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where does save the last dance take place | Save the Last Dance - wikipedia
Save the Last Dance is a 2001 American teen dance film produced by MTV Productions, directed by Thomas Carter and released by Paramount Pictures on January 12, 2001. The film stars Julia Stiles and Sean Patrick Thomas as a teenage interracial couple in Chicago who work together to help the main character, played by Stiles, train for a dance audition. A direct - to - video sequel, Save the Last Dance 2, was released in 2006.
Sara Johnson, a promising dancer in high school in suburban Chicago, hopes to be admitted to study at Juilliard School and invites her mother to attend the audition. She fails the audition and soon learns that her mother was involved in a fatal car accident in her haste to get to the audition.
Sara is wracked by guilt and gives up on ballet. She moves in with her father and transfers to an urban Chicago school. Her father is a jazz musician who plays the trumpet and usually plays in nightclubs. At her new school, Sara is one of a handful of white students but quickly befriends Chenille, a single teen mother who is having relationship problems. Chenille invites Sara to a dance club called STEPPS, where she has her first experience of dancing to hip hop rhythms. At STEPPS, Sara dances with Derek, Chenille 's brother and a student with dreams of ultimately attending Georgetown Medical School. He decides to help Sara develop her dancing skills by incorporating more hip hop into her style. Derek takes a reluctant Sara to the Joffrey Ballet and, afterwards, Sara confides in him about her mother and her dreams. Later, they return to the club and amaze others with their dancing. Having achieved his dream of being accepted at Georgetown University, Derek convinces her to follow her dreams of Juilliard. Eventually, Sara and Derek begin a relationship.
At school, Nikki, Derek 's jealous ex-girlfriend, picks a fight with Sara. Chenille tells Sara that she did n't approve of the fight but can understand the bitterness since Sara, a white girl, is seen as stealing one of the few decent black men in the school. Because of this conversation, Sara breaks up with Derek. Meanwhile, Derek deals with his friend Malakai, who is heavily into the gang lifestyle that Derek is trying to leave. Derek accepts Malakai 's plea for support in a drive - by for the same time as Sara 's audition. Sara 's father has a heart - to - heart talk with her and encourages her to audition for Juilliard again.
After hearing what Chenille told Sara, Derek confronts her and admitted his true reasons for dumping Nikki. She admits what she did was wrong and encourages him to be with Sara. Chenille also warns Derek not to support Malakai knowing the consequences and he will lose his chance to attend Georgetown. Derek turns his back on Malakai to attend Sara 's audition. He arrives at a crucial point of her performance to offer her encouragement and moral support. After her audition, Sara is accepted and she rekindles her relationship with Derek. Meanwhile, the drive - by becomes botched and Malakai is arrested. The film closes as Sara, Derek, Chenille, and their friends meet at STEPPS to celebrate Sara 's successful audition.
The film debuted at # 1 at the North American box office making $27.5 million in its opening weekend. Though the film had a 44 % decline in earnings the following weekend, it was still enough to keep the film at the top spot for another week. It grossed $91,057,006 in the US alone and $131.7 million worldwide.
Save the Last Dance won several awards, most notably:
Rotten Tomatoes ' gave the film a 53 % approval rating and summarizes the critical consensus as: "This teen romance flick feels like a predictable rehashing of other movies. '' Some of the positive reviews are measured in their enthusiasm, with remarks such as, "Look elsewhere for reality or good drama. Look here, however, if you 're in the mood for a good heaping of fantasy and some fun ''; "a decent, well - put - together romantic drama to hold hands to on the weekend ''; and "A sometimes predictable, but mostly enjoyable tale. '' Salon 's reviewer called the film "a bad, friendly, enjoyable movie, '' observing that "for all its dumb clichés it offers the basic appeal of teen movies: the pleasure of watching kids be kids, acting as they do among themselves instead of how parents and teachers expect them to act. ''
Roger Ebert rated it three stars out of four:
The film soundtrack was released on December 19, 2000 through Hollywood Records and consisted of hip hop and R&B music. The soundtrack was a huge success, and made it to several Billboard charts. It peaked at 3 on the Billboard 200, 2 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums, 6 on the Top Soundtracks, 3 on the Top Internet Albums and 2 on the Canadian Albums Chart, and featured two charting singles "Crazy '' and "You ''. Save the Last Dance went both gold and platinum on January 29, 2001 and was certified 2x multi-platinum on May 20, 2002. The Soundtrack won the American Music Award for best Soundtrack in 2002.
Allmusic rated the soundtrack three out of five stars. RapReviews rated it three and a half out of ten.
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when does lucas find out brooke is not pregnant | Brooke Davis - Wikipedia
Brooke Penelope Davis is a fictional character from the CW television series One Tree Hill, portrayed by Sophia Bush. Initially introduced as the best friend of the show 's original female lead, Peyton Sawyer, throughout her experiences, Brooke grows from a wild and generally carefree girl into a more mature and grounded young woman. Along with Peyton, she becomes a key player in the series ' central love triangle involving Lucas Scott. In later seasons, however, her character arc shifts its attention to her career as a fashion designer at Clothes Over Bros, as well as her romance and eventual marriage to Julian Baker, with whom she would have twin sons, Davis and Jude Baker.
Brooke Penelope Davis Baker was born at New Brunswick County Hospital in Tree Hill, North Carolina, to parents Robert Theodore "Ted '' Davis, Jr. and Victoria Anne Davis (née Montgomery) on March 4, 1989. She has been Tree Hill 's it - girl and has been described as the wealthy and popular captain of the cheerleading squad of Tree Hill High. The lack of authority in her life caused Brooke 's high school years to be full of parties, drinking, and promiscuity. She shares a close bond with first - love Lucas Scott, and has also formed many close friendships. Peyton Sawyer is her best friend since the age of eight; she is also friends with former roommates Haley James and Rachel Gatina, Haley 's husband Nathan Scott, Mouth McFadden, and former assistant Millicent Huxtable.
Karen Roe, Lucas 's mother, was Brooke 's only mother figure growing up after she temporarily moved in with her when her parents left Tree Hill. Throughout her development, Brooke grows to become more independent and mature, partly due to her relationship with Lucas. Although the two initially broke up due to a love triangle involving Peyton, Brooke later forgave both of them, remaining close with the two. Upon reaching adulthood, Brooke becomes a successful fashion designer for her own company.
Brooke 's relationships with her mother and foster daughter are shown to play a significant role in her character development. In the fifth and sixth seasons, her long - estranged mother Victoria returns, but remains cold and detached. Eventually, Brooke is motivated to become a good mother herself, which prompts her to take in a teenage foster child named Samantha. Though Sam is initially resistant, the two eventually bond as Brooke proves herself to be a dedicated parent. Sam later leaves Brooke to live with her biological mother. Later on in the series, Brooke becomes a biological mother, giving birth to twin boys Davis and Jude Baker.
In season one, Brooke Davis is introduced as the captain of the Tree Hill High School cheerleaders. She takes a liking to Lucas Scott when he joins the school 's basketball team, attempting to pursue him in her usual, sexual advances. Lucas, however, is only interested in her best friend, Peyton Sawyer, and constantly turns down Brooke 's advances. After a drug incident involving Peyton, Lucas comes to realize that Brooke is actually a very loyal and caring person, eventually developing feelings and entering into a relationship with her. When Lucas realizes he still has feelings for Peyton, he and Peyton begin a non-sexual affair behind Brooke 's back.
Lucas breaks up with Brooke, but Peyton decides to end their secret romance because she feels guilty and does n't want to harm her relationship with her best friend. When Brooke finds out what really happened, however, she ends her friendship with Peyton and refuses to speak to her or to Lucas. During this time, Brooke experiences a pregnancy scare, eventually learning that her results were actually negative; however, in the heat of an argument with Lucas, she lies to him and tells him that she is pregnant with his child. When she comes clean about the truth, Brooke explains that she wanted to punish Lucas for cheating on her with Peyton. After uniting against Nicki (Jake Jagielski 's ex-girlfriend), Brooke and Peyton agree to a truce and slowly begin to rebuild their friendship.
At the start of the second season, Brooke is forced to grow up when her father loses his job, thus forcing the Davis family to sell their belongings and temporarily become destitute. Still hurt over the way things ended with Lucas, she begins relations with her neighbor, Felix Taggaro, who becomes a "friend with benefits. '' Later, things become strained between Brooke and Mouth when he tells her that he is in love with her, despite the fact that Brooke thinks of him as a "little brother. '' Meanwhile, she begins dating Felix after he promises to not break her heart as Lucas did.
During this time, Brooke decides to run for Tree Hill 's student body president against students who are much more studious, hard - working, and experienced. Even in the face of the dirty political campaign of her rival, Erica Marsh, she does n't back down and ends up winning the student election after Mouth delivers a touching recommendation speech to a packed auditorium for her. After the election, Brooke quickly repairs her friendship with Mouth and even befriends her defeated rival, Erica.
Toward the middle of the season, Brooke learns that her father was able to secure a new job and that her family is moving to California as a result. However, she is thrilled when she finds out that Lucas has convinced Brooke 's parents to let her live with Karen until the summer, where she will be staying in Lucas ' room as he is living with Dan. Meanwhile, Brooke discovers that it was Felix who spray - painted the word "DYKE '' on Peyton 's locker and immediately breaks up with him. After ending things with Felix, sexual tension begins to arise between Brooke and Lucas; however, after finding letters Lucas wrote to Peyton, Brooke believes that Lucas is still pining over Peyton and ultimately decides to just be friends with him. In the season finale, as Brooke is preparing to leave for the summer, Lucas kisses her and finally confesses how he really feels. Stunned and shattered all at the same time, Brooke leaves and is seen sitting in the taxi in tears in the episode 's final moments.
The season three premiere opens with Brooke returning from her summer vacation in California. Afraid of having her heart broken again, Brooke only agrees to date Lucas non-exclusively; at the same time, she pretends to have spent her summer with a number of other guys, though it is later revealed that she actually spent her summer writing eighty - two letters to Lucas, one letter for everyday, which she never sent. During their "non-exclusive '' arrangement, however, Lucas refuses to date anybody else in an effort to prove his loyalty to Brooke.
At the fantasy boy draft, Brooke chooses Chris Keller instead of Lucas as a way to get back at Rachel, thus causing Lucas to become angry with her. After finding out that her designs are displayed in the store 's windows, Brooke gets drunk and sleeps with Chris, with Lucas walking in on them and leaving heartbroken. In an effort to distract herself from Lucas and to mend her aching heart, Brooke launches her own clothing line, Clothes Over Bro 's. Later, Brooke finally gives Lucas the letters she wrote to him whilst on vacation, resulting in him forgiving her; the two subsequently confess their feelings for one another and enter into an exclusive relationship.
When Karen becomes engaged to Keith, Brooke offers to design her wedding dress but, after Keith 's death in the school shooting, Brooke attempts to help Lucas and Karen pick up the pieces of their lives. In the meantime, Brooke agrees to help Haley and Nathan in organizing their second wedding, becoming Haley 's maid of honor and the designer of her wedding dress. However, when Peyton reveals to Brooke that she has feelings for Lucas, again, at Nathan and Haley 's rehearsal dinner, Brooke becomes furious at her and promptly ends her friendship with a teary - eyed Peyton. At the actual wedding, things only become worse when Lucas, thinking Brooke already aware of the situation, accidentally lets it slip that Peyton kissed him during the school shooting. Clearly upset, Brooke and Lucas argue in private, with Brooke telling him that he never "let her all the way in. ''
As their love triangle begins to reassert itself, Brooke decides that she needs time to herself and breaks things off with Lucas, though she admits that she will always love him. With her friendship with Peyton now over, Brooke is invited to move in with Rachel. In the season finale, it is revealed that someone at Nathan and Haley 's wedding is pregnant, with the evidence largely pointing toward Brooke.
With the news of Brooke 's "pregnancy '' spreading around campus, the fourth season begins with pro-life advocates, calling themselves Clean Teens, pressuring Brooke to not terminate her pregnancy. However, it is soon revealed that Brooke has really been covering for her friend Haley. In an effort to get Brooke back into the dating pool, Rachel sets her up via an online dating site with a male model, Nick, under the guise of a female model named "Peyton. '' The plan goes awry when it is revealed that Nick is also the new English teacher at Tree Hill High; however, the two continue their relationship in secret. When Rachel catches wind of the affair, she informs Brooke that Nick hit on her. As a result, Brooke confronts him, but he denies the whole thing and her friendship with Rachel becomes strained. Upon learning that Rachel was telling the truth and that Nick is cheating on her with one of her own models, Brooke dumps him and reconciles with Rachel.
Around this time, Brooke realizes that she still is in love with Lucas; asking Lucas to be her date to the annual sports banquet, Brooke later tells him that it was a mistake and he heads home, with the two of them deciding to just remain friends. After Tree Hill 's victory in the state championship, Brooke encourages Lucas to go with Peyton. When Brooke is failing her calculus course, Rachel pretends to need Haley 's tutoring so that they can steal the answers to an upcoming calculus exam, but Haley refuses. Taking matters into their own hands, Brooke and Rachel break into the high school but are caught by Principal Turner; to serve as their alibi, the two join Clean Teens.
During her time in Clean Teens, Brooke meets Chase Adams, a newcomer to Tree Hill High and to whom Brooke becomes attracted. Initially asking Brooke to be his calculus tutor, Chase asks her out on a date. After their first date together, Brooke decides that she ca n't start a relationship with lies at its foundations and thus, during a class assignment, reveals to Chase that she cheated on her calculus test and had only joined Clean Teens as a means of attaining an alibi. With Brooke stating that she thinks she is n't pretty enough or talented enough for him, Chase tells her that she is good enough, and all she needs to do is to stop lying and just be herself. The two subsequently kiss and make up, beginning a new and truthful relationship. The following week, Brooke and Chase attend a party at Nathan 's house, but things go south when a tape, titled "Nathan Scores '' and which shows Brooke and Nathan having a drunk one - night stand two years prior, is played at the party. As a result of seeing the tape, Peyton punches Brooke, as Peyton was in an on - again, off - again relationship with Nathan at the time it was filmed. Chase, in the meantime, decides to call things off with Brooke but, with prom quickly approaching, tells her that he 'll still be her date. Brooke, however, tells him that she does n't want to go to prom with someone who does n't want to be with her, and the two go their separate ways.
Peyton becomes infuriated at the fact that Brooke completely cut her out of her life for being upfront and honest about her feelings for Lucas, when Peyton feels that Brooke was never honest with her. With more underlying issues resurfacing between Brooke and Peyton, the two former best friends enter into an intense rivalry, with Peyton going so far as taking a black light marker and writing "WHORE '' on Brooke 's prom dress. After talking to Mouth, Brooke comes to feel that it means that Peyton still feels to that. Upon hearing that Peyton is not attending their senior prom, she leaves the prom and heads to Peyton 's house in hopes of a reconciliation. However, unanounced to anyone, Peyton is being held hostage in her own house by Ian (otherwise known as "Psycho Derek ''). Making her way to Peyton 's basement, Ian had knocked Brooke out and planned to slit her throat to show Peyton just how much he truly loves her. In an effort to free themselves, Peyton convinces him to let her do it, but stabs Ian instead. Untied, Peyton runs upstairs with Ian right behind her. Brooke, meanwhile, is able to untie herself and the two stand together against their attacker. With Ian unconscious, they are able to call the police and have Ian arrested.
With "Psycho Derek '' or otherwise known as Ian, ordeal behind them, Brooke and Peyton rekindle their friendship and go to prom together. This is where Brooke is elected Prom Queen. Brooke and Chase subsequently reconcile and get back together; the two have sex at their graduation party before Brooke and Lucas share a special moment together as he confides in her about his book. With the birth of Nathan and Haley 's son, James Lucas Scott, Brooke is named the newborn 's godmother. In the season 's final moments, Brooke and Peyton prepare to spend their summer in Los Angeles and join the rest of the gang at the River Court.
Two and half years later, Brooke and Chase have seemingly gone their separate ways. Brooke, now an up - and - coming fashion designer with Clothes Over Bro 's, meets up with Lucas in New York to have drinks with him; showing her his engagement ring for Peyton, Lucas informs Brooke that Peyton turned down his proposal, much to the shock of an unbelieving Brooke. When she tries on the ring, everyone around them believes that they have become engaged, receiving free drinks and even a romantic horse - drawn carriage ride. When they arrive at his hotel room, Lucas kisses her in a drunken stupor; despite possessing feelings for him, Brooke pulls away from him as he is still in love with Peyton.
Leaving Lucas with some words of wisdom, Brooke tells him to concentrate on getting his novel published and tells him that they probably wo n't see each other for a while. Returning home, Victoria confronts her about her "engagement '' to Lucas. After clearing the air, Brooke tells her mother, "And Lucas Scott was the one boy I might have lost it for. '' Brooke then agrees to her mother 's offer to expand the clothing line, wishing to get lost in work in an effort to cure her broken heart from Lucas.
Four years after high school and having become a multimillion - dollar household name, Brooke Davis now runs her own clothing line, magazine, and fashion channel. Becoming fed up with her life as a celebrity, Brooke decides to return to Tree Hill after a distraught phone call from her old best friend, Peyton Sawyer. Upon her return, she becomes a "fill - in nanny '' for her godson, Jamie Scott, and buys the abandoned Karen 's Café to refurbish into a C / B clothing store in order to run her fashion line from her hometown. Eager to settle back in Tree Hill, Brooke spontaneously buys a house (furniture and all) and invites Peyton to live with her. However, the CEO of her company, who also turns out to be her mother Victoria, is not happy about Brooke 's choice to stay in Tree Hill and makes an unexpected visit to her house to take Brooke back to New York.
Brooke and Victoria "bond '' over the store opening, but she is oblivious that Victoria is running around insulting all of her friends. The store 's opening is both a social success and a commercial failure, leading her mother to tear her down. She then reaches the breaking point after her mother attacks Peyton and rejects her daughterly love confession, beginning to rule her company her way and refusing to consider Victoria her mother any longer. Brooke considers dating Owen, a bartender, and sets Mouth up on a blind date with Milicent. She also tells Peyton to go after Lucas because they are meant to be and comforts her after she finds out he proposed to Lindsey. She uses her naked - in - the - back - of - the - car trick on Owen and successfully gets his attention but then refuses to sleep with him. Brooke then slowly becomes friends with Lindsey but after they get stuck in the library with Haley, Peyton and Mia, Peyton tells her that she 's her best friend and will always be, stopping the awkwardness. She travels to New York with Owen after she challenges him since he thinks she does nothing for her job. She shows him a space she bought to expand and they find Rachel, overdosed on drugs. Feeling guilty for firing her earlier, Brooke takes Rachel back to Tree Hill with her so she can live in Brooke 's big house with her and Peyton. She attends Lucas and Lindsey 's joint bachelor / bachelorette party with Owen, who brings along a surprise guest Chase, whom she had unknowingly set Peyton up with. She finally fires Victoria from the company after she scares Rachel off for monetary purposes. She tells Peyton and Lucas that she came back to Tree Hill to have a baby, because there was a void in her heart only having a family could fill. Due to this decision Brooke gets interviewed by a woman from an adoption agency who Brooke finds out has spoken to Victoria. Because of her young age, busy life and party past, Brooke is turned down. Owen then immediately ends his potential relationship with Brooke, after finding out she wants a baby, calling her selfish. However, she gets to have a baby, as she gains momentary custody of Angie who is there to get her heart operated on and finds it immediately challenging, but finds comfort and help in the form of Peyton and Lucas Brooke is terrified and distraught over the possibility of Angie not making it through her surgery, but Angie comes out perfectly and everything in Brooke 's world calms down. She then has to return Angie early making her distraught but strengthening her friendship with Lucas. In the season finale, Lucas calls someone asking that someone if she wants to get married at Las Vegas -- the someone could be Lindsey, Peyton or Brooke.
Brooke is taunted by her mother by saying she will take over the company but Brooke has a new clothing line in sketches she is presenting to the board. Victoria demands her to give her the sketches to which Brooke says no. Brooke is assaulted and badly beaten by a masked assailant at the end of the season six premiere. Not wanting to go to the authorities to report the assault and attract bad publicity, Brooke instead turns to Deb in hopes of keeping it a secret and learning to shoot a gun. Nathan visits Brooke at her home to tell her he will be there for her if she needs him because she 's always been there for his family. Nathan realizes he and Brooke are alike in many ways so he can relate to her problems. Brooke attends Quentin Field 's funeral to support Lucas, Nathan, Haley, Skills and Jamie with their loss. As Jamie places Q 's cape over his casket, Brooke breaks down for the first time since her attack. Jamie comforts her by holding her hand. Brooke regrets the lack of family in her life but after a talk with Haley and Jamie realizes she has everything she needs. She travels to New York to confront Victoria over the attack, who firmly denies any involvement. Brooke then gives up ownership of Clothes Over Bros to Victoria. Brooke bonds with Sam and eventually becomes her foster mother. Brooke also reveals to Peyton the truth about her attack. Owen returns to Tree Hill and attempts to win Brooke back, but they are slow to reconnect romantically. When they eventually discuss the issue, Brooke states that she 's not ready for a relationship since she wants to focus on her new foster daughter, Sam, for a while. Afterwards, they part on friendly terms. Brooke receives a phone call from Patricia, the woman from the adoption agency who interviewed her last season, leaving Brooke a message that there is a newborn that Brooke can adopt. When Brooke calls Patricia back, Brooke mentions that she 's fostering Sam, and Patricia tells her that could cause complications in the adoption.
Following the dream episode written by Chad Michael Murray, Brooke is approached by Julian to design the costumes for Lucas ' movie, which she initially declines, but decides to think about it. Brooke briefly clashed with Sam over a boy named Jack spent the night. She later reveals to Sam that she was attacked. As Jack and Sam begin talking about Brooke, they talk about how Sam once said that Brooke needed to be "put in her place ''. A smitten Jack listened to Sam, and had someone attack Brooke for Sam 's pleasure. Sam realizes this and gets the stolen sketches back, and when she shows them to Brooke, Brooke begins breaking down and seeing this, Sam leaves again. Brooke begins searching for Sam and gets into a fight with Owen along the way. She goes to the cafe Sam frequents and bumps into Julian, who walks out. The waitress tells Brooke that Julian inquired about Sam, and she begins considering him as a decent guy (possibly romantically). At the conclusion of the episode, a heartbroken Sam gets into a car with Jack and his brother, and it is revealed that Jack 's brother was actually the one who attacked Brooke. It is also revealed that this is the same guy who murdered Quentin. Brooke Goes in search for Sam with Peyton by her side. After searching all over Tree Hill and finding little help from a police officer (due to Sam not being missing long enough), she realizes Sam must be at her friend Jack Daniels ' house, and gets the address from Haley. She tells Peyton she wants to confront Sam alone because they have a lot to talk about, and goes to Jack 's house by herself. She does n't find Jack or Sam there, but she does meet with Jack 's older brother, X, who has Sam bound and gagged in a closet. X denies knowing where Sam is, and he talks in a sexually suggestive manner to Brooke, who thinks he is weird but is unfazed. As Brooke walks down the sidewalk after the visit, he says "Have a nice night '' which is the same line her attacker uttered as she lay bleeding on the floor of her store after the attack. Brooke realizes that X is the one who beat her, and that he must have Sam. She bangs on the door and when he opens it, she sprays mace in his face and beats him until he 's incapacitated, then rushes through the house looking for Sam. As she finds her, Sam begs her to leave, but Brooke refuses. She starts to undo the tape binding her, but X sneaks up behind Brooke and drags her away as Sam screams. X tries to strangle Brooke, but she spits in his face and knocks him away. Brooke runs, but X chases her and knocks her to the floor. The pair struggle and X indicates that he is going to kill Brooke and enjoy it and that she is just a weak little rich girl. But Brooke finds her purse, grabs her gun and stands with it pointed at X 's head, telling him the rich little girl is going to stay awhile as Julian and Jack rush into the house and Sam breaks free of the last of the tape. Brooke cocks the gun, tells Rex she hates him and that she is n't the same girl that he attacked, and is about to shoot him, but Sam begs her not to, calling Brooke "Mom '' and saying she needs her. Brooke knocks her attacker unconscious with the gun instead and kicks him over, telling him to "Have a nice night. '' After the police arrive, they find Quentin 's wallet and Brooke realizes X is Q 's murderer and cries on Julian 's shoulder.
Peyton tells Brooke about her pregnancy, and Brooke is thrilled, even though it was Brooke who wanted a family the most. Meanwhile, after agreeing to do the costumes for Lucas ' movie, Brooke invites Julian over. Sam makes fun of Brooke by saying that it 's a date, while Brooke insists it 's simply a business meeting. Sam then says "his man junk 's got a meeting with your lady business. '' After which Brooke calls Sam Samantha in a very Mom - like fashion. After a long night of drinking and conversation about their parents, Julian and Brooke realize they are alike in many ways. At the end of the episode, the two begin making out. Peyton catches the drift that Brooke and Julian are starting a romantic relationship and warns Brooke that after she broke up with him, he slept with an A-list actress after his movie premiere at the Sundance Film Festival. Later, Peyton receives a visit from Julian 's dad, with whom Peyton seems to have a great relationship with, and he tells her that Julian not only did not have sex with a famous actress after Sundance, but did not even go to his own movie premiere because he was so depressed after their breakup. Peyton tells this to Brooke, and Brooke decides that Julian is worth the trouble, and Brooke and Julian officially start a romantic relationship. Brooke sleeps with Julian and later tells Peyton, who yet again reassures her that it 's not violating "girl code '' since they shared three guys already: ' sex tape ' (Nathan), Lucas, and now Julian. Brooke meets the girl playing her in Lucas ' movie, Missy, and Missy basically stalks Brooke trying to imitate her every move, even going so far as doing Brooke 's "signature move '' of stripping down in Brooke 's backseat. Brooke and Julian are really happy together until she finds out Missy is always implying Brooke is a slut because she was told that Brooke 's major role in high school was sex. Brooke confronts Julian and tells him "High School Brooke graduated '', then temporarily breaks up with him. He then shows her a re-created manuscript in which it now reads a long list of Brooke 's character traits that she has now, and this appears to mend their relationship.
Brooke storms out of her room and into the bathroom yelling at Julian for "something inappropriate that he did ''. It turns out he told her that he loves her, and she struggles with telling him she loves him back. Brooke repeatedly tells him that she cares very deeply for him, but she 's not in love with him yet because it 's too soon. Julian decides to call it a "deleted scene '' so they can start fresh. Brooke goes to the police station and bails out Sam after she is caught shoplifting, and yells at her, calling her "unfixable ''. Sam thinks this is because of a fight she is having with Julian since Brooke is ignoring all his phone calls. During another argument between the two, Julian calls and Sam grabs Brooke 's phone and answers it, then gives it to Brooke, and Julian tells her the movie has been shut down and he is returning to Los Angeles. He comes and says goodbye to her, and yet again tells her he loves her before leaving. She apologizes to Sam after Julian tells her the shoplifting was only to protect Jack, and to make it up to her, Brooke finds Jack and allows him to spend the night. Thinking that Julian left for L.A. the night before, she is confused when he comes to see her in her store. She soon finds out he is leaving that night, but it 's not goodbye because he has two tickets for her and Sam to come with him. She spends the episode wrestling with her decision since she has many factors to consider such as moving Sam around, her store, being Peyton 's maid of honor, knowing him for only one month, etc. In the end she does go to the airport, but to tell him she 's not coming. They share one final kiss and Julian then boards a plane back home. Victoria returns to Tree Hill and attempts to lure Brooke back to Clothes Over Bros after the company goes under. Victoria guilts her into it by telling her if she does n't return, hundreds of employees will be out of work, and this hits a soft spot in Brooke and she returns to the company with a 51 / 49 % split between her and Victoria, and Brooke says that Victoria still does n't have a daughter. She also goes to the hospital after Peyton 's accident and Lucas tells her about Peyton 's condition, and she passes the news on to Haley. Sam also yells at her for locking her heart and letting Julian go. She finds it hard to have Victoria around again, especially since she is getting very close to Sam, which makes Brooke jealous because she believes Victoria is trying to be to Sam what she never was to Brooke. She reaches her breaking point when she finds out Victoria has been hiding and shredding letters addressed to Sam from her birth mother. She shows Sam the letters, and gives her blessing for Sam to get to know her real mother, although, in actuality, it hurts Brooke to see this. A month after Sam meets her mother, she continues to speak with her and she gets to know her well. Seeing she may be losing Sam, Brooke draws up adoption papers. However, she and Sam eventually agree that it would be best for Sam to live with her birth mom, which leads to an emotional parting between the two in Victoria 's presence.
On the day of Lucas and Peyton 's wedding, Brooke puts the finishing touches on Peyton 's wedding dress and they have an emotional conversation about how Peyton wants Brooke to be there for Lucas and the baby in case she does n't make it through the dangerous delivery. Lucas surprises her by telling her that he has invited Julian to the wedding to be her date, but Julian reveals he already has a date - Missy, the girl that was to play Brooke in Lucas ' shut - down movie. In retaliation, Brooke gets Nick Lachey to be her date. Throughout the night Brooke and Julian use their respective partners to make each other jealous, but at the end of the night, Brooke and Julian are left alone and Brooke tells him she misses him and ca n't deal with seeing him again, and she leaves. He goes to the store to find her but runs into Victoria, and he tells her off about the way she belittles Brooke and then says that he loves her and is n't giving up. Brooke returns to the store after Lucas and Peyton 's wedding reception and asks Victoria if there were any messages, and she replies "no '' without telling her what Julian said. She shows up at the hospital when Peyton has her emergency surgery. Four days later, Peyton is in a coma and Brooke has not left the hospital, and she is the second one to find out when Peyton wakes up (after Lucas). She says goodbye to Julian, who has been staying with her for moral support after Peyton goes into a coma. The next day she visits Peyton and baby Sawyer, and Peyton tells Brooke that she and Lucas have made Sawyer 's middle name Brooke in honor of her best friend. Victoria later tells her to go to L.A. and tell Julian she loves him because Victoria once let a boy go and has never forgiven herself, and she also tries to give Brooke full control of the company after realizing she loved the company more than Brooke and she should n't have because Brooke is her daughter and she loves her. After an emotional bonding between the two, Brooke asks Victoria to stay on as her partner, and takes her advice by going to see Julian on his movie set in L.A. and finally telling him she loves him, and the two kiss, officially putting their future together back on track.
Brooke and Julian have been happily together in the 14 months between Seasons 6 and 7, although they have spent much of the time apart. Brooke and Julian are having a romantic date at the beach when he tells her that he is leaving to produce a movie in New Zealand and will be gone for eight months, and she encourages him to do it even though she is clearly heartbroken. A few moments earlier, she wrote "Marry Me '' in the sand but she never told Julian once she knew about his new movie. She attends Jamie 's 7th birthday party and once again writes him a check for a large sum of money. After the party, Julian and Brooke go to the beach where he tells her that he turned the movie down to be with her, and he officially moves in. Brooke hires Alex Dupre as a model for COB after seeing her acting skills and beauty in a movie. But when Millicent picks her up and brings her to the store, she is not what Brooke expected and they begin coming up with ways to get rid of her. Alex overhears them, and when she comes out of the dressing room wearing Brooke 's dress, she plays Brooke into changing her mind, unaware that the speech Alex gave to win Brooke over was actually a line from the movie Brooke watched Alex in. Alex begins taking an immediate interest in Julian. Julian begins working on a movie with Alex, until Victoria notices her crush on him and informs Brooke. After Alex tells Brooke she stripped naked for Julian Brooke fires her and tells Julian to sleep on the couch.
On a girls night with Haley, she assures Brooke that Julian loves her and he 's not going anywhere. Brooke has a pregnancy scare and wants to tell Julian but he left to see Alex as he fears she will begin using drugs again, and she does n't get the chance to. Rachel returns to Tree Hill for a vacation and tries to apologize to Brooke for stealing money from her by giving her a cheque with interest, but Brooke slaps her and tells her to stay away. When she gets home to find that Julian is still with Alex, she cries in front of her bathroom mirror and says to herself "Why ca n't you be the one who gets the baby and the boy? '' before throwing her birth control pills in the garbage. However, it is revealed that the doctor not only told Brooke she is n't pregnant, but that she can never get pregnant. She tells this to Julian who feels guilty he was n't there... She also battles with Millicent after she demands to be paid $500,000 for being the face of Clothes Over Bros (which she has become after Alex got fired), which hurts Brooke after all she 's done for Millie and how ungrateful she 's being despite of that. She tells Victoria about her problems with Millicent and how those problems are because of Alex 's influence, and Victoria says she will "take care of Alex ''. Brooke is furious when Julian confides Alex that she ca n't have kids and that he wants kids. After talking with Victoria about the situation, Victoria helps her realize that Julian might not be the one for her, and she asks Julian to take another movie because she wants time to be alone with herself before she can trust him again. Julian calls her after he finds Alex in her bathtub after slitting her wrists, and she goes to the hospital to support her now estranged boyfriend. After finding out about Millicent 's actions Brooke fires her and tells her to get help.
Brooke and Julian spend 6 weeks apart when Brooke goes on a business trip with Alexander to start her men 's line, which she has officially named Clothes 4 Bros. She returns from her trip and runs into Julian at the airport, only to see that he 's waiting for Alex. Julian comes to see her and they yet again fight about Alex, and when they fight again at Haley 's concert. Julian tells Brooke he ca n't do it anymore and breaks up with her, leaving her heartbroken since she 's still in love with him. She agrees to be the fashion designer for Julian and Alex 's film. On the movie set, which is built to look like Lucas ' house, she watches a set crew member paint Lucas ' bedroom door brown, making her think of "the girl behind the red door '' Brooke begins thinking about her relationship with Julian, and decides she wants to try to make things better, so she sweet - talks the hotel concierge into giving her Julian 's room key, but when she enters the room, she finds Alex naked in Julian 's bed, and hears a man in the shower, but when she sees Julian 's sweater hanging from the bedpost. Believing Julian and Alex slept together, she punches Alex in the face on set the next day and gets banned from the set by Julian only to find out she actually slept with Alexander... Once she realizes what a huge mistake she made, she apologizes to Julian and tells him the reason she 's been acting so crazy is that she 's still in love with him and misses him, and the two kiss and make up. They attend the funeral of Haley 's mom together, Julian moves back in later that night, and they have a romantic evening alone. She attends Quinn 's gallery opening and Julian tells her about Alex and Josh 's sextape, and Brooke tells Julian he should help Alex through it, which surprises him considering her jealous history with Alex. Julian shows Brooke his finished movie, and despite him thinking it 's bad, Brooke tells him she loved it, and encourages him to enter it in a film festival he 's been too nervous to do. Victoria tells Brooke her she is returning to New York City and Alexander is coming with her to run Brooke 's men 's line, Clothes 4 Bros. As Victoria is about to leave, the two share a very emotional goodbye and Victoria tells Brooke how much she loves and how proud of her she is. Brooke the rest of the gang on a trip to Utah for the premiere of Julian 's movie. After the premiere Julian proposes to Brooke on a walk through the snow.
The season starts with Brooke and Julian engaged and happier than ever. The two talk about the future and how Brooke ca n't have kids, so Julian proposes they spend all day in bed trying anyway. Haley comes over to tell Brooke about her pregnancy but catches Brooke and Julian in a compromising position. Shortly after Haley leaves, the police come to the door and arrest Brooke, and she is charged with a number of money - related crimes regarding Clothes Over Bros. Knowing she had nothing to do with this, a furious Brooke is released from jail and has Julian bring her to her store to meet with Victoria and Millicent, whom Julian had fly to Tree Hill from New York to deal with this, and the two of them eventually reveal that they lied about how much money the company makes to their investors to better support the launch of Clothes 4 Bros and not involving Brooke in this decision in fear of her overruling it. Brooke watches as the company immediately goes under and her store gets shut down, its inventory then completely cleaned out. After a conversation with Millie asking her how she could have allowed and helped Victoria to do this, she seeks comfort in Julian and tells him everything 's gone, but he reminds her she still has him, and always will. After meeting with the company lawyer to hear what they are being charged with and the consequences, she finds out about Quinn and Clay 's shooting from Haley and goes to the hospital for support while Julian goes to pick up Jamie from the park. She offers moral support for Nathan and Haley, and she tells them about her legal troubles. She later asks Victoria if she was ever proud of her, saying that if she was, she never would have lied to make the company sound better than it actually is, and Victoria tells her she lied because she believes in Brooke and knew she could make miracles happen no matter what would happen, and Brooke tells Julian it 's her fault that this happened because she empowered them to do this in her absence. Brooke meets with Victoria and she tells Brooke that her and the lawyers have come up with a way for Brooke to keep the company, but wo n't tell Brooke specifically what that entails. Brooke and Julian take Jamie for the day while Nathan and Haley are at the hospital with Clay and Quinn and they play baseball at the park with him, and he sleeps over as well, telling them they will make great parents someday. Brooke gets a visit from Millicent and she is told that Victoria 's plan to have Brooke keep the company is Victoria going to prison to take the blame, and after Brooke tries to stop her and tells her she does n't want her to go, Victoria says she has to do it because it is her fault. Brooke drops her off at the prison and watches as her mother goes in, sad that things had to end this way. Brooke visits her mom in prison and is surprised that Victoria 's doing her job from behind bars, but after one of her investors comes to her store and tells her that thanks to their lies he lost all the money for his daughter 's college education, she decides to sell her company to pay back all of her investors, but when she 's told this would only return 70 % of their lost money, she tells the attorney to liquidate all of her personal fortune as well, giving away everything she 's got to help make things right. After Victoria finds out Brooke has sold the company that Victoria worked so hard to build and even went to prison to protect, she 's furious with her daughter and calls her stupid, telling her she never wants to speak to her again and for her to not come visit her at the prison anymore. After Julian and Haley help her realize it is Victoria 's own fault she 's behind bars and she 's the reason Brooke was forced to sell, she goes back to the prison and tells Victoria off, saying everything she 's ever done was only done to make her proud, and regardless of whether or not Victoria 's okay with Brooke selling the company, she tells her mother she will never have the opportunity to talk to Brooke as meanly and rudely as she did the day before, and says she wo n't be back to visit. She holds a press conference later that night, and promises her investors they will have all of their money back, then tells the press she looks forward to what comes next in her life.
The morning of Halloween, a woman knocks on Brooke 's door saying "trick or treat '', and after Brooke insults her for being too old to be a trick or treater, she is shocked to find the woman is actually Julian 's mom, Sylvia Baker, who 's come a few weeks before the wedding, telling them that she will pay for their entire wedding to give them the wedding they 've always dreamed about. However, Brooke soon comes to find out that Sylvia is very opinionated and does not like Brooke 's tastes, wants, and desires for her wedding, arguing with Brooke on almost every topic, from the bridesmaids dresses to the food to the photographer, and even Brooke 's desire to design her own wedding dress. Once her company has officially been sold and she 's no longer affiliated with Clothes Over Bros, she takes out her frustrations on Sylvia by saying she does n't want her money or her input for the wedding and wants to do it her way with her budget, causing a rift between the two, though they later patch this up after Julian tells Brooke that Sylvia 's only been acting how she has been acting because she is threatened by Brooke, since Sylvia was always the closest person in Julian 's life before Brooke came along. After ruining most of the dishes she tries to cook for Thanksgiving dinner, she attends a large gathering at Nathan and Haley 's for the holiday, where she 's reunited with a fresh - out - of - prison Victoria, which Brooke is not pleased about at all, nor is she pleased that Victoria and Sylvia seem to be getting along great and bonding throughout the dinner. She later comes to find out that Sylvia was the one who found out about Victoria 's release and invited her to dinner hoping that her and Brooke could fix things, but only did so to make Brooke happy, so Brooke tells her future mother - in - law that Julian is the man that he is because of Sylvia 's influence and that 's all the happiness she needs. After having a bad daydream of her wedding going horribly wrong due to how poor she 's become and how bad it will be as a result, she realizes she has no inspiration whatsoever to continue re-planning her wedding now that she can no longer have the wedding of her dreams. While going through some old boxes looking for something to inspire her, she and Julian find the list of things Brooke always wanted to try but never did, which Millie created for her back in Season 6 and includes things such as skydiving, watching every James Bond movie, getting drunk at Octoberfest, learning to speak French, and more, so Julian helps her do almost everything on the list, and afterwards, he promises her that no matter what happens he will make sure that she will get to experience the final item left on her list, which is having a baby. As a huge storm is ripping through Tree Hill, Brooke and Julian argue over him suggesting they move to Los Angeles now that she no longer has her job in Tree Hill, which was one of her main reasons for staying. She accuses him of wanting her to lose her company so that they could move, and blows off steam by going for a drive despite the bad storm. Julian calls her and tells her to come home, and when she says she ca n't see the road well, he says he will come get her and she tells him where she is, but the call is then cut off when Brooke hits the brakes to avoid hitting someone standing in the middle of the road, which turns out to be Jamie 's friend Chuck. She runs out of the car and asks him what happened, and he says there was an accident and points to a flipped SUV on the side of the bridge. She runs over to the car and finds Jamie, Madison, and Lauren, who 's still unconscious. As Chuck and Madison wait in Brooke 's car, Brooke helps Lauren out of the wreckage and tries to free Jamie as well, who 's pinned down by his seatbelt. When Brooke realizes Chuck has a concussion and is having a hard time staying awake, she tells Lauren to use her car and take the kids to the hospital while she tries to free Jamie. Eventually Julian finds them, but right after he arrives, a speeding car dodges a downed powerline in the middle of the road and hits the back of the SUV, causing it to fall over the bridge and into the water with Brooke and Jamie still inside. Julian dives into the water and finds that now not only is Jamie trapped, but Brooke 's leg is stuck underneath the steering wheel. Julian tells them the car is not sinking as the wheels are touching the bottom of the river, and the mood calms slightly until the levy breaks and water comes rushing into the car, and Julian is forced to save Jamie first while Brooke is still stuck inside, since Brooke tells him Jamie is just a child and needs help before she does. After getting Jamie out of the car and up to the road, Julian jumps back into the water and finds Brooke struggling to stay above the water, and by the time he frees her, she has lost consciousness and it seems as though she 's drowned. He carries her up to the road and begins performing CPR on her, but she does not respond and he breaks down into tears thinking his fiancé has died. However, Brooke 's hand twitches and after a few more rounds of CPR she regains consciousness and coughs up water, and the ambulance arrives shortly after to take her to the hospital. After a bachelorette party thrown by Haley in which Brooke, Millie, Quinn, Alex, and Sylvia get extremely drunk and wake up not remembering the night before, the girls run around town with clues they find piecing together the events that took place. Brooke loses her engagement ring, and is also shocked to hear from a waitress that she kissed someone during their drunken outing, only to later find out that the guy she kissed was Julian, who came to the bar they were at to see her, and he also took her engagement ring so that she would n't lose it while drunk. After finding out that Sawyer is sick and Peyton will not be attending her wedding, she asks Haley to be her maid of honor. Brooke and Julian 's wedding occurs in the following episode, with Victoria walking Brooke down the aisle after her father does not show up to the wedding, and Julian finally becomes Brooke 's husband. Now that they are married, Brooke finds herself bored now that she no longer has a wedding to plan and Julian is off directing a commercial, so she comes up with the idea for her, Haley, and Quinn to dress up like superheroes and help people in need that Haley finds through the crisis center she works for. The three "heroes '' help a young girl who 's being bullied by three high school mean girls.
