anderson -- who played Maybelle Merriwether -- in April 2014, there are only two surviving credited cast members from the film: Olivia de Havilland, who played Melanie Wilkes; and Mickey Kuhn, who played her son, Beau.
Before publication of the novel, several Hollywood executives and studios declined to create a film based on it, including Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg at Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM), Pandro Berman at RKO Pictures, and David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures. Jack L. Warner liked the story, but Warner Bros. 's biggest star Bette Davis was uninterested, and Darryl Zanuck of 20th Century - Fox did not offer enough money. Selznick changed his mind after his story editor Kay Brown and business partner John Hay Whitney urged him to buy the film rights. In July 1936 -- a month after it was published -- Selznick bought the rights for $50,000.
The casting of the two lead roles became a complex, two - year endeavor. For the role of Rhett Butler, Selznick wanted Clark Gable from the start, but Gable was under contract to MGM, which never loaned him to other studios. Gary Cooper was considered, but Samuel Goldwyn -- to whom Cooper was under contract -- refused to loan him out. Warner offered a package of Bette Davis, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland for lead roles in return for the distribution rights. By this time, Selznick was determined to get Gable and eventually struck a deal with MGM. Selznick 's father - in - law, MGM chief Louis B. Mayer, offered in August 1938 to provide Gable and $1,250,000 for half of the film 's budget but for a high price: Selznick would have to pay Gable 's weekly salary, and half the profits would go to MGM while Loew 's, Inc -- MGM 's parent company -- would release the film.
The arrangement to release through MGM meant delaying the start of production until the end of 1938, when Selznick 's distribution deal with United Artists concluded. Selznick used the delay to continue to revise the script and, more importantly, build publicity for the film by searching for the role of Scarlett. Selznick began a nationwide casting call that interviewed 1,400 unknowns. The effort cost $100,000 and was useless for the film, but created "priceless '' publicity. Early frontrunners included Miriam Hopkins and Tallulah Bankhead, who were regarded as possibilities by Selznick prior to the purchase of the film rights; Joan Crawford, who was signed to MGM, was also considered as a potential pairing with Gable. After a deal was struck with MGM, Selznick held discussions with Norma Shearer -- who was MGM 's top female star at the time -- but she withdrew herself from consideration. Katharine Hepburn lobbied hard for the role with the support of her friend, George Cukor, who had been hired to direct, but she was vetoed by Selznick who felt she was not right for the part.
Many famous -- or soon - to - be-famous -- actresses were considered, but only thirty - one women were actually screen - tested for Scarlett including Ardis Ankerson, Jean Arthur, Tallulah Bankhead, Diana Barrymore, Joan Bennett, Nancy Coleman, Frances Dee, Ellen Drew (as Terry Ray), Paulette Goddard, Susan Hayward (under her real name of Edythe Marrenner), Vivien Leigh, Anita Louise, Haila Stoddard, Margaret Tallichet, Lana Turner and Linda Watkins. Although Margaret Mitchell refused to publicly name her choice, the actress who came closest to winning her approval was Miriam Hopkins, who Mitchell felt was just the right type of actress to play Scarlett as written in the book. However, Hopkins was in her mid-thirties at the time and was considered too old for the part. Four actresses, including Jean Arthur and Joan Bennett, were still under consideration by December 1938; however, only two finalists, Paulette Goddard and Vivien Leigh, were tested in Technicolor, both on December 20. Goddard almost won the role, but controversy over her marriage with Charlie Chaplin caused Selznick to change his mind.
Selznick had been quietly considering Vivien Leigh, a young English actress who was still little known in America, for the role of Scarlett since February 1938 when Selznick saw her in Fire Over England and A Yank at Oxford. Leigh 's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency (headed by David Selznick 's brother, one of the owners of Selznick International), and she had requested in February that her name be submitted for consideration as Scarlett. By the summer of 1938 the Selznicks were negotiating with Alexander Korda, to whom Leigh was under contract, for her services later that year. Selznick 's brother arranged for them to meet for the first time on the night of December 10, 1938, when the burning of Atlanta was filmed. In a letter to his wife two days later, Selznick admitted that Leigh was "the Scarlett dark horse '', and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939. Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed newspaper columnist Ed Sullivan: "Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish. Identically, Miss Leigh 's parents are French and Irish. ''
Of original screenplay writer Sidney Howard, film historian Joanne Yeck writes, "reducing the intricacies of Gone with the Wind 's epic dimensions was a herculean task... and Howard 's first submission was far too long, and would have required at least six hours of film;... (producer) Selznick wanted Howard to remain on the set to make revisions... but Howard refused to leave New England (and) as a result, revisions were handled by a host of local writers ''. Selznick dismissed director George Cukor three weeks into filming and sought out Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz at the time. Fleming was dissatisfied with the script, so Selznick brought in famed writer Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days. Hecht returned to Howard 's original draft and by the end of the week had succeeded in revising the entire first half of the script. Selznick undertook rewriting the second half himself but fell behind schedule, so Howard returned to work on the script for one week, reworking several key scenes in part two.
"By the time of the film 's release in 1939, there was some question as to who should receive screen credit, '' writes Yeck. "But despite the number of writers and changes, the final script was remarkably close to Howard 's version. The fact that Howard 's name alone appears on the credits may have been as much a gesture to his memory as to his writing, for in 1939 Sidney Howard died at age 48 in a farm - tractor accident, and before the movie 's premiere. '' Selznick, in a memo written in October 1939, discussed the film 's writing credits: "(Y) ou can say frankly that of the comparatively small amount of material in the picture which is not from the book, most is my own personally, and the only original lines of dialog which are not my own are a few from Sidney Howard and a few from Ben Hecht and a couple more from John Van Druten. Offhand I doubt that there are ten original words of (Oliver) Garrett 's in the whole script. As to construction, this is about eighty per cent my own, and the rest divided between Jo Swerling and Sidney Howard, with Hecht having contributed materially to the construction of one sequence. ''
According to Hecht biographer, William MacAdams, "At dawn on Sunday, February 20, 1939, David Selznick... and director Victor Fleming shook Hecht awake to inform him he was on loan from MGM and must come with them immediately and go to work on Gone with the Wind, which Selznick had begun shooting five weeks before. It was costing Selznick $50,000 each day the film was on hold waiting for a final screenplay rewrite and time was of the essence. Hecht was in the middle of working on the film At the Circus for the Marx Brothers. Recalling the episode in a letter to screenwriter friend Gene Fowler, he said he had n't read the novel but Selznick and director Fleming could not wait for him to read it. They would act out scenes based on Sidney Howard 's original script which needed to be rewritten in a hurry. Hecht wrote, "After each scene had been performed and discussed, I sat down at the typewriter and wrote it out. Selznick and Fleming, eager to continue with their acting, kept hurrying me. We worked in this fashion for seven days, putting in eighteen to twenty hours a day. Selznick refused to let us eat lunch, arguing that food would slow us up. He provided bananas and salted peanuts... thus on the seventh day I had completed, unscathed, the first nine reels of the Civil War epic. ''
MacAdams writes, "It is impossible to determine exactly how much Hecht scripted... In the official credits filed with the Screen Writers Guild, Sidney Howard was of course awarded the sole screen credit, but four other writers were appended... Jo Swerling for contributing to the treatment, Oliver H.P. Garrett and Barbara Keon to screenplay construction, and Hecht, to dialogue... ''
Principal photography began January 26, 1939, and ended on July 1, with post-production work continuing until November 11, 1939. Director George Cukor, with whom Selznick had a long working relationship, and who had spent almost two years in pre-production on Gone with the Wind, was replaced after less than three weeks of shooting. Selznick and Cukor had already disagreed over the pace of filming and the script, but other explanations put Cukor 's departure down to Gable 's discomfort at working with him. Emanuel Levy, Cukor 's biographer, claimed that Clark Gable had worked Hollywood 's gay circuit as a hustler and that Cukor knew of his past, so Gable used his influence to have him discharged. Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland learned of Cukor 's firing on the day the Atlanta bazaar scene was filmed, and the pair went to Selznick 's office in full costume and implored him to change his mind. Victor Fleming, who was directing The Wizard of Oz, was called in from MGM to complete the picture, although Cukor continued privately to coach Leigh and De Havilland. Another MGM director, Sam Wood, worked for two weeks in May when Fleming temporarily left the production due to exhaustion. Although some of Cukor 's scenes were later reshot, Selznick estimated that "three solid reels '' of his work remained in the picture. As of the end of principal photography, Cukor had undertaken eighteen days of filming, Fleming ninety - three, and Wood twenty - four.