She spends all of Valentine 's Day playing sexual role - playing games with Julian, and at the end of the night, he tells her that they should start looking into adopting a child, which Brooke is ecstatic about. The couple goes to an adoption agency and are interviewed by a 19 - year - old mother - to - be named Chloe Hall, who 's giving her baby up for adoption. Brooke makes her and Julian seem like the perfect couple, and Chloe believes this until she goes to Brooke 's house to speak with her and walks into Haley 's baby shower, where she hears a little more than she bargained for, such as Victoria 's prison time and Brooke losing her company. Despite all of this, she ultimately decides to give her baby to Brooke and Julian when it 's born. Chloe informs them that the baby will be coming sooner than expected, causing Brooke to begin trying to get the baby 's room together. Chloe talks to Brooke as she 's painting the room and tells her about the baby 's father and why she chose to give the baby up for adoption, and soon after she leaves to go home, they get a call from the hospital that Chloe has gone into labor and the baby is coming tonight. Brooke and Julian rush to the hospital to be with Chloe for the delivery of their new baby, during which time Chloe says that she would probably be a great mother, she just does n't want to raise the baby alone. However, Brooke and Julian are shocked when Chloe 's boyfriend Eric, the father of her baby, shows up at the hospital and Chloe ends up deciding to keep the baby now that she can raise the little girl with her boyfriend, not alone, leaving Brooke crushed, especially because Chloe had a little baby girl, which is exactly what Brooke wanted. While dealing with the emotional aftermath of the adoption falling through, she receives a job offer from Clothes Over Bros to move to New York and return to the company to design. She discusses this with Victoria, who thinks it 's a great idea that she should not turn down, and after Julian tells her he thinks it 's a great idea as well, she decides to take the job. However, she later decides to turn down the job after she finds out shockingly enough that she 's pregnant, which she finds out after Chase asks Alex to take a drug test for him as he 's trying to enter the Air Force but smoked weed during the Kid Cudi show and could not take it, and when he gets a call from the lab saying the person who gave the sample is pregnant, he tells Alex she 's pregnant as he thought she took the test but it is revealed that Alex would n't have been able to pass the test either as she ate pot brownies that Quinn made so she went to ask Julian to take the test but Brooke took it instead, meaning the person pregnant is n't Alex but actually Brooke. Quinn gets a photoshoot offer for B. Davis magazine to shoot a model in Puerto Rico and she invites Alex, Brooke, and Lauren to go with her. During the trip, Brooke tries to hide her pregnancy from Quinn and Lauren (with Alex already knowing about it because of the drug test) as she and Julian decided they did n't want to tell anybody as it 's too early, but Quinn eventually figures it out when Brooke makes it obvious by not eating sushi and throwing all of her alcohol shots over her shoulder to avoid drinking them. When she returns to Tree Hill, she finds that Haley has decided to turn Brooke 's former store back into Karen 's Cafe now that she 's moving to New York, causing Brooke to finally tell Haley that she turned down the job and is staying in Tree Hill because she 's pregnant, and instead offers to be Haley 's partner so they can open the cafe together.
In the season finale, several flash - forwards over the course of one year show Brooke at various stages throughout her pregnancy. Brooke and Haley officially re-open Karen 's Cafe as business partners, and right around this time (approximately four months into her pregnancy), she finds out she 's actually carrying twins. Three months later, she falls down as she is trying to get a bag of flour off of a high shelf at the cafe and her babies are delivered prematurely, although another flash - forward shows that her twin boys, Davis and Jude, are perfectly fine and healthy, and Brooke and Julian finally have the family they 've always wanted.
In Season 9, Haley and Brooke have reopened Karen 's Cafe. Brooke and Julian are shown to be very tired as Davis and Jude do not sleep much. For their christening, Brooke has Haley be godmother and asks her father to be godfather. Victoria, who is now very close to Brooke and the twins, is unhappy about this and tries to convince Brooke that Ted, her father, will never be there for Brooke or the boys. She is almost proved to be true when they are waiting in the church for Ted, but he shows up at the last minute and is made godfather to Davis and Jude. Brooke, having pitched an idea to Victoria for a new clothing line (Baker Man) but after Victoria rejected it, asks her father about it, wanting to spend more time with him. Ted agrees, but it soon becomes clear that all Ted is more interested in the clothing line than spending quality time with his daughter and grandsons. Julian has opened his own sound stage, and after getting very stressed out about it he leaves baby Davis in the car and Davis is rushed to hospital. Although Davis is fine, Brooke is initially very angry with Julian, but after talking to Haley, tells him she forgives him. Julian does not forgive himself so easily, punishing himself even by getting himself beaten up, and Brooke tries to help him. A rival cafe has opened across from Karen 's Cafe, called Tree Hill Cafe, and the owner Tara plays dirty tricks to win customers, including planting cockroaches and hanging a sign that says Karen 's Cafe hires murderers (from when Dan helped out Haley when she was short - staffed). After Tara sends a note that says ' Fry your burgers, not your babies! ' referring to Julian and Davis 's accident, Brooke smashes up Tree Hill Cafe.
When Xavier, Brooke 's attacker and Quentin Fields ' killer, is released from prison despite Brooke speaking at his parole hearing, he asks Brooke for a job and eats at the cafe. When Julian warns him off, he gets a job at Tree Hill Cafe. After much taunting of Brooke, he attacks her in a car park. He nearly kills her with a knife, but Tara tasers him, saving Brooke. Brooke recovers from her horrific encounter with Xavier and moves past it. Tree Hill is hosting the annual burning boat festival and it brings up old memories for Brooke. She wishes her family could have just sat together and been a family. Brooke goes to a hotel to discuss Baker Man with her mom and finds her father is there. She leaves the room in a hurry disgusted by seeing her parents had slept together. Her parents realize they have made lots of mistake and confront her. They tell her they want to start fresh and be a family. They all watch the burning boat festival together as a family when Brooke decided to give them yet another chance to prove her wrong. Her family officially launches Baker Boys online, and then Brooke buys the Tree Hill Cafe across from Karen 's Cafe to open a store. She tells Haley that the corner will be their little corner of the world. Julian surprises Brooke with the house that she grew up in. He tells her a real family deserves to live there and she will always continue to be the girl behind the red door. Brooke, Julian and their boys end up living a happy life in Tree Hill where they frequently go to Ravens Basketball games to cheer on her godson, Jamie Scott.
The initial Clothes Over Bros line features styles from casual to dressy. It was an immediate hit with her customers, selling past their expectations on the website. She was later put in the difficult position of choosing between showcasing her designs at a New York fashion show and starting her career, or leading her Tree Hill cheerleaders to their final competition. In the end, Brooke chose the latter, once she realized that she was not yet ready to enter the fast - paced world of fashion and was more than happy to finish off her senior year with her friends. During an interview with the school 's counselor, Brooke voices her intentions of studying fashion design after high school. Clothes Over Bros continues to be recognized in season four, with Brooke 's designs appearing in local fashion shows. When Brooke is involved in a cheating scandal, she 's forced to keep from turning herself in to administration in order to maintain an offer to sell her clothing line by Victoria 's Secret. She eventually does turn herself in to the principal, but does not get into trouble.
In season five, Clothes Over Bros has become a full - blown fashion company headed by Brooke Davis herself, but with the business side carried out by her mother, Victoria. The Clothes Over Bros dynasty consists of B. Davis Magazine and a high - end couture line. The Clothes Over Bros logo (C B) is incorporated on Peyton 's drawing of a heart on fire. The label 's name itself is based on the saying between Brooke and Peyton, "hoes over bros, '' and was first tagged in a conversation between Haley and Brooke. Brooke admits that she started her company "Clothes Over Bros '' to deal with her broken heart after her breakup with Lucas. When she moves back to Tree Hill, she opens a C / B store at Karen 's Cafe. In season six, Brooke signs her company over to her mother, Victoria, after thinking Victoria had her attacked and robbed (it was later revealed to be Jack 's brother). Her store remains empty for the majority of the season. In "I Would For You '', Victoria returns telling Brooke the company is going under and if she does n't return, hundreds will lose their jobs, and she reluctantly returns to the company. Victoria later signs the company back over to Brooke realizing her daughter is more important.
She hires an actress, Alex Dupre, to be the new face of Clothes Over Bros, and after Millicent stands in for a model during a fashion show Brooke puts together at TRIC, she asks her to be a model as well. Currently, Victoria is President of the company with Millicent as Vice President. Brooke is still the owner but runs her small store in Tree Hill.
Also, she comes up with the idea to begin making clothes for men, which Brooke is thinking of calling "Clothes For Bros ''. She later hires Millicent to be the other face of the company after she wows the crowd during a fashion show at TRIC. She eventually fires both of them after Alex constantly flirts with Julian and causes strain to their relationship, and Millicent begins taking diet pills and doing cocaine, and also for stealing a dress from the store. Millicent is later hired back by Victoria after getting on a DUI charge because Victoria called the police. Brooke begins working with a man Victoria hired named Alexander to develop a brand new men 's line, "Clothes FOR Bros ''. Alexander is the president of Clothes Over Bros but reports to Victoria.
At the beginning of season eight, Brooke is arrested and charged with various monetary crimes which she had nothing to do with. She later finds out that Victoria and Millicent lied to C / B investors behind her back, reporting a higher company revenue in order to increase their chances of having the men 's line picked up and funded. As a result of these crimes, the company goes under, Brooke 's store is shut down, and there is the possibility of jailtime for whomever is responsible. Victoria and Millicent work closely with the company lawyers to ensure Brooke keeps the company, and eventually an agreement is proposed which would allow Brooke to keep the company in exchange for a fine and Victoria serving prison time. Victoria agrees despite Brooke asking her not to. After an investor confronts her personally and tells her he lost all the money for his daughter 's college education after investing it in her company, she decides to sell the company, as well as liquidate her own funds, to pay back all of her investors 100 % of the money they lost investing in the clothing line. She soon signs away all of her ownership rights to the company.
Brooke gets an offer to move back to New York and return to the company later in the season in Episode 8.19, but declines after finding out she 's pregnant and wants to stay in Tree Hill to raise her baby, later finding out she 's actually pregnant with twins, whom she names Davis Nathan Baker and Jude Andrew Baker, giving birth to them in the season finale.
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who sings the theme tune to death in paradise | Death in Paradise (TV series) - wikipedia
Death in Paradise is a British - French crime drama television series created by Robert Thorogood, starring Ben Miller (series 1 -- 3.1), Kris Marshall (series 3 -- 6) and Ardal O'Hanlon (series 6 -- present). The programme is a joint UK and French production filmed on the French Caribbean island of Guadeloupe and broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom and France 2 in France. Death in Paradise has enjoyed high ratings, leading to repeated renewals. A seventh series began broadcasting on 4 January 2018, with an eighth for 2019 already commissioned, with O'Hanlon confirmed to return.
British detective Richard Poole (Ben Miller) is assigned to investigate the murder of a British police officer on the fictional Caribbean island of Saint Marie. After he successfully finds the murderer, he is reluctantly required by his supervisors to replace the victim and stay on as the detective inspector (DI) of the island, solving new cases as they appear, and being the object of many fish - out - of - water jokes. At the start of Series 3, Poole is killed and maladroit London detective Humphrey Goodman (Kris Marshall) arrives to investigate the death of his strait - laced predecessor. He then stays in the job as chief investigator on the island. In the second half of Series 6, he resigns so he can stay in London with his new girlfriend Martha Lloyd. His replacement on Saint Marie is DI Jack Mooney, played by Ardal O'Hanlon.
While Death in Paradise has continued to be in the top three most popular programmes on British television, critics have called the crime drama "unremarkable '' and "an undemanding detective show, with nice Caribbean scenery ''. The show is known for its formulaic approach to its plots with each episode roughly the same in both style and narrative structure.
Each episode begins with a pre-credits sequence showing the events leading up to a murder, and often the discovery of the body afterwards; this sequence also serves to introduce that particular episode 's guest characters. The police force of Saint Marie are subsequently informed of the murder, preliminary investigations and interviews take place to establish the suspects and photographs of the suspects and crime scene are placed on the whiteboard at police headquarters.
Often towards the end, the lead DI will have a moment of realisation, perhaps brought on by something that someone says or does or by some occurrence. In this moment, the how, why, and who of the murder are comprehended by the DI, but are not revealed to the audience. The suspects are then all gathered together and the DI talks through the evidence; often, flashbacks are used to show what happened. The murderer and the motive are revealed in the dénouement of the episode.
Normally, each episode ends with a comedic scene or a celebratory trip by the police force to Catherine 's bar. The final episode of most series has included a subplot wherein the lead DI is tempted to return to the UK by the prospect of a job offer or personal relationship, but in the end, he decides to remain on the island. This format was subverted in the sixth series when the two - part storyline in the fifth and sixth episodes saw the team travel to London to follow up on a current case, resulting in then - lead detective Humphrey Goodman deciding to remain to be with his new girlfriend; D.I. Jack Mooney travelled back to Saint - Marie, initially as a holiday, but decided to remain as the new detective inspector of the island in the series finale.
Death in Paradise is set on the fictional Caribbean island of Saint Marie, described in Episode 3.3 as a "pretty island '' that is "situated in the Eastern Caribbean Sea '' and "one - tenth the size of its north - west neighbour Guadeloupe ''; this would make Saint Marie about 63 square miles (160 km) in size. Saint Marie is a British Overseas Territory, but about 30 % of its people are of French culture due to previous history, with the language still widely spoken.
The back - story appears to be a blend of two real - world islands near to Guadeloupe, with size and location aligning with Marie - Galante and history and language aligning with Dominica.
In the TV show, the fictional Saint Marie island has a volcano, rainforest, sugar plantations, a fishing harbour, an airport, a university, a convent, approximately 100 public beaches and a Crown Court. It also has its own newspaper, The Saint Marie Times. Honoré, the main town, has a leisure / commercial marina, market, bars, and restaurants as well as the police station. The neighbouring town to Honoré is named as Port Royal. Saint Marie 's main economic ties are to Guadeloupe, the UK, and France. The island 's main religions are Catholicism and Voodoo, with several religious festivals featuring in the programme, including the Saint Ursula Festival (in reality, a major festival of the Virgin Islands) and some Voodoo festivals.
Episode 3.7 is largely set on an islet just off Saint Marie; it is privately owned and relatively small. This episode was actually filmed on the island of Kahouanne, around 1.2 miles (1.9 km) off the north - west coast of Guadeloupe where the series is normally filmed. It can often be seen in the background from a beach on Saint Marie.
Episodes 6.5 and 6.6 are largely set in London when DI Goodman, DS Cassell and Officer Myers form a liaison team in order to track down suspects in a murder investigation in Saint Marie and later to investigate the murder of one of the suspects.
^ a Made a voice cameo in this episode.
The series is filmed on the French island of Guadeloupe in the Lesser Antilles, mainly in the commune of Deshaies (which doubles for the town of Honoré on the fictional island of Saint Marie), with the help of the Bureau d'accueil des tournages de la Région Guadeloupe. The site of the Honoré police station is a church hall in Deshaies with the priest 's office appearing as the incident room.
Miller left the series at the start of series 3, as he felt he was spending too much time away from his family since his wife was unable to join him on the island during production. Marshall 's family joined him on the island during his first three six - month shoots and his son Thomas enrolled at a local school. When his family did not join him during the filming of the sixth season, following the birth of his baby daughter Elsie, it left him feeling "bereft and empty '' and he quit the show. From episode 7 of the sixth season the lead role was taken by Ardal O'Hanlon playing DI Jack Mooney, a London colleague.
Regarding British TV ratings, Death in Paradise has gained in popularity over time.
Series 1 (2011) has been the least - watched to date, averaging 5.89 million viewers, with the 5.3 million viewers for the sixth episode, "An Unhelpful Aid '' the lowest the show has had. Even so, each episode was among the top five most - watched programmes of the day, and in the top forty most - watched programmes of the week.
Series 2 (2013) averaged 7.67 million viewers, almost 2 million more than the previous series. Each episode was among the top two most - watched programmes of the day, and in the top fifteen most - watched programmes of the week.
Series 3 (2014) averaged 8.46 million viewers. Each episode was among the top two most - watched programmes of the day, and in the top ten most - watched programmes of the week.
Season 4 (2015) averaged 9.03 million viewers. Based on consolidated figures, each episode was among the top three most - watched programmes of the day, and in the top ten most - watched programmes of the week.
Season 5 (2016) averaged 8.67 million viewers. Based on consolidated figures, each episode was the most - watched programme of the day, and in the top four most - watched programmes of the week.
Season 6 (2017) has been the most - watched so far, averaging 9.1 million viewers. The season premiere, "Erupting in Murder '' is the most - watched episode of the show to date with 9.81 million viewers. Based on consolidated figures, each episode of Series 6 was the most - watched programme of the day, and in the top four most - watched programmes of the week.
The series has received mixed reviews from critics, with most criticism directed towards its formulaic structure. The first series was praised for its refreshing style and setting. Kris Marshall 's introduction at the start of series 3 was particularly well received, with Rebecca Smith of The Daily Telegraph citing Marshall as a "winning addition '' to the cast. The series 4 premiere was described as "a little piece of escapism '' and was generally praised. Mark Monahan of The Daily Telegraph criticised the laid - back tone of the series, calling it too methodical with nothing unique about it besides the setting.
Red Planet Pictures was nominated for, and won, the "Diversity in a Drama Production Award '' for Death In Paradise. Sara Martins, Danny John - Jules, Don Warrington and Tobi Bakare collected the award at a ceremony supported by the BBC and ITV that took place on 15 February 2015.
In the U.K., all series were shown on BBC One. The first series was broadcast in late 2011. The second series was broadcast in January 2013, with subsequent series filling the same January slot; all series were shown in a 9: 00 -- 10: 00 pm slot. The series has also been shown on repeat on the Alibi channel, although with each episode missing the pre-intro sequence and a few expendable scenes due to the need for adverts on Alibi.
In France the programme is broadcast on France 2.
In the U.S., many, but not all, member stations of PBS broadcast Death In Paradise. Series 1 and 2 were broadcast in the San Francisco Bay Area on KQED Mystery Night in 2013. Series 1 aired in January and February 2013 and series 2 aired in April and May 2013.
In the New England area, WGBH - TV started airing Series 1 and 2 in 2013. Other PBS stations that air the programme as of 2016 include WPBA, WLIW, WTTW, KAET, KUAT and WNED, among others. In Seattle - Tacoma, WA area broadcast on KBTC TV (PBS), Seasons 1 - 6.
All episodes of series 1 -- 4 are available on Netflix for online streaming in the UK.
In Australia, recent series have aired nationally on Foxtel within a few hours of their UK release. Series 1 -- 3 were broadcast on ABC One a few months behind original broadcast in the U.K. Generally, this was shown in a 7: 30pm Saturday timeslot.
In Canada, all series have been broadcast on BBC Canada on Thursdays at 9: 00 pm. The last two series have been shown about a month after the BBC One showing.
The theme music is an instrumental version of a Jamaican song from the 1960s, "You 're Wondering Now, '' written by Coxsone Dodd, originally recorded by Andy & Joey in Jamaica. It was later made famous by The Skatalites and in Europe by ska band The Specials and later still by Amy Winehouse as featured on some editions of the deluxe version of her album Back to Black. In the first episode of the third series, the cover version recorded by The Skatalites in 1994 is played at the bar. It appeared on the official Death in Paradise soundtrack, released in January 2015, alongside other music from all four series. In the French version, the opening song is "Sunday Shining '' by Finley Quaye.
In January 2015, an official soundtrack compiling 26 songs from the first four series of the show was released by the BBC. It contains original music for Death in Paradise and already extant tunes, though it does not include the theme music from the show.
The creator of the show, Robert Thorogood, signed a three - book deal to write Death in Paradise novels featuring the original characters (D.I. Richard Poole, D.S. Camille Bordey, Officer Dwayne Myers, Sergeant Fidel Best and Comm. Selwyn Patterson). The first of these, A Meditation on Murder (A Death in Paradise novel), was published in January 2015. Early reviews were generally favourable, with the Daily Express in particular being complimentary, giving it four stars. The second book was released in 2016 with the title The Killing of Polly Carter.
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name the set of laws found in the first five books of the bible | Law of Moses - wikipedia
The Law of Moses, also called the Mosaic Law or in Hebrew: תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה , Torat Moshe, refers primarily to the Torah or first five books of the Hebrew Bible. Traditionally believed to have been written by Moses, most academics now believe they had many authors.
The Law of Moses or Torah of Moses (Hebrew תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה, Torat Moshe, Septuagint Greek: νόμος Μωυσῆ, nomos Moyse, or in some translations the "Teachings of Moses '') is a biblical term first found in the Book of Joshua 8: 31 - 32, where Joshua writes the Hebrew words of "Torat Moshe תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה '' on an altar of stones at Mount Ebal. The text continues:
The term occurs 15 times in the Hebrew Bible, a further 7 times in the New Testament, and repeatedly in Second Temple period, intertestamental, rabbinical and patristic literature.
The Hebrew word for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, Torah (which means "law '' and was translated into Greek as "nomos '' or "Law '') refers to the same five books termed in English "Pentateuch '' (from Latinised Greek "five books, '' implying the five books of Moses). According to some scholars, use of the name "Torah '' to designate the "Five Books of Moses '' of the Hebrew Bible, is clearly documented only from the 2nd Century BCE. In modern usage, Torah can refer to the first five books of the Tanakh, as the Hebrew Bible is commonly called, to the instructions and commandments found in the 2nd to 5th books of the Hebrew Bible, and also to the entire Tanakh and even all of the Oral Law as well. Among English - speaking Christians the term "The Law '' can refer to the whole Pentateuch including Genesis, but this is generally in relation to the New Testament where nomos "the Law '' sometimes refers to all five books, including Genesis. This use of the Hebrew term "Torah '', ' Law ', for the first five books is considered misleading by 21st - century Christian bible scholar John Van Seters, because the Pentateuch "consists of about one half law and the other half narrative. '' The adjective "Mosaic '' means "of Moses. ''
The "Law of Moses '' in ancient Israel was different from other legal codes in the ancient Near East because transgressions were seen as offenses against God rather than solely as offenses against society (civil law). This contrasts with the Sumerian Code of Ur - Nammu (c. 2100 - 2050 BCE), and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BCE, of which almost half concerns contract law). However the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented. For example the Israelite Sabbatical Year has antecedents in the Akkadian mesharum edicts granting periodic relief to the poor. Another important distinction is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed Ugaritic texts, an important, and ultimate, role in the legal process was assigned to the king. Ancient Israel was set up as a theocracy, rather than a monarchy.
According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses was the leader of early Israel out of Egypt; and traditionally the first five books of the Hebrew Bible are attributed to him, though most modern scholars believe there were multiple authors. The law attributed to Moses, specifically the laws set out in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, as a consequence came to be considered supreme over all other sources of authority (any king and / or his officials), and the Levites were the guardians and interpreters of the law.
The Book of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 31: 24 -- 26) records Moses saying, "Take this book of the law, and put it by the side of the Ark of the Covenant of the LORD. '' Similar passages referring to the Law include, for example, Exodus 17: 14, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write this for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven; '' Exodus 24: 4, "And Moses wrote all the words of the LORD, and rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the mount, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel; '' Exodus 34: 27, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write thou these words, for after the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with thee and with Israel; '' and Leviticus 26: 46 "These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the LORD established on Mount Sinai between himself and the Israelites through Moses. ''
The Book of Kings relates how a "law of Moses '' was discovered in the Temple during the reign of king Josiah (r. 641 -- 609 BCE). This book is mostly identified as an early version of the Book of Deuteronomy, perhaps chapters 5 - 26 and chapter 28 of the extant text. This text contains a number of laws, dated to the 8th century BC kingdom of Judah.
Another mention of the "Book of the Law of Moses '' is found in Joshua 8: 30 - 31.
The content of the Law is spread among the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and then reiterated and added to in Deuteronomy (deutero - nomy is Latinised Greek for "Second reading of the Law ''). This includes:
The content of the instructions and its interpretations, the Oral Torah, was passed down orally, excerpted and codified in Rabbinical Judaism, and in the Talmud were numbered as the 613 commandments. The Law given to Moses at Sinai (Hebrew Halakhah le - Moshe mi - Sinai הלכה למשה מסיני) is a halakhic distinction.
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what cooking methods were used by the settlers in the midwest | Cuisine of the Midwestern United States - wikipedia
Midwestern cuisine is a regional cuisine of the American Midwest. It draws its culinary roots most significantly from the cuisines of Central, Northern and Eastern Europe, and Native North America, and is influenced by regionally and locally grown foodstuffs and cultural diversity.
Everyday Midwestern home cooking generally showcases simple and hearty dishes that make use of the abundance of locally grown foods. Its culinary profiles may seem synonymous with "American food. '' Quoted in a 2007 interview with the Daily Herald, Chef Stephen Langlois, a pioneer in the Midwestern local food movement, described it: "Think of Thanksgiving dinner. Turkey and cranberry sauce and wild rice and apple pie. ''
The Midwest 's restaurants also offer a diverse mix of ethnic cuisines as well as sophisticated, contemporary techniques.
Sometimes called "the breadbasket of America, '' the Midwest serves as a center for grain production, particularly wheat, corn and soybeans. Midwestern states also produce most of the country 's wild rice.
Beef and pork processing always have been important Midwestern industries, with a strong role in regional diets. Chicago and Kansas City were historically stockyard and processing centers of the beef trade and Cincinnati, nicknamed ' Porkopolis ', was once the largest pork - producing city in the world. Iowa is the center of pork production in the U.S.
Far from the oceans, Midwesterners traditionally ate little seafood, relying on local freshwater fish, such as perch and trout, supplemented by canned tuna and canned or cured salmon and herring, although modern air shipping of ocean seafood has been increasing Midwesterners ' taste for ocean fish.
Dairy products, especially cheese, form an important group of regional ingredients, with Wisconsin known as "America 's Dairyland. ''
The upper Midwest, a prime fruit - growing region, sees the extensive use of apples, blueberries, cranberries, cherries, peaches and other cold - climate fruit in its cuisine.
As with many American regional cuisines, Midwestern cooking has been heavily influenced by immigrant groups. Throughout the northern Midwest, northern European immigrant groups predominated, so Swedish pancakes and Polish pierogi are common. Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Ohio and Illinois were destinations for many ethnic German immigrants, so pork sausages and potatoes are prevalent. In the Rust Belt, many Greeks became restaurateurs, imparting a Mediterranean influence. Native American influences show up in the uses of corn and wild rice.
Traditionally, Midwestern cooks used a light hand with seasonings, preferring sage, dill, caraway, mustard and parsley to hot, bold and spicy flavors. However, with new waves of immigrants from Latin America and Asia moving into the region, these tastes are changing.
This section of the region is also headquarters for several seminal hamburger chains, including McDonald 's in Oak Brook, Illinois (founded in California, but turned into the iconic franchise by Ray Kroc beginning with a still - standing store in Des Plaines, Illinois). The Midwest is also home to Hardee 's in St. Louis, Missouri, Culver 's in Sauk City, Wisconsin; Steak n Shake, founded in Normal, Illinois, and now based in Indianapolis; Wendy 's in Dublin, Ohio. Diner chain Big Boy, known for burgers, is headquartered in Warren, Michigan. Both Pizza Hut (now based in Plano, Texas) and White Castle (based in Columbus, Ohio since 1933) were founded in Wichita, Kansas.
Besides Pizza Hut, the Midwest is home to the other largest pizza chains in the U.S.: Little Caesars and Domino 's Pizza, both based in Michigan (respectively in Detroit and Ann Arbor), and Papa John 's Pizza, founded in Indiana (though its current headquarters are just outside the federally defined Midwest in Louisville, Kentucky, across the Ohio River from the chain 's original home of Jeffersonville).
A Wurst mart, sometimes spelled Wurstmart or Wurst Markt, is a variation on a fish fry found predominantly in German - American communities. Wurst marts are usually held by churches as fundraising events, where people will pay for a buffet of sausages and other side dishes. Common side dishes include mashed potatoes, gravy and sauerkraut. Wurst Mart comes from the German word "Wurstmarkt '', meaning sausage market. Wurst marts are found mostly in small rural German - American communities in the Midwest, particularly around St. Louis.
Major urban areas in the Midwest feature distinctive cuisines very different from those of the region 's rural areas, and some larger cities have world - class restaurants.
Part of the greater Akron area, this small industrial city with a strong Central and Eastern European heritage has a culinary contribution called Barberton Chicken, created by Serbian immigrants, deep fried in lard, and usually accompanied by a hot rice dish, vinegar coleslaw and french fries.
The ethnic mix of the people of Chicago has led to a distinctive cuisine of restaurant foods exclusive to the area, such as Italian beef, the Maxwell Street Polish, the Chicago - style hot dog, Chicago - style pizza, chicken Vesuvio and the jibarito, as well as a large number of steakhouses.
Chicago also boasts many gourmet restaurants, as well as a wide variety of ethnic food stores and eateries, most notably Mexican, Polish, Italian, Greek, Indian / Pakistani and Asian, often clustered in ethnic neighborhoods. Many of these cuisines have evolved significantly in Chicago. For example, the Greek cheese dish saganaki was first flambéed at the table in Greektown.
Chicago is the Midwest 's center of molecular gastronomy, likely due to the influence of Grant Achatz.
As a major rail hub, Chicago historically had access to a broad range of the country 's foodstuffs, so even in the 19th century, Chicagoans could easily buy items like live oysters and reasonably fresh shrimp. Chicago 's oldest signature dish, shrimp de Jonghe, was invented around the turn of the 20th century. Today, flights into O'Hare Airport bring Chicago fresh food from all over the world.
The Queen City is known for its namesake "Cincinnati chili '', a Greek - inspired meat sauce (ground beef seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, bay leaf, cumin, chili powder, and unsweetened dark chocolate), served over spaghetti or hot dogs. Unlike chili con carne, Cincinnati - style chili is almost never eaten by itself and is instead consumed in "ways '' or on cheese coneys, which are a regional variation on a chili dog.
Goetta, a meat - and - grain sausage or mush made from pork and oats, is unique to the Greater Cincinnati area and "every bit as much a Queen City icon '' as Cincinnati chili. It was inspired by the traditional porridge - like German peasant food stripgrutze but incorporates a higher proportion of meat - to - grain and is thicker, forming a sliceable loaf. Slices are typically fried like sausage patties and served for breakfast. More than a million pounds of goetta are served in the Cincinnati area per year.
The city has a strong German heritage and a variety of German - oriented restaurants and menu items can be found in the area. Cincinnati 's Oktoberfest Zinzinnati, an annual food and music celebration held each September, is the second - largest in the world. Taste of Cincinnati, the longest running culinary arts festival in the United States, is held each year on Memorial Day weekend. In 2014, local chefs and food writers organized the first annual Cincinnati Food & Wine Classic, which drew chefs and artisan food producers from the region.
The area was once a national center for pork processing and is often nicknamed Porkopolis, with many references to that heritage in menu - item names and food - event names; pigs are a "well - loved symbol of the city. ''
Four - way Cincinnati chili
Pork packing in Cincinnati 1873
Taste of Cincinnati 2009
Cleveland 's many immigrant groups and heavily blue - collar demographic have long played an important role in defining the area 's cuisine. Ethnically, Italian foods as well as several Eastern European cuisines, particularly those of Poland and Hungary, have become gastronomical staples in the Greater Cleveland area. Prominent examples of these include cavatelli, rigatoni, pizza, Chicken paprikash, stuffed cabbage, pierogi, and kielbasa all of which are widely popular in and around the city. Local specialties, such as the pork - based dish City Chicken and the Polish Boy (a loaded sausage sandwich native to Cleveland), are dishes definitive of a cuisine that is based on hearty, inexpensive fare. Commercially, Hector Boiardi (aka Chef Boyardee) started his business in Cleveland 's Little Italy.
Sweets specific to the Cleveland area include the coconut bar (similar in many respects to the Australian Lamington). Coconut bars, which are found in many Jewish bakeries in the area, are small squares of cake that have been dipped in chocolate and rolled in coconut. In Italian bakeries around the Cleveland area, a variation of the Cassata cake is widely popular. This local version is unlike those typically found elsewhere being that it is made with layers of sponge cake custard and strawberries, then frosted with whipped cream. In a celebrity - chef nod to this version, Mario Batali as ' the best Cassata cake in the USA. '
The Columbus, Ohio area is the home and birthplace of many well - known fast food chains, especially those known for hamburgers. Wendy 's opened its first store in Columbus in 1969, and is now headquartered in nearby Dublin. America 's oldest hamburger chain, White Castle, is based there. Besides burgers, Columbus is noted for the German Village, a neighborhood south of downtown where German cuisine such as sausages and kuchen are served. In recent years, local restaurants focused on organic, seasonal, and locally or regionally sourced food have become more prevalent, especially in the Short North area, between downtown and the OSU campus. Numerous Somali restaurants are also found in the city, particularly around Cleveland Avenue.
Columbus is also the birthplace of the famed Marzetti Italian Restaurant, opened in 1896. Owner Teresa Marzetti is credited with creation of the beef - and - pasta casserole named after her brother - in - law, Johnny Marzetti. The restaurant 's popular salad dressings became the foundation for the T. Marzetti Company, an international specialty foods manufacturer and distributor, headquartered in Columbus.
Detroit specialties include Coney Island hot dogs, found at hundreds of unaffiliated "Coney Island '' restaurants. Not to be confused with a chili dog, a coney is served with a ground beef sauce, chopped onions and mustard. The Coney Special has an additional ground beef topping. It is often served with French fries. Food writers Jane and Michael Stern call out Detroit as the only "place to start '' in pinpointing "the top Coney Islands in the land. ''
Detroit also has its own style of pizza, a thick - crusted, Sicilian cuisine - influenced, rectangular type called square pizza. Other Detroit foods include zip sauce, served on steaks; the triple - decker Dinty Moore sandwich, corned beef layered with lettuce, tomato and Russian dressing; and a Chinese - American dish called warr shu gai or almond boneless chicken.
The Detroit area has many large groups of immigrants. A large Arabic - speaking population reside in and around the suburb of Dearborn, home to many Lebanese storefronts. Detroit also has a substantial number of Greek restaurateurs. Thus, numerous Mediterranean restaurants dot the region and typical foods such as gyros, hummus and falafel can be found in many run - of - the - mill grocery stores and restaurants.
Polish food is also prominent in the region, including popular dishes such as pierogi, borscht, and pączki. Bakeries concentrated in the Polish enclave of Hamtramck, Michigan, within the city, are celebrated for their pączki, especially on Fat Tuesday. Hungarian food is featured in east Toledo, Ohio with Packo 's hotda
Chinese restaurants in the Detroit area serve Almond boneless chicken, a regional Chinese - American dish consisting of battered fried boneless chicken breasts served sliced on a bed of lettuce with a gravy - like chicken flavored sauce and slivered almonds.
In nearby Ann Arbor the Chipati, a tossed salad, is served inside a freshly baked pita pocket with the "secret '' Chipati sauce on the side. The Chipati 's origination is claimed by both Pizza Bob 's on S. State St. and by Pizza House on Church St.
Indianapolis was settled predominantly by Americans of British descent and Irish and German immigrants, so much of the city 's food draws upon these influences. Much of the food is considered to be "Classic American Cuisine ''. Later immigrants included many Jews, Poles, Eastern Europeans and Italians, all of whom influenced local food. Two of the city 's most distinct dishes are the pork tenderloin sandwich and sugar cream pie.
A fast - growing immigrant population from places such as Mexico and India is also beginning to influence the local food. The area offers many diverse, locally owned ethnic restaurants, as well as nationally and internationally renowned restaurants. Indy is also home to many local pubs.
Kansas City is an important barbecue and meat - processing center with a distinctive barbecue style. The Kansas City metropolitan area has more than 100 barbecue restaurants and proclaims itself to be the "world 's barbecue capital. '' The Kansas City Barbeque Society spreads its influence across the nation through its barbecue - contest standards. The oldest continuously operating barbecue restaurant is Rosedale Barbecue near downtown Kansas City. Other popular barbecue restaurants are Gates Bar - B-Q, Joe 's Kansas City Bar - B - Que and Arthur Bryant 's. Both Arthur Bryant 's and Gates Bar - B-Q sell bottled versions of their barbecue sauces in restaurants and specialty stores in the surrounding areas.
The capital and second - largest city in the state of Wisconsin, Madison has a diverse and cosmopolitan food scene. One representative is Dane County Farmers ' Market, the largest producers - only farmer 's market in the nation.
Mansfield is the home of two well - known food companies. Isaly Dairy Company (AKA Isaly 's) was a chain of family - owned dairies and restaurants started by William Isaly in the early 1900s until the 1970s, famous for creating the Klondike Bar ice cream treat, popularized by the slogan "What would you do for a Klondike Bar? ''. Stewart 's Restaurants is a chain of root beer stands started in Mansfield by Frank Stewart in 1924, famous for their Stewart 's Fountain Classics line of premium beverages now sold worldwide.
German immigrants settled Milwaukee. Sauerkraut, bratwurst, beer, and other traditional German favorites continue to be popular, both in homes and at Milwaukee 's famous German restaurants. Milwaukee also offers a diverse selection of other ethnic restaurants.
Served under various names, a favorite sandwich for Milwaukeeans and Wisconsinites consists of a brat (often butterflied to lay flat) on top of a hamburger in a kaiser roll.
Frozen custard is a local favorite in the Cream City, with many competing stands throughout the area.
Cheese curds are another local favorite, and Wisconsinites enjoy them "squeaky '' (cold), or fried (usually in batter).
Also known as Brew City, Milwaukee is home to many breweries and the traditional and nominal headquarters for national beer brands.
Minneapolis and Saint Paul offer a diverse array of cuisines influenced by their many immigrant groups, as well as those restaurant chefs who follow the trends of larger cities. Within Minnesota, at - home fare varies broadly within various ethnic groups and their culture, historically, the overall majority of Minnesotans were of Northern European ancestry, many with farming backgrounds and many home - cooked meals still reflect this, with comfort food items such as hotdish, hearty soups and stews and meat and potatoes commonly being served. Many Minnesotans claim some Scandinavian heritage, and while iconic dishes such as lefse and lutefisk are quite commonly served at home as well as church potlucks and community get - togethers, few Twin Cities restaurants serve these items. Traditionally wild rice has been popular in Minnesota, which has been gathered in area lakes by Native Americans for centuries; In the fall, the Twin Cities share along with Green Bay, Wisconsin, the tradition of the neighborhood booyah, a cuisine and cultural event featuring a hodge - podge of ingredients in stews. One item of note, Minneapolis and Saint Paul pioneered the Jucy Lucy (or "Juicy Lucy ''), a hamburger with a core of melted cheese.
American restaurants in the Twin Cities supply a wide spectrum of choices and styles that range from small diners offering simple short order grill fare and the typical sports bars and decades old supper clubs to high - end steakhouses and eateries that serve new American cuisine using locally grown ingredients. Most types of American regional cuisine can be found at restaurants in the Twin Cities. Barbecue restaurants in the area tend to feature a combination of the various regional styles of this type of cooking. In the inner cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul, it 's not uncommon to find a few Chicago - influenced African American barbecue restaurants. Recently Minneapolis is becoming central to the newly thriving native american cuisine movement. It has been announced that A Native American restaurant by Sioux Chef author and educator Sean Sherman called Owanmi will be part of the Water Works, a park development project overlooking St. Anthony Falls and the Stone Arch Bridge, set to open in 2019.
Germans comprise the majority of the state 's ethnic heritage and one can find authentic German cuisine at the Gasthaus Bavarian Hunter in nearby Stillwater, and at the Black Forest Inn and the Gasthof zur Gemutlichkeit both found in Minneapolis. The latter restaurant is in Minneapolis ' Northeast community which is also home to thriving Czech, Polish, Ukrainian and other Eastern European restaurants such as Jax Café, Kramarczuk 's, Mayslack 's and the former Nye 's Polonaise lending this area an old world character and charm. The Twin Cities can also boast of authentic French, Irish, Italian and Russian restaurants. Spanish tapas restaurants exist, but are more trendy than homage. In the Twin Cities, pizzerias tend to be American rather than rustic Italian. Pies tend to feature thinner crusts, and are usually cut into squares (Also known as "tavern cut '' or "party cut ''). Rustic Italian pizzerias however, are not absent. A few do exist, and feature inventive styles of pizza.
Authentic Mexican and Tex - Mex restaurants are quite popular in the Twin Cities, as there are Hispanic neighborhoods in both Saint Paul and Minneapolis. Many entrepreneurs have taken authentic Mexican cuisine into the suburbs as well. Latin American purveyors are also pioneering their home cuisines from Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Peru and the Spanish Speaking West Indies offering authentic churrasco and ceviche among their dining options.
Asian cuisine was initially dominated by Chinese Cantonese immigrants that served Americanized offerings. In 1883 Woo Yee Sing and his younger brother, Woo Du Sing, opened the Canton Cafe in Minneapolis, the first Chinese restaurant in Minnesota. Authentic offerings began at the influential Nankin Cafe which opened in 1919, and many new Chinese immigrants soon took this cuisine throughout the Twin Cities and to the suburbs. Authentic Chinese cuisine from the provinces of Hunan and Szechaun and from Beijing, Shanghai and Taiwan are relatively new. The cuisine of Japan has been present since the opening of the area 's very first Japanese restaurant, Fuji Ya in 1959. Since then, sushi and teppanyaki restaurants have also become increasingly more common. In the 1970s the Twin Cities saw a large influx of Southeast Asian immigrants from Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. The urban areas are now proliferated by Vietnamese phở noodle shops, banh mi and Thai curry restaurants. Since 1976 Supenn Supatanskinkasem (now Harrison) has been cooking and serving Thai food through her Minnesota State Fair Booth, Siam Café, and Sawatdee chain of Thai restaurants. Thanks to her persistence and success, others have opened Thai restaurants and there are now more than 100 establishments throughout Minnesota offering the food of Thailand. Cambodian cuisine has also flourished given the large Hmong population familiar with it. Korean restaurants are few, as possibly their dining style and flavors have not been as adopted into the American mainstream. In the Twin Cities suburbs, Oriental buffets are popular for offering different Asian cuisines together. Restaurants offering other cuisines of Asia including those from Afghanistan, India, Nepal and the Philippines are also fairly recent additions to the Twin Cities dining scene and have been well received. Local ingredients are often integrated into Asian offerings, for example Chinese steamed walleye and Nepalese curried bison.
The Twin Cities are home to many restaurants that serve the cuisines of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. There are numerous Greek restaurants that range from fine dining to casual fast food shops that specialize in gyros. In both Minneapolis and Saint Paul, there exist long established Jewish cafes and delicatessens. Lebanese restaurants have also had a long time presence in both cities.
Authentic offerings of Arab cuisine, as well as other Middle Eastern cuisines, exist in the Minneapolis / St. Paul Metropolitan area. Egyptian, Iranian (Persian), Kurdish, and Turkish restaurants can be found throughout the Twin Cities.
Related cuisines from Northeast Africa can also be found throughout the Twin Cities metropolitan area. While restaurants that serve Ethiopian dishes have been in the Twin Cities for decades, more recent immigrants from Somalia have also opened a number of restaurants in Minnesota. Somali cuisine consists of an exotic mixture of native Somali, Ethiopian, Yemeni, Indian, Persian, Turkish and Italian culinary influences.
In addition, West African immigrants have introduced their own unique cuisine in recent years. There is also a presence of Afro - Caribbean restaurants, with the famed Nicollet Avenue in Minneapolis being home to two Caribbean restaurants.