Cinematographer Lee Garmes began the production, but on March 11, 1939 -- after a month of shooting footage that Selznick and his associates regarded as "too dark '' -- was replaced with Ernest Haller, working with Technicolor cinematographer Ray Rennahan. Garmes completed the first third of the film -- mostly everything prior to Melanie having the baby -- but did not receive a credit. Most of the filming was done on "the back forty '' of Selznick International with all the location scenes being photographed in California, mostly in Los Angeles County or neighboring Ventura County. Tara, the fictional Southern plantation house, existed only as a plywood and papier - mâché facade built on the Selznick studio lot. For the burning of Atlanta, new false facades were built in front of the Selznick backlot 's many old abandoned sets, and Selznick himself operated the controls for the explosives that burned them down. Sources at the time put the estimated production costs at $3.85 million, making it the second most expensive film made up to that point, with only Ben - Hur (1925) having cost more.
Although legend persists that the Hays Office fined Selznick $5,000 for using the word "damn '' in Butler 's exit line, in fact the Motion Picture Association board passed an amendment to the Production Code on November 1, 1939, that forbade use of the words "hell '' or "damn '' except when their use "shall be essential and required for portrayal, in proper historical context, of any scene or dialogue based upon historical fact or folklore... or a quotation from a literary work, provided that no such use shall be permitted which is intrinsically objectionable or offends good taste. '' With that amendment, the Production Code Administration had no further objection to Rhett 's closing line.
To compose the score, Selznick chose Max Steiner, with whom he had worked at RKO Pictures in the early 1930s. Warner Bros. -- who had contracted Steiner in 1936 -- agreed to lend him to Selznick. Steiner spent twelve weeks working on the score, the longest period that he had ever spent writing one, and at two hours and thirty - six minutes long it was also the longest that he had ever written. Five orchestrators were hired, including Hugo Friedhofer, Maurice de Packh, Bernard Kaun, Adolph Deutsch and Reginald Bassett. The score is characterized by two love themes, one for Ashley 's and Melanie 's sweet love and another that evokes Scarlett 's passion for Ashley, though notably there is no Scarlett and Rhett love theme. Steiner drew considerably on folk and patriotic music, which included Stephen Foster tunes such as "Louisiana Belle, '' "Dolly Day, '' "Ringo De Banjo, '' "Beautiful Dreamer, '' "Old Folks at Home, '' and "Katie Belle, '' which formed the basis of Scarlett 's theme; other tunes that feature prominently are: "Marching through Georgia '' by Henry Clay Work, "Dixie, '' "Garryowen '' and "The Bonnie Blue Flag. '' The theme that is most associated with the film today is the melody that accompanies Tara, the O'Hara plantation; in the early 1940s, "Tara 's Theme '' formed the musical basis of the song "My Own True Love '' by Mack David. In all, there are ninety - nine separate pieces of music featured in the score. Due to the pressure of completing on time, Steiner received some assistance in composing from Friedhofer, Deutsch and Heinz Roemheld, and in addition, two short cues -- by Franz Waxman and William Axt -- were taken from scores in the MGM library.
On September 9, 1939, Selznick, his wife, Irene, investor John "Jock '' Whitney and film editor Hal Kern drove out to Riverside, California to preview it at the Fox Theatre. The film was still a rough cut at this stage, missing completed titles and lacking special optical effects. It ran for four hours and twenty - five minutes, but would later be cut down to under four hours for its proper release. A double bill of Hawaiian Nights and Beau Geste was playing, and after the first feature it was announced that the theater would be screening a preview; the audience were informed they could leave but would not be readmitted once the film had begun, nor would phone calls be allowed once the theater had been sealed. When the title appeared on the screen the audience cheered, and after it had finished it received a standing ovation. In his biography of Selznick, David Thomson wrote that the audience 's response before the film had even started "was the greatest moment of (Selznick 's) life, the greatest victory and redemption of all his failings '', with Selznick describing the preview cards as "probably the most amazing any picture has ever had. '' When Selznick was asked by the press in early September how he felt about the film, he said: "At noon I think it 's divine, at midnight I think it 's lousy. Sometimes I think it 's the greatest picture ever made. But if it 's only a great picture, I 'll still be satisfied. ''
About 300,000 people came out in Atlanta for the film 's premiere at the Loew 's Grand Theatre on December 15, 1939. It was the climax of three days of festivities hosted by Mayor William B. Hartsfield, which included a parade of limousines featuring stars from the film, receptions, thousands of Confederate flags and a costume ball. Eurith D. Rivers, the governor of Georgia, declared December 15 a state holiday. An estimated three hundred thousand residents and visitors to Atlanta lined the streets for up to seven miles to watch a procession of limousines bring the stars from the airport. Only Leslie Howard and Victor Fleming chose not to attend: Howard had returned to England due to the outbreak of World War II, and Fleming had fallen out with Selznick and declined to attend any of the premieres. Hattie McDaniel was also absent, as she and the other black cast members were prevented from attending the premiere due to Georgia 's Jim Crow laws, which would have kept them from sitting with their white colleagues. Upon learning that McDaniel had been barred from the premiere, Clark Gable threatened to boycott the event, but McDaniel convinced him to attend. President Jimmy Carter would later recall it as "the biggest event to happen in the South in my lifetime. '' Premieres in New York and Los Angeles followed, the latter attended by some of the actresses that had been considered for the part of Scarlett, among them Paulette Goddard, Norma Shearer and Joan Crawford.