The University of Minnesota has been a center for food research with inventions such as the Haralson, Honeycrisp and SweeTango apple varieties. The Minnesota State Fair offers a sampling of many cuisines each year and Twin Citians claim that the all - American Corn Dog and Pronto Pup made their very first appearances there. Much like other states in the Midwest with a significant dairy industry, deep fried cheese curds are very popular at carnivals, city festivals, baseball games, county fairs, and the aforementioned Minnesota State Fair. Additionally, many important agricultural conglomerates, including Cargill, General Mills / Pillsbury, and International Multifoods make their home in Minneapolis - Saint Paul. The Betty Crocker food brand (named after a non-existent housewife) was born there. Several national restaurant chains, such as Buca di Beppo, Famous Dave 's and the now defunct Chi - Chi 's started in the Twin Cities. Buffalo Wild Wings, Dairy Queen, KarmelKorn Shoppes, the former Old Country Buffet, Orange Julius and T.G.I. Friday 's (a division of Carlson Companies) are also well known chains headquartered in the Twin Cities.
Omaha has some unusual steakhouses such as the famous Gorat 's, several of which are Sicilian in origin or adjacent to the Omaha Stockyards. Central European and Southern influences can be seen in the local popularity of carp and South 24th Street contains a multitude of Mexican restaurants. North Omaha also has its own barbecue style.
Omaha is one of the places claiming to have invented the reuben sandwich, supposedly named for Reuben Kulakofsky, a grocer from the Dundee neighborhood.
Bronco 's, Godfather 's Pizza, and the Garden Cafe are among the chain restaurants that originated in Omaha.
Omaha also has a thriving local pizza scene, with popular restaurants including Zio 's, La Casa, Mama 's and Valentino 's. However, Big Fred 's and Johnny Sortino 's are the two that routinely vie for the title of the best pizza in town.
The cheese frenchee is also a local favorite and staple, originating from the original King 's Food Host fast food restaurants. Today in Omaha, you can find them at Amigos / Kings Classic and Don & Millies fast food restaurants.
The large number of Irish and German immigrants who came to St. Louis beginning in the early nineteenth century contributed significantly to the shaping of local cuisine as confirmed by a variety of uses of beef, pork and chicken, often roasted or grilled, as well as a variety of desserts including rich cakes, stollens, fruit pies, doughnuts and cookies. Even a local form of fresh stick pretzel, called Gus 's Pretzels, has been sold singly or by the bagful by street corner vendors.
Mayfair salad dressing was invented at a St. Louis hotel of the same name, and is richer than Caesar salad dressing. St. Louis is also known for popularizing the ice cream cone and for inventing gooey butter cake (a rich, soft - centered coffee cake) and frozen custard. Iced tea is also rumored to have been invented at the World 's Fair, as well as the hot dog bun.
Although St. Louis is typically not included on the list of major styles of barbecue in the United States, it was recognized by Kingsford as "America 's Top Grilling City '' in its second annual list of "Top 10 Grilling Cities. '' A staple of grilling in St. Louis is the pork steak, which is sliced from the shoulder of the pig and often basted with or simmered in barbecue sauce during cooking. Other popular grilled items include crispy snoots, cut from the cheeks and nostrils of the pig; bratwurst; and Italian sausage, often referred to as "sah - zittsa, '' a localization of its Italian name, salsiccia. Maull 's is a popular brand of barbecue sauce in the St. Louis area.
Restaurants on The Hill reflect the lasting influence of the early twentieth century Milanese and Sicilian immigrant community. Two unique Italian - American style dishes include "toasted '' ravioli, which is breaded and fried, and St. Louis - style pizza, which has a crisp, thin crust and is usually made with Provel cheese instead of traditional mozzarella cheese.
A Poor boy sandwich is the traditional name in St. Louis for a submarine sandwich. A St. Paul sandwich is a St. Louis sandwich, available in Chinese - American restaurants. A Slinger is a diner and late night specialty consisting of eggs, hash browns and hamburger, topped with chili, cheese and onion.
Illinois is a top producer of corn and soybeans, but corn, particularly sweet corn, figures most substantially in its cuisine. Chicago - style cuisine is dominant in Northeastern Illinois, while other parts of the state mirror adjoining regions.
Springfield, Illinois, and the surrounding area are known for the horseshoe sandwich.
A popular dish seen almost exclusively in Indiana is sugar cream pie, which most likely originated in the state 's Amish community. Persimmon pudding is also a favorite Indiana dessert very difficult to find outside of the Hoosier State.
The pork tenderloin sandwich, a sandwich of boneless pork loin that has been pounded flat, breaded, and fried, is a popular state food; Huntington is the likely first appearance in 1913. Beef and noodles is another homespun Hoosier dish.
Frog legs are traditional in old - fashioned Indiana restaurants, and brain sandwiches have a following. Fried biscuits with apple butter are served at many restaurants in southern Indiana, as are fried - brain sandwiches.
Iowa is the leading pork producer in the United States. This is reflected in Iowan cuisine, which includes the pork tenderloin sandwich (or simply ' pork tenderloin '), consisting of a lean section of boneless pork loin that is pounded flat, breaded, and deep fried before being served on a seeded hamburger bun with any or all of ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, and dill pickle slices. In Iowa, the meat of a pork tenderloin sandwich is often far larger than the area of the bun.
Iowa is the center for loose - meat sandwiches, also called tavern sandwiches and appearing on many menus by each restaurant 's unique name for them. They originated in the region in the Ye Olde Tavern restaurant in 1934 before being popularized by Maid - Rite in 1936, which now has franchises in other midwestern states. The Sioux City take - out restaurant "Tastee Inn and Out '' originated in 1955 and is now one of the last extant tavern sandwich specialty single - restaurant operations in the country. In Illinois, this sandwich is also known as a "loose hamburger sandwich ''.
Dutch letters, pastries filled with almond paste and shaped like an ' S, ' are also common in Iowa.
Iowa is the leader in Corn production in the United States therefore Iowan 's celebrate this with numerous sweet corn feeds during the summer months.
As of November 2006, Kansas still has 29 dry counties and only 17 counties have passed liquor - by - the - drink without a food sales requirement. Today there are more than 2600 liquor and 4000 cereal malt beverage licensees in the state.
Michigan is a large producer of asparagus, a vegetable crop widespread in Spring. Western and northern Michigan are notable in the production of apples, blueberries, and cherries. The Northwestern region of Michigan 's Lower Peninsula accounts for approximately 75 percent of the U.S. crop of tart cherries, usually about 250 million pounds (11.3 Gg). A popular dish, Michigan Chicken Salad, includes cherries and often apples. Fruit salsas are also popular with cherry salsa being especially prominent. Michigan 's wine and beer industries are substantial in the region. The Traverse City area is a popular destination to visit wineries and the state makes many varieties of wine, such as Rieslings, ice wines, and fruit wines. Micro-breweries continue to blossom creating a wide range of unique beers. Grand Rapids was voted Beer City USA 2013 in the Beer City USA poll, with Founders being the largest of Grand Rapids ' breweries. Bell 's, another large Michigan craft brewery is located further south in Kalamazoo.
Michigan is the home of both Post and Kellogg, with Battle Creek being called Cereal City. Vernor 's ginger ale and Faygo pop also originate in Michigan. Vernor 's ginger ale is often used as a home remedy for an upset stomach.
Coney Islands, a type of diner originating with Greek immigrants in Detroit, are fairly common throughout the state. A Coney is many times a Koegel hot dog from Flint - based Koegel Meat Company on a bun, topped with raw onion, mustard, and Coney sauce, a type of chili. Cheese may be added as well and variations are found throughout the state, with each city claiming theirs is the best. These diners usually also have gyros served with cucumber or honey mustard sauce, as well as hamburgers, sandwiches, breakfast and dinner entrees. Most Coney Islands are open 24 hours and also a popular place to get a late or early coffee.
In Polish communities throughout the state Pączki can be found every year on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) in a wide assortment of flavors including lemon, blueberry to custard. Pierogis, goulash, and polish style sausage are common specialties in many restaurants.
Fish fries are common on Fridays and during Lent. Fish fries are usually set up buffet style typically consisting of items including rolls, potatoes (typically in the form of french fries and mashed), salad, coleslaw, apple sauce, deep fried fish and sometimes fried shrimp and baked fish. Fish is generally popular throughout the state due to the states location on four of the Great Lakes. Trout, walleye, perch and catfish are common. Whitefish is a regional specialty usually offered along the coast, with smoked whitefish and whitefish dip being noteworthy.
Cornish immigrant miners introduced the pasty to Michigan 's Upper Peninsula (U.P.) as a convenient meal to take to work in the numerous copper, silver, and nickel mines of that region. The pasty is today considered iconic of the U.P.
Fudge is commonly sold in tourist areas, with Mackinac Island being most famous for its fudge, traditionally chocolate, but there is a wide variety of flavors from mint to maple and may include nuts, fruit, or other candy pieces.
Perhaps the most iconic Minnesota dishes are lefse and lutefisk, brought to the state by Scandinavian immigrants. Lefse and lutefisk dinners are held near Christmas and have become associated with that holiday. Lutefisk is a traditional dish of the Nordic countries made from stockfish (air - dried whitefish) and soda lye (lut). Walleye is the state fish of Minnesota and it is common to find it on restaurant menus. Its popularity with Minnesotans is such that the residents of the state consume more of the fish than does any other jurisdiction. Battered and deep - fried is a popular preparation for walleye, as is grilling. Many restaurants will feature walleye on their Friday night fish fry, which is popular at locales throughout the state.
Minnesota is known for its church potlucks, where hotdish is often served. Hotdish is any of a variety of casserole dishes, which are popular throughout the United States, although the term "hotdish '' is used mainly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Hotdishes are filling comfort foods that are convenient and easy to make. "Tater Tot Hotdish '' is a popular dish, and as Minnesota is one of the leading producers of wild rice, wild rice hotdishes are quite popular. Minnesota goulash, a combination of tomatoes, macaroni, ground beef and creamed corn is popular as well.
Bars are the second of the two essentials for potlucks in Minnesota. According to You Know You 're in Minnesota When...: 101 Quintessential Places, People, Events, Customs, Lingo, and Eats of the North Star State by Berit Thorkelson, the bar is a Minnesota staple and a "typical Minnesota dessert ''. Thorkelson notes that bars are not included in Webster 's Dictionary, and the word pronunciation of the "ar '' is with "a pirate - like arrr '' followed by a soft clipped s.
The immigrants that settled in the state in the 1800s were predominantly from Central and Eastern Europe (particularly Germany) and Scandinavia. They brought with them taste preferences that largely remain to this day. Those Minnesotans with this Northern European ancestry, in general, avoid hot spices in favor of earthy or aromatic spices.
In the northeastern section of the state, in the region collectively known as the Iron Range, the Mesabi Range area is known for Cornish pasties. The pasty, a meat and vegetable combination in a pastry crust, was brought to Minnesota by way of early Finnish iron miners as an easy lunch for miners working deep in the iron mines. It remains a favorite for both "locals '' and summer tourists.
A traditional Slovenian nut bread called potica served at Easter and Christmas is still very popular in northern Minnesota. It is a yeast dough rolled and stretched paper thin and spread with a mixture of ground walnuts, butter, eggs, cream, and honey or sugar. It is then rolled jellyroll fashion and baked. Traditionally it was spiraled in a round pan, but now one is more likely to find it baked as a loaf.
The state is a productive area for chicken, dairy and turkey farms and crops such as corn, soybeans, and sugar beets and as such, eggs and meat along with potatoes and vegetables are mainstay foods. Warm baked goods along with stews and hearty soups are a favorite in the winter given the extreme Minnesota climate. Recipes using local wild game such as bison, deer or elk are also common. Other popular dishes statewide include glorified rice, Jell - O salad, and krumkake.
In Missouri, much of the cuisine is influenced by that of the Ozarks. Barbecue, both pork and beef, is popular in both St. Louis and Kansas City, as well as in much of the southern half of the state. In the Bootheel, sweet tea is commonly available at restaurants. Missouri also leans heavily on beer and bratwurst, and St. Louis features the fried brain sandwich, the St. Paul sandwich, toasted ravioli, St. Louis - style pizza, gooey butter cake, the slinger, and many other dishes that are popular throughout the state.
Fishing is a popular sport throughout the state, and many fish fry events feature catfish and large - mouthed bass. The "Missouri Rhineland '' along the valley of the Missouri River is known for its wineries.
Square Runza sandwiches are identified with Nebraska.
Cuisine in North Dakota has been heavily influences by both Norwegians and Germans from Russia, ethnic groups which have historically accounted for a large portion of North Dakota 's population. Norwegian influences in the state include lefse, lutefisk, krumkake, and rosettes. Much of the Norwegian - influenced cuisine is also common in Minnesota and other states where Norwegians and their descendants live (d), although Norwegian influence may be the greater in North Dakota than any other state, as Norwegians played a large role in settling the area, and nearly one - third of North Dakotans claim Norwegian ancestry. Norwegian ancestry was historically more widespread throughout the northern half and eastern third of North Dakota, and therefore plays a stronger role in local cuisine in those parts of the state.
German - Russian cuisine is primarily influenced by that of the Schwarzmeerdeutsche, or Black Sea Germans, that heavily populated south - central and southwestern North Dakota (an area known as the German - Russian Triangle), as well as areas of South Dakota. While large numbers of Wolgadeutsche, Germans from Russia who lived near the Volga River in Russia (several hundred miles away from the Black Sea), also settled in the United States, they did not settle in large numbers in the Dakotas. Popular German - Russian cuisine includes kuchen, a thin, cheesecake - like custard pastry often filled with fruit such as cherries, apricot, prunes, and sometimes cottage cheese. Fleischkuekle (or fleischkuechle) is a popular meat - filled thin flatbread that is deep - fried and served hot. Another German - Russian specialty in the area is knoephla, a dumpling soup that almost always includes potatoes, and to a lesser extent, celery.
A confection popular in the state of Ohio is the local variation of a peanut butter cup known as a ' Buckeye '. Coated in chocolate, with a partially exposed center of peanut butter fudge, in appearance the candy resembles the chestnut that grows on the state tree, commonly known as the Buckeye.
Cincinnati - style chili is a Greek - inspired meat sauce, (ground beef seasoned with cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, bay leaf, cumin, chili powder, unsweetened dark chocolate, salt and pepper), used as a topping for spaghetti or hot dogs. Additionally, red beans, chopped onions, and shredded cheese are offered as extra toppings referred to as "ways. ''
A popular snack food in Ohio are Sauerkraut Balls, a meatball - sized fritter containing sauerkraut and some combination of ham, bacon, and pork. The recipe was invented in the late 1950s by two brothers, Max and Roman Gruber for their five star restaurant, Gruber 's, located in Shaker Heights, Ohio. These were a derivative of the various ethnic cultures of Northeast Ohio, which includes Akron and Greater Cleveland. An annual Sauerkraut Festival is held in Waynesville, Ohio. at which sauerkraut balls, along with other sauerkraut specialities, are served.
Clam bakes are very popular in Northeast Ohio. The region, which was originally part of the Connecticut Western Reserve, was initially settled by people from Connecticut and other New England states. A typical Northeast Ohio clam bake typically includes clams, chicken, sweet potatoes, corn, and other side dishes. Unlike in New England, seaweed is not used and the clams, chicken, and sweet potatoes are all steamed together in a large pot.
Wisconsin is "America 's Dairyland, '' and is home to numerous frozen custard stands, particularly around Milwaukee and along the Lake Michigan corridor. The state also has a special relationship with Blue Moon ice cream, being one of the only places the flavor can be found. While the flavor 's origins are not well documented, it was most likely developed by flavor chemist Bill "Doc '' Sidon of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The state is also well known as a home to many cheesemakers. Currently, Wisconsin boasts 58 Master Cheesemakers, who are all qualified through an extensive process set by the Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board. The program is the only one of its kind outside of Europe. However, Wisconsin cheesemaking is even more diverse, ranging from artisans who hand - craft their product from the milk of their own dairy herds to large factories. Colby cheese was first created in Wisconsin in 1885 (named after the town it came from), and Brick cheese was first created in the state in 1877. The state has also played origin to Blue Marble Jack cheese, and is the only producer of Limburger cheese in the United States. Cheese curds are a common addition to many meals, and can be eaten separately "squeaky, '' or cold, as a snack, or covered in batter and fried as an appetizer, often served with ranch dressing as a dipping sauce.
Arguably the most universal Wisconsin dessert would be the cream puff, a type of profiterole that is a famous treat at the Wisconsin State Fair. The southeastern Wisconsin city of Racine is known for its Danish kringle, a sweet flaky pastry often served as a dessert. The capital city of Madison, Wisconsin was home to Carson Gulley, a famous local African American chef of the University of Wisconsin - Madison from the 1920s to the 1950s. He is credited with creating the famous dessert Fudge - Bottom pie and spreading its popularity.
The Friday night fish fry, often battered and fried perch or walleye, is traditional throughout Wisconsin, while in northeast Wisconsin along Lake Michigan, the Door County fish boil holds sway. The supper club is another common phenomenon of Wisconsin culinary heritage and often a destination for fish frys, which usually feature a portion of aforementioned fish, along with various sides: a fried food such as french fries and onion rings are common, along with condiments of tartar sauce and cole slaw (especially crimson slaw, a variety of cole slaw that incorporates Wisconsin 's cranberries) and garnishes of parsley and lemon wedges.
Besides its "Cheesehead '' status, Wisconsin has a reputation for alcohol consumption. Common traits of "drinking culture '' are embedded in Wisconsin traditions, from festivals and holidays to everyday life. Many large breweries were founded in Wisconsin, largely in Milwaukee, which gained the epithet "Brew City '' before the turn of the century: Miller, Pabst, Schlitz (all from and originally based in Milwaukee) and Leinenkugel all began as local favorites before entering the national and international markets. Wisconsin has experienced a resurgence in this industry, however, with numerous microbreweries and craft beers now being created and exported. Several other favorites include Ale Asylum, Capital, Sprecher, and New Glarus, the latter being well known for the Spotted Cow Farmhouse Ale. Besides beer, Wisconsinites also drink large quantities of brandy, often mixed into the unique Badger libation, the "brandy Old Fashioned, '' which can be sweet, sour, or press. Another though considerably more recent brandy - based cocktail is the Wisconsin Badger, derived from a mix of brandy, cranberry juice, and cherry schnapps -- all very Wisconsin - inspired ingredients. Pewaukee, Wisconsin is also home to the alcoholic beverage Rumchata, described as an horchata recipe containing the primary ingredients of rum and Wisconsin cream.
Cooking with alcohol is also quite standard across the state. Wisconsinites commonly boil or braise their sausages (especially bratwursts) in several types of beer (most often a pilsner) with butter and onions, and "Beer batter '' fish, typically walleye or perch, as well as cheese curds and onion rings are also common fare. Beer cheese soup is another beloved recipe, usually made from a variety of beer and a sharp cheddar or more mild colby cheese, with sausage, potatoes, and green onions. Another ubiquitous but perhaps less - mentioned recipe involving alcohol is "Beer Butt '' or "Beer Can '' Chicken (similar to drunken chicken), a vernacular meal involving a whole chicken slow - roasted, typically over a fire, with a can of usually amber beer directly inserted into the poultry 's cavity; the result being a tender meat soaked inside with the flavors of the beer chosen.
"Booyah '' is another very common and hearty Wisconsin meal, found especially in the Northeast region of the state. The origins of this dish are disputed, but the Wisconsin origin contends that the word is a vernacular Flemish or Walloon Belgian spelling of the French word bouillon, in this context meaning "broth. '' Recipes vary but common ingredients usually involve chicken or other meats -- beef, pork, or ox tail are most often used -- as well as a mirepoix of vegetables, commonly onion, celery, carrots, cabbage, peas, potatoes, and rutabaga. The ingredients are all cooked together in a special kind of large, cast - iron kettle often known as a "booyah kettle, '' over low heat for several days.
Wisconsin cuisine also features a large amount of sausage, or wurst (German for "sausage ''). The state is also a major producer and consumer of summer sausage, as well as the nation 's top producer and consumer of brats. Brats are typically boiled in a mix of beer, butter, and onions, served on a bratwurst bun, and topped with sauerkraut and often a spicy, brown style mustard. The city of Madison, Wisconsin, the state 's capital, plays host to the annual "World 's Largest '' Brat Fest, a four - day - long festival incorporating music, recreational activities, and of course bratwursts grilled on a 65 - foot - long grill. At Miller Park in the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin 's deep affection for sausage plays out in the Sausage Race, a mascot race involving racing sausage mascots representative of some of the most common sausages found in the state: bratwurst, kielbasa, Italian sausage, the hot dog, and chorizo. Venison sausage, Andouille sausage, and Belgian trippe are a few other common sausages found in the state, though they do not constitute a part of the Sausage Race. Miller Park is also notable for being the only U.S. stadium in which brats outsell hot dogs.
Seymour, Wisconsin, claims to be the birthplace of the modern hamburger, although several other locations make similar claims. Certainly, however, the "Butter Burger '' is a uniquely Wisconsin take on the classic American dish. Traditionally, a pad of butter is worked or "stuffed '' into the raw hamburger patty before grilling.
These dishes, while not all exclusive to the Midwest, are typical of Midwestern foods. Although many foods are shared with other U.S. regions, they often feature uniquely Midwestern preparation styles.
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who stars in the new movie the post | The Post (film) - wikipedia
The Post is a 2017 American historical political thriller film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg and written by Liz Hannah and Josh Singer. It stars Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham, the first female publisher of a major American newspaper, and Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee, the executive editor of The Washington Post, with Sarah Paulson, Bob Odenkirk, Tracy Letts, Bradley Whitford, Bruce Greenwood, Carrie Coon, and Matthew Rhys in supporting roles. Set in the early 1970s, The Post depicts the true story of attempts by journalists at The Washington Post to publish the Pentagon Papers, classified documents regarding the 30 - year involvement of the United States government in the Vietnam War.
Principal photography began in New York City in May 2017. The film premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017 and began a limited release in the United States on December 22, 2017. It had a wide release on January 12, 2018, and has grossed over $153 million worldwide.
The film received positive reviews, with critics praising the performances in the film (particularly those of Streep, Hanks, and Odenkirk) and noting the references and allusions to the presidencies of Richard Nixon and Donald Trump. The Post was chosen by the National Board of Review as the best film of 2017 and was named as one of the top 10 films of the year by Time and the American Film Institute. The film was nominated for Best Picture and Best Actress (for Streep) at the 90th Academy Awards, and also received six nominations at the 75th Golden Globe Awards: Best Motion Picture -- Drama, Best Director, Best Actress -- Drama (for Streep), Best Actor -- Drama (for Hanks), Best Screenplay and Best Original Score.
In 1966 Vietnam, State Dept. military analyst Daniel Ellsberg accompanies U.S. troops in combat, documenting the progress of U.S. military activities in the region for Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. On the return flight home, McNamara expresses to Ellsberg and President Lyndon Johnson his view that the war in Vietnam is hopeless, yet, upon landing, McNamara expresses his confidence in the war effort. Ellsberg overhears this, and becomes disillusioned. Years later, now working for the RAND Corporation, a civilian military contractor, Ellsberg surreptitiously photocopies classified reports documenting the country 's decades - long involvement in the conflict in Vietnam, dating back to the Truman administration. Ellsberg then leaks these documents to reporters at The New York Times.
Newspaper heiress Katharine Graham tries to balance her social life with her responsibility as owner and publisher of The Washington Post, following the deaths of her husband, and her father. She is troubled over preparations for the newspaper 's stock market launch, a move she recognizes as important for strengthening the paper 's economic stability. Graham lacks experience and is frequently overruled by more assertive men who advise or work for her, such as editor - in - chief Ben Bradlee, and board member Arthur Parsons. Bradlee tries in vain to match The New York Times 's ability to get scoops. Meanwhile, McNamara, Graham 's longtime friend, confides in her that he is to be the subject of unflattering coverage by the Times. The story turns out to be an exposé of the government 's long - running deception of the American public. However, the series is halted by a court injunction against further publication by the Times.
Post assistant editor Ben Bagdikian tracks down Ellsberg as the source for the leak, who provides Bagdikian with copies of the same material given to the Times. A hand - picked team of Post reporters sorts through the piles of papers, searching for the headline stories. The lawyers for the Post advise against publishing the material, lest the Nixon administration bring criminal charges against them. Graham talks to McNamara, Bradlee, and trusted Post chairman Fritz Beebe, agonizing over the decision of whether to publish. The situation is made even more complicated when the Post 's lawyers discover that Bagdikian 's source is the same as the Times 's, possibly putting Graham in contempt of court. If charges are brought against the company, Graham could destroy the newspaper she sees as a family legacy. Alternately, if she were to win any legal challenge, the Post could instead establish itself as an important journalistic institution. She chooses to run the story.
The White House retaliates, and in short order the Post and Times appear together before the Supreme Court to plead their First Amendment argument for the right to publish the material. Meanwhile, newspapers across the country pick up the story in solidarity with the Post and Times. The court rules 6 -- 3 in the newspapers ' favor, vindicating Graham 's decision. Nixon demands that the Post should be barred from the White House. One year later, a security guard discovers a break - in in progress at the Watergate complex.
In October 2016 Amy Pascal won a bid for the rights to the screenplay The Post, written by Liz Hannah. In February 2017, Steven Spielberg had halted pre-production on The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara after a casting setback, and consequently opened his schedule to other potential films to direct. The following month, it was announced that Spielberg was in negotiations to direct and produce the film, with Meryl Streep and Tom Hanks in talks for the roles of Katharine Graham and Ben Bradlee, respectively. The Post is the first time that Spielberg, Streep, and Hanks had all worked together on a film.
Spielberg read the screenplay and decided to direct the film as soon as possible, citing that "when I read the first draft of the script, this was n't something that could wait three years or two years -- this was a story I felt we needed to tell today. '' Spielberg worked on The Post while post-production work continued on the visual - effects - heavy Ready Player One, a situation familiar to him from concurrently producing, in the early 1990s, Jurassic Park and Schindler 's List. Josh Singer was hired to re-write the screenplay ten weeks before filming.
As filming commenced, a number of New York Times figures who were associated with the Pentagon Papers case -- among them James Greenfield, James Goodale, Allan Siegal, and Max Frankel -- objected to the film 's production due to the script 's lack of emphasis on the Times ' role in breaking the story. Goodale, who was at the time the Times 's in - house counsel, later called the film "a good movie but bad history. ''
The film began principal photography in New York on May 30, 2017. On June 6, 2017, it was announced that the project, retitled The Papers, would also star Alison Brie, Carrie Coon, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Tracy Letts, Bob Odenkirk, Sarah Paulson, Jesse Plemons, Matthew Rhys, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bradley Whitford, and Zach Woods. On August 25, 2017, the film 's title reverted to The Post. Spielberg finished the final cut of the film on November 6, 2017, with the final sound mix also completed along with the musical score a week later, on November 13.
Writing for The New York Times, Manogla Dargis indicated some high points in the costume design used in the film stating, "The costume designer Ann Roth subtly brightens Katharine, taking her from leaden gray to free - flowing gold. ''.
The score for the film was written by John Williams; it is his 28th collaboration with Spielberg. The music is a combination of traditional orchestral instrumentation and what Williams has called "very light, computerised electronic effects '';. Williams was originally attached to write the music for Spielberg 's Ready Player One, but, because both films had similar post-production schedules, Williams chose to work on The Post, while Alan Silvestri composed for Ready Player One.
Recording began on October 30, 2017 in Los Angeles. The soundtrack was released digitally by Sony Classical Records on December 22, 2017 and in physical form on January 12, 2018.
December 22, 2017 (2017 - 12 - 22) (Digital)
The Post premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017. It began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 22, 2017, and a wide release on January 12, 2018. The film is distributed internationally through Amblin Partners ' distribution agreements with Universal Pictures, Reliance Entertainment, and Entertainment One Films. The film was released by Reliance in India. Tom Hanks has expressed disinterest in appearing at a potential White House screening for Donald Trump.
The first official image from The Post was released on October 31, 2017. The trailer for The Post premiered exclusively on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, on November 7, 2017, and the film 's poster, designed by BLT Communications, was released the next day. The first TV spot, titled "Uncover the Truth '', was released on November 21, 2017.
As of March 4, 2018, The Post has grossed $80.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $66.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $147.3 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
During The Post 's limited opening weekend, December 22 to 24, it grossed $526,011 (and a total of $762,057 over the four - day Christmas weekend) from nine theaters. The following weekend, the film grossed $561,080 for a per - theater average of $62,342, one of the highest of 2017. The film had its wide release alongside the openings of The Commuter, Paddington 2 and Proud Mary, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 2,819 theaters over the weekend. It made $5.9 million on its first day and $18.6 million over the weekend (and a four - day MLK weekend total of $23.4 million), finishing second at the box office behind holdover Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. 66 % of its opening weekend audience was over the age of 35. It dropped 37 % the following weekend to $12.2 million, finishing 4th behind Jumanji and newcomers 12 Strong and Den of Thieves. It dropped to 5th in its third week of wide release, grossing $8.9 million.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88 % based on 317 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Post 's period setting belies its bitingly timely themes, brought compellingly to life by director Steven Spielberg and an outstanding ensemble cast. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while comScore reported 63 % of audience members gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the acting and Spielberg 's direction, though noted the script as being too on - the - nose at times, saying, "The Post passes the trickiest tests of a historical drama: It makes us understand that decisions that have been validated by the lens of history were difficult ones to make in the moment, and it generates suspense over how all the pieces fell into place to make those decisions come to fruition. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film an A -- and wrote: "Nobody needs to be reminded that history tends to go in circles, but The Post is so vital because it captures the ecstasy of trying to break the chain and bend things towards justice; defending the fundamental tenets of the Constitution has n't been this much fun since Hamilton. ''
Chris Nashawaty, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the film a positive review, but also compared it with previous journalism films such as All the President 's Men and stating: "Spielberg makes these crucial days in American history easy to follow. But if you look at The Post next to something like All the President 's Men, you see the difference between having a story passively explained to you and actively helping to untangle it. That 's a small quibble with an urgent and impeccably acted film. But it 's also the difference between a very good movie and a great one. ''
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times awarded the film an NYT Critic 's Pick with a strong acknowledgment of Spielberg as director stating, "Mostly, (the Post decision to publish) went down fast, a pace that Mr. Spielberg conveys with accelerated rhythms, flying feet, racing cameras and an enjoyably loose approach to the material. With his virtuosic, veteran crew, Mr. Spielberg paints the scene vividly and with daubs of beauty; most notably, he creates distinct visual realms for the story 's two main overlapping, at times colliding worlds. Katharine reigns over one; at first she 's all but entombed in her darkly lighted, wood - paneled empire. Ben rules the other, overseeing the talking and typing warriors of the glaring, noisily freewheeling newsroom ''.
Matt Bobkin, writing for Exclaim!, gave the film a 6 out of 10 score, saying the film "has all the makings of an awards season hit, but is too calculated to reflect today 's ragged, tenuous sociopolitical climate. ''
The film downplays the role that journalists from The New York Times had in the leak of the Pentagon Papers and emphasizes The Washington Post 's involvement. In an interview with the Columbia Journalism Review, former New York Times associates James Greenfield, who coordinated the Pentagon Papers project as the Times ' foreign editor; James Goodale, the Times ' general counsel at the time; and Max Frankel, the Times ' Washington bureau chief when the Papers were published, criticized the film 's more minor portrayal of the paper. The New York Times had not only published the Pentagon Papers before The Washington Post, but had also set the stage for the major legal battle between the press and the United States government. The newspaper also won the 1972 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its contributions. The 1972 Pulitzer jury of journalists noted in their recommendation not only the significance of Daniel Ellsberg 's Pentagon Papers leak, but also that of Times reporters Neil Sheehan, Hedrick Smith, Fox Butterfield and E.W. Kenworthy, and stated that their effort was "a combination of investigative reporting, analysis, research, and writing -- all of which added to a distinctly meritorious public service, not only for readers of The Times but also for an entire nation. '' Goodale noted in an article for The Daily Beast that the Times published the Papers after Ellsberg had leaked them to Sheehan, and further stated that the film "creates a false impression that the Post was a major player in such publication. It 's as though Hollywood had made a movie about the Times ' triumphant role in Watergate. '' On PBS NewsHour, Goodale further said, "Although a producer has artistic license, I think it should be limited in a situation such as this, so that the public comes away with an understanding of what the true facts are in this case... And I think that if you 're doing a movie now, when (President Donald) Trump is picking on the press for ' fake news, ' you want to be authentic. You do n't want to be in any way fake. ''
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when was the film the longest day made | The Longest Day (film) - wikipedia
The Longest Day is a 1962 epic war film based on Cornelius Ryan 's book The Longest Day (1959), about the D - Day landings at Normandy on June 6, 1944, during World War II. The film was produced by Darryl F. Zanuck, who paid author Ryan $175,000 for the film rights. The screenplay was by Ryan, with additional material written by Romain Gary, James Jones, David Pursall and Jack Seddon. It was directed by Ken Annakin (British and French exteriors), Andrew Marton (American exteriors), and Bernhard Wicki (German scenes).
The Longest Day, which was made in black and white, features a large ensemble cast including John Wayne, Kenneth More, Richard Todd, Robert Mitchum, Richard Burton, Steve Forrest, Sean Connery, Henry Fonda, Red Buttons, Peter Lawford, Eddie Albert, Jeffrey Hunter, Stuart Whitman, Tom Tryon, Rod Steiger, Leo Genn, Gert Fröbe, Irina Demick, Bourvil, Curt Jürgens, George Segal, Robert Wagner, Paul Anka and Arletty. Many of these actors played roles that were essentially cameo appearances. In addition, several cast members -- including Fonda, Genn, More, Steiger and Todd -- saw action as servicemen during the war, with Todd actually being among the first British officers to land in Normandy in Operation Overlord and he in fact participated in the assault on Pegasus Bridge.
The film employed several Axis and Allied military consultants who had been actual participants on D - Day. Many had their roles re-enacted in the film. These included: Günther Blumentritt (a former German general), James M. Gavin (an American general), Frederick Morgan (Deputy Chief of Staff at SHAEF), John Howard (who led the airborne assault on the Pegasus Bridge), Lord Lovat (who commanded the 1st Special Service Brigade), Philippe Kieffer (who led his men in the assault on Ouistreham), Pierre Koenig (who commanded the Free French Forces in the invasion), Max Pemsel (a German general), Werner Pluskat (the major who was the first German officer to see the invasion fleet), Josef "Pips '' Priller (the hot - headed pilot) and Lucie Rommel (widow of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel).
A colorized version of this film was released on VHS in 1994, the 50th anniversary of the invasion.
The movie won two Academy Awards and was nominated for three others.
The movie is filmed in the style of a docudrama. Beginning in the days leading up to D - Day, it concentrates on events on both sides of the channel, such as the Allies waiting for the break in the poor weather and anticipating the reaction of the Axis forces defending northern France. The film pays particular attention to the decision by Gen. Eisenhower, Supreme Commander of SHAEF, to go after reviewing the initial bad - weather reports as well as reports about the divisions within the German High Command as to where an invasion might happen or what the response to it should be.
Numerous scenes document the early hours of June 6 when Allied airborne troops were sent in to take key locations inland from the beaches. The French resistance is also shown reacting to the news that an invasion has started. The Longest Day chronicles most of the important events surrounding D - Day, from the British glider missions to secure Pegasus Bridge, the counterattacks launched by American paratroopers scattered around Sainte - Mère - Église, the infiltration and sabotage work conducted by the French resistance and SOE agents to the response by the Wehrmacht to the invasion and the uncertainty of German commanders as to whether it was a feint in preparation for crossings at the Pas de Calais (see Operation Fortitude), where the senior German staff had always assumed it would be.
Set - piece scenes include the parachute drop into Sainte - Mère - Église, the advance inshore from the Normandy beaches, the U.S. Ranger Assault Group 's assault on the Pointe du Hoc, the attack on Ouistreham by Free French Forces and the strafing of the beaches by two lone Luftwaffe pilots.
The film concludes with a montage showing various Allied units consolidating their beachheads before they advance inland to reach Germany by crossing France.
French producer Raoul Lévy signed a deal with Simon & Schuster to purchase the filming rights to Cornelius Ryan 's novel The Longest Day: June 6, 1944 D - Day on March 23, 1960. After finishing The Truth, Lévy set up a deal with the Associated British Picture Corporation and got director Michael Anderson attached. Ryan would receive $100,000, plus $35,000 to write the adaptation 's screenplay. Lévy intended to start production in March 1961, filming at Elstree Studios and the English and French coasts. But the project went into a halt once ABPC could not get the $6 million budget Lévy expected. Eventually former 20th Century Fox mogul Darryl F. Zanuck learned about the book while producing The Big Gamble, and in December purchased Lévy 's option for $175,000. Zanuck 's editor friend Elmo Williams wrote a film treatment, which piqued the producer 's interest and made him attach Williams to The Longest Day as associate producer and coordinator of battle episodes. Ryan was brought in to write the script, but had conflicts with Zanuck as soon as the two met. Williams was forced to act as a mediator; he would deliver Ryan 's script pages to Zanuck, then return them with the latter 's annotations. While Ryan developed the script, Zanuck also brought in other writers for cleanups, including James Jones and Romain Gary. As their contributions to the finished screenplay were relatively minor, Ryan managed to get the screenplay credit after an appeal to the Writers Guild arbitration, but the four other writers are credited for "additional scenes '' in the closing credits.
During pre-production, producer Frank McCarthy, who had worked for the United States Department of War during World War II, arranged for military collaboration with the governments of France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States. Zanuck also realized that with eight battle scenes, shooting would be accomplished more expediently if multiple directors and units worked simultaneously. He contracted with German directors Gerd Oswald and Bernhard Wicki, the British Ken Annakin, and the American Andrew Marton. Zanuck 's son Richard D. Zanuck was reluctant about the project, particularly the high budget.
The film premièred in France on September 25, 1962, followed by the United States on October 4 and 23 for the United Kingdom. Given Fox was suffering with the financial losses of Cleopatra, the studio was intending for The Longest Day to have a wide release to reap quick profits. Zanuck forced them to do a proper Roadshow theatrical release, even threatening to sell distribution to Warner Bros. if Fox had refused to do so. The Longest Day eventually became the box office hit Fox needed, with $30 million in worldwide rentals on a $7.5 million budget.
There were special - release showings of the film in several United States cities. Participants in D - Day were invited to see the film with their fellow soldiers -- in Cleveland, Ohio, this took place at the Hippodrome Theater.
Unique for British - and American - produced World War II films of the time, all French and German characters speak in their own languages with subtitles in English. Another version, which was shot simultaneously, has all the actors speaking their lines in English (this version was used for the film 's trailer, as all the Germans deliver their lines in English). However, this version saw limited use during the initial release. It was used more extensively during a late 1960s re-release of the film.
The English - only version has been featured as an extra on older single disc DVD releases. As of August 2017, it is also available for viewing on Netflix.
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the boy scout who built a nuclear reactor | David Hahn - wikipedia
David Charles Hahn (October 30, 1976 -- September 27, 2016), sometimes called the Radioactive Boy Scout or the Nuclear Boy Scout, was an American who in 1994, at age 17, attempted to build a homemade breeder reactor. A scout in the Boy Scouts of America, Hahn conducted his experiments in secret in a backyard shed at his mother 's house in Commerce Township, Michigan. While his reactor never reached critical mass, Hahn attracted the attention of local police when he was stopped on another matter and they found material in his vehicle that troubled them, and he warned that it was radioactive. His mother 's property was cleaned up by the Environmental Protection Agency ten months later as a Superfund cleanup site. Hahn attained Eagle Scout rank shortly after his lab was dismantled.
While the incident was not widely publicized initially, it became better known following a 1998 Harper 's article by journalist Ken Silverstein. Hahn was also the subject of Silverstein 's 2004 book, The Radioactive Boy Scout. It is likely Hahn received substantial doses of radiation. As an adult, Hahn served in the US Navy. He was subsequently treated for mental illness, and his death at age thirty - nine was related to alcohol use.
Hahn was a Boy Scout fascinated by chemistry, and spent years conducting amateur chemistry experiments, which sometimes caused small explosions and other mishaps. He was inspired in part by reading The Golden Book of Chemistry Experiments, and tried to collect samples of every element in the periodic table, including the radioactive ones. He later received a merit badge in Atomic Energy and became fascinated with the idea of creating a breeder reactor in his home. Hahn diligently amassed radioactive material by collecting small amounts from household products, such as americium from smoke detectors, thorium from camping lantern mantles, radium from clocks, and tritium (a neutron moderator) from gunsights. His "reactor '' was a bored - out block of lead, and he used lithium from $1,000 worth of purchased batteries to purify the thorium ash using a Bunsen burner.
Hahn posed as an adult scientist or high school teacher to gain the trust of many professionals in letters -- and succeeded, despite misspellings and obvious errors. Hahn ultimately hoped to create a breeder reactor, using low - level isotopes to transform samples of thorium and uranium into fissionable isotopes.
His homemade reactor never came anywhere near reaching critical mass -- but it ended up emitting dangerous levels of radiation, likely well over 1,000 times normal background radiation. Alarmed, Hahn began to dismantle his experiments -- but in a chance encounter, police discovered his activities, which triggered a Federal Radiological Emergency Response involving the FBI and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. On June 26, 1995 the United States Environmental Protection Agency, having designated Hahn 's mother 's property a Superfund hazardous materials cleanup site, dismantled the shed and its contents and buried them as low - level radioactive waste in Utah. Unknown to officials, his mother, fearful that she would lose her house if the full extent of the radiation were known, had already collected the majority of the radioactive material and thrown it away in the conventional garbage. Hahn refused medical evaluation for radiation exposure.
Hahn became depressed after the scandal, a problem exacerbated by the breakup with his girlfriend and the suicide of his mother in early 1996. While he did graduate from high school, he lacked any direction or plans thereafter. His father and stepmother first encouraged him to attend Macomb Community College. He enrolled in a metallurgy program there but frequently skipped classes. He was then encouraged to join the military, so he enlisted in the Navy, assigned to the nuclear - powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise as an undesignated seaman. After a four - year tour, he achieved interior communications specialist with a rank of petty officer, third class.
Hahn had hoped to pursue a nuclear specialist career. EPA scientists believe that Hahn 's life expectancy may have been greatly shortened by his exposure to radioactivity, particularly since he spent large amounts of time in the small, enclosed shed with large amounts of radioactive material and only minimal safety precautions, but he refused their recommendation that he be examined at the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station.
After his time on USS Enterprise, Hahn enlisted in the Marines and was stationed in Japan. After a few years, he was honorably discharged on medical grounds and returned to Michigan.
On August 1, 2007, Hahn was charged with larceny in Clinton Township, Michigan for allegedly removing a number of smoke detectors from the halls of his apartment building. His intention was to obtain americium from them. In his mug shot, his face is covered with sores which investigators believe are from exposure to radioactive materials. During a Circuit Court hearing, Hahn pleaded guilty to attempted larceny of a building. The court 's online docket said prosecutors recommended that he be sentenced to time served and enter an inpatient treatment facility. Under terms of the plea, the original charge of larceny of a building would be dismissed at sentencing, scheduled for October 4. He was sentenced to 90 days in jail for attempted larceny. Court records stated that his sentence would be delayed by six months while Hahn underwent medical treatment in the psychiatric unit of Macomb County Jail.
Hahn died on Tuesday, September 27, 2016, at the age of 39. At the time, he was a resident of Shelby Charter Township, Michigan. Hahn 's father has since confirmed that the cause of death was alcohol poisoning.
The incident received scant media attention at the time, but was widely disseminated after writer Ken Silverstein published an article about the incident in Harper 's Magazine in 1998. In 2004 he expanded it into a book, The Radioactive Boy Scout, which was optioned for a feature film in 2016.
In 1999, University of Chicago physics majors Justin Kasper and Fred Niell, as part of a scavenger hunt that had as one of its items, "a breeder reactor built in a shed, '' successfully built a similar nuclear reactor that produced trace amounts of plutonium.
In the CSI: NY episode "Page Turner '', the character Lawrence Wagner is based on David Hahn.