From December 1939 to July 1940, the film played only advance - ticket road show engagements at a limited number of theaters at prices upwards of $1 -- more than double the price of a regular first - run feature -- with MGM collecting an unprecedented 70 percent of the box office receipts (as opposed to the typical 30 -- 35 percent of the period). After reaching saturation as a roadshow, MGM revised its terms to a 50 percent cut and halved the prices, before it finally entered general release in 1941 at "popular '' prices. Along with its distribution and advertising costs, total expenditure on the film was as high as $7 million.
In 1942, Selznick liquidated his company for tax reasons, and sold his share in Gone with the Wind to his business partner, John Whitney, for $500,000. In turn, Whitney sold it on to MGM for $2.8 million, so that the studio owned the film outright. MGM immediately re-released the film in spring 1942, and again in 1947 and 1954; the 1954 reissue was the first time the film was shown in widescreen, compromising the original Academy ratio and cropping the top and bottom to an aspect ratio of 1.75: 1. In doing so, a number of shots were optically re-framed and cut into the three - strip camera negatives, forever altering five shots in the film. A 1961 release commemorated the centennial anniversary of the start of the Civil War, and included a gala "premiere '' at the Loew 's Grand Theater. It was attended by Selznick and many other stars of the film, including Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland; Clark Gable had died the previous year. For its 1967 re-release, it was blown up to 70mm, and issued with updated poster artwork featuring Gable -- with his white shirt ripped open -- holding Leigh against a backdrop of orange flames. There were further re-releases in 1971, 1974 and 1989; for the fiftieth anniversary reissue in 1989, it was given a complete audio and video restoration. It was released theatrically one more time in the United States, in 1998. In 2013, a 4K digital restoration was released in the United Kingdom to coincide with Vivien Leigh 's centenary. In 2014, special screenings were scheduled over a two - day period at theaters across the United States to coincide with the film 's 75th anniversary.
The film received its world television premiere on the HBO cable network on June 11, 1976, and played on the channel for a total of fourteen times throughout the rest of the month. It made its network television debut in November later that year: NBC paid $5 million for a one - off airing, and it was broadcast in two parts on successive evenings. It became at that time the highest - rated television program ever presented on a single network, watched by 47.5 percent of the households sampled in America, and 65 percent of television viewers, still the record for the highest rated film to ever air on television. In 1978, CBS signed a deal worth $35 million to broadcast the film twenty times over as many years. Turner Entertainment acquired the MGM film library in 1986, but the deal did not include the television rights to Gone with the Wind, which were still held by CBS. A deal was struck in which the rights were returned to Turner Entertainment and CBS 's broadcast rights to The Wizard of Oz were extended. It was used to launch two cable channels owned by Turner Broadcasting System: Turner Network Television (1988) and Turner Classic Movies (1994). It debuted on videocassette in March 1985, where it placed second in the sales charts, and has since been released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc formats.
Upon its release, consumer magazines and newspapers generally gave Gone with the Wind excellent reviews; however, while its production values, technical achievements, and scale of ambition were universally recognized, some reviewers of the time found the film to be too long and dramatically unconvincing. Frank S. Nugent for The New York Times best summed up the general sentiment by acknowledging that while it was the most ambitious film production made up to that point, it probably was not the greatest film ever made, but he nevertheless found it to be an "interesting story beautifully told ''. Franz Hoellering of The Nation was of the same opinion: "The result is a film which is a major event in the history of the industry but only a minor achievement in motion - picture art. There are moments when the two categories meet on good terms, but the long stretches between are filled with mere spectacular efficiency. ''
While the film was praised for its fidelity to the novel, this aspect was also singled out as the main factor in contributing to the lengthy running time. John C. Flinn wrote for Variety that Selznick had "left too much in '', and that as entertainment, the film would have benefited if repetitious scenes and dialog from the latter part of the story had been trimmed. The Manchester Guardian felt that the film 's one serious drawback was that the story lacked the epic quality to justify the outlay of time and found the second half, which focuses on Scarlett 's "irrelevant marriages '' and "domestic squabbles, '' mostly superfluous, and the sole reason for their inclusion had been "simply because Margaret Mitchell wrote it that way ''. The Guardian believed that if "the story had been cut short and tidied up at the point marked by the interval, and if the personal drama had been made subservient to a cinematic treatment of the central theme -- the collapse and devastation of the Old South -- then Gone With the Wind might have been a really great film. '' Likewise, Hoellering also found the second half of the film to be weaker than the first half: identifying the Civil War to be the driving force of the first part while the characters dominate in the second part, he concluded this is where the main fault of the picture lay, commenting that "the characters alone do not suffice ''. Despite many excellent scenes, he considered the drama to be unconvincing and that the "psychological development '' had been neglected.
Much of the praise was reserved for the casting, with Vivien Leigh in particular being singled out for her performance as Scarlett. Nugent described her as the "pivot of the picture '' and believed her to be "so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable ''. Similarly, Hoellering found her "perfect '' in "appearance and movements ''; he felt her acting best when she was allowed to "accentuate the split personality she portrays '' and thought she was particularly effective in such moments of characterization like the morning after the marital rape scene. Flinn also found Leigh suited to the role physically and felt she was best in the scenes where she displays courage and determination, such as the escape from Atlanta and when Scarlett kills a Yankee deserter. Leigh won in the Best Actress category for her performance at the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Awards. Of Clark Gable 's performance as Rhett Butler, Flinn felt the characterization was "as close to Miss Mitchell 's conception -- and the audience 's -- as might be imagined '', a view which Nugent concurred with, although Hoellering felt that Gable did n't quite convince in the closing scenes, as Rhett walks out on Scarlett in disgust. Of the other principal cast members, both Hoellering and Flinn found Leslie Howard to be "convincing '' as the weak - willed Ashley, with Flinn identifying Olivia de Havilland as a "standout '' as Melanie; Nugent was also especially taken with de Havilland 's performance, describing it as a "gracious, dignified, tender gem of characterization ''. Hattie McDaniel 's performance as Mammy was singled out for praise by many critics: Nugent believed she gave the best performance in the film after Vivien Leigh, with Flinn placing it third after Leigh 's and Gable 's performances.
At the 12th Academy Awards, Gone with the Wind set a record for Academy Award wins and nominations, winning in eight of the competitive categories it was nominated in, from a total of thirteen nominations. It won for Best Picture, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Editing, and received two further honorary awards for its use of equipment and color (it also became the first color film to win Best Picture). Its record of eight competitive wins stood until Gigi (1958) won nine, and its overall record of ten was broken by Ben - Hur (1959) which won eleven. Gone with the Wind also held the record for most nominations until All About Eve (1950) secured fourteen. It was the longest American sound film made up to that point, and may still hold the record of the longest Best Picture winner depending on how it is interpreted. The running time for Gone with the Wind is just under 221 minutes, while Lawrence of Arabia (1962) runs for just over 222 minutes; however, including the overture, intermission, entr'acte, and exit music, Gone with the Wind lasts for 234 minutes (although some sources put its full length at 238 minutes) while Lawrence of Arabia comes in slightly shorter at 232 minutes with its additional components.
Hattie McDaniel became the first African - American to win an Academy Award -- beating out her co-star Olivia de Havilland who was also nominated in the same category -- but was racially segregated from her co-stars at the awards ceremony at the Coconut Grove; she and her escort were made to sit at a separate table at the back of the room. Meanwhile, screenwriter Sidney Howard became the first posthumous Oscar winner and Selznick personally received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his career achievements.
Black commentators criticised the film for its depiction of black people and as a glorification of slavery. Carlton Moss, a black dramatist, complained in an open letter that whereas The Birth of a Nation was a "frontal attack on American history and the Negro people '', Gone with the Wind was a "rear attack on the same ''. He went on to dismiss it as a "nostalgic plea for sympathy for a still living cause of Southern reaction ''. Moss further criticized the stereotypical black characterizations, such as the "shiftless and dull - witted Pork '', the "indolent and thoroughly irresponsible Prissy '', Big Sam 's "radiant acceptance of slavery '', and Mammy with her "constant haranguing and doting on every wish of Scarlett ''. Following Hattie McDaniel 's Oscar win, Walter Francis White, leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, accused her of being an Uncle Tom. McDaniel responded that she would "rather make seven hundred dollars a week playing a maid than seven dollars being one ''; she further questioned White 's qualification to speak on behalf of blacks, since he was light - skinned and only one - eighth black.