A television documentary, The Nuclear Boyscout, aired on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom in 2003. In it, Hahn reenacted some of his methods for the camera.
Hahn 's experiments inspired others to attempt similar feats, particularly Taylor Wilson, who at age 14 became the youngest person to produce nuclear fusion.
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african states of independence - the scramble for africa summary | Scramble for Africa - wikipedia
The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present - day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent.
The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the starting point of the scramble for Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning, or splitting up of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa. The later years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism '' (hegemony), by military influence and economic dominance, to direct rule, bringing about colonial imperialism.
The Portuguese established the first firm post-Middle Ages European settlements, trade posts, permanent fortifications and ports of call along the coast of the African continent, from the beginning of the Age of Discovery during the 15th century. But Europeans showed comparatively little interest in (and less knowledge of) the interior for some two centuries thereafter.
European exploration of the African interior began in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa. In the middle decades of the 19th century, famous European explorers included David Livingstone and H.M. Stanley, each of whom mapped vast areas of Southern Africa and Central Africa. Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes and the source of the Nile. By the end of the 19th century Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, traced the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers, and realised the vast resources of Africa.
Even as late as the 1870s, European states still controlled only ten percent of the African continent, with all their territories located near the coast. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Algeria, held by France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent of European control.
Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialisation brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of the tropics more accessible for Europeans.
Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism '', was also attractive to Europe 's ruling elites for economic, political and social reasons. During a time when Britain 's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873 -- 96), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall.
In addition, surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials unavailable in Europe, especially copper, cotton, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Additionally, Britain wanted the southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India.
However, in Africa -- excluding the area which became the Union of South Africa in 1910 -- the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents. Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes 's De Beers Mining Company. Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself; Léopold II of Belgium later, and with considerable brutality, exploited the Congo Free State. These events might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbyists such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets.
John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism '' period.
William Easterly of New York University, however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism, arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state - led development rather than "corporate '' development. He has stated that "imperialism is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism / imperialism and state - led approaches to development. ''
The rivalry between Britain, France, Germany, and the other European powers accounts for a large part of the colonization.
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond - rich southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain was under political pressure to secure lucrative markets against encroaching rivals in China and its eastern colonies, most notably India, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it was crucial to secure the key waterway between East and West -- the Suez Canal. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during the 1880 onwards, out of geostrategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal), has been challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).
The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for the acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defense bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal.
Colonies were also seen as assets in "balance of power '' negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also a source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would again be utilised in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness '' became linked with the sense of duty underlying many nations ' strategies.
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kingdom of Kongo for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German - Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance. The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
Germany was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, but would eagerly participate in this race. Fragmented in various states, Germany was only unified under Prussia 's rule after the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz and the 1870 Franco - Prussian War. A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s. After isolating France by the Dual Alliance with Austria - Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference, which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Weltpolitik (world policy) was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, with the aim of transforming Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy.
Some Germans, claiming themselves of Friedrich List 's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and Timor; others proposed to set themselves up in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. At the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, backed by mercantilist thesis. In 1881, Hübbe - Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent overseas policy ''. Pan-Germanism was thus linked to the young nation 's imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Generally, Bismarck was opposed to widespread German colonialism, but he had to resign at the insistence of the new German Emperor Wilhelm II on 18 March 1890. Wilhelm II instead adopted a very aggressive policy of colonisation and colonial expansion.
Germany 's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. By 1914, they had given Germany the second - largest naval force in the world (roughly three - fifths the size of the Royal Navy). According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, implying that imperialism was supported by the rising middle classes.
Germany became the third - largest colonial power in Africa. Nearly all of its overall empire of 2.6 million square kilometres and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914 was found in its African possessions of Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the British Empire, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France 's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and Britain, this succession of international crises reveals the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialist nations, which ultimately led to World War I.
Italy took possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. Following its defeat in the First Italo -- Ethiopian War (1895 -- 1896), it acquired Italian Somaliland in 1889 -- 90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). In 1919 Enrico Corradini -- who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF) -- developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimise Italy 's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism:
We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject... to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation.
The Second Italo - Abyssinian War (1935 -- 36), ordered by the Fascist Benito Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonise a foreign country, as opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia -- which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia.
David Livingstone 's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley, excited imaginations with Stanley 's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association (the Congo Society). From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and used it as a source of ivory and rubber.
While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco - Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today 's Republic of the Congo. Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off the Congo Society 's access to the Atlantic.
By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville, and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River, sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous) through Matabeleland, and starting a colony in Mashonaland.
To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area, and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves -- and rumors of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example of the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson, who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. First, the Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well - armed Stairs Expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri 's consent. Msiri refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a "barbaric lesson '' to the people. The Bia Expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence '' in Katanga.
Thus, the half million square kilometers of Katanga came into Leopold 's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonised people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II 's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo.
The brutality of King Leopold II of Belgium in his former colony of the Congo Free State, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908. According to the former British diplomat Roger Casement, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war '', starvation, reduction of births and diseases. Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.
Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement 's report set it at three million. William Rubinstein wrote: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible. '' See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims.
A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo. Most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50 percent of the indigenous population. The French government appointed a commission, headed by de Brazza, in 1905 to investigate the rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical '' report was neither acted upon nor released to the public. In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory.
French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, in 1854 -- 56, to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000, but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under its Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt 's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate, and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention.
During the 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad, severing Tewfik 's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his own Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi Revolt. In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain 's administration of Egypt. A joint British - Egyptian military force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain (rather than Egypt) seized effective control of Sudan.
The occupation of Egypt, and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.
Britain 's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was overrun by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never an actual colony); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighboring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal) in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo - Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880 -- 81). British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self - government to the Boers in the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War, fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of the gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a huge desert covering most of present - day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from the Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin.
The Sudan (which in those days included most of present - day Uganda) was the key to the fulfillment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This "red line '' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner, the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo '' empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral - rich Southern part of the continent by rail. Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling African empire.
If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes 's dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea.
A French force under Jean - Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899, the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.
Although the 1884 -- 85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the British Empire on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which countered the influence of the European powers of the Triple Alliance. As a result, the new German Empire decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield.
Thus, Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France 's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser 's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation - minded premier Maurice Rouvier. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up until the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present, the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria - Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, the US, Russia, Italy and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas.
However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain 's naval supremacy -- the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther 's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France 's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France 's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo).
France and Spain subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (30 March 1912), ending what remained of the country 's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo - German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War.
Following the Berlin Conference at the end of the 19th century, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands owned by the Somalis such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate and the Gobroon Dynasty.
The Dervish State was a state established by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader who gathered Muslim soldiers from across the Horn of Africa and united them into a loyal army known as the Dervishes. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands sought after by the Ethiopians and the European powers. The Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognised as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.
After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain 's use of aircraft.
Between 1904 and 1908, Germany 's colonies in German South - West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories the threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large - scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South - West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji - Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare. German efforts to clear the bush of civilians in German South - West Africa then resulted in a genocide of the population.
In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80 % of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 % of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island Concentration Camp between 1904 and 1908. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of the population 's wells whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert.
In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as Gladstone, opposed colonisation in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby in his cabinet, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism '' (John A. Hobson). In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonisation was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges '' mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace - Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry 's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted the unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonised people, as they may be considered as "citizens '' of the nation state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonising countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1899) -- published around the same time as Kipling 's The White Man 's Burden -- or in Louis - Ferdinand Céline 's Journey to the End of the Night (1932).
Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain, the middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market 's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun '' for so - called "proletarian nations '', bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism.
However, by the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural '' populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos '' could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin 's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892.
Geoffroy de Saint - Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles '', presenting Nubians and Inuit. The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions '' were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation. "Negro villages '' would be presented in Paris ' 1878 and 1879 World 's Fair; the 1900 World 's Fair presented the famous diorama "living '' in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. Nomadic "Senegalese villages '' were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population.
In the US, Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link '' in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris "Exposition coloniale ''.
From the beginning of the 20th century onward, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. In the 20th century, Africa saw the biggest increase in its population due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to peace, famine relief, medicine, and above all, the end or decline of the slave trade. Africa 's population has grown from 120 million in 1900 to over 1 billion today.
During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the 19th century, Europe added almost 9,000,000 square miles (23,000,000 km) -- one - fifth of the land area of the globe -- to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe 's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el - Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. Between 1885 and 1914, Britain took nearly 30 % of Africa 's population under its control; 15 % for France, 11 % for Portugal, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for Italy. Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long - standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa '', reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely populated Sahara.
The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies '' bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimise the colonial enterprise. The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crises, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into World War I. Austria - Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilise to assist allied Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria - Hungary against Russia. Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realise the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade and quickly knock France out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria - Hungary and their allies. German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become World War I. Moreover, using the Anglo - Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in the Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino - Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually World War II.
After the First World War, Germany 's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).
Later, during the Interwar period, with the Second Italo - Ethiopian War Italy would annex Ethiopia, which formed together with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland the Italian East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana '', also defined by the fascist government as L'Impero).
The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape - Cairo railway and to exploit mineral and agricultural resources. Control of the Nile was viewed as a strategic and commercial advantage.
Liberia was the only nation in Africa that was a colony and a protectorate of the United States. Liberia was founded, colonised, established and controlled by the American Colonization Society, a private organisation established in order to relocate freed African - American and Caribbean slaves from the United States and the Caribbean islands in 1821. Liberia declared its independence from the American Colonization Society on July 26, 1847. Liberia is Africa 's oldest democratic republic, and the second - oldest black republic in the world (after Haiti).
Ethiopia maintained its independence from Italy after the Battle of Adwa which resulted in the Treaty of Addis Ababa. With the exception of the occupation between 1936 and 1941 by Benito Mussolini 's military forces, Ethiopia is Africa 's oldest independent nation.
The new scramble for Africa began with the emergence of the Afro - Neo-Liberal capitalist movement in Post-Colonial Africa. When African nations began to gain independence during the Post World War II Era, their post colonial economic structures remained undiversified and linear. In most cases, the bulk of a nation 's economy relied on cash crops or natural resources. The decolonisation process kept independent African nations at the mercy of colonial powers due to structurally - dependent economic relations. Structural Adjustment Programs led to the privatization and liberalization of many African political and economic systems, forcefully pushing Africa into the global capitalist market. The economic decline in the 1990s fostered democratization by the World Bank intervening in the political and economic affairs of Africa once again. All of these factors led to Africa 's forced development under Western ideological systems of economics and politics.
In the era of globalization, many African countries have emerged as petro - states (for example Sudan, Cameroon, Nigeria, Angola). These are nations with an economic and political partnership between transnational oil companies and the ruling elite class in oil - rich African nations. Numerous countries have entered into a neo-imperial relationship with Africa during this time period. Mary Gilmartin notes that "material and symbolic appropriation of space (is) central to imperial expansion and control ''; nations in the globalization era who invest in controlling land internationally are engaging in neo-imperialism. Chinese (and other Asian countries) state oil companies have entered Africa 's highly competitive oil sector. China National Petroleum Corporation purchased 40 % of Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Furthermore, Sudan exports 50 -- 60 % of its domestically produced oil to China, making up 7 % of China 's imports. China has also been purchasing equity shares in African oil fields, invested in industry related infrastructure development and acquired continental oil concessions throughout Africa.
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sizes of parking bays the layout designs for parking lots and entrance | Parking space - wikipedia
A parking space is a location that is designated for parking, either paved or unpaved. It can be in a parking garage, in a parking lot or on a city street. The space many be delineated by road surface markings. The automobile fits inside the space, either by parallel parking, perpendicular parking or angled parking.
Depending on the location of the parking space, the time allowed to park may be fixed by regulation, and a fee may be required to use the parking space. It may be designated for free parking. When the demand for spaces outstrips supply vehicles may overspill park onto the sidewalk, grass verges and other places which were not designed for the purpose.
For most motorised vehicles, there are three commonly used arrangements of parking spaces -- parallel parking, perpendicular parking, and angle parking. These are self - park configurations where the vehicle driver is able to access the parking independently.
With parallel parking of cars, these are arranged in a line, with the front bumper of one car facing the back bumper of an adjacent one. This is done parallel to a curb, when one is provided. Parallel parking is the most common mode of streetside parking for cars. It may also be used in parking lots and parking structures, but usually only to supplement parking spaces that use the other modes.
With perpendicular parking, also known as bay parking, cars are parked side to side, perpendicular to an aisle, curb, or wall. This type of car parking fits more cars per length of road (or curb) than parallel parking, and is therefore commonly used in car parking lots and car parking structures.
Often, in car parking lots using perpendicular parking, two rows of parking spaces may be arranged front to front, with aisles in between. If no other cars are blocking, a driver may perform a "pullthrough '' by driving through one parking space into the connecting space to avoid having to reverse out of a parking space upon their return.
Sometimes, a single row of perpendicular car parking spaces is marked in the center of a street. This arrangement eliminates reversing from the manoeuvre; cars are required to drive in forwards and drive out forwards.
Angle parking, known as echelon parking in Britain, is similar to perpendicular parking for these vehicles, except that cars are arranged at an angle to the aisle (an acute angle with the direction of approach). The gentler turn allows easier and quicker parking, narrower aisles, and thus higher density than perpendicular parking. While in theory the aisles are one - way, in practice they are typically wide enough to allow two cars to pass slowly when drivers go down the aisles the wrong way.
Angle parking is very common in car parking lots. It may also be used in streetside car parking in the U.S. when there is more width available for car parking than would be needed for parallel parking of cars, as it creates a larger number of parking spaces. Some cities have utilized angled parking on - street (as compared to off - street parking facilities). This has been done mostly in residential, retail and mixed use areas where additional parking compared to parallel parking is desired and traffic volumes are lower. Most angled parking is design in a head - in configuration while a few cities (Seattle, Portland, Baltimore, and Indianapolis are examples) have some back - in angled parking (typically on hills or low traffic volume streets).
Angle parking is considered dangerous by cycling organisations, especially in the head - in configuration, but unwelcome in either form. When comparing to parallel parking:
Hence organisations such as the Cyclists Touring Club are usually opposed to all proposed echelon parking schemes, though there are some alternatives, such as back - in angle parking (slanted the "wrong '' way, with the driver reversing into the space, rather than reversing out), which can overcome many of the issues of safety.
Besides these basic modes of motor vehicle parking, there are instances where a more ad hoc approach to arranging motor vehicles is appropriate. For example, in parts of some large cities, such as Chicago, where land is expensive and therefore parking space is at a premium, there are parking lots for motor vehicles where the driver leaves the keys to the vehicle with an attendant who arranges vehicles so as to maximize the number of vehicles that can be parked in the lot. Vehicles may be packed up to five vehicles deep in combinations of perpendicular and / or parallel parking with limited circulation aisles for the parking attendant. Such arrangements are known as attendant parking. When the lot or facility is provided to serve the customers of a business, it is considered valet parking.
Inner city parking lots are often temporary, the operators renting land which is vacant pending the construction of a new office building. Some inner city lots are equipped with individual lifts, allowing cars to be stored above each other.
Another ad hoc arrangement is tandem parking. This is sometimes done with residential motor vehicle parking where two motor vehicles park nose - to - end in tandem. The first motor vehicle does not have independent access, and the second motor vehicle must move to provide access. As with attendant parking, the purpose is to maximize the number of motor vehicles that can park in a limited space.
In parking lots, parking is allowed only where marked.
In North America, the width of parking spaces usually ranges from 7.0 to 9.0 feet (2.1 -- 2.7 m). Angled and perpendicular spaces may need to be wide to allow doors to open, while parallel parking spots may be as narrow as 6.0 feet (1.8 m) on narrow, low - traffic neighborhood streets.
Because the boundary between parking space and driving area is not always well - defined, the length of a parking space is more difficult to establish. However, most angled and perpendicular spaces are considered to be between 10 and 18 feet (3.0 -- 5.5 m) in length. In the United States, due to vehicles being larger on average than some other countries, a parking space 10 feet (3.0 m) deep is uncommon and most parking spaces will be within 16 to 20 feet (4.9 -- 6.1 m), with 19 feet (5.8 m) feet deep being the standard DOT recommended depth for standard perpendicular parking. Parallel parking spaces typically range from 20 to 24 feet (6.1 -- 7.3 m) long.
During construction, the specific dimensions of a parking space are decided by a variety of factors. A high cost of land will encourage smaller dimensions and the introduction of compact spaces. Many garages and parking lots have spaces designated for a Compact car only. These spaces are narrower than traditional spaces, thus allowing more cars to park.
According to French standard "Norme NF P 91 - 100 '', minimum width of parking spaces range from 2.20 to 2.30 metres (7.2 -- 7.5 ft) (See fr: Marquage du stationnement en France). Narrow parking spaces such as in Vevey, Switzerland might make opening the door difficult in a larger vehicle.
Larger cars are an issue when the size of the parking spot is fixed. Automobile associations warn of this issue. A Swiss Association regulating parking space wants to consider this issue for 2016.
In the United Kingdom the recommended standard Parking bay size is 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) wide by 4.8 metres (16 ft) long. Recently there has been some controversy about most UK parking spaces being too small to fit modern cars, which have grown significantly since standards were set decades ago.
In Australia the dimensions are defined in AS2890 and are 2.4 m wide by 5.4 m long
Parking spaces commonly contain a parking chock (wheel stop), which is used to prevent cars from pulling too far into the space and
This barrier is usually made of concrete and will normally be a horizontal bar to stop the tires from moving forward or a vertical bar that may cause damage to the vehicle if contact is made. In a parking garage, the barrier will often be a concrete wall.
Some parking spaces are reserved as handicapped parking, for individuals with disabilities. Handicapped parking spaces are typically marked with the International Symbol of Access, though in practice, the design of the symbol varies widely.
In the United States the Access Board provides guidelines on parking spaces.
In some countries, women 's parking spaces have been established in more visible spots to reduce the chance of sexual attacks, facilitate parking for women, or to provide spaces that are closer to shopping centers or employment.
Curb markings in the United States are prescribed by the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). Local highway agencies may prescribe special colors for curb markings to supplement standard signs for parking regulation. California has designated an array of colors for curb regulations. A white curb designates passenger pick up or drop off. The green curb is for time limited parking. The yellow curb is for loading, and the blue curb is for disabled persons with proper vehicle identification. The red curb is for emergency vehicles only - fire lanes (no stopping, standing, or parking). In Oregon and Florida, the yellow curb is utilized to indicate no parking. In Georgia either red or yellow can be used to indicate no parking. In Seattle, Washington, alternating red and yellow curb markings indicate a bus stop.
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what is the oldest known way to avoid war | Draft evasion - wikipedia
Draft evasion is any successful attempt to elude a government - imposed obligation to serve in the military forces of one 's nation. Sometimes draft evasion involves refusing to comply with the military draft laws (formally known as conscription laws) of one 's nation. Illegal draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries. Such evasion is generally considered to be a criminal offense, and laws against it go back thousands of years.
There are many draft evasion practices. Those that manage to adhere to or circumvent the law, and those that do not involve taking a public stand, are sometimes referred to as draft avoidance. Those that involve overt lawbreaking or taking a public stand are sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Draft evaders are sometimes pejoratively referred to as draft dodgers, although in certain contexts that term has also been used non-judgmentally or as an honorific.
Draft evasion has been a significant phenomenon in nations as different as France, Russia, South Korea, and the United States. Accounts by scholars and journalists, along with memoiristic writings by draft evaders, indicate that the motives and beliefs of the evaders can not be stereotyped.
Over the years, scholars and others have raised several large issues with regard to draft evasion. These observers have asked whether it is (or can be) politically effective, whether it is necessarily a function of class privilege, and whether it has positive or negative effects on democracy and community. There is no clear consensus on any of these issues.
Young people have engaged in a wide variety of draft evasion practices around the world. Some of these practices go back thousands of years. The following list does not aspire to be complete -- one book from the counterculture of the 1960s enumerated over 1,000 supposed draft evasion practices in one nation alone. The purpose here is to delineate a representative sampling of draft evasion practices and support activities as identified by scholars and journalists. Examples of many of these practices and activities can be found in the section on draft evasion in the nations of the world, further down this page.
One type of draft avoidance consists of attempts to follow the letter and spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a legally valid draft deferment or exemption. Sometimes these deferments and exemptions are prompted by political considerations. Another type consists of attempts to circumvent, manipulate, or surreptitiously violate the substance or spirit of the draft laws in order to obtain a deferment or exemption. Nearly all attempts at draft avoidance are private and unpublicized. Examples include:
Draft evasion that involves overt lawbreaking or that communicates conscious or organized resistance to government policy is sometimes referred to as draft resistance. Examples include:
Draft evasion is said to have characterized every military conflict of the 20th and 21st centuries. Laws against certain draft evasion practices go back at least as far as the ancient Greeks. Examples of draft evasion can be found in many nations over many time periods:
Nineteenth century Belgium was one of the few places where most citizens accepted the practice of legally buying one 's way out of the military draft, sometimes referred to as the practice of "purchasable military commutation ''. Even so, some Belgian politicians denounced it as a system that appeared to trade the money of the rich for the lives of the poor.
In January 1916, in the middle of World War I, the British government passed a military conscription bill. By July of that year, 30 % of draftees had failed to report for service.
Canada employed a military draft during World Wars I and II, and some Canadians chose to evade it. According to Canadian historian Jack Granatstein, "no single issue has divided Canadians so sharply '' as the military draft. During both World Wars, political parties collapsed or were torn apart over the draft issue, and ethnicity seeped into the equation, with most French Canadians opposing conscription and a majority of English Canadians accepting it. During both wars, riots and draft evasion followed the passage of the draft laws.
Conscription had been a dividing force in Canadian politics during World War I, and those divisions led to the Conscription Crisis of 1917. Canadians objected to conscription for diverse reasons: some thought it unnecessary, some did not identify with the British, and some felt it imposed unfair burdens on economically struggling segments of society. When the first draft class (single men between 20 and 34 years of age) was called up in 1917, nearly 281,000 of the approximately 404,000 men filed for exemptions. Throughout the war, some Canadians who feared conscription left for the United States or elsewhere.
Canada introduced an innovative kind of draft law in 1940 with the National Resources Mobilization Act. While the move was not unpopular outside French Canada, controversy arose because under the new law, conscripts were not compelled to serve outside Canada. They could choose simply to defend the country against invasion. By the middle of the war, many Canadians -- not least of all, conscripts committed to overseas service -- were referring to NRMA men pejoratively as "Zombies '', that is, as dead - to - life or utterly useless. Following costly fighting in Italy, Normandy and the Scheldt, overseas Canadian troops were depleted, and during the Conscription Crisis of 1944 a one - time levy of approximately 17,000 NRMA men was sent to fight abroad. Many NRMA men deserted after the levy rather than fight abroad. One brigade of NRMA men declared itself on "strike '' after the levy.
The number of men who actively sought to evade the World War II draft in Canada is not known. Some historians do not consider their number significant; historian Jack Granatstein says the evasion was "widespread ''. In addition, in 1944 alone approximately 60,000 draftees were serving only as NRMA men, committed to border defense but not to going abroad.
During World War II, there was no legal way to avoid the draft, and failure to obey was treated as insubordination, punished by execution or jail. Draft evaders were forced to escape to the forests and live there as outlaws, in what was called facetiously serving in the käpykaarti (Pine Cone Guard) or metsäkaarti (Forest Guard).
Approximately 1,500 men failed to show up for the draft at the start of the Continuation War (1941 -- 1944, pitting Finland against the Soviet Union), and 32,186 cases of desertion were handled by the courts. There were numerous reasons: fear or war - weariness, objection to the war as an offensive war, ideological objections or outright support for Communism. Finnish Communists were considered dangerous and could not serve, and were subject to "protective custody '' -- in practice, detention in a prison for the course of the war -- because earlier attempts to conscript them had ended in disaster: one battalion called Pärmin pataljoona assembled from detained Communists suffered a large - scale defection to the Soviet side.
The käpykaarti (forest - dwelling Pine Cone Guard, mentioned above) was a diverse group including draft evaders, deserters, Communists, and Soviet desants (military skydivers). They lived in small groups, sometimes even in military - style dugouts constructed from logs, and often maintained a rotation to guard their camps. They received support from sympathizers who could buy from the black market; failing that, they stole provisions to feed themselves. The Finnish Army and police actively searched for them, and if discovered, a firefight often ensued. The Finnish Communist Party was able to operate among the draft evaders. Sixty - three death sentences were handed out to deserters; however, many of them were killed in military or police raids on their camps. Deserters captured near front lines would often be simply returned to the lines, but as the military situation deteriorated towards the end of the war, punishments were harsher: 61 of the death sentences given were in 1944, mostly in June and July during the Vyborg -- Petrozavodsk Offensive, where Finnish forces were forced to retreat.
At the conclusion of the war, the Allied Control Commission immediately demanded an amnesty for draft evaders, and they were not further punished.
In France, the right of all draftees to purchase military exemption -- introduced after the French Revolution -- was abolished in 1870. One scholar refers to the permissible buy - out as a "bastard form of equality '' that bore traces of the Old Regime.
During the last years of World War II, many ethnic Germans drafted into the Waffen - SS either "disappeared '' or tried to avoid service by deliberately injuring themselves.
There has always been a military draft in Israel. It is universal for all non-Arab Israeli citizens, men and women alike, and can legally be evaded only on physical or psychological grounds or by strictly Orthodox Jews. The draft has become part of the fabric of Israeli society: according to Le Monde senior editor Sylvain Cypel, Israel is a place where military service is seen not just as a duty but a "certificate of entry into active life ''.
Yet by the middle of the decade of the 2000s, draft evasion (including outright draft refusal) and desertion had reached all - time highs. Fully 5 % of young men and 3 % of young women were supposedly failing their pre-military psychological tests, both all - time highs. Some popular entertainers, including rock star Aviv Geffen, grand - nephew of military hero Moshe Dayan, have been encouraging draft evasion (Geffen publicly said he would commit suicide if he were taken by the military). In 2007 the Israeli government initiated what some called a "shaming campaign '', banning young entertainers from holding concerts and making television appearances if they failed to fulfill their military requirement. By 2008 over 3,000 high school students belonged to "Shministim '' (Hebrew for twelfth graders), a group of young people claiming to be conscientiously opposed to military service. American actor Ed Asner has written a column supporting the group. Another group, New Profile, was started by Israeli peace activists to encourage draft refusal.
University of Manchester sociologist Yulia Zemilinskaya has interviewed members of New Profile and Shministim, along with members of two groups of Israeli soldiers and reservists who have expressed an unwillingness to engage in missions they disapprove of -- Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse. Despite commonalities, she found a difference between the draft refusers and the military selective - refusers:
The analysis of these interviews demonstrated that in their appeal to Israeli public members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse utilized symbolic meanings and codes derived from dominant militarist and nationalist discourses. In contrast, draft - resisters, members of New Profile and Shministim, refusing to manipulate nationalistic and militaristic codes, voice () a much more radical and comprehensive critique of the state 's war making plans. Invoking feminist, anti-militarist and pacifist ideologies, they openly challenge and criticize dominant militarist and Zionist discourses. While the majority of members of Yesh Gvul and Courage to Refuse choose selective refusal, negotiating conditions of their reserve duty, (the) anti-militarist, pacifist, and feminist ideological stance of members of New Profi le and Shministim leads them to absolutist refusal.
According to London - based journalist Elisabeth Braw, writing in Foreign Affairs, draft evasion was "endemic '' in the Soviet Union during the Soviet -- Afghan War, which ended in 1989. A declassified Central Intelligence Agency report asserts that the Soviet elite routinely bribed its sons ' way out of deployment to Afghanistan, or out of military service altogether.
In Russia, all young men are subject to the military draft. But according to a report from the European Parliamentary Research Service, an organ of the Secretariat of the European Parliament, in the mid-2010s fully half of the 150,000 young men called up each year were thought to be evading the draft.
In 2014, The Christian Science Monitor ran a headline claiming that South Korea had the "most draft dodgers in prison '' The article, by veteran correspondent Donald Kirk, explained that South Korea 's government, which had instituted a draft, did not allow for conscientious objection to war; as a result, 669 mostly religiously motivated South Koreans were said to be in jail for draft evasion in 2013. Only 723 draft evaders were said to be in jail worldwide at that time.
Syria requires men over 18 to serve in the army for two years (except for college graduates, who need serve only 18 months). Draft evasion carries stiff punishments, including fines and years of imprisonment. After the Syrian civil war broke out in 2011, many draft - age men began fleeing the country, sometimes paying thousands of dollars to be smuggled out. Others paid to have their names expunged from the draft rolls. Meanwhile, the government erected billboards exhorting young people to join the army -- and set up road checkpoints to capture draft evaders. By 2016, an estimated 70,000 draft evaders had left Syria, and others remained undetected within its borders.
Observers have identified several motives among the Syrian draft evaders. One is fear of dying in that country 's civil war. Others include obeying parental wishes and disgust with the government of Bashar al - Assad. Thomas Spijkerboer, a professor of migration law at VU University Amsterdam, has argued that Syrian draft evaders motivated by a refusal to participate in violations of international law should be given refugee status by other nations.
In October 2018, the Syrian government announced an amnesty for draft evaders. However, an officer with Syria 's "Reconciliation Ministry '' told the Los Angeles Times that, while punishment would be canceled, military service would still be required. "Now the war is practically at its end, which means enlisting is no longer such a fearful situation '', he said. "We expect we 'll have very large numbers taking advantage of the amnesty ''.
In 2015, responding to perceived threats from pro-Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine, the Ukrainian military instituted a compulsory draft for males between 20 and 27 years of age. However, according to independent journalist Alec Luhn, writing in Foreign Policy magazine, a "huge number '' of Ukrainians refused to serve. Luhn gives three reasons for this. One was fear of death. Another was that some young Ukrainians were opposed to war in general. A third was that some were unwilling to take up arms against those whom they perceived to be their countrymen.
The Ukrainian military itself has stated that, during a partial call - up in 2014, over 85,000 men failed to report to their draft offices, and nearly 10,000 of those were eventually declared to be illegal draft evaders.
The United States has employed a draft several times, usually during war but also during the Cold War. Each time the draft has been met with at least some resistance.
Both the Union (the North) and the Confederate states (the South) instituted drafts during the American Civil War -- and both drafts were often evaded. In the North, evaders were most numerous among poor Irish immigrants. In the South, evaders were most numerous in hill country and in certain other parts of Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.
Resistance to the draft was sometimes violent. In the North, nearly 100 draft enrollment officers were injured in attacks. An anti-draft riot in New York City in 1863 lasted several days and resulted in up to 2,000 deaths.
According to historian David Williams, by 1864 the Southern draft had become virtually unenforceable. Some believe that draft evasion in the South, where manpower was scarcer than in the North, contributed to the Confederate defeat.
The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples and by prohibiting all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. In 1917 and 1918 some 24 million men were registered and nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the overt resistance that characterized the Civil War.
In the United States during World War I, the word "slacker '' was commonly used to describe someone who was not participating in the war effort, especially someone who avoided military service, an equivalent of the later term "draft dodger. '' Attempts to track down such evaders were called "slacker raids. '' Under the Espionage Act of 1917, activists including Eugene V. Debs and Emma Goldman were arrested for speaking out against the draft.
Despite such circumstances, draft evasion was substantial. According to one scholar, nearly 11 percent of the draft - eligible population refused to register, or to report for induction; according to another, 12 percent of draftees either failed to report to their training camps or deserted from them. A significant amount of draft evasion took place in the South, in part because many impoverished Southerners lacked documentation and in part because many Southerners recalled the "horrible carnage '' of the Civil War. In 2017, historian Michael Kazin concluded that a greater percentage of American men evaded the draft during World War I than during the Vietnam War.
According to scholar Anna Wittmann, about 72,000 young Americans applied for conscientious objector (CO) status during World War II, and many of their applications were rejected. Some COs chose to serve as noncombatants in the military, others chose jail, and a third group -- taking a position in between -- chose to enter a specially organized domestic Civilian Public Service.
The Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, generated 80,000 cases of alleged draft evasion.
The Vietnam War (1965 -- 1975) was controversial in the U.S. and was accompanied by a significant amount of draft evasion among young Americans, with many managing to remain in the U.S. by various means and some eventually leaving for Canada or elsewhere.
There had been some opposition to the Vietnam - era draft even before the U.S. became heavily involved in the Vietnam War. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War also meant a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college and graduate students. According to peace studies scholar David Cortright, more than half of the 27 million men eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War were deferred, exempted, or disqualified.
Veterans Administration statistics show that U.S. troops in Vietnam represented a much broader cross section of America than is commonly believed and only 25 % of troops deployed to the combat zone were draftees (compared to 66 % during World War II). Approximately three - quarters of those deployed were from working families and poor youths were twice as likely to serve there than their more affluent cohorts although the vast majority of them were volunteers. Some draft eligible men publicly burned their draft cards, which was illegal, but the Justice Department brought charges against only 50, of whom 40 were convicted.
As U.S. troop strength in Vietnam increased, more young men sought to avoid the draft. Enlisting in the Coast Guard, though it had more stringent standards for enlistment, was one alternative, although, contrary to popular belief, Coast Guardsmen did serve in Vietnam. Enlisting in the National Guard was another option; however, 15,000 National Guardsmen were activated and sent to Vietnam. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees.
"Draft Dodger Rag '', a 1965 anti-war song by Phil Ochs, circumvented laws against counseling evasion by employing satire to provide a how - to list of available deferments: ruptured spleen, poor eyesight, flat feet, asthma, and many more. Folksinger Arlo Guthrie lampooned the paradox of seeking a deferment by acting crazy in his song "Alice 's Restaurant '': "I said, ' I wan na kill! Kill! Eat dead burnt bodies! ' and the Sergeant said, ' You 're our boy '! '' The book 1001 Ways to Beat the Draft was co-authored by Tuli Kupferberg, a member of the band The Fugs. It espoused such methods as arriving at the draft board in diapers. Another text pertinent to draft - age men was Jules Feiffer 's cartoon novella from the 1950s, Munro, later a short film, in which a four - year - old boy is drafted by mistake.
Many draft counseling groups were active during the war. Some were connected to national groups, such as the American Friends Service Committee and Students for a Democratic Society; others were ad hoc campus or community groups. Many specially trained individuals worked as counselors for such groups.
Along with the rise of draft counseling groups, a substantial draft resistance movement rose up as well. Students for a Democratic Society sought to play a major role in it, as did the War Resisters League, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee 's "National Black Anti-War Anti-Draft Union '' and other groups. Many say that the draft resistance movement was spearheaded by an organization called The Resistance. It was founded by David Harris and others in the San Francisco Bay Area in March 1967, and quickly spread nationally. The insignia of the organization was the Greek letter omega, Ω, the symbol for ohms -- the unit of electrical resistance. Members of The Resistance publicly burned their draft cards or refused to register for the draft. Other members deposited their cards into boxes on selected dates and then mailed them to the government. They were then drafted, refused to be inducted, and fought their cases in the federal courts. These draft resisters hoped that their public civil disobedience would help to bring the war and the draft to an end. Many young men went to federal prison as part of this movement.
After the war, some of the draft evaders who stayed in the U.S. wrote memoirs. These included David Harris 's Dreams Die Hard (1982), David Miller 's I Did n't Know God Made Honky Tonk Communists (2001), Jerry Elmer 's Felon for Peace (2005), and Bruce Dancis 's Resister (2014). Harris was an anti-draft organizer who went to jail for his beliefs (and was briefly married to folk singer Joan Baez), Miller was the first Vietnam War refuser to publicly burn his draft card (and later became partner to spiritual teacher Starhawk), Elmer refused to register for the draft and destroyed draft board files in several locations, and Dancis led the largest chapter of Students for a Democratic Society (the one at Cornell University) before being jailed for publicly shredding his draft card and returning it to his draft board. Harris in particular expresses serious second thoughts about aspects of the movement he was part of.
Canadian historian Jessica Squires emphasizes that the number of U.S. draft evaders coming to Canada was "only a fraction '' of those who resisted the Vietnam War. According to a 1978 book by former members of President Gerald Ford 's Clemency Board, 210,000 Americans were accused of draft offenses and 30,000 left the country. More recently, peace studies scholar David Cortright observed that approximately 570,000 young men were classified as draft offenders during the war, of whom over 209,000 were accused of draft violations. According to Cortright, an "estimated 60,000 to 100,000 '' left the U.S., mainly for Canada or Sweden. Others scattered elsewhere; for example, historian Frank Kusch mentions Mexico, scholar Anna Wittmann mentions Britain, and journalist Jan Wong describes one draft evader who sympathized with Mao Zedong 's China and found refuge there. Draft evader Ken Kiask spent eight years traveling continuously across the Global South before returning to the U.S.
The number of Vietnam - era draft evaders leaving for Canada is hotly contested; an entire book, by scholar Joseph Jones, has been written on that subject. In 2017, University of Toronto professor Robert McGill cited estimates by four scholars, including Jones, ranging from a floor of 30,000 to a ceiling of 100,000, depending in part on who is being counted as a draft evader.
Though the presence of U.S. draft evaders and deserters in Canada was initially controversial, the Canadian government eventually chose to welcome them. Draft evasion was not a criminal offense under Canadian law. The issue of deserters was more complex. Desertion from the U.S. military was not on the list of crimes for which a person could be extradited under the extradition treaty between Canada and the U.S.; however, desertion was a crime in Canada, and the Canadian military strongly opposed condoning it. In the end, the Canadian government maintained the right to prosecute these deserters, but in practice left them alone and instructed border guards not to ask questions relating to the issue.
In Canada, many American Vietnam War evaders received pre-emigration counseling and post-emigration assistance from locally based groups. Typically these consisted of American emigrants and Canadian supporters. The largest were the Montreal Council to Aid War Resisters, the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme, and the Vancouver Committee to Aid American War Objectors. Journalists often noted their effectiveness. The Manual for Draft - Age Immigrants to Canada, published jointly by the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme and the House of Anansi Press, sold nearly 100,000 copies, and one sociologist found that the Manual had been read by over 55 % of his data sample of U.S. Vietnam War emigrants either before or after they arrived in Canada. In addition to the counseling groups (and at least formally separate from them) was a Toronto - based political organization, the Union of American Exiles, better known as "Amex. '' It sought to speak for American draft evaders and deserters in Canada. For example, it lobbied and campaigned for universal, unconditional amnesty, and hosted an international conference in 1974 opposing anything short of that.
Those who went abroad faced imprisonment or forced military service if they returned home. The U.S. continued to prosecute draft dodgers after the end of the Vietnam War. In September 1974, President Gerald R. Ford offered an amnesty program for draft dodgers that required them to work in alternative service occupations for periods of six to 24 months. In 1977, one day after his inauguration, President Jimmy Carter fulfilled a campaign promise by offering pardons to anyone who had evaded the draft and requested one. It antagonized critics on both sides, with the right complaining that those pardoned paid no penalty and the left complaining that requesting a pardon required the admission of a crime.
It remains a matter of debate whether emigration to Canada and elsewhere during the Vietnam War was an effective, or even a genuine, war resistance strategy. Scholar Michael Foley argues that it was not only relatively ineffective, but that it served to siphon off disaffected young Americans from the larger struggle. Activists Rennie Davis and Tom Hayden reportedly held similar views. By contrast, authors John Hagan and Roger N. Williams recognize the American emigrants as "war resisters '' in the subtitles of their books about the emigrants, and Manual for Draft - Age Immigrants to Canada author Mark Satin contended that public awareness of tens of thousands of young Americans leaving for Canada would -- and eventually did -- help end the war.
Some draft evaders returned to the U.S. from Canada after the 1977 pardon, but according to sociologist John Hagan, about half of them stayed on. This young and mostly educated population expanded Canada 's arts and academic scenes, and helped push Canadian politics further to the left, though some Canadians, including some principled nationalists, found their presence or impact troubling. American draft evaders who left for Canada and became prominent there include author William Gibson, politician Jim Green, gay rights advocate Michael Hendricks, attorney Jeffry House, author Keith Maillard, playwright John Murrell, television personality Eric Nagler, film critic Jay Scott, and musician Jesse Winchester. Other draft evaders from the Vietnam era remain in Sweden and elsewhere.
Two academic literary critics have written at length about autobiographical novels by draft evaders who went to Canada -- Rachel Adams in the Yale Journal of Criticism and Robert McGill in a book from McGill - Queen 's University Press. Both critics discuss Morton Redner 's Getting Out (1971) and Mark Satin 's Confessions of a Young Exile (1976), and Adams also discusses Allen Morgan 's Dropping Out in 3 / 4 Time (1972) and Daniel Peters 's Border Crossing (1978). All these books portray their protagonists ' views, motives, activities, and relationships in detail. Adams says they contain some surprises:
It is to be expected that the draft dodgers denounce the state as an oppressive bureaucracy, using the vernacular of the time to rail against "the machine '' and "the system. '' What is more surprising is their general resistance to mass movements, a sentiment that contradicts the association of the draft dodger with sixties protest found in more recent work by (Scott) Turow or (Mordecai) Richler. In contrast to stereotypes, the draft dodger in these narratives is neither an unthinking follower of movement ideology nor a radical who attempts to convert others to his cause... (Another surprise is that the dodgers) have little interest in romantic love. Their libidinal hyperactivity accords with (Herbert) Marcuse 's belief in the liberatory power of eros. They are far less worried about whether particular relationships will survive the flight to Canada than about the gratification of their immediate sexual urges.
Later memoirs by Vietnam - era draft evaders who went to Canada include Donald Simons 's I Refuse (1992), George Fetherling 's Travels by Night (1994), and Mark Frutkin 's Erratic North (2008).
For many decades after the Vietnam War ended, prominent Americans were being accused of having manipulated the draft system to their advantage. Among the notable politicians whom opponents have accused of improperly avoiding the draft are George W. Bush, Dick Cheney, and Bill Clinton.
In a 1970s High Times article, American singer - songwriter and future conservative activist Ted Nugent stated that he took crystal meth, and urinated and defecated in his pants before his physical, in order to avoid being drafted into the Vietnam War. In a 1990 interview with a large Detroit newspaper, Nugent made similar statements, and in 2014 Media Matters for America summarized and excerpted that interview for its liberal audience, noting for example that before his physical Nugent was "virtually living inside pants caked with his own excrement '', meanwhile imbibing "nothing but Vienna sausages and Pepsi ''.
Conservative talk radio show host Rush Limbaugh reportedly avoided the Vietnam draft because of anal cysts. In a 2011 book critical of Limbaugh, journalist John K. Wlson wrote, "As a man who evaded the Vietnam War draft with the help of an anal cyst, Limbaugh is a chickenhawk fond of making hyperbolic attacks on (liberal) foreign policy ''.
Former Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney 's deferment has been questioned. During the Vietnam War, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) -- Romney 's church -- became embroiled in controversy for deferring large numbers of its young members. The LDS Church eventually agreed to cap the number of missionary deferments it sought for members in any one region. After Romney dropped out of Stanford University and was about to lose his student deferment, he decided to become a missionary; and the LDS Church in his home state of Michigan chose to give him one of that state 's missionary deferments. In a Salon article from 2007, liberal journalist Joe Conason noted that Romney 's father had been governor of Michigan at the time.
Attention has also been paid to independent Senator Bernie Sanders 's failure to serve. In an article in The Atlantic, it was reported that, after graduating from the University of Chicago in 1964, and moving back to New York City, the future candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination applied for conscientious objector status -- even though as Sanders acknowledged to the reporter, he was not religious. (Sanders was opposed to the Vietnam War. At the time, however, CO status was granted entirely on the basis of religious opposition to all war.) Sanders 's CO status was denied. Nevertheless, a "lengthy series of hearings, an FBI investigation and numerous postponements and delays '' took him to age 26 at which point he was no longer eligible for the draft. In a 2015 book critical of Sanders, journalist Harry Jaffe revisited that portion of the Atlantic article, emphasizing that by the time Sanders 's "numerous hearings '' had run their course he was "too old to be drafted ''.