Opinion in the black community was generally divided upon release, with the film being called by some a "weapon of terror against black America '' and an insult to black audiences, and demonstrations were held in various cities. Even so, some sections of the black community recognized McDaniel 's achievements to be representative of progression: some African - Americans crossed picket lines and praised McDaniel 's warm and witty characterization, while others hoped that the industry 's recognition of her work would lead to increased visibility on screen for other black actors. In its editorial congratulation to McDaniel on winning her Academy Award, Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life used the film as reminder of the "limit '' put on black aspiration by old prejudices. Malcolm X would later recall that "when Butterfly McQueen went into her act, I felt like crawling under the rug ''.
Upon its release, Gone with the Wind broke attendance records everywhere. At the Capitol Theatre in New York alone, it was averaging eleven thousand admissions per day in late December, and within four years of its release had sold an estimated sixty million tickets across the United States -- sales equivalent to just under half the population at the time. It repeated its success overseas, and was a sensational hit during the Blitz in London, opening in April 1940 and playing for four years. By the time MGM withdrew it from circulation at the end of 1943 its worldwide distribution had returned a gross rental (the studio 's share of the box office gross) of $32 million, making it the most profitable film ever made up to that point.
Even though it earned its investors roughly twice as much as the previous record - holder, The Birth of a Nation, the box - office performances of the two films were likely much closer. The bulk of the earnings from Gone with the Wind came from its roadshow and first - run engagements, which represented 70 percent and 50 percent of the box - office gross respectively, before entering general release (which at the time typically saw the distributor 's share set at 30 -- 35 percent of the gross). In the case of The Birth of a Nation, its distributor, Epoch, sold off many of its distribution territories on a "states rights '' basis -- which typically amounted to 10 percent of the box - office gross -- and Epoch 's accounts are only indicative of its own profits from the film, and not the local distributors. Carl E. Milliken, secretary of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors Association, estimated that The Birth of a Nation had been seen by fifty million people by 1930.
When it was re-released in 1947, it earned an impressive $5 million rental in the United States and Canada, and was one of the top ten releases of the year. Successful re-releases in 1954 and 1961 enabled it to retain its position as the industry 's top earner, despite strong challenges from more recent films such as Ben - Hur, but it was finally overtaken by The Sound of Music in 1966. The 1967 reissue was unusual in that MGM opted to roadshow it, a decision that turned it into the most successful re-release in the history of the industry. It generated a box - office gross of $68 million, making it MGM 's most lucrative picture after Doctor Zhivago from the latter half of the decade. MGM earned a rental of $41 million from the release, with the U.S. and Canadian share amounting to over $30 million, placing it second only to The Graduate for that year. Including its $6.7 million rental from the 1961 reissue, it was the fourth highest - earner of the decade in the North American market, with only The Sound of Music, The Graduate and Doctor Zhivago making more for their distributors. A further re-release in 1971 allowed it to briefly recapture the record from The Sound of Music, bringing its total worldwide gross rental to about $116 million by the end of 1971 -- more than trebling its earnings from its initial release -- before losing the record again the following year to The Godfather.
Across all releases, it is estimated that Gone with the Wind has sold over 200 million tickets in the United States and Canada, generating more theater admissions in that territory than any other film. The film was phenomenally successful in Western Europe too, generating approximately 35 million tickets in the United Kingdom and over 16 million in France, respectively becoming the biggest and sixth - biggest ticket - sellers in those markets. In total, Gone with the Wind has grossed over $390 million globally at the box office; in 2007 Turner Entertainment estimated the gross to be equivalent to approximately $3.3 billion when adjusted for inflation to current prices, while Guinness World Records arrived at a figure of $3.44 billion in 2014, making it the most successful film in cinema history.
The film remains immensely popular with audiences into the 21st century, having been voted the most popular film in two nationwide polls of Americans undertaken by Harris Interactive in 2008, and again in 2014. The market research firm surveyed over two thousand U.S. adults, with the results weighted by age, sex, race / ethnicity, education, region and household income so their proportions matched the composition of the adult population.