Donald Trump, who became President of the United States in 2017, graduated from college in the spring of 1968, making him eligible to be drafted and sent to Vietnam; but he received a diagnosis of bone spurs in his heels. The diagnosis resulted in a medical deferment, exempting him from military service. Due to this deferment he was accused of draft dodging by political opponents.
-- Political scientist James C. Scott, 1990.
The phenomenon of draft evasion has raised several major issues among scholars and others.
One issue is the effectiveness of the various kinds of draft evasion practices with regard to ending a military draft or stopping a war. Historian Michael S. Foley sees many draft evasion practices as merely personally beneficial. In his view, only public anti-draft activity, consciously and collectively engaged in, is relevant to stopping a draft or a war. By contrast, sociologist Todd Gitlin is more generous in his assessment of the effectiveness of the entire gamut of draft evasion practices. Political scientist James C. Scott, although speaking more theoretically, makes a similar point, arguing that the accumulation of thousands upon thousands of "petty '' and obscure acts of private resistance can trigger political change.
Another issue is how best to understand young people 's responses to a military call - up. According to historian Charles DeBenedetti, some Vietnam War opponents chose to evaluate people 's responses to the war largely in terms of their willingness to take personal responsibility to resist evil, a standard prompted by the Nuremberg doctrine. The Manual for Draft - Age Immigrants to Canada urged its readers to make their draft decision with Nuremberg in mind. By contrast, prominent journalist James Fallows is convinced that social class (rather than conscience or political conviction) was the dominant factor in determining who would fight in the war and who would evade their obligation to do so. Fallows writes of the shame he felt -- and continued to feel -- after he realized that his successful attempt at draft evasion (he brought his body weight below the minimum, and lied about his mental health), an attempt he prepared for with the help of sophisticated draft counselors and classmates at Harvard, meant that working - class kids from Boston would be going to Vietnam in his stead. He referred to this outcome as a matter of class discrimination and passionately argued against it. (It should be added that Fallows indicates that he might have felt differently about his behavior had he chosen public draft resistance, jail, or exile.)
Historian Stanley Karnow has noted that, during the Vietnam War, student deferments themselves helped preserve class privilege: "(President Lyndon) Johnson generously deferred U.S. college students from the draft to avoid alienating the American middle class ''.
Historian Howard Zinn and political activist Tom Hayden saw at least some kinds of draft evasion as a positive expression of democracy. By contrast, historian and classical studies scholar Mathew R. Christ says that, in ancient democratic Athens, where draft evasion was ongoing, many of the popular tragic playwrights were deeply concerned about the corrosive effects of draft evasion on democracy and community. According to Christ, while many of these playwrights were sensitive to the moral dilemmas of war and the imperfections of Athenian democracy, most touted "the ethical imperative that a man should support his friends and community. In serving the community, the individual does... what is right and honorable ''.
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family guy season 7 episode 11 full episode | Not All Dogs Go to Heaven - wikipedia
"Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '' is the 11th episode of the seventh season of the American animated television series Family Guy. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 29, 2009. The episode was directed by Greg Colton and written by Danny Smith. In the episode, Quahog hosts its annual Star Trek convention and the cast members of Star Trek: The Next Generation are guests. After he was unable to ask the actors any questions at a Q&A session, Stewie builds a transporter in his bedroom to beam the cast over and spend the day with them. Meanwhile, Meg becomes a born - again Christian and tries to convert the atheist Brian to Christianity.
The episode garnered mixed reviews from critics and received a 4.8 / 7 Nielsen rating. Star Trek: The Next Generation 's Patrick Stewart, Jonathan Frakes, Brent Spiner, LeVar Burton, Gates McFadden, Michael Dorn, Wil Wheaton, Denise Crosby, and Marina Sirtis all guest starred as themselves, and Adam West and Rob Lowe appear at the end of the episode in a live action scene.
Meg catches the mumps when the Griffins attend Quahog 's annual Star Trek convention, because Peter forced her to stand next to an irresponsible attendee with mumps to take a picture, believing him to be in costume as an alien. While recovering in bed, Meg becomes a born - again Christian after watching Kirk Cameron on television and begins irritating everyone with her beliefs. Meg is horrified to learn that Brian is an atheist and attempts to convince him to repent and convert to Christianity, but he repeatedly refuses. Finally taking drastic measures, Meg spreads the word of Brian 's atheism around Quahog, which generally hates atheists, making him a social outcast.
Upon being made an outcast, Brian is banned from every bar and convenience store in Quahog, making it impossible for him to drink. Desperate, and suffering from delirium tremens (he hallucinates seeing several alcoholic beverages begging him to drink them), Brian fakes his repentance and convinces Meg to cease all hostilities against him so he can get back to drinking, but she takes him to burn books that are "harmful to God '' (including On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, A Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking, and a book titled Logic for First Graders). A disgusted Brian admits his bluff and attempts to convince Meg that what she is doing is wrong. When Meg refuses to listen, Brian points out to her that if there were truly a loving God, then he would not have created Meg to have an attractive mother like Lois but have her be unattractive like Peter, and that she would not be living in a world where everyone holds her in contempt and otherwise pretends that she does not exist (not even caring enough to get her a mumps vaccine). Feeling ashamed, Meg concedes to Brian 's argument and apologizes for her behavior, confessing that she does not know how she can feel loved. Brian then assures her that the answers are inside herself, and the real meaning of their existence is out there somewhere. Afterward, it is revealed that the entire Family Guy universe takes place within the molecules of a lampshade in the shared bedroom of Adam West and Rob Lowe.
Meanwhile, furious that he did not get a chance to ask the cast of Star Trek: The Next Generation any questions at the convention, and the fact that the cast instead answered questions completely unrelated to Star Trek, Stewie builds an authentic Star Trek transporter and beams the cast over to interview them (in a nod to the TNG episode "Skin of Evil '', Denise Crosby is killed in a show of force). Stewie decides to spend the whole day with the cast, which includes stealing Cleveland 's van, having lunch at McDonald 's, going bowling, and going to a carnival. However, they complain about minor things and greatly annoy Stewie, who beams everyone back after stating that they have ruined Star Trek: The Next Generation for him, and that he hopes they all die.
"Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '' was directed by series regular Greg Colton, in his second episode of the season (his first one being "Road to Germany ''). It was written by regular writer and recurring voice actor Danny Smith, in his first episode of the season. Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors. Seth MacFarlane, Family Guy 's creator and executive producer, is a fan of Star Trek and made two guest appearances as engineer Ensign Rivers on Star Trek: Enterprise, in "The Forgotten '' (season 3, episode 20) and "Affliction '' (season 4, episode 15). Former Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members have also made other appearances in Family Guy: Patrick Stewart, for example, briefly voiced Peter Griffin (normally played by MacFarlane) in "No Meals on Wheels '' (season 5, episode 14), his American Dad! character, Avery Bullock in "Lois Kills Stewie '' (season 6, episode 5), and his Star Trek: The Next Generation character Captain Jean - Luc Picard in "Peter 's Got Woods '' (season 4, episode 11); Jonathan Frakes, Michael Dorn and Marina Sirtis also appeared in "Peter 's Got Woods '' as their respective Star Trek: The Next Generation characters William Riker, Worf, and Counsellor Deanna Troi.
"Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '' features the entire original cast of Star Trek: The Next Generation: Stewart as Captain Picard; Frakes as Riker; Gates McFadden as Doctor Beverly Crusher; Brent Spiner as Lieutenant Commander Data; Dorn as Worf; Sirtis as Troi; LeVar Burton as Chief Engineer Geordi La Forge; Wil Wheaton as Wesley Crusher; and Denise Crosby, whose character Tasha Yar died during Star Trek: The Next Generation 's first season. It is also the first time the cast, minus Crosby, has worked together since the 2002 feature film Star Trek Nemesis, although the actors did not meet when they recorded their speaking parts. Including Crosby, the last time that the entire cast worked together was the 1990 episode "Yesterday 's Enterprise ''.
Wil Wheaton, who played Wesley Crusher on Star Trek: The Next Generation, recorded his parts for the episode on September 20, 2007. Seth MacFarlane directed the recording sessions with the guest stars.
"Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '' received a 4.8 / 7 Nielsen Rating.
Ahsan Haque of IGN called the episode "surprisingly refreshing '', saying the scenes with the Star Trek cast lived up to expectations. He also found "Meg 's journey of seeking acceptance through religion '' well handled. Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C grade, criticized "Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '' as boring and formulaic and stated that the writers "have no idea how to best use Meg ''.
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famous literary works and their authors in europe | Ten novels and Their authors - Wikipedia
Ten Novels and Their Authors is a 1954 work of literary criticism by William Somerset Maugham. Maugham collects together what he considers to have been the ten greatest novels and writes about the books and the authors. The ten novels are:
This book was originally a series of magazine articles commissioned by Redbook.
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edgar allan poe the cask of amontillado meaning | The Cask of Amontillado - wikipedia
"The Cask of Amontillado '' (sometimes spelled "The Casque of Amontillado '' (a. mon. ti. ˈʝa. ðo)) is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, first published in the November 1846 issue of Godey 's Lady 's Book. The story, set in an unnamed Italian city at carnival time in an unspecified year, is about a man taking fatal revenge on a friend who, he believes, has insulted him. Like several of Poe 's stories, and in keeping with the 19th - century fascination with the subject, the narrative revolves around a person being buried alive -- in this case, by immurement. As in "The Black Cat '' and "The Tell - Tale Heart '', Poe conveys the story from the murderer 's perspective.
The story 's narrator, Montresor, tells an unspecified person, who knows him very well, of the day he took his revenge on Fortunato (Italian for "the fortunate one ''), a fellow nobleman. Angry over numerous injuries and some unspecified insult, Montresor plots to murder his "friend '' during Carnival, while the man is drunk, dizzy, and wearing a jester 's motley.
Montresor lures Fortunato into a private wine - tasting excursion by telling him he has obtained a pipe (about 130 gallons, 492 litres) of what he believes to be a rare vintage of Amontillado. He proposes obtaining confirmation of the pipe 's contents by inviting a fellow wine aficionado, Luchesi, for a private tasting. Montresor knows Fortunato will not be able to resist demonstrating his discerning palate for wine and will insist that he taste the amontillado rather than Luchesi who, as he claims, "can not tell Amontillado from Sherry ''. Fortunato goes with Montresor to the wine cellars of the latter 's palazzo, where they wander in the catacombs. Montresor offers wine (first Medoc, then De Grave) to Fortunato in order to keep him inebriated. Montresor warns Fortunato, who has a bad cough, of the dampness, and suggests they go back, but Fortunato insists on continuing, claiming that "(he) shall not die of a cough ''. During their walk, Montresor mentions his family coat of arms: a golden foot in a blue background crushing a snake whose fangs are embedded in the foot 's heel, with the motto Nemo me impune lacessit ("No one attacks me with impunity '').
At one point, Fortunato makes an elaborate, grotesque gesture with an upraised wine bottle. When Montresor appears not to recognize the gesture, Fortunato asks, "You are not of the masons? '' Montresor says he is, and when Fortunato, disbelieving, requests a sign, Montresor displays a trowel he had been hiding. When they come to a niche, Montresor tells his victim that the Amontillado is within. Fortunato enters drunk and unsuspecting and therefore, does not resist as Montresor quickly chains him to the wall. Montresor then declares that, since Fortunato wo n't go back, Montresor must "positively leave '' him there.
Montresor reveals brick and mortar, previously hidden among the bones nearby, and proceeds to wall up the niche using his trowel, entombing his friend alive. At first, Fortunato, who sobers up faster than Montresor anticipated, shakes the chains, trying to escape. Fortunato then screams for help, but Montresor mocks his cries, knowing nobody can hear them. Fortunato laughs weakly and tries to pretend that he is the subject of a joke and that people will be waiting for him (including the Lady Fortunato). As Montresor finishes the topmost row of stones, Fortunato wails, "For the love of God, Montresor! '' to which Montresor replies, "Yes, for the love of God! '' He listens for a reply but hears only the jester 's bells ringing. Before placing the last stone, he drops a burning torch through the gap. He claims that he feels sick at heart, but dismisses this reaction as an effect of the dampness of the catacombs.
In the last few sentences, Montresor reveals that 50 years later, Fortunato 's body still hangs from its chains in the niche where he left it. The murderer concludes: In pace requiescat! ("May he rest in peace! '').
"The Cask of Amontillado '' was first published in the November 1846 issue of Godey 's Lady 's Book, which was, at the time, the most popular periodical in America. The story was only published one additional time during Poe 's life.
Although the subject matter of Poe 's story is a murder, "The Cask of Amontillado '' is not a tale of detection like "The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' or "The Purloined Letter ''; there is no investigation of Montresor 's crime and the criminal himself explains how he committed the murder. The mystery in "The Cask of Amontillado '' is in Montresor 's motive for murder. Without a detective in the story, it is up to the reader to solve the mystery.
Montresor never specifies his motive beyond the vague "thousand injuries '' and "when he ventured upon insult '' to which he refers. Some context is provided, including Montresor 's observation that his family once was great (but no longer so), and Fortunato 's belittling remarks about Montresor 's exclusion from Freemasonry. Many commentators conclude that, lacking significant reason, Montresor must be insane, though even this is questionable because of the intricate details of the plot.
There is also evidence that Montresor is almost as clueless about his motive for revenge as his victim. In his recounting of the murder, Montresor notes, "A wrong is unredressed when retribution overtakes its redresser. It is equally unredressed when the avenger fails to make himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong ''. After Fortunato is chained to the wall and nearly entombed alive, Montresor merely mocks and mimics him, rather than disclosing to Fortunato the reasons behind his exacting revenge. Montresor may not have been entirely certain of the exact nature of the insults for which he expected Fortunato to atone.
Additional scrutiny into the vague injuries and insults may have to do with a simple matter of Montresor 's pride and not any specific words from Fortunato. Montresor comes from an established family. His house had once been noble and respected, but has fallen slightly in status. Fortunato, as his name would seem to indicate, has been blessed with good fortune and wealth and is, therefore, viewed as unrefined by Montresor; however, this lack of refinement has not stopped Fortunato from surpassing Montresor in society, which could very well be the "insult '' motive for Montresor 's revenge.
There is indication that Montresor blames his unhappiness and loss of respect and dignity within society on Fortunato. It is easy to ascertain that Fortunato is a Freemason, while Montresor is not, which could be the source of Fortunato 's recent ascension into upper class society. Montresor even imparts this blame to Fortunato when he states, "You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as once I was ''. This interchanging of fortunes is a suggestion that, since the names Montresor and Fortunato mirror one another, there is a psychological reciprocal identification between victim and executioner. This identification reciprocity is further suggested when one takes into consideration that Montresor entombs Fortunato in the Montresor family catacombs rather than dispatching him elsewhere in the city amidst the chaos of the Carnival. It is with this converging of the two characters that one is able to see the larger symbolism of the Montresor crest -- the foot steps on the serpent while the serpent forever has his fangs embedded in the heel.
Upon further investigation into the true nature of character, double meaning can be derived from the Montresor crest. It is the position of Montresor to view himself as the owner of the righteous foot that is crushing the insolent Fortunato serpent and his "thousand injuries '' that progress into insult. A more allegoric meaning of Poe 's places the actors in reverse. The blind oaf Fortunato has unintentionally stepped upon the snake in the grass -- the sneaky and cunning Montresor -- who, as a reward for this accidental bruising, sinks his fangs deep into the heel of his offender, forever linking them in a form of mutual existence.
Though Fortunato is presented as a connoisseur of fine wine, L. Moffitt Cecil of Texas Christian University argues that his actions in the story make that assumption questionable. For example, Fortunato comments on another nobleman being unable to distinguish amontillado from sherry when amontillado is in fact a type of sherry, and treats De Grave, an expensive French wine, with very little regard by drinking it in a single gulp. Cecil also states that a true wine connoisseur would never sample wine while intoxicated and describes Fortunato as merely an alcoholic. Cecil also suggests that some people might feel Fortunato deserved to be buried alive for wasting a bottle of fine wine.
Poe may have known bricklaying through personal experience. Many periods in Poe 's life lack significant biographical details, including what he did after leaving the Southern Literary Messenger in 1837. Poe biographer John H. Ingram wrote to Sarah Helen Whitman that someone named "Allen '' said that Poe worked "in the brickyard ' late in the fall of 1834 ' ''. This source has been identified as Robert T.P. Allen, a fellow West Point student during Poe 's time there.
Immurement, a form of imprisonment, usually for life, in which a person is placed within an enclosed space with no exit, is featured in other works by Poe, including "The Fall of the House of Usher '', "The Premature Burial '', "The Black Cat '', and "Berenice ''.
An apocryphal legend holds that the inspiration for "The Cask of Amontillado '' came from a story Poe had heard at Castle Island (South Boston), Massachusetts, when he was a private stationed at Fort Independence in 1827. According to this legend, while stationed at Castle Island in 1827 he saw a monument to Lieutenant Robert Massie. Massie had been killed in a sword duel on Christmas Day 1817 by Lieutenant Gustavus Drane, following a dispute during a card game. According to the legend, other soldiers then took revenge on Drane by getting him drunk, luring him into the dungeon, chaining him to a wall, and sealing him in a vault. This version of Drane 's demise is false; Drane was courtmartialled for the killing and acquitted, and lived until 1846. A report of a skeleton discovered on the island may be a confused remembering of Poe 's major source, Joel Headley 's "A Man Built in a Wall '', which recounts the author 's seeing an immured skeleton in the wall of a church in Italy. Headley 's story includes details very similar to "The Cask of Amontillado ''; in addition to walling an enemy into a hidden niche, the story details the careful placement of the bricks, the motive of revenge, and the victim 's agonized moaning. Poe may have also seen similar themes in Honoré de Balzac 's "La Grande Bretèche '' (Democratic Review, November 1843) or his friend George Lippard 's The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall (1845). Poe may have borrowed Montresor 's family motto Nemo me impune lacessit from James Fenimore Cooper, who used the line in The Last of the Mohicans (1826).
Poe wrote his tale, however, as a response to his personal rival Thomas Dunn English. Poe and English had several confrontations, usually revolving around literary caricatures of one another. Poe thought that one of English 's writings went a bit too far, and successfully sued the other man 's editors at The New York Mirror for libel in 1846. That year English published a revenge - based novel called 1844, or, The Power of the S.F. Its plot was convoluted and difficult to follow, but made references to secret societies and ultimately had a main theme of revenge. It included a character named Marmaduke Hammerhead, the famous author of "The Black Crow '', who uses phrases like "Nevermore '' and "lost Lenore '', referring to Poe 's poem "The Raven ''. This parody of Poe was depicted as a drunkard, liar, and an abusive lover.
Poe responded with "The Cask of Amontillado '', using very specific references to English 's novel. In Poe 's story, for example, Fortunato makes reference to the secret society of Masons, similar to the secret society in 1844, and even makes a gesture similar to one portrayed in 1844 (it was a signal of distress). English had also used an image of a token with a hawk grasping a snake in its claws, similar to Montresor 's coat of arms bearing a foot stomping on a snake -- though in this image, the snake is biting the heel. In fact, much of the scene of "The Cask of Amontillado '' comes from a scene in 1844 that takes place in a subterranean vault. In the end, then, it is Poe who "punishes with impunity '' by not taking credit for his own literary revenge and by crafting a concise tale (as opposed to a novel) with a singular effect, as he had suggested in his essay "The Philosophy of Composition ''.
Poe may have also been inspired, at least in part, by the Washingtonian movement, a fellowship that promoted temperance. The group was made up of reformed drinkers who tried to scare people into abstaining from alcohol. Poe may have made a promise to join the movement in 1843 after a bout of drinking with the hopes of gaining a political appointment. "The Cask of Amontillado '' then may be a "dark temperance tale '', meant to shock people into realizing the dangers of drinking.
Poe scholar Richard P. Benton has stated his belief that "Poe 's protagonist is an Englished version of the French Montrésor '' and has argued forcefully that Poe 's model for Montresor "was Claude de Bourdeille, comte de Montrésor (Count of Montrésor), the 17th - century political conspirator in the entourage of King Louis XIII 's weak - willed brother, Gaston d'Orléans ''. The "noted intriguer and memoir - writer '' was first linked to "The Cask of Amontillado '' by Poe scholar Burton R. Pollin.
Further inspiration for the method of Fortunato 's murder comes from the fear of live burial. During the time period of this short story some coffins were given methods of alerting the outside in the event of live entombment. Items such as bells tied to the limbs of a corpse to signal the outside were not uncommon. This theme is evident in Fortunato 's costume of a jester with bells upon his hat, and his situation of live entombment within the catacombs.
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without atrazine how much would the national corn yield fall based on the epa study | Atrazine - wikipedia
Atrazine is an herbicide of the triazine class. Atrazine is used to prevent pre - and postemergence broadleaf weeds in crops such as maize (corn) and sugarcane and on turf, such as golf courses and residential lawns. It is one of the most widely used herbicides in US and Australian agriculture. It was banned in the European Union in October 2003, when the EU found groundwater levels exceeding the limits set by regulators, and Syngenta could neither show that this could be prevented nor that these levels were safe.
As of 2001, atrazine was the most commonly detected pesticide contaminating drinking water in the United States. Studies suggest it is an endocrine disruptor, an agent that can alter the natural hormonal system. In 2006 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had stated that under the Food Quality Protection Act "the risks associated with the pesticide residues pose a reasonable certainty of no harm '', and in 2007, the EPA said that atrazine does not adversely affect amphibian sexual development and that no additional testing was warranted. EPA 's 2009 review concluded that "the agency 's scientific bases for its regulation of atrazine are robust and ensure prevention of exposure levels that could lead to reproductive effects in humans ''. EPA started a registration review in 2013.
The EPA 's review has been criticized, and the safety of atrazine remains controversial.
Atrazine is an herbicide that is used to stop pre - and postemergence broadleaf and grassy weeds in crops such as sorghum, maize, sugarcane, lupins, pine, and eucalypt plantations, and triazine - tolerant canola.
In the United States as of 2014, atrazine was the second-most widely used herbicide after glyphosate, with 76 million pounds of it applied each year. Atrazine continues to be one of the most widely used herbicides in Australian agriculture. Its use was banned in the European Union in 2004, when the EU found groundwater levels exceeding the limits set by regulators, and Syngenta could not show that this could be prevented nor that these levels were safe.
Its effect on corn yields has been estimated from 1 % to 8 %, with 3 -- 4 % being the conclusion of one economics review. In another study looking at combined data from 236 university corn field trials from 1986 -- 2005, atrazine treatments showed an average of 5.7 bushels more per acre than alternative herbicide treatments. Effects on sorghum yields have been estimated to be as high as 20 %, owing in part to the absence of alternative weed control products that can be used on sorghum.
Atrazine was invented in 1958 in the Geigy laboratories as the second of a series of 1, 3, 5 - triazines.
Atrazine is prepared from cyanuric chloride, which is treated sequentially with ethylamine and isopropyl amine. Like other triazine herbicides, atrazine functions by binding to the plastoquinone - binding protein in photosystem II, which animals lack. Plant death results from starvation and oxidative damage caused by breakdown in the electron transport process. Oxidative damage is accelerated at high light intensity.
Atrazine 's effects in humans and animals primarily involve the endocrine system. Studies suggest that atrazine is an endocrine disruptor that can cause hormone imbalance.
Atrazine has been found to act as an agonist of the G protein - coupled estrogen receptor 1.
Atrazine was banned in the European Union in 2004 because of its persistent groundwater contamination.
Atrazine contamination of surface water (lakes, rivers, and streams) has been monitored by the EPA and has consistently exceeded levels of concern in two Missouri watersheds and one in Nebraska. As of 2001, Atrazine was the most commonly detected pesticide in US drinking water. Monitoring of atrazine levels in community water systems in 31 high - use states found that levels exceeded levels of concern for infant exposure during at least one year between 1993 and 2001 in 34 of 3670 community water systems using surface water, and in none of 14,500 community water systems using groundwater. Surface water monitoring data from 20 high atrazine use watersheds found peak atrazine levels up to 147 parts per billion, with daily averages in all cases below 10 parts per billion.
Atrazine remains in soil for a matter of months (although in some soils can persist to at least 4 years) and can migrate from soil to groundwater; once in groundwater, it degrades slowly. It has been detected in groundwater at high levels in some regions of the U.S. where it is used on some crops and turf. The US Environmental Protection Agency expresses concern regarding contamination of surface waters (lakes, rivers, and streams).
Atrazine degrades in soil primarily by the action of microbes. The half - life of atrazine in soil ranges from 13 to 261 days. Atrazine biodegradation can occur by two known pathways:
Rates of biodegradation are affected by atrazine 's low solubility, thus surfactants may increase the degradation rate. Though the two alkyl moieties readily support growth of certain microorganisms, the atrazine ring is a poor energy source due to the oxidized state of ring carbon. In fact, the most common pathway for atrazine degradation involves the intermediate, cyanuric acid, in which carbon is fully oxidized, thus the ring is primarily a nitrogen source for aerobic microorganisms. Atrazine may be catabolized as a carbon and nitrogen source in reducing environments, and some aerobic atrazine degraders have been shown to use the compound for growth under anoxia in the presence of nitrate as an electron acceptor, a process referred to as a denitrification. When atrazine is used as a nitrogen source for bacterial growth, degradation may be regulated by the presence of alternative sources of nitrogen. In pure cultures of atrazine - degrading bacteria, as well as active soil communitites, atrazine ring nitrogen, but not carbon are assimilated into microbial biomass. Low concentrations of glucose can decrease the bioavailability, whereas higher concentrations promote the catabolism of atrazine.
The genes for enzymes AtzA - C have been found to be highly conserved in atrazine - degrading organisms worldwide. In Pseudomonas sp. ADP, the Atz genes are located noncontiguously on a plasmid with the genes for mercury catabolism. AtzA - C genes have also been found in a Gram - positive bacterium, but are chromosomally located. The insertion elements flanking each gene suggest that they are involved in the assembly of this specialized catabolic pathway. Two options exist for degradation of atrazine using microbes, bioaugmentation or biostimulation. Recent research suggests that microbial adaptation to atrazine has occurred in some fields where the herbicide is used repetitively, resulting in more rapid biodegradation. Like the herbicides trifluralin and alachlor, atrazine is susceptible to rapid transformation in the presence of reduced iron - bearing soil clays, such as ferruginous smectites. In natural environments, some iron - bearing minerals are reduced by specific bacteria in the absence of oxygen, thus the abiotic transformation of herbicides by reduced minerals is viewed as "microbially induced ''.
According to Extension Toxicology Network in the U.S., "The oral median Lethal Dose or LD for atrazine is 3090 mg / kg in rats, 1750 mg / kg in mice, 750 mg / kg in rabbits, and 1000 mg / kg in hamsters. The dermal LD in rabbits is 7500 mg / kg and greater than 3000 mg / kg in rats. The 1 - hour inhalation LC is greater than 0.7 mg / L in rats. The 4 - hour inhalation LC is 5.2 mg / L in rats. '' The maximum contaminant level is 0.003 mg / L and the reference dose is 0.035 mg / kg / day.
A September 2003 review by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) stated that atrazine is "currently under review for pesticide re-registration by the EPA because of concerns that atrazine may cause cancer '', but not enough information was available to "definitely state whether it causes cancer in humans. '' According to the ATSDR, one of the primary ways that atrazine can affect a person 's health is "by altering the way that the reproductive system works. Studies of couples living on farms that use atrazine for weed control found an increase in the risk of preterm delivery, but these studies are difficult to interpret because most of the farmers were men who may have been exposed to several types of pesticides. Little information is available regarding the risks to children, however "(m) aternal exposure to atrazine in drinking water has been associated with low fetal weight and heart, urinary, and limb defects in humans ''. Incidence of a birth defect known as gastroschisis appears to be higher in areas where surface water atrazine levels are elevated especially when conception occurs in the spring, the time when atrazine is commonly applied.
The EPA determined in 2003 "that atrazine is not likely to cause cancer in humans ''.
In 2006, the EPA stated, "the risks associated with the pesticide residues pose a reasonable certainty of no harm ''.
In 2007, the EPA said, "studies thus far suggest that atrazine is an endocrine disruptor ''. The implications for children 's health are related to effects during pregnancy and during sexual development, though few studies are available. In people, risks for preterm delivery and intrauterine growth retardation have been associated with exposure. Atrazine exposure has been shown to result in delays or changes in pubertal development in female rats; conflicting results have been observed in males. Male rats exposed via milk from orally exposed mothers exhibited higher levels of prostate inflammation as adults; immune effects have also been seen in male rats exposed in utero or while nursing. EPA opened a new review in 2009 that concluded that "the agency 's scientific bases for its regulation of atrazine are robust and ensure prevention of exposure levels that could lead to reproductive effects in humans. '' Deborah A. Cory - Slechta, a professor at the University of Rochester in New York has said in 2014, "The way the E.P.A. tests chemicals can vastly underestimate risks. '' She has studied atrazine 's effects on the brain and serves on the E.P.A. 's science advisory board. She further stated, "There 's still a huge amount we do n't know about atrazine. ''
A Natural Resources Defense Council report from 2009 said that the EPA is ignoring atrazine contamination in surface and drinking water in the central United States.
Research results from the U.S. National Cancer Institute 's 2011 Agricultural Health Study concluded, "there was no consistent evidence of an association between atrazine use and any cancer site ''. The study tracked 57,310 licensed pesticide applicators over 13 years.
A 2011 review of the mammalian reproductive toxicology of atrazine jointly conducted by the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concluded that atrazine was not teratogenic. Reproductive effects in rats and rabbits were only seen at doses that were toxic to the mother. Observed adverse effects in rats included fetal resorption in rates (at doses > 50 mg / kg per day), delays in sexual development in female rats (at doses > 30 mg / kg per day), and decreased birth weight (at doses > 3.6 mg / kg per day).
A 2014 systematic review, funded by atrazine manufacturer Syngenta, assessed its relation to reproductive health problems. The authors concluded that the quality of most studies was poor and without good quality data, the results were difficult to assess, though it was noted that no single category of negative pregnancy outcome was found consistently across studies. The authors concluded that a causal link between atrazine and adverse pregnancy outcomes was not warranted due to the poor quality of the data and the lack of robust findings across studies. Syngenta was not involved in the design, collection, management, analysis, or interpretation of the data and did not participate in the preparation of the manuscript.
Atrazine has been a suspected teratogen, with some studies reporting causing demasculinization in male northern leopard frogs even at low concentrations, and an estrogen disruptor. A 2002 study by Tyrone Hayes, of the University of California, Berkeley, found that exposure caused male tadpoles to turn into hermaphrodites -- frogs with both male and female sexual characteristics. A 2003 EPA review of this study concluded that overcrowding, questionable sample handling techniques, and the failure of the authors to disclose key details including sample sizes, dose - response effects, and the variability of observed effects made it difficult to assess the study 's credibility and ecological relevance. According to Hayes in 2004, all of the studies that rejected the hermaphroditism hypothesis were plagued by poor experimental controls and were funded by Syngenta, suggesting conflict of interest. A 2005 Syngenta - funded study, requested by EPA and conducted under EPA guidance and inspection, was unable to reproduce Hayes _́ results.
The EPA 's Scientific Advisory Panel examined relevant studies and concluded in 2010, "atrazine does not adversely affect amphibian gonadal development based on a review of laboratory and field studies ''. It recommended proper study design for further investigation. As required by the EPA, Syngenta conducted two experiments under Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) and inspection by EPA and German regulatory authorities, concluding 2009 that "long - term exposure of larval X. laevis to atrazine at concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 100 μg / l does not affect growth, larval development, or sexual differentiation ''. A 2008 report cited the independent work of researchers in Japan, who were unable to replicate Hayes ' work. "The scientists found no hermaphrodite frogs; no increase in aromatase as measured by aromatase mRNA induction; and no increase in vitellogenin, another marker of feminization. ''
A 2007 study examined the relative importance of environmentally relevant concentrations of atrazine on trematode cercariae versus tadpole defense against infection. Its principal finding was that susceptibility of wood frog tadpoles to infection by E. trivolvis is increased only when hosts were exposed to an atrazine concentration of 30 ng / L and not to 3 ng / L.
A 2008 study reported that tadpoles developed deformed hearts and impaired kidneys and digestive systems when chronically exposed to atrazine concentrations of 10,000 ppb in their early stages of life. Tissue malformation may have been induced by ectopic programmed cell death, although a mechanism was not identified.
A 2010 Hayes study concluded that atrazine rendered 75 % of male frogs sterile and turned one in 10 into females.
In 2010, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) tentatively concluded that environmental atrazine "at existing levels of exposure '' was not affecting amphibian populations in Australia consistent with the 2007 EPA findings. APVMA responded to Hayes ' 2010 published paper, that his findings "do not provide sufficient evidence to justify a reconsideration of current regulations which are based on a very extensive dataset. ''
A 2015 EPA article discussed the Hayes / Syngenta conflict to illustrate both financial and nonfinancial conflicts of interest. The authors concluded, "Statements by Hayes and Syngenta suggest that their scientific differences have developed a personal aspect that casts doubt on their scientific objectivity ''.
In 2012, Syngenta, manufacturer of atrazine, was the defendant in a class - action lawsuit concerning the levels of atrazine in human water supplies. Syngenta agreed to pay $105 million to reimburse more than one thousand water systems for "the cost of filtering atrazine from drinking water ''. The company denied all wrongdoing.
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what is the most accepted form of scientific ideas | Scientific theory - wikipedia
Related concepts and fundamentals:
A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be repeatedly tested, in accordance with the scientific method, using a predefined protocol of observation and experiment. Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge.
The definition of a scientific theory (often contracted to "theory '' for the sake of brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word "theory ''. In everyday speech, "theory '' can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, the opposite its meaning in science. These different usages are comparable to the opposing usages of "prediction '' in science versus everyday speech, where it denotes a mere hope.
The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain and its simplicity. As additional scientific evidence is gathered, a scientific theory may be modified and ultimately rejected if it can not be made to fit the new findings; in such circumstances, a more accurate theory is then required. In certain cases, the less - accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful (due to its sheer simplicity) as an approximation under specific conditions. A case in point is Newton 's laws of motion, which can serve as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light.
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions. They describe the causes of a particular natural phenomenon and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry (for example, electricity, chemistry, and astronomy). Scientists use theories to further scientific knowledge, as well as to facilitate advances in technology or medicine.
As with other forms of scientific knowledge, scientific theories are both deductive and inductive, aiming for predictive and explanatory power.
The paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote that "... facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world ′ s data. Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts. ''
Albert Einstein described two types of scientific theories, "Constructive theories '' and "principle theories ''. Constructive theories are constructive models for phenomena: for example, kinetic energy. Principal theories are empirical generalisations such as Newton 's laws of motion.
Typically for any theory to be accepted within most academia there is one simple criterion. The essential criterion is that the theory must be observable and repeatable. The aforementioned criterion is essential to prevent fraud and perpetuate science itself.
The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions. The relevance and specificity of those predictions determine how potentially useful the theory is. A would - be theory that makes no observable predictions is not a scientific theory at all. Predictions not sufficiently specific to be tested are similarly not useful. In both cases, the term "theory '' is not applicable.
A body of descriptions of knowledge can be called a theory if it fulfills the following criteria:
These qualities are certainly true of such established theories as special and general relativity, quantum mechanics, plate tectonics, the modern evolutionary synthesis, etc.
In addition, scientists prefer to work with a theory that meets the following qualities:
The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as follows:
The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things are not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is not composed of atoms, or that the surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over geological timescales (the theory of plate tectonics)... One of the most useful properties of scientific theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not yet been observed.
From the American Association for the Advancement of Science:
A scientific theory is a well - substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact - supported theories are not "guesses '' but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory ''. It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact.
Note that the term theory would not be appropriate for describing untested but intricate hypotheses or even scientific models.
The scientific method involves the proposal and testing of hypotheses, by deriving predictions from the hypotheses about the results of future experiments, then performing those experiments to see whether the predictions are valid. This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis. When enough experimental results have been gathered in a particular area of inquiry, scientists may propose an explanatory framework that accounts for as many of these as possible. This explanation is also tested, and if it fulfills the necessary criteria (see above), then the explanation becomes a theory. This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.
Once all of the criteria have been met, it will be widely accepted by scientists (see scientific consensus) as the best available explanation of at least some phenomena. It will have made predictions of phenomena that previous theories could not explain or could not predict accurately, and it will have resisted attempts at falsification. The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.
Theories do not have to be perfectly accurate to be scientifically useful. For example, the predictions made by classical mechanics are known to be inaccurate in the relatistivic realm, but they are almost exactly correct at the comparatively low velocities of common human experience. In chemistry, there are many acid - base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior. Like all knowledge in science, no theory can ever be completely certain, since it is possible that future experiments might conflict with the theory 's predictions. However, theories supported by the scientific consensus have the highest level of certainty of any scientific knowledge; for example, that all objects are subject to gravity or that life on Earth evolved from a common ancestor.
Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence. For example, certain tests may be unfeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not yet been confirmed or proven incorrect; in this case, the predicted results may be described informally with the term "theoretical ''. These predictions can be tested at a later time, and if they are incorrect, this may lead to the revision or rejection of the theory.
If experimental results contrary to a theory 's predictions are observed, scientists first evaluate whether the experimental design was sound, and if so they confirm the results by independent replication. A search for potential improvements to the theory then begins. Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory 's existing framework. Over time, as successive modifications build on top of each other, theories consistently improve and greater predictive accuracy is achieved. Since each new version of a theory (or a completely new theory) must have more predictive and explanatory power than the last, scientific knowledge consistently becomes more accurate over time.
If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required. Since scientific knowledge is usually durable, this occurs much less commonly than modification. Furthermore, until such a theory is proposed and accepted, the previous theory will be retained. This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts. For example, it was known in 1859 that the observed perihelion precession of Mercury violated Newtonian mechanics, but the theory remained the best explanation available until relativity was supported by sufficient evidence. Also, while new theories may be proposed by a single person or by many, the cycle of modifications eventually incorporates contributions from many different scientists.
After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification. If a theory does not require modification despite repeated tests, this implies that the theory is very accurate. This also means that accepted theories continue to accumulate evidence over time, and the length of time that a theory (or any of its principles) remains accepted often indicates the strength of its supporting evidence.
In some cases, two or more theories may be replaced by a single theory that explains the previous theories as approximations or special cases, analogous to the way a theory is a unifying explanation for many confirmed hypotheses; this is referred to as unification of theories. For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.
When the predictions of different theories appear to contradict each other, this is also resolved by either further evidence or unification. For example, physical theories in the 19th century implied that the Sun could not have been burning long enough to allow certain geological changes as well as the evolution of life. This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun. Contradictions can also be explained as the result of theories approximating more fundamental (non-contradictory) phenomena. For example, atomic theory is an approximation of quantum mechanics. Current theories describe three separate fundamental phenomena of which all other theories are approximations; the potential unification of these is sometimes called the Theory of Everything.
In 1905, Albert Einstein published the principle of special relativity, which soon became a theory. Special relativity predicted the alignment of the Newtonian principle of Galilean invariance, also termed Galilean relativity, with the electromagnetic field. By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial -- that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer. He thereby duplicated the Lorentz transformation and the Lorentz contraction that had been hypothesized to resolve experimental riddles and inserted into electrodynamic theory as dynamical consequences of the aether 's properties. An elegant theory, special relativity yielded its own consequences, such as the equivalence of mass and energy transforming into one another and the resolution of the paradox that an excitation of the electromagnetic field could be viewed in one reference frame as electricity, but in another as magnetism.
Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating. Rejecting Newtonian gravitation -- a central force acting instantly at a distance -- Einstein presumed a gravitational field. In 1907, Einstein 's equivalence principle implied that a free fall within a uniform gravitational field is equivalent to inertial motion. By extending special relativity 's effects into three dimensions, general relativity extended length contraction into space contraction, conceiving of 4D space - time as the gravitational field that alters geometrically and sets all local objects ' pathways. Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by "curving '' the geometrical "surface '' of 4D space - time. Yet unless the energy is vast, its relativistic effects of contracting space and slowing time are negligible when merely predicting motion. Although general relativity is embraced as the more explanatory theory via scientific realism, Newton 's theory remains successful as merely a predictive theory via instrumentalism. To calculate trajectories, engineers and NASA still uses Newton 's equations, which are simpler to operate.
Both scientific laws and scientific theories are produced from the scientific method through the formation and testing of hypotheses, and can predict the behavior of the natural world. Both are typically well - supported by observations and / or experimental evidence. However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions. Scientific theories are broader in scope, and give overarching explanations of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics. Theories are supported by evidence from many different sources, and may contain one or several laws.
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated. A theory does not change into a scientific law with the accumulation of new or better evidence. A theory will always remain a theory; a law will always remain a law. Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.
Theories and laws are also distinct from hypotheses. Unlike hypotheses, theories and laws may be simply referred to as scientific fact. However, in science, theories are different from facts even when they are well supported. For example, evolution is both a theory and a fact.
The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as statements in a formal language. First - order logic is an example of a formal language. The logical positivists envisaged a similar scientific language. In addition to scientific theories, the language also included observation sentences ("the sun rises in the east ''), definitions, and mathematical statements. The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts. In this view, theories function as axioms: predicted observations are derived from the theories much like theorems are derived in Euclidean geometry. However, the predictions are then tested against reality to verify the theories, and the "axioms '' can be revised as a direct result.
The phrase "the received view of theories '' is used to describe this approach. Terms commonly associated with it are "linguistic '' (because theories are components of a language) and "syntactic '' (because a language has rules about how symbols can be strung together). Problems in defining this kind of language precisely, e.g., are objects seen in microscopes observed or are they theoretical objects, led to the effective demise of logical positivism in the 1970s.
The semantic view of theories, which identifies scientific theories with models rather than propositions, has replaced the received view as the dominant position in theory formulation in the philosophy of science. A model is a logical framework intended to represent reality (a "model of reality ''), similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country.
In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria (see above). One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model. A model of the solar system, for example, might consist of abstract objects that represent the sun and the planets. These objects have associated properties, e.g., positions, velocities, and masses. The model parameters, e.g., Newton 's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time. This model can then be tested to see whether it accurately predicts future observations; astronomers can verify that the positions of the model 's objects over time match the actual positions of the planets. For most planets, the Newtonian model 's predictions are accurate; for Mercury, it is slightly inaccurate and the model of general relativity must be used instead.
The word "semantic '' refers to the way that a model represents the real world. The representation (literally, "re-presentation '') describes particular aspects of a phenomenon or the manner of interaction among a set of phenomena. For instance, a scale model of a house or of a solar system is clearly not an actual house or an actual solar system; the aspects of an actual house or an actual solar system represented in a scale model are, only in certain limited ways, representative of the actual entity. A scale model of a house is not a house; but to someone who wants to learn about houses, analogous to a scientist who wants to understand reality, a sufficiently detailed scale model may suffice.
Several commentators have stated that the distinguishing characteristic of theories is that they are explanatory as well as descriptive, while models are only descriptive (although still predictive in a more limited sense). Philosopher Stephen Pepper also distinguished between theories and models, and said in 1948 that general models and theories are predicated on a "root '' metaphor that constrains how scientists theorize and model a phenomenon and thus arrive at testable hypotheses.
Engineering practice makes a distinction between "mathematical models '' and "physical models ''; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool. The component parts are each themselves modelled, and the fabrication tolerances are specified. An exploded view drawing is used to lay out the fabrication sequence. Simulation packages for displaying each of the subassemblies allow the parts to be rotated, magnified, in realistic detail. Software packages for creating the bill of materials for construction allows subcontractors to specialize in assembly processes, which spreads the cost of manufacturing machinery among multiple customers. See: Computer - aided engineering, Computer - aided manufacturing, and 3D printing
An assumption (or axiom) is a statement that is accepted without evidence. For example, assumptions can be used as premises in a logical argument. Isaac Asimov described assumptions as follows:
... it is incorrect to speak of an assumption as either true or false, since there is no way of proving it to be either (If there were, it would no longer be an assumption). It is better to consider assumptions as either useful or useless, depending on whether deductions made from them corresponded to reality... Since we must start somewhere, we must have assumptions, but at least let us have as few assumptions as possible.
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists). However, theories do not generally make assumptions in the conventional sense (statements accepted without evidence). While assumptions are often incorporated during the formation of new theories, these are either supported by evidence (such as from previously existing theories) or the evidence is produced in the course of validating the theory. This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.
Conventional assumptions, without evidence, may be used if the theory is only intended to apply when the assumption is valid (or approximately valid). For example, the special theory of relativity assumes an inertial frame of reference. The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid. Such assumptions are often the point with which older theories are succeeded by new ones (the general theory of relativity works in non-inertial reference frames as well).
The term "assumption '' is actually broader than its standard use, etymologically speaking. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere ("accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp ''), which is a conjunction of ad - ("to, towards, at '') and sumere (to take). The root survives, with shifted meanings, in the Italian sumere and Spanish sumir. The first sense of "assume '' in the OED is "to take unto (oneself), receive, accept, adopt ''. The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in "to receive up into heaven '', especially "the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption '', (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to "receive into association '' or "adopt into partnership ''. Moreover, other senses of assumere included (i) "investing oneself with (an attribute) '', (ii) "to undertake '' (especially in Law), (iii) "to take to oneself in appearance only, to pretend to possess '', and (iv) "to suppose a thing to be '' (all senses from OED entry on "assume ''; the OED entry for "assumption '' is almost perfectly symmetrical in senses). Thus, "assumption '' connotes other associations than the contemporary standard sense of "that which is assumed or taken for granted; a supposition, postulate '' (only the 11th of 12 senses of "assumption '', and the 10th of 11 senses of "assume '').
Karl Popper described the characteristics of a scientific theory as follows:
Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its "falsifiability, or refutability, or testability ''. Echoing this, Stephen Hawking states, "A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements: It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations. '' He also discusses the "unprovable but falsifiable '' nature of theories, which is a necessary consequence of inductive logic, and that "you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory ''.
Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper 's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of "theory '', observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have "falsified '' Newton 's celestial mechanics. Rather, people suggested that another planet influenced Uranus ' orbit -- and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed.
Kitcher agrees with Popper that "There is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail. '' He also says that scientific theories include statements that can not be falsified, and that good theories must also be creative. He insists we view scientific theories as an "elaborate collection of statements '', some of which are not falsifiable, while others -- those he calls "auxiliary hypotheses '', are.
According to Kitcher, good scientific theories must have three features:
Like other definitions of theories, including Popper 's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences. But, like the observation of irregularities in the orbit of Uranus, falsification is only one possible consequence of observation. The production of new hypotheses is another possible and equally important result.
The concept of a scientific theory has also been described using analogies and metaphors. For instance, the logical empiricist Carl Gustav Hempel likened the structure of a scientific theory to a "complex spatial network: ''
Its terms are represented by the knots, while the threads connecting the latter correspond, in part, to the definitions and, in part, to the fundamental and derivative hypotheses included in the theory. The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by the rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of these interpretive connections, the network can function as a scientific theory: From certain observational data, we may ascend, via an interpretive string, to some point in the theoretical network, thence proceed, via definitions and hypotheses, to other points, from which another interpretive string permits a descent to the plane of observation.
Michael Polanyi made an analogy between a theory and a map:
A theory is something other than myself. It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms. Mathematical theory reaches the highest perfection in this respect. But even a geographical map fully embodies in itself a set of strict rules for finding one 's way through a region of otherwise uncharted experience. Indeed, all theory may be regarded as a kind of map extended over space and time.
A scientific theory can also be thought of as a book that captures the fundamental information about the world, a book that must be researched, written, and shared. In 1623, Galileo Galilei wrote:
Philosophy (i.e. physics) is written in this grand book -- I mean the universe -- which stands continually open to our gaze, but it can not be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth.
The book metaphor could also be applied in the following passage, by the contemporary philosopher of science Ian Hacking:
I myself prefer an Argentine fantasy. God did not write a Book of Nature of the sort that the old Europeans imagined. He wrote a Borgesian library, each book of which is as brief as possible, yet each book of which is inconsistent with every other. No book is redundant. For every book there is some humanly accessible bit of Nature such that that book, and no other, makes possible the comprehension, prediction and influencing of what is going on... Leibniz said that God chose a world which maximized the variety of phenomena while choosing the simplest laws. Exactly so: but the best way to maximize phenomena and have simplest laws is to have the laws inconsistent with each other, each applying to this or that but none applying to all.
In physics, the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework -- derived from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries -- like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.) -- that is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. A good example is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell 's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism, '' reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situations. Many of these hypotheses are already considered to be adequately tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps untested. An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force. As of 2009, its effects on the periodic motion of charges are detectable in synchrotrons, but only as averaged effects over time. Some researchers are now considering experiments that could observe these effects at the instantaneous level (i.e. not averaged over time).
Note that many fields of inquiry do not have specific named theories, e.g. developmental biology. Scientific knowledge outside a named theory can still have a high level of certainty, depending on the amount of evidence supporting it. Also note that since theories draw evidence from many different fields, the categorization is not absolute.
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who was the president of the us during ww2 | Franklin D. Roosevelt - Wikipedia
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/ ˈroʊzəvəlt /, his own pronunciation, or / ˈroʊzəvɛlt /; January 30, 1882 -- April 12, 1945), commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and World War II. As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, realigning American politics into the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century. He is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U.S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.
Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch - American family from Dutchess County, New York and attended Groton School. He went on to graduate from Harvard College in 1903 and attended Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and the couple went on to have six children. He entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, presidential candidate James M. Cox selected Roosevelt as his running mate, but the Cox / Roosevelt ticket lost to the Republican ticket of Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. In 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness, which left his legs permanently paralyzed. Due to his disability, Roosevelt believed that his political career was over. His wife Eleanor and his political advisor Louis Howe convinced him otherwise. He attempted to recover from the illness and founded the treatment center in Warm Springs, Georgia for people with poliomyelitis. Roosevelt returned to political life when he nominated Alfred E. Smith at the 1924 Democratic National Convention. At Smith 's behest, Roosevelt successfully ran for Governor of New York in 1928. He was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time.
In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the nation 's highest political office. Roosevelt took office while the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his personal victory over his paralytic illness, Roosevelt relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. During his first 100 days in office, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal -- a variety of programs designed to produce relief (government jobs for the unemployed), recovery (economic growth), and reform (through regulation of Wall Street, banks and transportation). He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, helping him win re-election by a landslide in 1936. The economy improved rapidly from 1933 -- 37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937 -- 38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, and blocked almost all proposals for major liberal legislation (except the minimum wage, which did pass). When the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). However, they kept most of the regulations on business. Along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security.
With World War II looming after 1938 with the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China and the United Kingdom, while remaining officially neutral. His goal was to make America the "Arsenal of Democracy '', which would supply munitions to the Allies. In March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend - Lease aid to Britain and China. Following the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which he famously called "a date which will live in infamy '', Roosevelt sought and obtained the quick approval on the following day for Congress to declare war on Japan and, a few days later, on Germany. Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins, and with very strong national support, he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek in leading the Allies against Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan and Fascist Italy in World War II. He supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort, and also ordered the internment of 100,000 Japanese American civilians. As an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers, and he initiated the development of the world 's first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the later creation of the United Nations and Bretton Woods. Roosevelt 's physical health seriously declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. He was then succeeded by his vice president Harry S. Truman, and a few months after Truman was sworn in, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan 's unconditional surrender to end World War II.
One of the oldest Dutch - American families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in areas other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution.
Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president. His paternal family had become prosperous early on in New York real estate and trade, and much of his immediate family 's wealth had been built by Roosevelt 's maternal grandfather, Warren Delano, Jr., in the China trade, including opium and tea.
Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park, New York, to businessman James Roosevelt I and Sara Ann Delano. His parents were sixth cousins and both were from wealthy old New York families. They were of mostly English descent; Roosevelt 's patrilineal great - grandfather, Jacobus Roosevelt III, was of Dutch ancestry, and his mother 's maiden name, Delano, could be traced to French Huguenot immigrant ancestors of the 17th century. Their only child was to have been named Warren, but Sara 's infant nephew of that name had recently died. Their son was named for Sara 's uncle Franklin Hughes Delano.
Roosevelt grew up in an atmosphere of privilege. Reportedly, when James Roosevelt took his five - year - old son to visit President Grover Cleveland in the White House, the busy president told Franklin, "I have one wish for you, little man, that you will never be President of the United States. '' Sara was a possessive mother. James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer James MacGregor Burns indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time. Sara was the dominant influence in Franklin 's early years; she once declared, "My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all. '' She also made him wear dresses, and keep his hair long during this time. Frequent trips to Europe -- he made his first excursion at the age of two and went with his parents every year from the ages of seven to fifteen -- helped Roosevelt become conversant in German and French. Roosevelt and his tutor were arrested by police four times in one day in the Black Forest for minor offenses that may have affected the future president 's view of German character. He thought that the Germans were rude, as he noticed they were constantly claiming they were better than others. This would later affect him as president, as he claimed that his experience gave him a deeper understanding of Germany than most diplomats. He learned to ride, shoot, row, and play polo and lawn tennis. He took up golf in his teen years, becoming a skilled long hitter. He learned to sail and when he was 16, his father gave him a sailboat.
Roosevelt attended Groton School, an Episcopal boarding school in Groton, Massachusetts; 90 % of the students were from families on the social register. He was strongly influenced by its headmaster, Endicott Peabody, who preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Forty years later Roosevelt said of Peabody, "It was a blessing in my life to have the privilege of (his) guiding hand '', and the headmaster remained a strong influence throughout his life, officiating at his wedding and visiting Roosevelt as president.
Peabody recalled Roosevelt as "a quiet, satisfactory boy of more than ordinary intelligence, taking a good position in his form but not brilliant '', while a classmate described Roosevelt as "nice, but completely colorless ''; an average student, he only stood out in being the only Democratic student, continuing the political tradition of his side of the Roosevelt family. Roosevelt remained consistent in his politics; immediately after his fourth election to the presidency, he defined his domestic policy as "a little left of center ''.
Like all but two of his twenty one Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to Harvard College in nearby Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he lived in a suite that is now part of Adams House, in the "Gold Coast '' area populated by wealthy students. His mother Sara moved to Boston in 1900 to be closer to her son. Roosevelt was again an average student academically, and he later declared, "I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong. '' He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity and the Fly Club.
Roosevelt was undistinguished as a student or athlete, but he became editor - in - chief of The Harvard Crimson daily newspaper, a position that required great ambition, energy, and the ability to manage others. While he was at Harvard, his fifth cousin Theodore "T.R. '' Roosevelt, Jr. (1858 -- 1919) became President of the United States. Theodore 's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin 's role model and hero. The younger Roosevelt remained a Democrat, campaigning for Theodore 's opponent William Jennings Bryan. Later, in the 1900s, his father died, causing a great distress for him, leaving Roosevelt alone with his mother, who was rather controlling. He eventually distanced away from her, for independence. In mid-1902, Franklin was formally introduced to his future wife Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884 -- 1962), who was Theodore 's niece, on a train to Tivoli, New York (they had met briefly as children). Eleanor and Franklin were fifth cousins, once removed. She was the daughter of Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (1860 -- 94) and Anna Rebecca Hall (1863 -- 92) of the Livingston family. At the time of their engagement, Roosevelt was twenty - two and Eleanor nineteen. He graduated from Harvard in 1903 with an A.B. in history. He later received an honorary LL. D. from Harvard in 1929.
Roosevelt entered Columbia Law School in 1904, but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New York bar exam. Many years later, he posthumously received a J.D. from Columbia Law School. In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious Wall Street firm of Carter Ledyard & Milburn, dealing mainly with corporate law.
He was first initiated into the Independent Order of Odd Fellows and was initiated into Freemasonry on October 11, 1911, at Holland Lodge No. 8, New York City.
On March 17, 1905, Roosevelt married Eleanor (née Roosevelt) in New York City, despite the fierce resistance of his mother. While she did not dislike Eleanor, Sara Roosevelt was very possessive of her son, believing he was too young for marriage. She attempted to break the engagement several times. Eleanor 's uncle, President Theodore Roosevelt, stood in at the wedding for Eleanor 's deceased father Elliott, as Eleanor was his favorite niece. (Eleanor had lost both parents by age ten.)
The young couple moved into Springwood, his family 's estate at Hyde Park, where Roosevelt 's mother became a frequent house guest, much to Eleanor 's chagrin. The home was owned by Roosevelt 's mother until her death in 1941 and was very much her home as well. In addition, Franklin Roosevelt and his mother Sara did the planning and furnishing of a town house she had built for the young couple in New York City; she had a twin house built alongside, with connections on every floor. Eleanor never felt it was her house.
Biographer James MacGregor Burns said that young Roosevelt was self - assured and at ease in the upper class. In contrast, Eleanor at the time was shy and disliked social life, and at first stayed at home to raise their several children. Although Eleanor had an aversion to sexual intercourse and considered it "an ordeal to be endured '', they had six children, the first four in rapid succession:
Roosevelt welcomed fatherhood, and he and Eleanor suffered greatly when their third child, named for Franklin, died of heart disease in infancy in 1909. Eleanor soon was pregnant again and gave birth to another son, Elliott, less than a year later. The fifth child and fourth son, born in 1914, was also named for Franklin.
Roosevelt had various extra-marital affairs, including one with Eleanor 's social secretary Lucy Mercer, which began soon after she was hired in early 1914. In September 1918, Eleanor found letters revealing the affair in Roosevelt 's luggage, when he returned from World War I. Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected strongly and Lucy would not agree to marry a divorced man with five children. Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Roosevelt promised never to see Lucy again. Eleanor never truly forgave him, and their marriage from that point on was more of a political partnership. Franklin 's mother told him that if he divorced his wife, it would bring scandal upon the family, and she "would not give him another dollar. ''
Franklin broke his promise to Eleanor. He and Lucy maintained a formal correspondence, and began seeing each other again in 1941, perhaps earlier. The Secret Service gave Lucy the code name "Mrs. Johnson ''. Lucy was with Roosevelt on the day he died in 1945. Despite this, Roosevelt 's affair was not widely known until the 1960s.
Roosevelt 's son Elliott claimed that his father had a 20 - year affair with his private secretary, Marguerite "Missy '' LeHand. Another son, James, stated that "there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed '' between his father and Princess Märtha of Sweden, who resided in the White House during part of World War II. Aides began to refer to her at the time as "the president 's girlfriend '', and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in the newspapers.
The effect of these flirtations or affairs upon Eleanor Roosevelt is difficult to estimate. "I have the memory of an elephant. I can forgive, but I can not forget, '' she wrote to a close friend. After the Lucy Mercer affair, any remaining intimacy left their relationship. Eleanor soon thereafter established a separate house in Hyde Park at Val - Kill, and increasingly devoted herself to various social and political causes independently of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Roosevelt asked Eleanor in 1942 -- in light of his failing health -- to come back home and live with him again, she refused. He was not always aware of when she visited the White House, and for some time she could not easily reach him on the telephone without his secretary 's help; he, in turn, did not visit her New York City apartment until late 1944.
When Roosevelt was president, his dog Fala also became well known as his companion during his time in the White House. Fala was called the "most photographed dog in the world ''.
The birthplace of Roosevelt at Springwood
Roosevelt sailing with half - niece Helen and father James, 1899
Franklin and Eleanor at Campobello Island, Canada, in 1904
Eleanor and Franklin statues at FDR National Historic Site in Hyde Park, New York
Franklin (left) with nephew Tadd (middle) and niece Helen (right) in January 1889
Sculpture at Dowdell 's Knob in F.D. Roosevelt State Park
Roosevelt and cousins in Fairhaven, Massachusetts
In the state election of 1910, Roosevelt ran for the New York State Senate from the district around Hyde Park in Dutchess County, which was strongly Republican, having elected one Democrat since 1856. The local party chose him as a paper candidate because his Republican cousin Theodore was still one of the country 's most prominent politicians, and a Democratic Roosevelt was good publicity; the candidate could also pay for his own campaign. Surprising almost everyone, due to his aggressive and effective campaign, the Roosevelt name 's influence in the Hudson Valley, and the Democratic landslide that year, Roosevelt won the election.
Taking his seat on January 1, 1911, Roosevelt immediately became the leader of a group of "Insurgents '' who opposed the bossism of the Tammany machine dominating the state Democratic Party. The U.S. Senate election, which began with the Democratic caucus on January 16, 1911, was deadlocked by the struggle of the two factions for 74 days, as the new legislator endured what a biographer later described as "the full might of Tammany '' behind its choice, William F. Sheehan. (Popular election of US Senators did not occur until after a constitutional amendment later that decade.) On March 31, compromise candidate James A. O'Gorman was elected, giving Roosevelt national exposure and some experience in political tactics and intrigue; one Tammany leader warned that Roosevelt should be eliminated immediately, before he disrupted Democrats as much as his cousin disrupted the Republicans. Roosevelt soon became a popular figure among New York Democrats, though he had not as yet become an eloquent speaker. News articles and cartoons began depicting "the second coming of a Roosevelt '' that sent "cold shivers down the spine of Tammany ''.
Despite a bout of typhoid fever, and due to the help of Louis McHenry Howe who ran his campaign, Roosevelt was re-elected for a second term in the state election of 1912, and served as chairman of the Agriculture Committee. His success with farm and labor bills was a precursor to his New Deal policies twenty years later. By this time he had become more consistently progressive, in support of labor and social welfare programs for women and children; cousin Theodore was of some influence on these issues. Roosevelt, again in opposition to Tammany Hall, supported southerner Woodrow Wilson 's successful bid in the 1912 presidential election, and thereby earned an informal designation as an original Wilson man.
Roosevelt 's support of Wilson led to his appointment in 1913 as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. Roosevelt had a lifelong affection for the Navy -- he had already collected almost 10,000 naval books and claimed to have read all but one -- and was more ardent than his boss Daniels in supporting a large and efficient naval force. As assistant secretary, Roosevelt worked to expand the Navy and founded the United States Navy Reserve. Against reactionary older officers such as Admiral William Benson -- who claimed he could not "conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation '' -- Roosevelt personally ordered the preservation of the navy 's Aviation Division after the war, despite publicly opining that Billy Mitchell 's warnings of bombs capable of sinking battleships were "pernicious ''. Roosevelt negotiated with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved. He opposed the Taylor "stop - watch '' system, which was hailed by shipbuilding managers but opposed by the unions. Not a single union strike occurred during his seven - plus years in the office, during which Roosevelt gained experience in labor issues, government management during wartime, naval issues, and logistics, all valuable areas for future office.
Roosevelt was still relatively obscure, but his friends were already speaking of him as a future president; he reportedly began talking about being elected to the presidency as early as 1907. In 1914, Roosevelt made an ill - conceived decision to run for the U.S. Senate seat for New York. The decision was doomed for lack of Wilson administration backing. He was determined to take on Tammany again at a time when Wilson needed them to help marshal his legislation and secure his future re-election. He was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary election for the United States Senate by Tammany Hall - backed James W. Gerard, by a margin of 3 - to - 1. Roosevelt learned a valuable lesson, that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.
In March 1917, after Germany initiated its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign, Roosevelt asked Wilson for permission to fit the naval fleet out for war; the request was denied. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the submarine and of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a mine barrier across the North Sea from Norway to Scotland. In 1918, he visited Britain and France to inspect American naval facilities. Roosevelt wanted to provide arms to the merchant marine; knowing that a sale of arms was prohibited, he asked Wilson for approval to lease the arms to the mariners. Wilson ultimately approved this by executive order, and a precedent was set for Roosevelt to take similar action in 1940.
During these war years, Roosevelt worked to make peace with the Tammany Hall forces, and in 1918 the group supported others in an unsuccessful attempt to persuade him to run for governor of New York. He very much wanted to get into a military uniform, but the armistice took shape before this could materialize; Wilson reportedly ordered Roosevelt to not resign. With the end of World War I in November 1918, Roosevelt was in charge of demobilization, although he opposed plans to completely dismantle the Navy.
Roosevelt and all his children were sickened during the 1918 flu pandemic, but all survived. In 1919, newspapers in Newport, Rhode Island, criticized Roosevelt over his handling of what came to be known as the Newport sex scandal. Much more threatening was the fact that Roosevelt and his wife, then living in Washington, across the street from Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, narrowly missed becoming casualties of an anarchist 's bomb that exploded at Palmer 's house, which they had walked past just minutes before. Their own residence was close enough that one of the bomber 's body parts landed on their doorstep.
The 1920 Democratic National Convention chose Roosevelt by acclamation as the vice-presidential candidate with its presidential candidate, Governor James M. Cox of Ohio. Although his nomination surprised most people, Roosevelt was considered as bringing balance to the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a prohibitionist with a famous name. Roosevelt had just turned 38, four years younger than Theodore had been when he received the same nomination from his party. The Cox -- Roosevelt ticket was defeated by Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge in the presidential election by a wide margin. Roosevelt returned to New York to practice law and joined the newly organized New York Civitan Club.
While the Roosevelts were vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick, Canada in August 1921, Roosevelt fell ill. His main symptoms were fever; symmetric, ascending paralysis; facial paralysis; bowel and bladder dysfunction; numbness and hyperesthesia; and a descending pattern of recovery. Roosevelt was left permanently paralyzed from the waist down. He was diagnosed with poliomyelitis at the time, but his symptoms are more consistent with Guillain -- Barré syndrome -- an autoimmune neuropathy which Roosevelt 's doctors failed to consider as a diagnostic possibility. In 1926, his belief in the benefits of hydrotherapy led him to found a rehabilitation center at Warm Springs, Georgia. In 1938, he founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, leading to the development of polio vaccines.
At the time, Roosevelt convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to running for public office again. He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs by swiveling his torso, supporting himself with a cane. He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability. However, his disability was well known before and during his Presidency and became a major part of his image. Few photographs of Roosevelt in his wheelchair are known; they include two taken by his cousin and confidante Margaret Suckley, another taken by a sailor aboard the USS Indianapolis in 1933, and another published in a 1937 issue of Life magazine. Film clips of the "walk '' he achieved after his illness are equally rare. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. Roosevelt used a car with specially designed hand controls.
Roosevelt maintained contacts and mended fences with the Democratic Party during the 1920s, especially in New York. Although he initially had made his name as an opponent of New York City 's Tammany Hall machine, Roosevelt moderated his stance against that group as well. He helped Alfred E. Smith win the election for governor of New York in 1922, and in 1924 was a strong supporter of Smith against his cousin, Republican Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. Roosevelt gave nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic conventions; the speech at the 1924 election marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.
As the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the 1928 election, Smith in turn asked Roosevelt to run for governor in the state election. Roosevelt was nominated by the Democrats by acclamation. While Smith lost the Presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was narrowly elected governor, by a one - percent margin. As a reform governor, he established a number of new social programs, and was advised by Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins.
When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: "that progressive government by its very terms, must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization. '' In this campaign for re-election, Roosevelt needed the good will of the Tammany Hall machine in New York City to succeed; his Republican opponent, Charles H. Tuttle, used Roosevelt 's connection with Tammany Hall 's corruption as an election issue. As the election approached, Roosevelt began preemptive efforts by initiating investigations of the sale of judicial offices. He was directly involved, as he had made a routine short - term court appointment of a Tammany Hall man who was alleged to have paid Tammany $30,000 for the position. His Republican opponent could not overcome the public 's criticism of the Republican Party for current economic distress in the Great Depression, and Roosevelt was elected to a second term by a margin of 14 %.
Roosevelt 's strong base in the most populous state in the nation made him an obvious candidate for the Democratic nomination, which was hotly contested in light of incumbent Herbert Hoover 's vulnerability. Al Smith was supported by some city bosses, but had lost control of the New York Democratic party to Roosevelt. Roosevelt built his own national coalition with personal allies such as newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, Irish leader Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., and California leader William Gibbs McAdoo. When Texas leader John Nance Garner announced his support of Roosevelt, he was given the vice-presidential nomination.
Breaking with tradition of the time, Roosevelt traveled to Chicago to accept the nomination in person. In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, "I pledge you, I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people... This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms. '' The election campaign was conducted under the shadow of the Great Depression in the United States, and the new alliances which it created. Roosevelt and the Democratic Party mobilized the expanded ranks of the poor as well as organized labor, ethnic minorities, urbanites, and Southern whites, crafting the New Deal coalition. At that time, African Americans in the South were still disfranchised, as they had been since the turn of the century. Southern states had passed a variety of requirements making voter registration more difficult, which served to exclude most blacks and many poor whites from the political system.
Economist Marriner Eccles observed that "given later developments, the campaign speeches often read like a giant misprint, in which Roosevelt and Hoover speak each other 's lines. '' Roosevelt denounced Hoover 's failures to restore prosperity or halt the downward slide, and he ridiculed Hoover 's huge deficits. Roosevelt campaigned on the Democratic platform advocating "immediate and drastic reductions of all public expenditures, '' "abolishing useless commissions and offices, consolidating departments and bureaus, and eliminating extravagances '' and for a "sound currency to be maintained at all hazards. '' On September 23, Roosevelt made the gloomy evaluation that, "Our industrial plant is built; the problem just now is whether under existing conditions it is not overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been reached. '' Hoover damned that pessimism as a denial of "the promise of American life... the counsel of despair. '' The prohibition issue solidified the "wet vote '' for Roosevelt, who noted that repeal would bring in new tax revenues.
Roosevelt won 57 % of the vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932 -- 36 elections a realigning election that created a new majority coalition for the Democrats, made up of organized labor, northern blacks, and ethnic Americans such as Italian - Americans, Polish - Americans and Jews. This transformed American politics and started what is called the "New Deal Party System '' or (by political scientists) the Fifth Party System.
After the election, Roosevelt refused Hoover 's requests for a meeting to develop a joint program to stop the downward spiral and calm investors, claiming publicly it would tie his hands, and that Hoover had all the power to act if necessary. Unofficially, he told reporters that "it is not my baby ''. The economy spiraled downward until the banking system began a complete nationwide shutdown as Hoover 's term ended. In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt. Giuseppe Zangara, who expressed a "hate for all rulers, '' attempted to shoot Roosevelt. He shot and mortally wounded Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak who was sitting alongside Roosevelt, but his attempt to murder Roosevelt failed when an alert spectator, Lillian Cross, hit his arm with her purse and deflected the bullet. Roosevelt leaned heavily on his "Brain Trust '' of academic advisers, especially Raymond Moley, when designing his policies; he offered cabinet positions to numerous candidates, but some declined. The cabinet member with the strongest independent base was Cordell Hull at State. William Hartman Woodin -- at Treasury -- was soon replaced by the much more powerful Henry Morgenthau, Jr.
Roosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions but made certain he made all the major decisions, regardless of delays, inefficiency or resentment. Analyzing the president 's administrative style, historian James MacGregor Burns concludes:
The president stayed in charge of his administration... by drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of people... by deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativity... by handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision - making agencies, such as the Cabinet... and always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating.
When Roosevelt was inaugurated March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the worst depression in its history. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed. Farmers were in deep trouble as prices fell by 60 %. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million people were homeless. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states -- as well as the District of Columbia -- had closed their banks. The New York Federal Reserve Bank was unable to open on the 5th, as huge sums had been withdrawn by panicky customers in previous days. Beginning with his inauguration address, Roosevelt began blaming the economic crisis on bankers and financiers, the quest for profit, and the self - interest basis of capitalism:
Primarily this is because rulers of the exchange of mankind 's goods have failed through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have admitted their failure, and have abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men. True they have tried, but their efforts have been cast in the pattern of an outworn tradition. Faced by failure of credit they have proposed only the lending of more money. Stripped of the lure of profit by which to induce our people to follow their false leadership, they have resorted to exhortations, pleading tearfully for restored confidence... The money changers have fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization. We may now restore that temple to the ancient truths. The measure of the restoration lies in the extent to which we apply social values more noble than mere monetary profit.
Historians categorized Roosevelt 's program as "relief, recovery and reform. '' Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal. Reform meant long - term fixes of what was wrong, especially with the financial and banking systems. Through Roosevelt 's series of radio talks, known as fireside chats, he presented his proposals directly to the American public. In 1934, Roosevelt paid a visit to retired Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., who mused about the President: "A second class intellect. But a first class temperament. ''
Roosevelt 's "First 100 Days '' concentrated on the first part of his strategy: immediate relief. From March 9 to June 16, 1933, he sent Congress a record number of bills, all of which passed easily. To propose programs, Roosevelt relied on leading Senators such as George Norris, Robert F. Wagner, and Hugo Black, as well as his Brain Trust of academic advisers. Like Hoover, he saw the Depression caused in part by people no longer spending or investing because they were afraid.
Roosevelt 's inauguration on March 4, 1933 occurred in the middle of a bank panic and led to the backdrop for his famous words: "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself. '' The very next day he declared a "bank holiday '' and called for a special session of Congress to start March 9, at which Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act. This was his first proposed step to recovery. To give Americans confidence in the banks, Roosevelt signed the Glass -- Steagall Act that created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to underwrite savings deposits.
Relief measures included the continuation of Hoover 's major relief program for the unemployed under its new name: Federal Emergency Relief Administration. The most popular of all New Deal agencies -- and Roosevelt 's favorite -- was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed young men to work on rural local projects. Congress also gave the Federal Trade Commission broad new regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt expanded a Hoover agency, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, making it a major source of financing for railroads and industry. Roosevelt made agricultural relief a high priority and set up the first Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). The AAA tried to force higher prices for commodities by paying farmers to take land out of crops and to cut herds.
Reform of the economy was the goal of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. It tried to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to come up with codes that established the rules of operation for all firms within specific industries, such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the codes which were approved by NIRA officials. Industry needed to raise wages as a condition for approval. Provisions encouraged unions and suspended anti-trust laws. The NIRA was found to be unconstitutional by unanimous decision of the US Supreme Court on May 27, 1935. Roosevelt opposed the decision, saying, "The fundamental purposes and principles of the NIRA are sound. To abandon them is unthinkable. It would spell the return to industrial and labor chaos. '' In 1933, major new banking regulations were passed. In 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate Wall Street, with 1932 campaign fundraiser Joseph P. Kennedy in charge.
Roosevelt wanted a federal minimum wage as part of the NIRA, arguing that. "No business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country ''. Congress finally adopted the minimum wage in the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. It was the last major domestic reform measure of the New Deal.
Recovery was pursued through "pump - priming '' (that is, federal spending). The NIRA included $3.3 billion of spending through the Public Works Administration to stimulate the economy, which was to be handled by Interior Secretary Harold Ickes. Roosevelt worked with Republican Senator George Norris to create the largest government - owned industrial enterprise in American history -- the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) -- which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty - stricken Tennessee Valley. The repeal of prohibition also brought in new tax revenues and helped Roosevelt keep a major campaign promise. Executive Order 6102 declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the US Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce. The goal was to counter the deflation which was paralyzing the economy.
Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget -- including a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40 % cut in spending on veterans ' benefits -- by removing 500,000 veterans and widows from the pension rolls and reducing benefits for the remainder, as well as cutting the salaries of federal employees and reducing spending on research and education. But, the veterans were well organized and strongly protested; most benefits were restored or increased by 1934, but Roosevelt vetoed their efforts to get a cash bonus. The benefit cuts also did not last. In June 1933, Roosevelt restored $50 million in pension payments, and Congress added another $46 million more.
Veterans groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President 's veto and passed the Bonus Act in January 1936. It pumped sums equal to 2 % of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect.
Roosevelt also kept his promise to push for the repeal of Prohibition. On March 23, 1933, he signed the Cullen -- Harrison Act, which redefined 3.2 % alcohol as the maximum allowed. That act was preceded by Congressional action in the drafting and passage of the 21st Amendment, which was ratified later that year.
After the 1934 Congressional elections had given Roosevelt large majorities in both houses, his administration drafted a fresh surge of New Deal legislation. These measures included the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which set up a national relief agency that employed two million family heads. At the height of WPA employment in 1938, unemployment was down from 20.6 % in 1933 to only 12.5 %, according to figures from Michael Darby.
The Social Security Act established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor and the sick. Senator Robert Wagner wrote the Wagner Act, which officially became the National Labor Relations Act. The act established the federal rights of workers to organize unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take part in strikes.
While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith, fought back with the American Liberty League, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide. By contrast, labor unions, energized by the Wagner Act, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt 's reelections in 1936, 1940 and 1944.
Biographer James M. Burns suggests that Roosevelt 's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology, and that he "was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and debouch into the plain below. '' Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary. "The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation, '' he wrote. "It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something. ''
Government spending increased from 8.0 % of gross national product (GNP) under Hoover in 1932 to 10.2 % of the GNP in 1936. The national debt as a percentage of the GNP had more than doubled under Hoover from 16 % to 40 % of the GNP in early 1933. It held steady at close to 40 % as late as fall 1941, then grew rapidly during the war.
Deficit spending had been recommended by some economists, most notably by John Maynard Keynes of Britain. The GNP was 34 % higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58 % higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58 % from 1932 to 1940 in 8 years of peacetime, and then grew 56 % from 1940 to 1945 in 5 years of wartime.
Unemployment fell dramatically in Roosevelt 's first term, from 25 % when he took office to 14.3 % in 1937. However, it increased slightly to 19.0 % in 1938 ("a depression within a depression '') and fell to 17.2 % in 1939, and then dropped again to 14.6 % in 1940 until it reached 1.9 % in 1945 during World War II. Total employment during Roosevelt 's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3 %. Roosevelt considered his New Deal policies as central to his legacy, and in his 1944 State of the Union Address, he advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a Second Bill of Rights.
Roosevelt did not raise income taxes before World War II began; however, payroll taxes were introduced in 1937 to fund the new Social Security program. He also convinced Congress to spend more on many various programs never before seen in American history. Under the revenue pressures brought on by the depression, most states added or increased taxes, including sales as well as income taxes. Roosevelt 's proposal for new taxes on corporate savings were highly controversial in 1936 -- 37, and were rejected by Congress. During the war he pushed for even higher income tax rates for individuals (reaching a marginal tax rate of 91 %) and corporations and a cap on high salaries for executives. He also issued Executive Order 9250 in October 1942, later to be rescinded by Congress, which raised the marginal tax rate for salaries exceeding $25,000 (after tax) to 100 %, thereby limiting salaries to $25,000 (about $366,000 today). To fund the war, Congress not only broadened the base so that almost every employee paid federal income taxes, but also introduced withholding taxes in 1943.
Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. As governor and president, he launched numerous projects for conservation, in the name of protecting the environment, and providing beauty and jobs for the people. He was strengthened in his resolve by the model of his cousin Theodore Roosevelt. Although Roosevelt was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on TR 's scale, his growth of the national systems were comparable. Roosevelt created 140 national wildlife refuges (especially for birds) and established 29 national forests and 29 national parks and monuments. He thereby achieved the vision he had set out in 1931:
Heretofore our conservation policy has been merely to preserve as much as possible of the existing forests. Our new policy goes a step further. It will not only preserve the existing forests, but create new ones.
As president, he was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the National Park and National Forest systems. He used relief agencies to upgrade the facilities. Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade, to 15.5 million in 1939. His favorite agency was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which expended most of its effort on environmental projects. The CCC in a dozen years enrolled 3.4 million young men; they built 13,000 miles of trails, planted two billion trees and upgraded 125,000 miles of dirt roads. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems.
Roosevelt heavily funded the system of dams to provide flood control, electricity, and modernization of rural communities through the Tennessee Valley Authority, as well as less famous projects transforming western rivers. He was a great dam builder, although 21st century critics would see this as the antithesis of conservation.
The rejection of the League of Nations treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of isolationism from world organizations in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt 's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. Roosevelt 's "bombshell '' message to the world monetary conference in 1933 effectively ended any major efforts by the world powers to collaborate on ending the worldwide depression, and allowed Roosevelt a free hand in economic policy. Roosevelt was a lifelong free - trader and anti-imperialist. Ending European colonialism was one of his objectives.
The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt 's first term was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy towards Latin America. Since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, this area had been seen as an American sphere of influence. American forces were withdrawn from Haiti, and new treaties with Cuba and Panama ended their status as U.S. protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries.
The isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by U.S. Senator Gerald Nye and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the "merchants of death '' in the U.S. from selling arms abroad. This effort took the form of the Neutrality Acts; the president asked for, but was refused, a provision to give him the discretion to allow the sale of arms to victims of aggression. In the interim, Italy under Benito Mussolini proceeded to overcome Ethiopia, and the Italians joined Nazi Germany in supporting the General Franco and the Nationalist cause in the Spanish Civil War. In 1936 Germany and Japan signed an Anti-Comintern Pact, but they never coordinated their strategies. Congress passed, and the president signed, a mandatory arms embargo at a time when dictators in Europe and Asia were girding for world war.
In the 1936 presidential election, Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs against Kansas Governor Alf Landon, who accepted much of the New Deal but objected that it was hostile to business and involved too much waste. Roosevelt and Garner won 60.8 % of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont. The New Deal Democrats won even larger majorities in Congress. Roosevelt was backed by a coalition of voters that included traditional Democrats across the country, small farmers, the "Solid South '' (mostly white Democrats), Catholics, big city political machines, labor unions, northern African Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals and political liberals. This coalition, frequently referred to as the New Deal coalition, remained largely intact for the Democratic Party until the 1960s. Roosevelt 's popularity generated massive volumes of correspondence that had to be responded to. He once told his son James, "Two short sentences will generally answer any known letter. ''
In contrast to his first term, little major legislation was passed during Roosevelt 's second term. There was the Housing Act of 1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which created the minimum wage. When the economy began to deteriorate again in late 1937, Roosevelt asked Congress for $5 billion in Works Progress Administration relief and public works funding. This managed to eventually create as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices, to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archaeological excavations -- investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources. Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization and regional planning measures, which were leftovers from a regular session. According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt 's inability to decide on a basic economic program.
The Supreme Court became Roosevelt 's primary focus during his second term, after the court overturned many of his programs. In particular, the Court in 1935 unanimously ruled that the National Recovery Act (NRA) was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to the president. Roosevelt stunned Congress in early 1937 by proposing a law to allow him to appoint up to six new justices, what he referred to as a "persistent infusion of new blood. '' This "court packing '' plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner, since it upset the separation of powers and gave the President control over the Court. Roosevelt 's proposal to expand the court failed; but by 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven of the nine justices of the court, a change in membership which resulted in a court that began to ratify his policies.
Roosevelt at first had massive support from the rapidly growing labor unions, but they split into bitterly feuding AFL and CIO factions, the latter led by John L. Lewis. Roosevelt pronounced a "plague on both your houses, '' but labor 's disunity weakened the party in the elections from 1938 through 1946.
Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress (mostly from the South), Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. His targets denounced Roosevelt for trying to take over the Democratic party and to win reelection, using the argument that they were independent. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one target, a conservative Democrat from New York City.
In the November 1938 election, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats. Losses were concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator Robert Taft formed a Conservative coalition with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt 's ability to get his domestic proposals enacted into law. The minimum wage law of 1938 was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by Congress. Following the autumn Congressional elections in 1938, Congress was now dominated by conservatives, many of whom feared that Roosevelt was "aiming at a dictatorship, '' according to the historian Hugh Brogan. In addition, as noted by another historian, after the 1938 election increased the strength of Republicans,
Roosevelt had always belonged to the more liberal wing of the Democratic Party. He sought a realignment that would solidify liberal dominance by means of landslides in 1932, 1934 and 1936. During the 1932 campaign he predicted privately, "I 'll be in the White House for eight years. When those years are over, there 'll be a Progressive party. It may not be Democratic, but it will be Progressive. '' When the third consecutive landslide in 1936 failed to produce major legislation in 1937, his recourse was to purge his conservative opponents in 1938.
The aggressive foreign policy of Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler in Germany after 1933 aroused fears of a new world war. Americans wanted to keep out of it and in 1937 Congress passed an even more stringent Neutrality Act. But when Japan invaded China in 1937, public opinion strongly favored China, and Roosevelt found various ways to assist that nation.
In October 1937, Roosevelt gave the Quarantine Speech aiming to contain aggressor nations. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined. '' Meanwhile, he secretly stepped up a program to build long - range submarines that could blockade Japan.
At the time of the Munich Agreement in 1938 -- with the U.S. not represented -- Roosevelt said the country would not join a "stop - Hitler bloc '' under any circumstances (Roosevelt was widely praised for his help making the conference possible). He made it quite clear that, in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral. Roosevelt said in 1939 that France and Britain were America 's "first line of defense '' and needed American aid, but because of widespread isolationist sentiment, he reiterated the US itself would not go to war. In the spring of 1939, Roosevelt allowed the French to place huge orders with the American aircraft industry on a cash - and - carry basis, as allowed by law. Most of the aircraft ordered had not arrived in France by the time of its collapse in May 1940, so Roosevelt arranged in June 1940 for French orders to be sold to the British.
When World War II began in September 1939 with Germany 's invasion of Poland, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance and sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily. At first he gave only covert support to repeal of the arms embargo provisions of the Neutrality Act. He began a regular secret correspondence with the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill in September 1939 -- the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them -- discussing ways of supporting Britain. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in May 1940. In his elegy to the former president, Churchill said that "in FDR there died the greatest American friend we have ever known ''.
His relations with Charles de Gaulle, leader of Free France, were more strained, for a long time he refused to recognize de Gaulle as the representative of France, preferring to deal with representatives of the Vichy government. Roosevelt did not recognize de Gaulle 's provisional government until late 1944.
In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway, followed by invasions of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France in May. The German victories left Britain isolated in western Europe. Roosevelt, who was determined that Britain not be defeated, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the US should risk war in helping Britain.
In July 1940, Roosevelt appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, Henry L. Stimson and Frank Knox, as Secretaries of War and the Navy, respectively. Both parties gave support to his plans for a rapid build - up of the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany. Congress authorized the nation 's first peacetime draft. Roosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for intervention. America should be the "Arsenal of Democracy '', he told his fireside audience.
On September 2, 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by passing the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American destroyers to Britain. The U.S. also received free base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland, allowing British forces to be moved to the sharper end of the war; the idea of an exchange of warships for bases such as these originated in the cabinet. Hitler and Mussolini responded to the deal by joining with Japan in the Tripartite Pact.
The agreement with Britain was a precursor of the March 1941 Lend - Lease agreement, which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union. For foreign policy advice, Roosevelt turned to Harry Hopkins, who became his chief wartime advisor. They sought innovative ways short of going to war to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940.
Isolationist sentiment was waning in Congress when it passed the Lend - Lease Act in March 1941, which allowed the U.S. to give Britain, China, and later the Soviet Union military supplies. The legislation had hit a logjam until Senators Byrd, Byrnes and Taft added a provision subjecting it to appropriation by Congress. Congress voted to commit to spend $50 billion on military supplies from 1941 to 1945. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Until late in 1941, Roosevelt refused Churchill 's urgent requests for armed escort of ships bound for Britain, insisting on a more passive patrolling function in the western Atlantic.