American Film Institute
In revisiting the film in the 1970s, Arthur Schlesinger noted that Hollywood films generally age well, revealing an unexpected depth or integrity, but in the case of Gone with the Wind time has not treated it kindly. Richard Schickel posits that one measure of a film 's quality is to ask what you can remember of it, and the film falls down in this regard: unforgettable imagery and dialogue are simply not present. Stanley Kauffmann, likewise, also found the film to be a largely forgettable experience, claiming he could only remember two scenes vividly. Both Schickel and Schlesinger put this down to it being "badly written '', in turn describing the dialogue as "flowery '' and possessing a "picture postcard '' sensibility. Schickel also believes the film fails as popular art, in that it has limited rewatch value -- a sentiment that Kauffmann also concurs with, stating that having watched it twice he hopes "never to see it again: twice is twice as much as any lifetime needs ''. Both Schickel and Andrew Sarris identify the film 's main failing is in possessing a producer 's sensibility rather than an artistic one: having gone through so many directors and writers the film does not carry a sense of being "created '' or "directed '', but rather having emerged "steaming from the crowded kitchen '', where the main creative force was a producer 's obsession in making the film as literally faithful to the novel as possible.
Sarris concedes that despite its artistic failings, the film does hold a mandate around the world as the "single most beloved entertainment ever produced ''. Judith Crist observes that, kitsch aside, the film is "undoubtedly still the best and most durable piece of popular entertainment to have come off the Hollywood assembly lines '', the product of a showman with "taste and intelligence ''. Schlesinger notes that the first half of the film does have a "sweep and vigor '' that aspire to its epic theme, but -- finding agreement with the film 's contemporary criticisms -- the personal lives take over in the second half, and it ends up losing its theme in unconvincing sentimentality. Kauffmann also finds interesting parallels with The Godfather, which had just replaced Gone with the Wind as the highest - grosser at the time: both were produced from "ultra-American '' best - selling novels, both live within codes of honor that are romanticized, and both in essence offer cultural fabrication or revisionism.
The critical perception of the film has shifted in the intervening years, which resulted in it being ranked 235th in Sight & Sound 's prestigious decennial critics poll in 2012, and in 2015 sixty - two international film critics polled by the BBC voted it the 97th best American film.
The film has featured in several high - profile industry polls: in 1977 it was voted the most popular film by the American Film Institute (AFI), in a poll of the organization 's membership; the AFI also ranked the film fourth on its "100 Greatest Movies '' list in 1998, with it slipping down to sixth place in the tenth anniversary edition in 2007. Film directors ranked it 322nd in the 2012 edition of the decennial Sight & Sound poll, and in 2016 it was selected as the ninth best "directorial achievement '' in a Directors Guild of America members poll. In 2014, it placed fifteenth in an extensive poll undertaken by The Hollywood Reporter, which ballotted every studio, agency, publicity firm and production house in the Hollywood region. Gone with the Wind was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress in 1989 for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Gone with the Wind has been criticized as having perpetuated Civil War myths and black stereotypes. David Reynolds writes that "The white women are elegant, their menfolk noble or at least dashing. And, in the background, the black slaves are mostly dutiful and content, clearly incapable of an independent existence. '' Reynolds likened Gone with the Wind to The Birth of a Nation and other re-imaginings of the South during the era of segregation, in which white Southerners are portrayed as defending traditional values and the issue of slavery is largely ignored. The film has been described as a "regression '' that promotes the myth of the black rapist and the honourable and defensive role of the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction, and as a "social propaganda '' film offering a "white supremacist '' view of the past. From 1972 to 1996, the Atlanta Historical Society held a number of Gone with the Wind exhibits, among them a 1994 exhibit titled, "Disputed Territories: Gone with the Wind and Southern Myths ''. One of the questions explored by the exhibit was "How True to Life Were the Slaves in GWTW? '' This section showed slave experiences were diverse and concluded that the "happy darky '' was a myth, as was the belief that all slaves experienced violence and brutality.
W. Bryan Rommel Ruiz has argued that despite factual inaccuracies in its depiction of the Reconstruction period, Gone with the Wind nevertheless reflects contemporary interpretations that were common in the early 20th century. One such viewpoint is reflected in a brief scene in which Mammy fends off a leering freedman: a government official can be heard offering bribes to the emancipated slaves for their votes. The inference is taken to be that freedmen are ignorant about politics and unprepared for freedom, unwittingly becoming the tools of corrupt Reconstruction officials. While perpetuating some Lost Cause myths, the film makes concessions in regard to others. After the attack on Scarlett in the shanty town, a group of men including Scarlett 's husband Frank, Rhett Butler and Ashley raid the town; in the novel they belong to the Ku Klux Klan, representing the common trope of protecting the white woman 's virtue, but the filmmakers consciously neutralize the presence of the Klan in the film by referring to it only as a "political meeting ''.