President Roosevelt erected Franklin Delano Roosevelt High School (Hyde Park, New York) in Hyde Park, New York. The high school was rebuilt in the 1960s close to the original building, which had become Haviland Middle School. Franklin Delano Roosevelt High School was the only high school in the United States which was named by President Roosevelt. The original building and the newer high school are both still in good condition. Haviland Middle School serves as a historical reminder of Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's contributions to society.
The two - term tradition had been an unwritten rule (until the 22nd Amendment after Roosevelt 's presidency) since George Washington declined to run for a third term in 1796. Both Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt were attacked for trying to obtain a third non-consecutive term. Franklin Roosevelt systematically undercut prominent Democrats who were angling for the nomination, including Vice President John Nance Garner and two cabinet members, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and James Farley, Roosevelt 's campaign manager in 1932 and 1936, the Postmaster General and the Democratic Party chairman. Roosevelt moved the convention to Chicago where he had strong support from the city machine (which controlled the auditorium sound system). At the convention the opposition was poorly organized, but Farley had packed the galleries. Roosevelt sent a message saying that he would not run unless he was drafted, and that the delegates were free to vote for anyone. The delegates were stunned; then the loudspeaker screamed "We want Roosevelt... The world wants Roosevelt! '' The delegates went wild and he was nominated by 946 to 147 on the first ballot. The tactic employed by Roosevelt was not entirely successful, as his goal had been to be drafted by acclamation. The new vice-presidential nominee was Henry Agard Wallace, a liberal intellectual who was Secretary of Agriculture.
In his campaign against Republican Wendell Willkie, Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States out of war. In one of his speeches he declared to potential recruits that "you boys are not going to be sent into any foreign war. '' He won the 1940 election with 55 % of the popular vote and 38 of the 48 states, and thus winning almost 85 % of the electoral vote (449 to 82). A shift to the left within the Administration was shown by the naming of Henry A. Wallace as vice president in place of the conservative Texan John Nance Garner, who had become increasingly combative with Roosevelt after 1937.
Roosevelt tried to avoid repeating what he saw as Woodrow Wilson 's mistakes in World War I. He often made exactly the opposite decision. Wilson called for neutrality in thought and deed, while Roosevelt made it clear his administration strongly favored Britain and China.
Unlike the loans in World War I, the United States made large - scale grants of military and economic aid to the Allies through Lend - Lease, with little expectation of repayment. Wilson did not greatly expand war production before the declaration of war; Roosevelt did. Wilson waited for the declaration to begin a draft; Roosevelt started one in 1940. Wilson never made the United States an official ally but Roosevelt did. Wilson never met with the top Allied leaders but Roosevelt did. Wilson proclaimed independent policy, as seen in the 14 Points, while Roosevelt always had a collaborative policy with the Allies. In 1917, the United States declared war on Germany; in 1941, Roosevelt waited until the enemy attacked at Pearl Harbor. Wilson refused to collaborate with the Republicans; Roosevelt named leading Republicans to head the War Department and the Navy Department. Wilson let General John Pershing make the major military decisions; Roosevelt made the major decisions in his war including the "Europe first '' strategy. He rejected the idea of an armistice and demanded unconditional surrender. Roosevelt often mentioned his role in the Wilson administration, but added that he had profited more from Wilson 's errors than from his successes.
Roosevelt 's third term was dominated by World War II. Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938, although he was facing strong isolationist sentiment from leaders like Senators William Borah and Robert A. Taft. By 1940, re-armament was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the "Arsenal of Democracy '' supporting Britain, France, China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the Axis Powers, American isolationists (including Charles Lindbergh and America First) vehemently attacked the President as an irresponsible warmonger. Roosevelt initiated FBI and Internal Revenue Service investigations of his loudest critics, although no legal actions resulted. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, Roosevelt continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the Allied coalition. On December 29, 1940, he delivered his Arsenal of Democracy fireside chat, in which he made the case for involvement in the war directly to the American people. A week later, he delivered his famous Four Freedoms speech laying out the case for an American defense of basic rights throughout the world.
The homefront was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt 's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million. There was a growing labor shortage, accelerating the second wave of the Great Migration of African Americans, farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers. African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry. To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5 % on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100 % on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded.
When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend - Lease to the Soviets. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of "all aid short of war. '' Execution of the aid fell victim to foot dragging in the administration so Roosevelt appointed a special assistant, Wayne Coy, to expedite matters. Later that year, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer Greer, and Roosevelt declared that the U.S. Navy would assume an escort role for Allied convoys in the Atlantic as far east as Great Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines (U-boats) of the Kriegsmarine if they entered the U.S. Navy zone. This "shoot on sight '' policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2 - to - 1.
Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral meeting in Argentia, Newfoundland, and on August 14, 1941, drafted the Atlantic Charter, conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals. All the Allies endorsed it. This was the first of several wartime conferences; Churchill and Roosevelt would meet ten more times in person.
In July 1941, Roosevelt had ordered Secretary of War Henry Stimson, to begin planning for total American military involvement. The resulting "Victory Program '' provided the Army 's estimates necessary for the total mobilization of manpower, industry, and logistics to defeat Germany and Japan. The program also planned to dramatically increase aid to the Allied nations and to have ten million men in arms, half of whom would be ready for deployment abroad in 1943. Roosevelt was firmly committed to the Allied cause, and these plans were formulated before Japan 's Attack on Pearl Harbor.
Congress was debating a modification of the Neutrality Act in October 1941, when the USS Kearny, along with other ships, engaged a number of U-boats south of Iceland; the Kearny took fire and lost eleven crewmen. As a result, the amendment of the Neutrality Act to permit the arming of the merchant marine passed both houses, though by a slim margin. In 1942, with the United States now in the conflict, war production increased dramatically, but fell short of the goals established by the President, due in part to manpower shortages. The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes by union workers, especially in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.
The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice-President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding. Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.
In 1944, the President requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all unreasonable profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures. The Congress passed a revenue bill raising $2 billion, which Roosevelt vetoed, though Congress in turn overrode him.
When Japan occupied northern French Indochina in late 1940, Roosevelt authorized increased aid to the Republic of China, a policy that won widespread popular support. In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of Indo - China, he cut off the sale of oil to Japan, which thus lost more than 95 percent of its oil supply. Roosevelt continued negotiations with the Japanese government, primarily through Secretary Hull. Japan Premier Fumimaro Konoye desired a summit conference with Roosevelt which the US rejected. Konoye was replaced with Minister of War Hideki Tojo. Meanwhile, Roosevelt started sending long - range B - 17 bombers to the Philippines to deter Japan.
Roosevelt felt that an attack by the Japanese was probable -- most likely in the Dutch East Indies or Thailand. On December 4, 1941, The Chicago Tribune published the complete text of "Rainbow Five '', a top - secret war plan drawn up by the War Department. It dealt chiefly with mobilization issues, calling for a 10 - million - man army. A majority of scholars have rejected the conspiracy theories that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded. Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.
On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor with a surprise attack, knocking out the main American battleship fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians. Roosevelt called for war in his famous "Infamy Speech '' to Congress, in which he said: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941 -- a date which will live in infamy -- the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan. ''
In 1942 Roosevelt set up a new military command structure with Admiral Ernest J. King as Chief of Naval Operations in complete control of the Navy and Marines; General George C. Marshall in charge of the Army and in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold. Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy. The Joint Chiefs was a White House agency and was chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy. When dealing with Europe, the Joint Chiefs met with their British counterparts and formed the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Unlike the political leaders of the other major powers, Roosevelt rarely overrode his military advisors.
His civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians -- not even the secretaries of War or Navy, had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins. Since Hopkins also controlled $50 billion in Lend Lease funds given to the Allies, they paid attention to him.
After the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States largely evaporated overnight. On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States, which responded in kind. Roosevelt and his military advisers implemented a war strategy with the objectives of halting the German advances into the Soviet Union and into North Africa, launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts, and saving China and defeating Japan. Public opinion, however, gave priority to the destruction of Japan, so American forces were sent chiefly to the Pacific in 1942.
In the opening weeks of the war, Japan had conquered the Philippines, and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia, capturing Singapore in February 1942. Furthermore, Japan cut off the overland supply route to China.
Roosevelt met with Churchill in late December and planned a broad informal alliance among the U.S., Britain, China and the Soviet Union. This included Churchill 's initial plan to invade North Africa (called Operation Gymnast) and the primary plan of the U.S. generals for a western Europe invasion, focused directly on Germany (Operation Sledgehammer). An agreement was also reached for a centralized command and offensive in the Pacific theater called ABDA (American, British, Dutch, Australian) to save China and defeat Japan. Nevertheless, the Atlantic First strategy was intact, to Churchill 's great satisfaction. On New Year 's Day 1942, Churchill and Roosevelt issued the "Declaration by United Nations '', representing 26 countries in opposition to the Tripartite Pact of Germany, Italy and Japan.
When the war began, the danger of a Japanese attack on the west coast led to growing pressure to move people of Japanese descent away from the coastal region. This pressure grew due to fears of terrorism, espionage, and / or sabotage; it was also related to anti-Japanese competition and discrimination. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which relocated hundreds of thousands of the "Issei '' (first generation of Japanese immigrants who did not have U.S. citizenship) and their children, "Nisei '' (who had dual citizenship). They were forced to give up their properties and businesses, and transported to hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations.
After both Hitler and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States in December 1941, many German and Italian citizens who had not taken out American citizenship were arrested or placed into internment camps.
The Big Three together with Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek, cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the Eastern front; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high - profile conferences as well as contact through diplomatic and military channels. Roosevelt guaranteed that the U.S. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy '' by shipping $50 billion of Lend - Lease supplies, primarily to Britain and to the USSR, China and other Allies. Roosevelt coined the term "Four Policemen '' to refer this "Big Four '' Allied powers of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China.
In October 1942, the President was advised that military resources were desperately needed at Guadalcanal to prevent overrunning by the Japanese. Roosevelt heeded the advice, redirected armaments and the Japanese Pacific offensive was stalled.
The Allies undertook the invasions of French Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch) in November 1942. Roosevelt very much desired the assault be initiated before election day, but did not order it. Roosevelt and Churchill had another war conference in Casablanca in January 1943; Stalin declined an invitation. The Allies agreed strategically that the Mediterranean focus be continued, with the cross-channel invasion coming later, followed by concentration of efforts in the Pacific. Roosevelt also championed General Henri Giraud as leader of Free France against General Charles de Gaulle. Hitler reinforced his military in North Africa, with the result that the Allied efforts there suffered a temporary setback; Allied attempts to counterbalance this were successful, but resulted in war supplies to the USSR being delayed, as well as the second war front. Later, their assault pursued into Sicily (Operation Husky) followed in July 1943, and of Italy (Operation Avalanche) in September 1943. In 1943, it was apparent to Roosevelt that Stalin, while bearing the brunt of Germany 's offensive, had not had sufficient opportunity to participate in war conferences. The President made a concerted effort to arrange a one - on - one meeting with Stalin, in Fairbanks. However, when Stalin learned that Roosevelt and Churchill had postponed the cross-channel invasion a second time, he cancelled. The strategic bombing campaign was escalated in 1944, pulverizing all major German cities and cutting off oil supplies. It was a 50 -- 50 British - American operation. Roosevelt picked Dwight D. Eisenhower, and not George Marshall, to head the Allied cross-channel invasion, Operation Overlord that began on D - Day, June 6, 1944. Some of the most costly battles of the war ensued after the invasion, and the Allies were blocked on the German border in the "Battle of the Bulge '' in December 1944. When Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, Allied forces were closing in on Berlin.
Meanwhile, in the Pacific, the Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Midway. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly progress called island hopping or leapfrogging through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions. Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan; he always insisted on Germany first.
By late 1943, it was apparent that the Allies would ultimately defeat the enemy, so it became increasingly important to make high - level political decisions about the course of the war and the postwar future of Europe. Roosevelt met with Churchill and the Chinese leader Chiang Kai - shek at the Cairo Conference in November 1943, and then went to the Tehran Conference to confer with Churchill and Stalin. While Churchill warned of potential domination by a Stalin dictatorship over eastern Europe, Roosevelt responded with a statement summarizing his rationale for relations with Stalin: "I just have a hunch that Stalin is not that kind of a man. (...) I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he wo n't try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace. '' At the Tehran Conference, Roosevelt and Churchill discussed plans for a postwar international organization. For his part, Stalin insisted on redrawing the frontiers of Poland. Stalin supported Roosevelt 's plan for the United Nations and promised to enter the war against Japan 90 days after Germany was defeated.
By the beginning of 1945, however, with the Allied armies advancing into Germany and the Soviets in control of Poland, the postwar issues came into the open. In February, Roosevelt met with Churchill at Malta and traveled to Yalta, in Crimea, to meet again with Stalin and Churchill. While Roosevelt maintained his confidence that Stalin would keep his Yalta promises regarding free elections in eastern Europe, one month after Yalta ended, Roosevelt 's Ambassador to the USSR, Averell Harriman, cabled Roosevelt that "we must come clearly to realize that the Soviet program is the establishment of totalitarianism, ending personal liberty and democracy as we know it. '' Two days later, Roosevelt began to admit that his view of Stalin had been excessively optimistic and that "Averell is right. ''
Roosevelt, a chain - smoker throughout his entire adult life, had been in declining physical health since at least 1940, and by 1944 he was noticeably fatigued. In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing at Bethesda Hospital and was found to have high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease causing angina pectoris, and congestive heart failure.
Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest. His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest each day. During the 1944 re-election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt 's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that "The President 's health is perfectly OK. There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all. '' Prior to the election, Roosevelt may have used his authority over the Office of Censorship to quash press reports of his declining physical health.
Roosevelt, aware that most publishers were opposed to him, had the Army issue a decree in 1943 that blocked all publishers and editors from visits to combat areas.
Party leaders insisted that Roosevelt drop Henry A. Wallace, who had been erratic as vice president. James F. Byrnes of South Carolina, a top Roosevelt aide, was considered ineligible because he had left the Catholic Church and many Catholic voters would not vote for him. Roosevelt replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman, best known for his battle against corruption and inefficiency in wartime spending. The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the governor of New York who had a reputation as a liberal in his party. The opposition lambasted Roosevelt and his administration for domestic corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency, tolerance of Communism, and military blunders. Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, threw their all - out support behind Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Truman won the 1944 election by a comfortable margin, defeating Dewey and his running mate John W. Bricker with 53.4 % of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes. The President campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation 's future participation in the international community. Due to the President 's declining health, the small - scale fourth inauguration on January 20, 1945, was held on the White House lawn.
The President left the Yalta Conference on February 12, 1945, flew to Egypt and boarded the USS Quincy operating on the Great Bitter Lake near the Suez Canal. Aboard Quincy the next day, he met with Farouk I, king of Egypt, and Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia. On February 14, he held a historic meeting with King Abdulaziz, the founder of Saudi Arabia, a meeting some historians believe holds profound significance in U.S. -- Saudi relations even today. After a final meeting between Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Quincy steamed for Algiers, arriving February 18, at which time Roosevelt conferred with American ambassadors to Britain, France and Italy. At Yalta, Lord Moran (Winston Churchill 's physician) commented on Roosevelt 's ill health, saying that he was a dying man.
When Roosevelt returned to the United States, he addressed Congress on March 1 about the Yalta Conference, and many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. Roosevelt opened his speech by saying, "I hope that you will pardon me for this unusual posture of sitting down during the presentation of what I want to say, but... it makes it a lot easier for me not to have to carry about ten pounds of steel around on the bottom of my legs. '' Still in full command mentally, he firmly stated "The Crimean Conference ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries -- and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace - loving nations will finally have a chance to join. ''
During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, prisoners of war and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting behind his back a separate peace with Hitler, Roosevelt replied: "I can not avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates. ''
In his later years at the White House, Roosevelt was increasingly overworked and his daughter Anna had moved in to provide her father companionship and support. Anna had also arranged for her father to meet with his former mistress, the now widowed Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd. Shoumatoff, who maintained close friendships with both Roosevelt and Mercer, rushed Mercer away to avoid negative publicity and implications of infidelity.
On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations. On the afternoon of April 12, Roosevelt said, "I have a terrific pain in the back of my head. '' He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president 's attending cardiologist, Dr. Howard Bruenn, diagnosed the medical emergency as a massive cerebral hemorrhage. At 3: 35 p.m. that day, Roosevelt died. As Allen Drury later said, "so ended an era, and so began another. '' After Roosevelt 's death, an editorial by The New York Times declared, "Men will thank God on their knees a hundred years from now that Franklin D. Roosevelt was in the White House ''.
At the time he collapsed, Roosevelt had been sitting for a portrait painting by the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff; the painting would later become known as the famous Unfinished Portrait of FDR.
On the morning of April 13, Roosevelt 's body was placed in a flag - draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train for the trip back to Washington. Along the route, thousands flocked to the tracks to pay their respects. After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported by train from Washington, D.C. to his place of birth at Hyde Park. As was his wish, Roosevelt was buried on April 15 in the Rose Garden of the Springwood estate, the Roosevelt family home in Hyde Park. Eleanor would be interred next to him when she died seventeen years later in November 1962.
Roosevelt 's declining physical health had been kept secret from the general public. His death was met with shock and grief across the U.S. and around the world.
The war in Europe ended on May 8, less than a month after his death. New President Harry S. Truman dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt 's memory, and kept the flags across the U.S. at half - staff for the remainder of the 30 - day mourning period, saying that his only wish was "that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day. ''
President Roosevelt appointed eight Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States, more than any other President except George Washington, who appointed ten. By 1941, eight of the nine Justices were Roosevelt appointees. Roosevelt also elevated Harlan Fiske Stone from the position of Associate Justice to Chief Justice.
Roosevelt was a hero to major minority groups, especially African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition. He won strong support from Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans, but not Japanese Americans, as he was responsible for their losses due to internship in concentration camps during the war. Roosevelt 's understanding and awareness of problems in the world of the American Indians was questioned during the Hopi Hearings which were held in 1955.
African Americans and Native Americans fared well in two New Deal relief programs, the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Indian Reorganization Act, respectively. Sitkoff reported that the WPA "provided an economic floor for the whole black community in the 1930s, rivaling both agriculture and domestic service as the chief source '' of income.
Another significant change was establishment in 1941 of the Fair Employment Practices Committee, to implement Executive Order 8802 prohibiting racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors. This was the first national program directed against employment discrimination. African Americans who gained defense industry jobs in the 1940s shared in the higher wages; in the 1950s they had gained in relative economic position, about 14 % higher than other blacks who were not in such industries. Their moves into manufacturing positions were critical to their success.
Roosevelt needed the support of the powerful white Southern Democrats for his New Deal programs, and blacks were still disenfranchised in the South. He decided against pushing for federal anti-lynching legislation. It was not likely to pass and the political fight might threaten his ability to pass his highest priority programs -- though he did denounce lynchings as "a vile form of collective murder ''. The frequency of lynchings had declined since the early decades of the century, in part due to the African Americans ' Great Migration out of the South; millions were still leaving it behind.
Historian Kevin J. McMahon claims that strides were made for the civil rights of African Americans. In Roosevelt 's Justice Department, the Civil Rights Section worked closely with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Roosevelt worked with other civil rights groups on cases dealing with police brutality, lynching, and voting rights abuses.
Beginning in the 1960s, FDR was charged with not acting decisively enough to prevent or stop the Holocaust.
The issue of desegregating the armed forces did not arise, but in 1940 Roosevelt appointed former federal judge William H. Hastie, an African American, to be a civilian aide to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. On the home front on June 25, 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, forbidding discrimination on account of "race, creed, color, or national origin '' in the hiring of workers in defense related industries. This was a precursor to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act to come decades later.
However, enemy aliens and people of Japanese ancestry were taken under control. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 that applied to everyone classified as an "enemy alien '', including people who had dual citizenship living in designated high - risk areas that covered most of the cities on the West Coast. Roosevelt personally made the decision regarding 120,000 Japanese citizens and dual citizens forced to leave the West Coast. From 1942 to 1945, they lived in internment camps inland. Those outside the West Coast and in Hawaii were not relocated.
During his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent today, there has been much criticism of Roosevelt, some of it intense. Critics have questioned not only his policies, positions, and the consolidation of power that occurred due to his responses to the crises of the Depression and World War II, but also his breaking with tradition by running for a third term as president.
By the middle of his second term, much criticism of Roosevelt centered on fears that he was heading toward a dictatorship, by attempting to seize control of the Supreme Court in the court - packing incident of 1937, by attempting to eliminate dissent within the Democratic party in the South during the 1938 elections, and by breaking the tradition established by George Washington of not seeking a third term when he again ran for re-election in 1940. As two historians explain, "In 1940, with the two - term issue as a weapon, anti-New Dealers... argued that the time had come to disarm the ' dictator ' and to dismantle the machinery. ''
As president, Roosevelt was hit from both the right and the left. He came under attack for his supposed anti-business policies, for being a "warmonger '', for being a "Fascist '' and for being too friendly to Joseph Stalin. Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized his policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe, incarcerating the Japanese on the West Coast, and opposing anti-lynching legislation.
A majority of polls rank Roosevelt as the second or third greatest president. Roosevelt is the sixth most admired person from the 20th century by U.S. citizens, according to Gallup.
The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt 's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt 's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations.
Roosevelt firmly established the United States ' leadership role on the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies. After his death, his widow, Eleanor, continued to be a forceful presence in US and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Many members of his administration played leading roles in the administrations of Truman, Kennedy and Johnson, each of whom embraced Roosevelt 's political legacy. Reflecting on Roosevelt 's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future '', said FDR 's biographer Jean Edward Smith in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees. ''
Roosevelt 's home in Hyde Park is now a National Historic Site and home to his Presidential library. His retreat at Warm Springs, Georgia is a museum operated by the state of Georgia. His summer retreat on Campobello Island is maintained by the governments of both Canada and the United States as Roosevelt Campobello International Park; the island is accessible by way of the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge.
Washington D.C. hosts two memorials to the former president. The largest, the 7.50 - acre Roosevelt Memorial, is located next to the Jefferson Memorial on the Tidal Basin and was dedicated by Bill Clinton in 1997. A much more modest memorial, a block of marble in front of the National Archives building, was erected in 1965.
Roosevelt 's leadership in the March of Dimes is one reason he is commemorated on the American dime.
Roosevelt was honored by the United States Postal Service with a Prominent Americans series 6 ¢ postage stamp, issue of 1966. He also appears on several other U.S. Postage stamps. Roosevelt was a devoted stamp collector from the age of ten, spending some time almost every day with his collection of 1.25 million stamps. As president, government agencies sent Roosevelt unusual stamps they received in the mail, and the hobby gave him an unusually thorough knowledge of world geography which benefited him during the war. After his death, the collection was sold for $250,000. Among the items was a group of envelopes Roosevelt saved that he received as president; those with compliments were addressed "To the Greatest Man in the World '' and "God 's Gift to the U.S.A., '' while less favorable letters arrived in envelopes labeled "F.D. Russianvelt, President of U.S.A., C.I.O., '' "Benedict Arnold 2nd, '' and "Rattlesnake Roosevelt. ''
Roosevelt is the only President of the United States to serve more than two terms in office; in response to this, the 22nd Amendment limiting Presidential terms was passed by Congress in 1947 and ratified by the states in 1951.
Roosevelt was also widely beloved for his role in repealing Prohibition.
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who won the 1948 election in south africa | South African general election, 1948 - Wikipedia
Jan Smuts United
D.F. Malan Reunited National
The parliamentary election in South Africa on 26 May 1948 represented a turning point in the country 's history. The United Party, which had led the government since its foundation in 1933, and its leader, incumbent Prime Minister Jan Smuts, were ousted by the Reunited National Party (Herenigde Nasionale Party in Afrikaans), led by Daniel Francois Malan, a Dutch Reformed cleric.
During the election battle, both the UP and the NP formed coalitions with smaller parties. The UP was aligned with the left - leaning Labour Party, while the Afrikaner Party sought to advance Afrikaner rights by allying with the HNP. By legislation relating to franchise requirements, very few people of Coloured and Asian descent were able to vote in this election; Africans had been banned altogether since the late 1930s, with the limited number of Africans meeting electoral qualifications voting for four "own '' white MPs separately.
The HNP, realising that many White South Africans felt threatened by black political aspirations, pledged to implement a policy of strict racial segregation in all spheres of living. The Nationalists labelled this new system of social organisation "apartheid '' ("apartness '' or "separation ''), the name by which it became universally known. The HNP also took advantage of white fear of black - on - white crime, and the HNP promised whites safety and security from black - on - white crime and violence.
In contrast to the HNP 's consistent, straightforward platform, the UP supported vague notions of slowly integrating the different racial groups within South Africa. Furthermore, white dissatisfaction with domestic and economic problems in South Africa after World War II, the NP 's superior organisation, and electoral gerrymandering, all proved to be significant challenges to the UP campaign.
Together, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party won 79 seats in the House of Assembly against a combined total of 74 won by the UP and the Labour Party. By a quirk of the First Past the Post system the NP had won more seats, even though the UP had received over eleven percent more votes. The Nationalist coalition subsequently formed a new government and ushered in the era of formal, legally binding apartheid. In 1951, the HNP and the Afrikaner Party merged, returning to the name National Party (NP).
One of the central issues facing the white electorate in the 1948 election was that of race. The United Party (UP) and the National Party (NP) presented voters with differing answers to questions relating to racial integration in SA. Smuts and his followers were in favour of a pragmatic approach, arguing that racial integration was inevitable and that the government should thus relax regulations which sought to prevent black people from moving into urban areas. Whilst still seeking to maintain white dominance, the UP argued in favour of gradually reforming the political system so that black South Africans could eventually, at some unspecified point in the future, exercise some sort of power in a racially integrated South Africa. In contrast to this seemingly vague ideology, the NP advanced the notion of further strictly enforced segregation between races and the total disempowerment of black South Africans. Rural to urban movement by blacks was to be discouraged. The UP position was supported by the Fagan Commission while the Sauer Commission informed the NP 's stance.
The putative policy of apartheid proposed by the NP served the economic interests of certain groups of white South Africans. Farmers from the northern portions of the country relied on cheap black labour to maximise profits while working class whites living in urban areas feared the employment competition that would follow an urban influx of black South Africans. Many commercial and financial Afrikaner interests based on agriculture saw the value of apartheid in promoting growth in this sector. The UP failed to realise the enormous economic benefits of apartheid to these large and influential groups and did not prioritise segregation as much as the NP.
As regards election tactics, the NP was extremely adroit at exploiting white fears while campaigning in the 1948 election. Because the UP had seemed to take a fairly lukewarm stance towards both integration and segregation, the NP was able to argue that a victory for the UP would ultimately lead to a black government in South Africa. NP propaganda linked black political power to Communism, an anathema to many white South Africans at the time. Slogans such as "Swart Gevaar '' ("Black Peril ''), "Rooi Gevaar '' ("Red Peril ''), "Die kaffer op sy plek '' ("The Kaffir in his place ''), and "Die koelies uit die land '' ("The coolies out of the country '') played upon and amplified white anxieties. Much was made of the fact that Smuts had developed a good working relationship with Joseph Stalin during World War II, when South Africa and the USSR were allies in the fight against Nazi Germany. Smuts had once remarked that he "doffs his cap to Stalin '' and the NP presented this remark as proof of Smuts 's latent Communist tendencies.
The Smuts government 's controversial immigration programme served to further inflame Afrikaner disquiet. Under this programme, numerous British immigrants had moved to South Africa and were perceived to have taken homes and employment away from (white) South African citizens. Moreover, it was claimed that the intention behind such plans was to swamp the Afrikaners, who had a higher birth rate than the British diaspora, with British immigrants so that Afrikaners would be outnumbered at the polls in future elections.
In preparation for the 1948 election, the NP moderated its stance on republicanism. Because of the immense and abiding national trauma caused by the Anglo - Boer War, transforming South Africa into a republic and dissolving all ties between South Africa and the United Kingdom had been an important mission for earlier incarnations of the NP. English speaking South Africans tended to favour a close relationship with the UK, and so the republican project became a source of conflict between the two largest white groups in South Africa. A staunchly pro-republic stance alienated moderate Afrikaners who had supported South Africa 's participation in World War II and wished to achieve reconciliation between their own people and English speakers. When the NP agreed to compromise its fiercely republican standpoint, conceding that South Africa should remain a Dominion in the Commonwealth, many Afrikaner UP supporters switched allegiance.
Demarcation of electoral district boundaries favoured the NP. Most of the 70 seats won by the National Party during the 1948 election were in rural areas, whereas most of the 65 seats won by the United Party were in the urban areas. According to the Constitution that South Africa had at the time, the constituencies in the rural areas were smaller than those in urban areas. This meant that there were more rural constituencies than urban ones. This was to the benefit of the National Party, since it tended to do well in rural areas in terms of votes. Despite winning 140,000 fewer votes than the UP, the NP / AP coalition gained a plurality of seats in Parliament. It has been calculated that if rural and urban votes had been of equal value, the UP would have won 80 seats, the NP / AP 60 seats, and other parties the remaining seats, thus giving the UP a majority.
Smuts and his cabinet were blamed for many of the hardships that occurred as a result of South Africa 's participation in World War II. During the war petrol was rationed by means of coupons, and bakeries were ordered not to bake white bread so as to conserve wheat. After the war some of these measures continued, as South Africa exported food and other necessaries to Britain and the Netherlands. South Africa even provided Britain with a loan of 4 million ounces of gold. These measures caused local shortages of meat and the unavailability of white bread. The Smuts government was blamed for this, as well as for the rate of inflation and the government 's dismal housing record. All these factors provided ammunition for the NP.
The UP at the time has been characterised as cumbersome and lacking vigour while the NP displayed energy and superior organisational skills. World War II had a bonding effect on the UP and white South Africans generally. Once this external uniting force fell away, Smuts lost a great deal of control over the UP as more and more voters considered alternatives to his tired regime; humiliatingly, the Prime Minister lost his parliamentary seat (Standerton) to an NP challenger. As can be seen from the final tally of seats, Smuts and his party proved unable to counter the many grievances raised by the NP in an effective way, and this inability led to a narrow NP victory.
After the 1948 election, the ruling coalition succeeded in fully enfranchising the mostly Afrikaans - and German - speaking voters in South West Africa, later known as Namibia upon independence in 1990; the result being that this gave the National Party more or less six reliable votes in parliament.
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when did china's 1 child policy end | One - child policy - wikipedia
The one - child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population planning policy of China. It was introduced in 1979 and began to be formally phased out near the end of 2015 and the beginning of 2016. The policy was only enforced on Han Chinese and allowed exceptions for many groups, including ethnic minorities. In 2007, 36 % of China 's population was subject to a strict one - child restriction, with an additional 53 % being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to the Chinese government, 400 million births were prevented. Scholars have widely disputed this claim with Martin King Whyte and Wang et al finding that the policy had little effect on population growth or the size of the total population. China has been compared to countries with similar socioeconomic development like Thailand and Iran, along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which achieved similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy. Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey, it was controversial outside of China.
On October 29, 2015, it was reported that the existing law would be changed to a two - child policy, citing a statement from the Communist Party of China. The new law became effective on January 1, 2016, following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27, 2015.
During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development. The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children.
Although the fertility rate began to decline, the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club. While visiting Europe in 1979, one of the top Chinese officials, Song Jian, read two influential books of the movement, The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival. With a group of mathematicians, Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million. A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080, with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering. In spite of some criticism inside the party, the plan (also referred to as the Family Planning Policy) was officially adopted in 1979. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources, as well as to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China. The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18, 1980.
The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy. It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas.
Beginning in 1980, the official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties '' (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or when both parents are single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence. As of 2007, only 35.9 % of the population were subjected to a strict one - child limit. 52.9 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all.
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.
In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee '') to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.
The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child - raising fee '', sometimes called a "family planning fine '' in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants, in the year of the child 's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district, plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average. Both members of the couple need to pay the fine.
As part of the policy, women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) surgically installed after having a first child, and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child. From 1980 to 2014, 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 108 million were sterilized. Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services. The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually, but only through surgery. In 2016, following the abolition of the one - child policy, the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government.
In 2013, Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that "China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term ''. A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.
In November 2013, following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. The coastal province of Zhejiang, one of China 's most affluent, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy '' in January 2014. The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that "second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start.
In 2016, 433 births and 211 deaths were recorded in Wulipu, Hubei. The birth rate was 8.9 ‰ and death rate was 4.3 ‰ resulting in a natural population increase of 4.6 ‰. In the results of a separate survey published by the Shayang County government, Wulipu 's population had increased from 48,044 to 48,132 during a survey period. 424 children were born during the survey period resulting in a birth rate of 8.82 ‰. During the same period, 63 people died, resulting in death rate of 1.31 ‰. Of the births in the survey, 406 (95.75 %) were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. 312 (73.58 %) of the births were the firstborn in the family. (All of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China.) Among the firstborn children, 157 were female. 107 (25.24 %) of the births were the second - born child in the family. 90 of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. Among the second - born children, 47 were female. Five (1.18 %) of the births surveyed were neither the firstborn nor second - born child in the family. Four of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. Among the children born who were neither firstborn nor second - born, two were female.
In October 2015, the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy, now allowing all families to have two children, citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party "to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The new law took effect on 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015.
The rationale for the abolition was summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy. And if people do n't start having more children, they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population. '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong.
Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that "China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources. '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person. ''
Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition, Amnesty International said that the move to the two - child policy would not end forced sterilizations, forced abortions, or government control over birth permits. Others also stated that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for CNN said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions... The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state 's role. ''
The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicated: "Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement. Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal. '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home. ''
The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council.
The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. "Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates. According to the study, "In general, very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility: one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China, while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline. A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level. To put it more bluntly, China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development, even without the one - child policy, although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same. ''
The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 in 2010. This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand, Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one - child policy. China 's one - child policy significantly accelerated the advent of an aging society, radically altered the structure of the population, and helped create an aging population. While the policy may have achieved the stated demographic goals of preventing an estimated 200 million or more births (the official claim is 400 million), it produced many unintended and far - reaching consequences. These include a deficit of 40 million female babies, mostly as a direct consequence of illegal sex - selective abortions, and a population with an artificially large elderly demographic.
The sex ratio of a newborn infant (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117: 100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103: 100 and 107: 100. It had risen from 108: 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111: 100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship - motivated emigration.
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by Anderson & Silver (1995) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior '', i.e., to stop having more children.
The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally, and this has led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest. '' The situation will not improve in the near future. According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, "existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education ''.
The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt, which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages. However, in the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform.
In the 1980s, adoptions accounted for half of the so - called "missing girls ''. Through the 1980s, as the one - child policy came into force, parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities. Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time.
In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30, 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries, particularly the United States, a trend which has been declining for some years. "The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been... trying to keep the girls within the country... And the consequence is that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today, it 's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It 's very, very different. ''
Since there are no penalties for multiple births, it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled.
The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China. For thousands of years, girls have held a lower status in Chinese households. However, the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being. As a result of being an only child, women have increased opportunity to receive an education, and support to get better jobs. One of the side effects of the one - child policy is to have liberated women from heavy duties in terms of taking care of many children and the family in the past; instead women had a lot of spare time for themselves to pursue their career or hobbies. The other major "side effect '' of the one child policy is that the traditional concepts of gender roles between men and women have weakened. Being one and the only "chance '' the parents have, women are expected to compete with peer men for better educational resources or career opportunities. Especially in cities where one - child policy was much more regulated and enforced, expectations on women to succeed in life are no less than on men.
It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest. Second, since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.
As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4 - 2 - 1 Problem '', this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves: By 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy; Henan followed in 2011.
Heihaizi (Chinese: 黑 孩子; pinyin: hēiháizi) or "black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system.
Being excluded from the family register means they do not possess a Hukou, which is "an identifying document, similar in some ways to the American social security card. '' Since they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law.
Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as "little emperors ''. Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged. With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.
However, the "little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions, describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media, Chinese academia and popular discussions. Being over-indulged, lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons.
Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people ''. One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either. '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one - child limit is too extreme. It violates nature 's law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature 's revenge. ''
Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as birth tourism. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one - child policy. Likewise, a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals. As a result, fees for delivering babies there have surged. As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered, mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America.
As the United States practises birthright citizenship, all children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship. The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions. As of 2012, the island was experiencing an upswing in Chinese births, since birth tourism there had become cheaper than to Hong Kong. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well, wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US. Canada, compared to US, is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests.
Due to the preference in Rural Chinese society to birth a son, pre-natal sex determination and sex - selective abortions are illegal in China. Often argued as one of the key factors in the imbalanced sex - ratio in China, as excess female infant mortality and underreporting of female births can not solely explain this gender disparity. Researchers have found that the gender of the firstborn child in rural parts of China impact whether or not the mother will seek an ultrasound for the second child. 40 % of women with a firstborn son seek an ultrasound for their second pregnancy, versus 70 % of women with firstborn daughters. This clearly depicts a desire for women to birth a son if one has not yet been birthed. In response to this, the Chinese government made sex - selective abortions illegal in 2005.
The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.
The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births ''.
This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '', and "Thailand does not have a one - child policy. '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy.
According to a report by the US Embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders.
Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ($1.2 million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.
Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child ''. Also, people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.
The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. ''
According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort, usually by an injection of saline solution. A 1993 book by social scientist, Steven W. Mosher, reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.
According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent, John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure. In 2012, Feng Jianmei, a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned.
In the past, China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies, but the government has backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.
The United Nations Population Fund 's (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States, led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under George W. Bush 's presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries ''.
Sex - selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the United States Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, "The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ', or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect ''.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants: "Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions. ''
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California, Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.
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who played lana in the heat of the night | Christine Elise - wikipedia
Christine Elise (born February 12, 1965) is an American film and television actress. She is best known for her roles as Emily Valentine in Beverly Hills, 90210 and Kyle in Child 's Play 2 (1990).
Born Christine Elise McCarthy in Boston, Massachusetts, the daughter of artists, she graduated from the Boston Latin School in 1983. According to his 2014 book, Jason Priestley, A Memoir, Jason Priestley writes that in 1992, he and Christine lived together and shared their lives for five years.
Elise had a recurring role in the final season of China Beach which she often cites as her best professional experience. She played the role of Kyle in the 1990 film Child 's Play 2. In 1993, she played Jenn Platt in the horror film Body Snatchers. She had a recurring role as Emily Valentine on Beverly Hills, 90210 and also appeared on the second season of ER for 17 episodes.
Following her stint on ER, Elise appeared on the short - lived Fox show L.A. Firefighters. She appeared in the TV movie Vanishing Point with Viggo Mortensen, who had requested that she play the role. They had met on another project, Boiling Point, though her role was largely written out. She had a recurring role on In the Heat of the Night and also appeared in an episode of Charmed. She was featured in the punk rock documentaries American Hardcore and All Ages: The Boston Hardcore Film.
Elise made her directorial debut with an award - winning short film she also wrote, produced, and starred in: Bathing and the Single Girl. Since December 2010, Bathing and the Single Girl has been screened at more than 100 festivals and has won 20 awards. Dystel & Goderich Literary Management represents her full - length novel of the same name, Bathing and the Single Girl, released in January 2014.
Elise has also been a programmer of Michigan 's Waterfront Film Festival since it was founded in 1999. She has also been involved in multiple capacities (juror, panelist, programmer, and moderator) with Sidewalk FF, Indie Memphis FF, Oxford FF, RxSM FF, Victoria Texas Independent FF, Kansas City Jubilee FF, Lady Filmmakers FF, and Portland Oregon Women 's FF.
Elise has also worked as a story producer since 2014, producing such reality shows as Hellevator (with the Soska Twins), Best Bars in America, Cold Justice, Tamar & Vince, and Rich in Faith.
On February 11, 2015, Elise appeared on Ken Reid 's TV Guidance Counselor Podcast.
Under her birth name (Christine Elise McCarthy), she has worked as a professional photographer, once (February 2008) showing her work at the 2nd Cup Cafe in Boston. In 2008, her photographs were displayed at the Paris restaurant Pink Flamingos. In April 2009, she participated in the Cambridge, Massachusetts, exhibit called "Burlesque As Art ''.
Currently, Elise maintains a food porn blog called Delightful - Delicious - Delovely at "Delightful Delicious Delovely '' and a vegan cooking show on YouTube - www.videovegan.com
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who is the first woman from africa to have won the nobel peace prize | Wangari Maathai - wikipedia
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai (wà ɡàˈɹɛ m ɑː ˈ t aɪ)); 1 April 1940 -- 25 September 2011) was an internationally renowned Kenyan environmental political activist and Nobel laureate. She was educated in the United States at Mount St. Scholastica (Benedictine College) and the University of Pittsburgh, as well as the University of Nairobi in Kenya.
In 1977, Maathai founded the Green Belt Movement, an environmental non-governmental organization focused on the planting of trees, environmental conservation, and women 's rights. In 1984, she was awarded the Right Livelihood Award, and in 2004, she became the first African woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for "her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace. '' Maathai was an elected member of Parliament and served as assistant minister for Environment and Natural resources in the government of President Mwai Kibaki between January 2003 and November 2005. She was an Honorary Councillor of the World Future Council. She made numerous achievements, was affiliated to many professional bodies and received several awards. In 2011, Maathai died of complications from ovarian cancer.
On 1 April 1940, Maathai was born in the village of Ihithe, Nyeri District, in the central highlands of the colony of Kenya. Her family was Kikuyu, the most populous ethnic group in Kenya, and had lived in the area for several generations. Around 1943, Maathai 's family relocated to a White - owned farm in the Rift Valley, near the town of Nakuru, where her father had found work. Late in 1947, she returned to Ihithe with her mother, as two of her brothers were attending primary school in the village, and there was no schooling available on the farm where her father worked. Her father remained at the farm. Shortly afterward, at the age of eight, she joined her brothers at Ihithe Primary School.
At age eleven, Maathai moved to St. Cecilia 's Intermediate Primary School, a boarding school at the Mathari Catholic Mission in Nyeri. Maathai studied at St. Cecilia 's for four years. During this time, she became fluent in English and converted to Catholicism. She was involved with the Legion of Mary, whose members attempted "to serve God by serving fellow human beings. '' Studying at St. Cecilia 's, she was sheltered from the ongoing Mau Mau uprising, which forced her mother to move from their homestead to an emergency village in Ihithe. When she completed her studies there in 1956, she was rated first in her class, and was granted admission to the only Catholic high school for girls in Kenya, Loreto High School in Limuru.
As the end of East African colonialism approached, Kenyan politicians, such as Tom Mboya, were proposing ways to make education in Western nations available to promising students. John F. Kennedy, then a United States Senator, agreed to fund such a program through the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation, initiating what became known as the Kennedy Airlift or Airlift Africa. Maathai became one of some 300 Kenyans selected to study in the United States in September 1960.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, p. 47.
She received a scholarship to study at Mount St. Scholastica College (now Benedictine College), in Atchison, Kansas, where she majored in biology, with minors in chemistry and German. After receiving her bachelor of science degree in 1964, she studied at the University of Pittsburgh for a master 's degree in biology. Her graduate studies there were funded by the Africa - America Institute, and during her time in Pittsburgh, she first experienced environmental restoration, when local environmentalists pushed to rid the city of air pollution. In January 1966, Maathai received her MSc in biological sciences, and was appointed to a position as research assistant to a professor of zoology at University College of Nairobi.
Upon returning to Kenya, Maathai dropped her forename, preferring to be known by her birth name, Wangarĩ Muta. When she arrived at the university to start her new job, she was informed that it had been given to someone else. Maathai believed this was because of gender and tribal bias. After a two - month job search, Professor Reinhold Hofmann, from the University of Giessen in Germany, offered her a job as a research assistant in the microanatomy section of the newly established Department of Veterinary Anatomy in the School of Veterinary Medicine at University College of Nairobi. In April 1966, she met Mwangi Mathai, another Kenyan who had studied in America, who would later become her husband. She also rented a small shop in the city, and established a general store, at which her sisters worked. In 1967, at the urging of Professor Hofmann, she traveled to the University of Giessen in Germany in pursuit of a doctorate. She studied both at Giessen and the University of Munich.