Thomas Cripps reasons that the film in some respects undercuts racial stereotypes; in particular, the film created greater engagement between Hollywood and black audiences, with dozens of movies making small gestures in recognition of the emerging trend. Only a few weeks after its initial run, a story editor at Warner wrote a memorandum to Walter Wanger about Mississippi Belle, a script that contained the worst excesses of plantation films, suggesting that Gone with the Wind had made the film "unproducible ''. More than any film since The Birth of a Nation, it unleashed a variety of social forces that foreshadowed an alliance of white liberals and blacks who encouraged the expectation that blacks would one day achieve equality. According to Cripps, the film eventually became a template for measuring social change.
In 2017, Gone with the Wind was pulled from the schedule at the Orpheum Theatre in Memphis, Tennessee after a 34 - year run of annual showings due to its perceived racially insensitive content.
One of the most notorious and widely condemned scenes in Gone with the Wind depicts what is now legally defined as "marital rape ''. The scene begins with Scarlett and Rhett at the bottom of the staircase, where he begins to kiss her, refusing to be told ' no ' by the struggling and frightened Scarlett; Rhett overcomes her resistance and carries her up the stairs to the bedroom, where the audience is left in no doubt that she will "get what 's coming to her ''. The next scene, the following morning, shows Scarlett glowing with barely suppressed sexual satisfaction; Rhett apologizes for his behavior, blaming it on his drinking. The scene has been accused of combining romance and rape by making them indistinguishable from each other, and of reinforcing a notion about forced sex: that women secretly enjoy it, and it is an acceptable way for a man to treat his wife.
Molly Haskell has argued that nevertheless, women are mostly uncritical of the scene, and that by and large it is consistent with what women have in mind if they fantasize about being raped. Their fantasies revolve around love and romance rather than forced sex; they will assume that Scarlett was not an unwilling sexual partner and wanted Rhett to take the initiative and insist on having sexual intercourse.
Gone with the Wind and its production have been explicitly referenced, satirized, dramatized and analyzed on numerous occasions across a range of media, from contemporaneous works such as Second Fiddle -- a 1939 film spoofing the "search for Scarlett '' -- to current television shows, such as The Simpsons. The Scarlett O'Hara War (a 1980 television dramatization of the casting of Scarlett), Moonlight and Magnolias (a 2007 play by Ron Hutchinson that dramatizes Ben Hecht 's five - day re-write of the script), and "Went with the Wind! '' (a sketch on The Carol Burnett Show that parodied the film in the aftermath of its television debut in 1976) are among the more noteworthy examples of its enduring presence in popular culture. It was also the subject of a 1988 documentary, The Making of a Legend: Gone with the Wind, detailing the film 's difficult production history. In 1990, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp depicting Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh embracing in a scene from the film.
Following publication of her novel, Margaret Mitchell was inundated with requests for a sequel but claimed to not have a notion of what happened to Scarlett and Rhett, and that she had "left them to their ultimate fate ''. Mitchell continued to resist pressure from Selznick and MGM to write a sequel until her death in 1949. In 1975, her brother, Stephens Mitchell (who assumed control of her estate), authorized a sequel to be jointly produced by MGM and Universal Studios on a budget of $12 million. Anne Edwards was commissioned to write the sequel as a novel which would then be adapted into a screenplay, and published in conjunction with the film 's release. Edwards submitted a 775 - page manuscript entitled Tara, The Continuation of Gone with the Wind, set between 1872 and 1882 focusing on Scarlett 's divorce from Rhett; MGM was not satisfied with the story and the deal collapsed.
The idea was revived in the 1990s, when a sequel was finally produced in 1994, in the form of a television miniseries. Scarlett was based upon the novel by Alexandra Ripley, itself a sequel to Mitchell 's book. British actors Joanne Whalley and Timothy Dalton were cast as Scarlett and Rhett, and the series follows Scarlett 's relocation to Ireland after again becoming pregnant by Rhett.
Explanatory notes
George (Cukor) finally told me all about it. He hated (leaving the production) very much he said but he could not do otherwise. In effect he said he is an honest craftsman and he can not do a job unless he knows it is a good job and he feels the present job is not right. For days, he told me he has looked at the rushes and felt he was failing... the thing did not click as it should. Gradually he became convinced that the script was the trouble... David (Selznick), himself, thinks HE is writing the script... And George has continually taken script from day to day, compared the (Oliver) Garrett - Selznick version with the (Sidney) Howard, groaned and tried to change some parts back to the Howard script. But he seldom could do much with the scene... So George just told David he would not work any longer if the script was not better and he wanted the Howard script back. David told George he was a director -- not an author and he (David) was the producer and the judge of what is a good script... George said he was a director and a damn good one and he would not let his name go out over a lousy picture... And bull - headed David said "OK get out! ''
Citations
Further reading
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.