In the spring of 1969, she returned to Nairobi to continue studies at the University College of Nairobi as an assistant lecturer. In May, she and Mwangi Maathai married. Later that year, she became pregnant with her first child, and her husband campaigned for a seat in Parliament, narrowly losing. During the course of the election, Tom Mboya, who had been instrumental in founding the program which sent her overseas, was assassinated. This led to President Kenyatta effectually ending multi-party democracy in Kenya. Shortly after, her first son, Waweru, was born. In 1971, she became the first Eastern African woman to receive a PhD, her doctorate in veterinary anatomy, from the University College of Nairobi, which became the University of Nairobi the following year. She completed her dissertation on the development and differentiation of gonads in bovines. Her daughter, Wanjira, was born in December 1971.
Maathai continued to teach at Nairobi, becoming a senior lecturer in anatomy in 1975, chair of the Department of Veterinary Anatomy in 1976 and associate professor in 1977. She was the first woman in Nairobi appointed to any of these positions. During this time, she campaigned for equal benefits for the women working on the staff of the university, going so far as trying to turn the academic staff association of the university into a union, in order to negotiate for benefits. The courts denied this bid, but many of her demands for equal benefits were later met. In addition to her work at the University of Nairobi, Maathai became involved in a number of civic organizations in the early 1970s. She was a member of the Nairobi branch of the Kenya Red Cross Society, becoming its director in 1973. She was a member of the Kenya Association of University Women. Following the establishment of the Environment Liaison Centre in 1974, Maathai was asked to be a member of the local board, eventually becoming board chair. The Environment Liaison Centre worked to promote the participation of non-governmental organizations in the work of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), whose headquarters was established in Nairobi following the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. Maathai also joined the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). Through her work at these various volunteer associations, it became evident to Maathai that the root of most of Kenya 's problems was environmental degradation.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, pp. 182 -- 183.
In 1974, Maathai 's family expanded to include her third child, son Muta. Her husband campaigned again for a seat in Parliament, hoping to represent the Lang'ata constituency, and won. During his campaign, he had promised to find jobs to limit the rising unemployment in Kenya. These promises led Maathai to connect her ideas of environmental restoration to providing jobs for the unemployed and led to the founding of Envirocare Ltd., a business that involved the planting of trees to conserve the environment, involving ordinary people in the process. This led to the planting of her first tree nursery, collocated with a government tree nursery in Karura Forest. Envirocare ran into multiple problems, primarily dealing with funding. The project failed. However, through conversations concerning Envirocare and her work at the Environment Liaison Centre, UNEP made it possible to send Maathai to the first UN conference on human settlements, known as Habitat I, in June 1976.
In 1977, Maathai spoke to the NCWK concerning her attendance at Habitat I. She proposed further tree planting, which the council supported. On 5 June 1977, marking World Environment Day, the NCWK marched in a procession from Kenyatta International Conference Centre in downtown Nairobi to Kamukunji Park on the outskirts of the city where they planted seven trees in honor of historical community leaders. This was the first "Green Belt '' which was first known as the "Save the Land Harambee '' and then became the Green Belt Movement. Maathai encouraged the women of Kenya to plant tree nurseries throughout the country, searching nearby forests for seeds to grow trees native to the area. She agreed to pay the women a small stipend for each seedling which was later planted elsewhere.
In her 2010 book, Replenishing the Earth: Spiritual Values for Healing Ourselves and the World, she discussed the impact of the Green Belt Movement, explaining that the group 's civic and environmental seminars stressed "the importance of communities taking responsibility for their actions and mobilizing to address their local needs, '' and adding, "We all need to work hard to make a difference in our neighborhoods, regions, and countries, and in the world as a whole. That means making sure we work hard, collaborate with each other, and make ourselves better agents to change. ''
Maathai and her husband, Mwangi Mathai, separated in 1977. After a lengthy separation, Mwangi filed for divorce in 1979. Mwangi was said to have believed Wangari was "too strong - minded for a woman '' and that he was "unable to control her ''. In addition to naming her as "cruel '' in court filings, he publicly accused her of adultery with another Member of Parliament, which in turn was thought to cause his high blood pressure and the judge ruled in Mwangi 's favor. Shortly after the trial, in an interview with Viva magazine, Maathai referred to the judge as either incompetent or corrupt. The interview later led the judge to charge Maathai with contempt of court. She was found guilty and sentenced to six months in jail. After three days in Lang'ata Women 's Prison in Nairobi, her lawyer formulated a statement which the court found sufficient for her release. Shortly after the divorce, her former husband sent a letter via his lawyer demanding that Maathai drop his surname. She chose to add an extra "a '' instead.
The divorce had been costly, and with lawyers ' fees and the loss of her husband 's income, Maathai found it difficult to provide for herself and her children on her university wages. An opportunity arose to work for the Economic Commission for Africa through the United Nations Development Programme. As this job required extended travel throughout Africa and was based primarily in Lusaka, Zambia, she was unable to bring her children with her. Maathai chose to send them to her ex-husband and take the job. While she visited them regularly, they lived with their father until 1985.
In 1979, shortly after the divorce, Maathai ran for the position of chairperson of the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK), an umbrella organization consisting of many women 's organizations in the country. The newly elected President of Kenya, Daniel arap Moi, tried to limit the amount of influence those of the Kikuyu ethnicity held in the country, including in volunteer civic organizations such as the NCWK. She lost this election by three votes, but was overwhelmingly chosen to be the vice-chairman of the organization. The following year, Maathai again ran for chairman of the NCWK. Again she was opposed, she believes, by the government. When it became apparent that Maathai was going to win the election, Maendeleo Ya Wanawake, a member organization which represented a majority of Kenya 's rural women and whose leader was close to Arap Moi, withdrew from the NCWK. Maathai was then elected chairman of the NCWK unopposed. However, Maendeleo Ya Wanawake came to receive a majority of the financial support for women 's programs in the country, and NCWK was left virtually bankrupt. Future funding was much more difficult to come by, but the NCWK survived by increasing its focus on the environment and making its presence and work known. Maathai continued to be reelected to serve as chairman of the organization every year until she retired from the position in 1987.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, pp. 161.
In 1982, the Parliamentary seat representing her home region of Nyeri was open, and Maathai decided to campaign for the seat. As required by law, she resigned her position with the University of Nairobi to campaign for office. The courts decided that she was ineligible to run for office because she had not re-registered to vote in the last presidential election in 1979. Maathai believed this to be false and illegal, and brought the matter to court. The court was to meet at nine in the morning, and if she received a favorable ruling, was required to present her candidacy papers in Nyeri by three in the afternoon that day. The judge disqualified her from running on a technicality. When she requested her job back, she was denied. As she lived in university housing and was no longer a staff member, she was evicted.
Maathai moved into a small home she had purchased years before, and focused on the NCWK while she searched for employment. In the course of her work through the NCWK, she was approached by Wilhelm Elsrud, executive director of the Norwegian Forestry Society. He wished to partner with the Green Belt Movement and offered her the position of coordinator. Employed again, Maathai poured her efforts into the Green Belt Movement. Along with the partnership for the Norwegian Forestry Society, the movement had also received "seed money '' from the United Nations Voluntary Fund for Women. These funds allowed for the expansion of the movement, for hiring additional employees to oversee the operations, and for continuing to pay a small stipend to the women who planted seedlings throughout the country. It allowed her to refine the operations of the movement, paying a small stipend to the women 's husbands and sons who were literate and able to keep accurate records of seedlings planted.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, pp. 137 -- 138.
The UN held the third global women 's conference in Nairobi. During the conference, Maathai arranged seminars and presentations to describe the work the Green Belt Movement was doing in Kenya. She escorted delegates to see nurseries and plant trees. She met Peggy Snyder, the head of UNIFEM, and Helvi Sipilä, the first woman appointed a UN assistant secretary general. The conference helped to expand funding for the Green Belt Movement and led to the movement 's establishing itself outside Kenya. In 1986, with funding from UNEP, the movement expanded throughout Africa and led to the foundation of the Pan-African Green Belt Network. Forty - five representatives from fifteen African countries travelled to Kenya over the next three years to learn how to set up similar programs in their own countries to combat desertification, deforestation, water crises, and rural hunger. The attention the movement received in the media led to Maathai 's being honored with numerous awards. The government of Kenya, however, demanded that the Green Belt Movement separate from the NCWK, believing the latter should focus solely on women 's issues, not the environment. Therefore, in 1987, Maathai stepped down as chairman of the NCWK and focused on the newly separate non-governmental organization.
In the latter half of the 1980s, the Kenyan government came down against Maathai and the Green Belt Movement. The single - party regime opposed many of the movement 's positions regarding democratic rights. The government invoked a colonial - era law prohibiting groups of more than nine people from meeting without a government license. In 1988, the Green Belt Movement carried out pro-democracy activities such as registering voters for the election and pressing for constitutional reform and freedom of expression. The government carried out electoral fraud in the elections to maintain power, according to Maathai.
In October 1989, Maathai learned of a plan to construct the 60 - story Kenya Times Media Trust Complex in Uhuru Park. The complex was intended to house the headquarters of KANU, the Kenya Times newspaper, a trading center, offices, an auditorium, galleries, shopping malls, and parking space for 2,000 cars. The plan also included a large statue of President Daniel Arap Moi. Maathai wrote many letters in protest to, among others, the Kenya Times, the Office of the President, the Nairobi city commission, the provincial commissioner, the minister for environment and natural resources, the executive directors of UNEP and the Environment Liaison Centre International, the executive director of the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the ministry of public works, and the permanent secretary in the department of international security and administration all received letters. She wrote to Sir John Johnson, the British high commissioner in Nairobi, urging him to intervene with Robert Maxwell, a major shareholder in the project, equating the construction of a tower in Uhuru Park to such construction in Hyde Park or Central Park and maintaining that it could not be tolerated.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, p. 192.
The government refused to respond to her inquiries and protests, instead responding through the media that Maathai was "a crazy woman ''; that denying the project in Uhuru Park would take more than a small portion of public park land; and proclaiming the project as a "fine and magnificent work of architecture '' opposed by only the "ignorant few. '' On 8 November 1989, Parliament expressed outrage at Maathai 's actions, complaining of her letters to foreign organizations and calling the Green Belt Movement a bogus organization and its members "a bunch of divorcees ''. They suggested that if Maathai was so comfortable writing to Europeans, perhaps she should go live in Europe.
Despite Maathai 's protests, as well as popular protest growing throughout the city, the ground was broken at Uhuru Park for construction of the complex on 15 November 1989. Maathai sought an injunction in the Kenya High Court to halt construction, but the case was thrown out on 11 December. In his first public comments pertaining to the project, President Daniel Arap Moi stated that those who opposed the project had "insects in their heads ''. On 12 December, in Uhuru Park, during a speech celebrating independence from the British, President Moi suggested Maathai be a proper woman in the African tradition and respect men and be quiet. She was forced by the government to vacate her office, and the Green Belt Movement was moved into her home. The government then audited the Green Belt Movement in an apparent attempt to shut it down. Despite all this, her protests, the government 's response -- and the media coverage it garnered -- led foreign investors to cancel the project in January 1990.
In January 1992, it came to the attention of Maathai and other pro-democracy activists that a list of people were targeted for assassination and that a government - sponsored coup was possible. Maathai 's name was on the list. The pro-democracy group, known as the Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD), presented its information to the media, calling for a general election. Later that day, Maathai received a warning that one of their members had been arrested. Maathai decided to barricade herself in her home. Shortly thereafter, police arrived and surrounded the house. She was besieged for three days before police cut through the bars she had installed on her windows, came in, and arrested her. She and the other pro-democracy activists who had been arrested were charged with spreading malicious rumors, sedition, and treason. After a day and a half in jail, they were brought to a hearing and released on bail. A variety of international organizations and eight senators (including Al Gore and Edward M. Kennedy) put pressure on the Kenyan government to substantiate the charges against the pro-democracy activists or risk damaging relations with the United States. In November 1992, the Kenyan government dropped the charges.
On 28 February 1992, while released on bail, Maathai and others took part in a hunger strike in a corner of Uhuru Park, which they labeled Freedom Corner, to pressure the government to release political prisoners. After four days of hunger strike, on 3 March 1992, the police forcibly removed the protesters. Maathai and three others were knocked unconscious by police and hospitalized. President Daniel arap Moi called her "a mad woman '' and "a threat to the order and security of the country ''. The attack drew international criticism. The US State Department said it was "deeply concerned '' by the violence and by the forcible removal of the hunger strikers. When the prisoners were not released, the protesters -- mostly mothers of those in prison -- moved their protest to All Saints Cathedral, the seat of the Anglican Archbishop in Kenya, across from Uhuru Park. The protest there continued, with Maathai contributing frequently, until early 1993, when the prisoners were finally released.
During this time, Maathai was recognized with various awards internationally, but the Kenyan government did not appreciate her work. In 1991 she received the Goldman Environmental Prize in San Francisco and the Hunger Project 's Africa Prize for Leadership in London. CNN aired a three - minute segment about the Goldman prize, but when it aired in Kenya, that segment was cut out. In June 1992, during the long protest at Uhuru Park, both Maathai and President arap Moi travelled to Rio de Janeiro for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit). The Kenyan government accused Maathai of inciting women and encouraging them to strip at Freedom Corner, urging that she not be allowed to speak at the summit. Despite this, Maathai was chosen to be a chief spokesperson at the summit.
During the first multi-party election of Kenya, in 1992, Maathai strove to unite the opposition and for fair elections in Kenya. The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) had fractured into FORD - Kenya (led by Oginga Odinga) and FORD - Asili (led by Kenneth Matiba); former vice president Mwai Kibaki had left the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) party, and formed the Democratic Party. Maathai and many others believed such a fractured opposition would lead to KANU 's retaining control of the country, so they formed the Middle Ground Group in an effort to unite the opposition. Maathai was chosen to serve as its chairperson. Also during the election, Maathai and like - minded opposition members formed the Movement for Free and Fair Elections. Despite their efforts, the opposition did not unite, and the ruling KANU party used intimidation and state - held media to win the election, retaining control of parliament.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, p. 206.
The following year, ethnic clashes occurred throughout Kenya. Maathai believed they were incited by the government, who had warned of stark consequences to multi-party democracy. Maathai travelled with friends and the press to areas of violence in order to encourage them to cease fighting. With the Green Belt Movement she planted "trees of peace '', but before long her actions were opposed by the government. The conflict areas were labeled as "no go zones '', and in February 1993 the president claimed that Maathai had masterminded a distribution of leaflets inciting Kikuyus to attack Kalenjins. After her friend and supporter Dr. Makanga was kidnapped, Maathai chose to go into hiding. While in hiding, Maathai was invited to a meeting in Tokyo of the Green Cross International, an environmental organization recently founded by former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. When Maathai responded that she could not attend as she did not believe the government would allow her to leave the country and she was in hiding, Gorbachev pressured the government of Kenya to allow her to travel freely. President arap Moi denied limiting her travel, and she was allowed to leave the country, although too late for the meeting in Tokyo. Maathai was again recognized internationally, and she flew to Scotland to receive the Edinburgh Medal in April 1993. In May she went to Chicago to receive the Jane Addams International Women 's Leadership Award, and in June she attended the UN 's World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna.
During the elections of 1997, Maathai again wished to unite the opposition in order to defeat the ruling party. In November, less than two months before the election, she decided to run for parliament and for president as a candidate of the Liberal Party. Her intentions were widely questioned in the press; many believed she should simply stick to running the Green Belt Movement and stay out of politics. On the day of the election, a rumour that Maathai had withdrawn from the election and endorsed another candidate was printed in the media. Maathai garnered few votes and lost the election.
In the summer of 1998, Maathai learned of a government plan to privatize large areas of public land in the Karura Forest, just outside Nairobi, and give it to political supporters. Maathai protested this through letters to the government and the press. She went with the Green Belt Movement to Karura Forest, planting trees and protesting the destruction of the forest. On 8 January 1999, a group of protesters including Maathai, six opposition MPs, journalists, international observers, and Green Belt members and supporters returned to the forest to plant a tree in protest. The entry to the forest was guarded by a large group of men. When she tried to plant a tree in an area that had been designated to be cleared for a golf course, the group was attacked. Many of the protesters were injured, including Maathai, four MPs, some of the journalists, and German environmentalists. When she reported the attack to the police, they refused to return with her to the forest to arrest her attackers. However, the attack had been filmed by Maathai 's supporters, and the event provoked international outrage. Student protests broke out throughout Nairobi, and some of these groups were violently broken up by the police. Protests continued until 16 August 1999, when the president announced that he was banning all allocation of public land.
In 2001, the government again planned to take public forest land and give it to its supporters. While protesting this and collecting petition signatures on 7 March 2001, in Wang'uru village near Mount Kenya, Maathai was again arrested. The following day, following international and popular protest at her arrest, she was released without being charged. On 7 July 2001, shortly after planting trees at Freedom Corner in Uhuru Park in Nairobi to commemorate Saba Saba Day, Maathai was again arrested. Later that evening, she was again released without being charged. In January 2002, Maathai returned to teaching as the Dorothy McCluskey Visiting Fellow for Conservation at the Yale University 's School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. She remained there until June 2002, teaching a course on sustainable development focused on the work of the Green Belt Movement.
Upon her return to Kenya, Maathai again campaigned for parliament in the 2002 elections, this time as a candidate of the National Rainbow Coalition, the umbrella organization which finally united the opposition. On 27 December 2002, the Rainbow Coalition defeated the ruling party Kenya African National Union, and in Tetu Constituency Maathai won with an overwhelming 98 % of the vote. In January 2003, she was appointed Assistant Minister in the Ministry for Environment and Natural Resources and served in that capacity until November 2005. She founded the Mazingira Green Party of Kenya in 2003 to allow candidates to run on a platform of conservation as embodied by the Green Belt Movement. It is a member of the Federation of Green Parties of Africa and the Global Greens.
Wangarĩ Maathai was awarded the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize for her "contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace ''. She had received a call from Ole Danbolt Mjos, chair of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, on 8 October informing her of the news. She became the first African woman, and the first environmentalist, to win the prize.
Wangarĩ Muta Maathai -- Unbowed, p. 291 - 292.
The 2016 documentary Innsaei: The Power of Intuition is dedicated to her memory.
Controversy arose when it was reported by The Standard that Maathai had claimed HIV / AIDS was "deliberately created by Western scientists to decimate the African population. '' Maathai denied making the allegations, but The Standard has stood by its reports.
In a 2004 interview with Time, in response to questions concerning that report, Maathai replied, "I have no idea who created AIDS and whether it is a biological agent or not. But I do know things like that do n't come from the moon. I have always thought that it is important to tell people the truth, but I guess there is some truth that must not be too exposed, '' and when asked what she meant, she continued, "I 'm referring to AIDS. I am sure people know where it came from. And I 'm quite sure it did not come from the monkeys. '' In response she issued the following statement:
On 28 March 2005, Maathai was elected the first president of the African Union 's Economic, Social and Cultural Council and was appointed a goodwill ambassador for an initiative aimed at protecting the Congo Basin Forest Ecosystem. In 2006, she was one of the eight flag - bearers at the 2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony. Also on 21 May 2006, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by and gave the commencement address at Connecticut College. She supported the International Year of Deserts and Desertification program. In November 2006, she spearheaded the United Nations Billion Tree Campaign. Maathai was one of the founders of the Nobel Women 's Initiative along with sister Nobel Peace laureates Jody Williams, Shirin Ebadi, Rigoberta Menchú Tum, Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan Maguire. Six women representing North America and South America, Europe, the Middle East and Africa decided to bring together their experiences in a united effort for peace with justice and equality. It is the goal of the Nobel Women 's Initiative to help strengthen work being done in support of women 's rights around the world.
In August 2006, then United States Senator Barack Obama traveled to Kenya. His father was educated in America through the same program as Maathai. She and the Senator met and planted a tree together in Uhuru Park in Nairobi. Obama called for freedom of the press to be respected, saying, "Press freedom is like tending a garden; it continually has to be nurtured and cultivated. The citizenry has to value it because it 's one of those things that can slip away if we 're not vigilant. '' He deplored global ecological losses, singling out President George W. Bush 's refusal to join the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its subsidiary, the Kyoto Protocol.
Maathai was defeated in the Party of National Unity 's primary elections for its parliamentary candidates in November 2007 and chose to instead run as the candidate of a smaller party. She was defeated in the December 2007 parliamentary election. She called for a recount of votes in the presidential election (officially won by Mwai Kibaki, but disputed by the opposition) in her constituency, saying that both sides should feel the outcome was fair and that there were indications of fraud.
In June 2009, Maathai was named as one of PeaceByPeace. com 's first peace heroes. Until her death in 2011, Maathai served on the Eminent Advisory Board of the Association of European Parliamentarians with Africa (AWEPA).
Wangarĩ Maathai died on 25 September 2011 of complications arising from ovarian cancer while receiving treatment at a Nairobi hospital.
In 2012, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests CPF, an international consortium of 14 organizations, secretariats and institutions working on international forest issues, launched the inaugural Wangarĩ Maathai Forest Champion Award. The 2012 inaugural winner of the Award was Narayan Kaji Shrestha.
Other winners include:
The 2017 award was presented at the 4th Global Landscapes Forum (GLF) in Bonn, Germany, 19 -- 20 December 2017 to Maria Margarida Ribeiro da Silva. Maria Margarida Ribeiro da Silva, a Brazilian forestry activist, was awarded the Wangarĩ Maathai Forest Champion Award for her achievements in promoting community forest management and improving the quality of life for many Amazonian communities. In addition to being awarded the 2017 Wangarĩ Maathai Forest Champion Award, Ribiero da Silva also received a cash prize of $20,000 USD.
In 2012, Wangarĩ Gardens opened in Washington, DC. Wangarĩ Gardens is 2.7 acre community garden project for local residents which consists of over 55 garden allotments. This community garden honours the legacy of Wangarĩ Maathai and her mission for community engagement and environmental protection. The Wangarĩ Gardens consist of a community garden, youth garden, outdoor classroom, pollinator hive and public fruit tree orchard, vegetable garden, herb garden, berry garden and strawberry patch. Within the garden complex there are personal garden plots and public gardens. The personal plots are available to residents living within 1.5 miles of the community garden. Personal plot holders are required to contribute 1 hour monthly to the maintenance of the public gardens. The public gardens and orchard are maintained by plot holders and volunteers, and are open to everyone to enjoy and harvest. The Wangarĩ Gardens has no direct affiliation with the Green Belt Movement or the Wangarĩ Maathai Foundation but was inspired by Wangarĩ Maathai and her work and passion for the environment.
On 25 September 2013, the Wangarĩ Maathai Trees and Garden was dedicated on the lawn of the University of Pittsburgh 's Cathedral of Learning. The memorial includes two red maples symbolizing Maathai 's "commitment to the environment, her founding of the Green Belt Movement, and her roots in Kenya and in Pittsburgh '' and a flower garden planted in a circular shape that representing her "global vision and dedication to the women and children of the world '' with an ornamental maple tree in the middle signifying "how one small seed can change the world ''.
In 2014, at what would have been her 50 - year reunion, her Mount St. Scholastica classmates and Benedictine College unveiled a statue of the Nobel laureate at her alma mater 's Atchison, Kansas campus.
In October 2016, Forest Road in Nairobi was renamed to Wangarĩ Maathai Road for her efforts to oppose several attempts to degrade forests and public parks through the Green Belt Movement.
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the mathura refinery gets its crude supply from | Mathura refinery - Wikipedia
The Mathura Refinery, owned by Indian Oil Corporation, is the sixth refinery of IndianOil located in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. The refinery processes low sulphur crude from Bombay High, imported low sulphur crude from Nigeria, and high sulphur crude from the Middle East.
The refinery, which cost Rs. 253.92 crores to build, was commissioned on 19th January. Construction began on the refinery in October 1972. The foundation stone was laid by Indira Gandhi, the former prime minister of India. The FCCU and Sulphur Recovery Units were commissioned in January, 1983. The refinery was commissioned with a refining capacity of 6.0 MMTPA and The refining capacity of this refinery was expanded to 7.5 MMTPA in 1989 by debottlenecking and revamping. A DHDS Unit was commissioned in 1989 for production of HSD with low sulphur content of 0.25 % wt. (max.). The present refining capacity of this refinery is 8.00 MMTPA.
In January 2009, the plant shut down for a period of time due to a strike.
The refinery was in the news for allegedly causing the white marble of the Taj Mahal to yellow. It is located about 50 kilometers away from the Taj Mahal. It is currently asking the Indian government to allow an expansion, raising the capacity to 11 million tonnes. The refinery also wants to create a new garbage disposal site, which has garnered new outrage from environmental activists because the site will be located even closer to the Taj Mahal and Mathura. The Mathura oil refinery releases toxic gases and disposes waste into the rivers making the area dirty and unhealthy. Even the Taj Mahal is getting affected because of this. The Indian government hired a panel to examine the effects of the refinery on the Taj Mahal. The panel found that the air has high levels of suspended particulate matter, caused by factory emissions, dust, construction, and exhaust from automobiles. These are causing the Taj Mahal to change color.
In 1998 the plant was awarded the "Best of all '' Rajiv Gandhi National Quality Award. Presently Mathura Refinery is producing BS VI standard fuels and supplying to Delhi NCR. A corporate MyStamp of the refinery has also been published by the Postal Department for recognising the contributions of the refinery towards environment conscience.
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where does true detective season 2 take place | True Detective (season 2) - Wikipedia
The second season of True Detective, an American anthology crime drama television series created by Nic Pizzolatto, began airing on June 21, 2015, on the premium cable network HBO. With a principal cast of Colin Farrell, Rachel McAdams, Taylor Kitsch, Kelly Reilly, and Vince Vaughn, the season comprises eight episodes and concluded its initial airing on August 9, 2015.
The season 's story takes place in California and follows the interweaving stories of officers from three cooperating police departments; when California Highway Patrol officer and war veteran Paul Woodrugh (Kitsch) discovers the body of corrupt city manager Ben Caspere on the side of a highway, Vinci Police Department detective Raymond "Ray '' Velcoro (Farrell) and Ventura County Sheriff 's Office Criminal Investigation Division Sergeant Antigone "Ani '' Bezzerides (McAdams) are called to assist in the following investigation. Career criminal Francis "Frank '' Semyon (Vaughn) attempts to legitimize his business with his wife Jordan (Reilly) by investing in a rail project overseen by Caspere, but loses his money when Caspere is killed, prompting him to start his own investigation.
In January 2014, Pizzolatto signed a two - year contract extension with HBO, effectively renewing the series for two additional seasons. Much like its predecessor, season two of True Detective consists of eight episodes, all written by Pizzolatto. However, the responsibility of directing was assigned to several people; Justin Lin directed the first two episodes, and, in July 2014, William Friedkin was being considered as a director of later episodes. Fukunaga, who directed all of season one, did not return as director; he remains, however, an executive producer, as do McConaughey and Harrelson. Pizzolatto hired fellow novelist Scott Lasser to help break stories for the second half of the season.
The success of True Detective, and its subsequent renewal, fueled casting rumors in the press. At one point, early media reports named Cate Blanchett, Josh Brolin, Joaquin Phoenix, Garrett Hedlund, Michael Fassbender, Jessica Chastain, Christian Bale, Elisabeth Moss, and Brad Pitt to be among a raft of potential candidates for the leads. The season 's first significant casting was Colin Farrell as Ray Velcoro, which he revealed in his September 2014 interview with the Sunday World. Vince Vaughn, playing the role of Frank Semyon, became HBO 's next important signing toward the end of the month. By November, True Detective 's principal cast expanded to include Rachel McAdams, Taylor Kitsch, and Kelly Reilly.
California was selected as the setting for the second season. Producers were urged to avoid filming in Los Angeles and, instead, focus on the more obscure regions of the state to "capture a certain psycho - sphere ambiance ''. Production began in November 2014.
T Bone Burnett returned as composer for the second season, and the score for the season is more electronic - influenced than the previous season. Burnett noted that the change in landscape, to California, also changed how he wrote the music. Leonard Cohen 's "Nevermind '' is the season two opening theme, which is a song off Cohen 's 2014 album, Popular Problems. The theme song 's lyrics change with every episode, incorporating different verses from Cohen 's song. Lera Lynn 's music is featured throughout the season, and the song "The Only Thing Worth Fighting For '', which she composed with Burnett and Rosanne Cash, is used in the season two trailer. Lynn collaborated with Burnett on writing several original songs for the series, with cues from creator Nic Pizzolatto regarding lyrics and content. Lynn also portrays a bar singer in the season, where several of her songs are used, including "My Least Favorite Life '', which was written by Cash.
The trope of masculinity continued in season two. Vox 's Todd VanDerWerff stated, "... above all else, True Detective wants to explore the role of men in society. '' "Yet if season one was already interested in the topic, then season two has nearly jumped off the cliff with its obsessions, to the degree that Rachel McAdams 's Ani is defined largely by her rejection of the more open and traditionally "feminine '' New Age philosophy of her father and her embrace of the hardened, traditionally "masculine '' life of the emotionally closed - off police officer, '' he continued. VanDerWerff also noted that season two 's three male leads are all dealing with their own issues of masculinity; "Ray seems tortured by having to exist as a man in this world that does n't share his ideals, '' "Frank is trying to walk a very noble, masculine path by taking his dark, dirty enterprise legitimate, '' and "(Paul) is mostly playing out a very typical story of a deeply repressed gay man who 's trying to fight back his own impulses. ''
The second season received generally positive reviews, praising the performances of Farrell, McAdams and Kitsch, its cinematography, and action sequences. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 65 %, based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "True Detective 's second season stands on its own as a solid police drama, with memorable moments and resonant relationships outweighing predictable plot twists. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 61 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
David Hinckley of the New York Daily News gave it a very positive review, and wrote "It 's still the kind of show that makes TV viewers reach for phrases like ' golden age of television drama ' '' and that "the second installment of True Detective goes out of the way not to echo the first. '' Hank Stuever of The Washington Post gave it a generally positive review, praising the performances, and wrote, "There is something still lugubrious and overwrought about True Detective, but there 's also a mesmerizing style to it -- it 's imperfect, but well made. ''
A more mixed review came from Brian Lowry of Variety, who wrote "Although generally watchable, the inspiration that turned the first (season) into an obsession for many seems to have drained out of writer Nic Pizzolatto 's prose. ''
The season was named one of the worst television programs of 2015, from many major new outlets such as Variety, The New York Post, Newsday, and TV Guide.
For the 6th Critics ' Choice Television Awards, Rachel McAdams received a nomination for Best Actress in a Movie Made for Television or Limited Series.
The second season of True Detective was released on Blu - ray and DVD on January 5, 2016. In addition to the eight episodes, both formats contain bonus content including a making - of featurette of "The Vinci Massacre '', interviews with cast and crew, audio commentary for "Down Will Come '' by Nic Pizzolatto, Colin Farrell, Vince Vaughn, Taylor Kitsch and Rachel McAdams, and an audio commentary for "Omega Station '' by Nic Pizzolatto, Scott Stephens, Colin Farrell and Vince Vaughn.
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when does denny die on grey's anatomy | Losing My Religion (Grey 's Anatomy) - wikipedia
"Losing My Religion '' is the twenty - seventh and final episode of the second season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the show 's 36th episode overall. Written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Mark Tinker, the episode was originally broadcast with "Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response '', in a two - hour season finale event on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on May 15, 2006. Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of young doctors in training. In this episode, Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and her fellow interns have to plan a prom for Dr. Richard Webber 's (James Pickens, Jr.) niece Camille Travis (Tessa Thompson). Further storylines include Dr. Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) recovering from his gunshot wound and Denny Duquette 's (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) death following his seemingly successful heart transplant surgery.
The episode marked Sara Ramirez 's (Dr. Callie Torres) final appearance with recurring billing, as she would be upgraded to a series regular in season three. Morgan, Ramirez, Thompson, Brooke Smith, Sarah Utterback, Loretta Devine, and Chris O'Donnell reprised their roles as guest stars, while Hallee Hirsh and Tiffany Hines made their first and only appearances. The episode received mixed to negative reviews from television critics, who disapproved of the storyline involving Grey and Shepherd and the show 's lack of repercussions for the interns, but lauded Dr. Cristina Yang 's (Sandra Oh) storyline along with Heigl 's performance. "Losing My Religion '' was also included in several "best episodes '' lists. Upon its initial airing, the episode was viewed 22.50 million Americans, garnered an 8.0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership, and registering as the week 's second highest - rated drama.
Dr. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) and Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) finish Dr. Preston Burke 's (Isaiah Washington) surgery to remove a pseudo-aneurysm in the subclavian artery that threatened the functioning of his arm and which was caused by a gunshot wound. At the same time, Dr. Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith) successfully transplants a heart into Denny Duquette (Jeffrey Dean Morgan). The interns face Webber, who orders them to plan a prom for his dying niece, Camille Travis (Tessa Thompson), until the one who cut Duquette 's left ventricular assist device (LVAD) comes forward. With the instructions of Camille 's friends, Claire (Hallee Hirsh) and Natalie (Tiffany Hines), they prepare the prom as they each struggle with their own personal problems. Trying to recover from his injury, Burke finds a tremor in his right hand.
Dr. Meredith Grey 's (Ellen Pompeo) love interest Dr. Finn Dandrige (Chris O'Donnell), the vet of Doc -- the dog she shares with Shepherd -- informs her that Doc has had several seizures due to his bone cancer and that she and Shepherd have to make a decision. Webber interrogates the interns individually about Duquette 's LVAD wire, but only learns about their personal problems instead. Dr. Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) finally accepts Duquette 's marriage proposal. At Dandridge 's office, Grey and Shepherd, joined by Dr. Addison Montgomery - Shepherd (Kate Walsh), decide to put Doc to sleep.
The hospital staff begins to arrive at the prom and Dr. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Dr. George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) discuss the status of their relationship, which leads to the former admitting her love and commitment. During the dance, Grey and Shepherd escape Dandridge and Montgomery to have a heated argument that leads to sexual intercourse. In the meantime, as Duquette waits for Stevens alone in his room, he experiences a sudden sense of pain, and unexpectedly dies. While Webber is sitting in the operating room gallery and reflecting on his career, Dr. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) announces Duquette 's death.
News of the death spreads, and the interns hurry to his room to find a shocked Stevens, lying on the bed, clinging to his still form. As they each try to comfort her, the cause of his death is revealed to have been a blood clot that led to a fatal stroke. Stevens says that if she had taken less time to dress, she would have arrived at his room sooner and could have been with him while he died. Dr. Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) then talks to Stevens, picking her up and hugging her. Afterward, Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), who did not know how to handle Burke 's situation, goes to his room and puts her hand on his to show him her support. As the episode ends, Stevens confesses to Webber that she was the one responsible for the LVAD wire cut, and claiming she can not be a surgeon, quits the program. After everyone begins going their separate ways, Grey remains torn on who she should follow: Shepherd or Dandridge.
The episode was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by filmmaker Mark Tinker, while Ed Ornelas edited it. It was the last episode to feature Sara Ramirez as a guest star, as she began receiving star billing in the season three premiere. Morgan, Ramirez, Thompson, Smith, Utterback, Devine, and O'Donnell reprised their roles as Duquette, Torres, Travis, Hahn, Harper, Adele, and Dandridge, respectively, while Hirsh and Hines made their first and only appearances as Claire and Natalie, respectively. The soundtrack of the episode consisted of Pete Droge 's "Under the Waves '', Dressy Bessy 's "Side 2 '', Amos Lee 's "Colors '', Masha Qrella 's "Destination Vertical '', Kate Havnevik 's "Grace '', and Snow Patrol 's "Chasing Cars ''. The American profile of Northern Irish band Snow Patrol increased after their single was used in this episode. Lead singer Gary Lightbody was initially uncertain about licensing a song for the soundtrack, but has since admitted that the publicity had a positive effect.
Rhimes entitled the episode "Losing My Religion '' because she felt "that is what happens to each intern in this episode. Each intern lets go of the things they 've held onto all season. George lets go of loving Meredith. Cristina lets go of her well - checked emotions. Izzie is forced to let go of her idealism. And that leads to her letting go of medicine. Alex lets go of his rage against Izzie. And Meredith... well, Meredith just lets go. '' The costumes were designed by Mimi Melgaard; Rhimes noted that everyone was dressed in dark funeral colors to the prom, except Stevens who was dressed in pink. Stevens ' dress was an Amsale creation. Monologues done by the five main characters were used in this episode. Rhimes commented: "this was something we 'd never done and I was n't sure would work. But you place those pages into the hands of the actors and each and every one of them layered their characters ' souls right into the dialogue. '' The episode 's theme was the prom; Rhimes said she wanted to do it since the beginning of the season.
"Losing My Religion '' was originally broadcast on May 15, 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), along with "Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response ''. The episodes were watched by a total of 22.50 million Americans. It represents a slight decrease in comparison to the episode airing the previous night, "17 Seconds '', which garnered 22.60 million viewers. The episode received an 8.0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership, and registering as the week 's second highest - rated drama. The episode 's rating outranked CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and CSI: Miami, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) 's The Apprentice, and the Fox Broadcasting Company 's 24.
The episode received mixed to negative reviews among critics. Joel Keller of The Huffington Post expressed mixed opinions on the episode, putting the emphasis on Yang 's development, whom he deemed "transformed '' by the end of the episode. He applauded Torres ' evolution throughout the episode, and also praised Heigl 's performance and dress. Keller criticized the non-realism of the punishment the interns received, Grey and Shepherd 's storyline being tiresome, and the cliffhanger, calling it a "lame cliché ''. Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Maureen Ryan gave a negative review of the episode, stating: "overall, the whole thing just fell a little flat. '' Though Ryan appreciated the scene of Doc 's death, she was critical of Torres ' underdevelopment, the lack of chemistry with O'Malley, and her prom dress. Abigail Chao of Television Without Pity was also critical of Torres ' dress, but liked Heigl 's pink dress. She also applauded Karev 's intervening to calm Stevens down, and agreed that Grey 's cliffhanger was not good.
Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle criticized Stevens ' ethics for cutting Duquette 's LVAD wire, writing that she "should not be practising medicine ''. Alan Sepinwall, a former television columnist for The Star - Ledger, commented favorably on Karev "finally displaying some humanity '' in the scene following Duquette 's death. He was critical of Shepherd 's arc, however, and on the absence of severe consequences for Stevens having cut the LVAD wire, an action he called "insane and dangerous ''. This episode was included on the list for the "25 Sexiest TV Shows on DVD '' by magazine Entertainment Weekly. It was also listed in Entertainment Weekly 's "20 Unforgettable Proms '' and in Starpulse 's "Top Ten TV Proms ''. AOL TV placed the hook - up scene involving Grey and Shepherd on its Top 20 of TV 's Sexiest Scenes. In 2009, TV Guide ranked "Losing My Religion '' # 63 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes. In 2013, the magazine named Duquette 's death one of TV 's Most Heartbreaking Deaths. In December 2011, Wetpaint named "Losing My Religion '' one of the five best episodes of the series.
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where is the world's highest waterfall located | List of waterfalls by height - wikipedia
The following is a list of waterfalls of the world by height. Underwater falls are not included. Each column (Waterfall, Height, Locality, Country) is sortable by using the up / down link in the column heading 's at the top of each column.
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the smoke in london smog came primarily from | Smog - wikipedia
Smog is a type of air pollutant. The word "smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog, its opacity, and odour. The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century. This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, smoke or dirt particles and also less visible particles such as CFC 's. Human - made smog is derived from coal emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions.
Modern smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. In certain other cities, such as Delhi, smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Lahore, Mexico City, Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground. It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness, shortened life or death.
Coinage of the term "smog '' is generally attributed to Dr. Henry Antoine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper, "Fog and Smoke '' for a meeting of the Public Health Congress. The 26 July 1905 edition of the London newspaper Daily Graphic quoted Des Voeux, "He said it required no science to see that there was something produced in great cities which was not found in the country, and that was smoky fog, or what was known as ' smog '. '' The following day the newspaper stated that "Dr. Des Voeux did a public service in coining a new word for the London fog. '' However, this is predated by a Los Angeles Times article of January 19, 1893, in which the word is attributed to "a witty English writer. ''
Coal fires, used to heat individual buildings or in a power - producing plant, can emit significant clouds of smoke that contributes to smog. Air pollution from this source has been reported in England since the Middle Ages. London, in particular, was notorious up through the mid-20th century for its coal - caused smogs, which were nicknamed ' pea - soupers. ' Air pollution of this type is still a problem in areas that generate significant smoke from burning coal. The emissions from coal combustions are one of the main causes of air pollution in China. Especially during autumn and winter when coal - fired heating ramps up, the amount of produced smoke forces some Chinese cities to close down roads, schools or airports. One prominent example for this was China 's Northeastern city Harbin in 2013.
Traffic emissions -- such as from trucks, buses, and automobiles -- also contribute. Airborne by - products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities.
The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO), volatile organic compounds, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons. (Hydrocarbons are the main components of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel.) These molecules react with sunlight, heat, ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapors, ground level ozone, and particles that comprise smog.
Photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles and ground - level ozone. This noxious mixture of air pollutants may include the following:
A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source. A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere. Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NO) combine in the presence of sunlight; nitrogen dioxide (NO), which is formed as nitric oxide (NO) combines with oxygen in the air; and acid rain, which is formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water. All of these harsh chemicals are usually highly reactive and oxidizing. Photochemical smog is therefore considered to be a problem of modern industrialization. It is present in all modern cities, but it is more common in cities with sunny, warm, dry climates and a large number of motor vehicles. Because it travels with the wind, it can affect sparsely populated areas as well.
The composition and chemical reactions involved in photochemical smog were not understood until the 1950s. In 1948, flavor chemist Arie Haagen - Smit adapted some of his equipment to collect chemicals from polluted air, and identified ozone as a component of Los Angeles smog. Haagen - Smit went on to discover that nitrous oxides from automotive exhausts and gaseous hydrocarbons from cars and oil refineries, exposed to sunlight, were key ingredients in the formation of ozone and photochemical smog. Haagen - Smit worked with Arnold Beckman, who developed various equipment for detecting smog, ranging from an "Apparatus for recording gas concentrations in the atmosphere '' patented on October 7, 1952, to "air quality monitoring vans '' for use by government and industry.
An erupting volcano can also emit high levels of sulfur dioxide along with a large quantity of particulate matter; two key components to the creation of smog. However, the smog created as a result of a volcanic eruption is often known as vog to distinguish it as a natural occurrence.
The radiocarbon content of some plant life has been linked to the distribution of smog in some areas. For example, the creosote bush in the Los Angeles area has been shown to have an effect on smog distribution that is more than fossil fuel combustion alone.
Smog is a serious problem in many cities and continues to harm human health. Ground - level ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide are especially harmful for senior citizens, children, and people with heart and lung conditions such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma. It can inflame breathing passages, decrease the lungs ' working capacity, cause shortness of breath, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing. It can cause eye and nose irritation and it dries out the protective membranes of the nose and throat and interferes with the body 's ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness. Hospital admissions and respiratory deaths often increase during periods when ozone levels are high. There is a lack of knowledge on the long - term effects of air pollution exposure and the origin of asthma. An experiment was carried out using intense air pollution similar to that of the 1952 Great Smog of London. The results from this experiment concluded that there is a link between early - life pollution exposure that leads to the development of asthma, Proposing the ongoing effect of the Great Smog. Modern studies continue to find links between mortality and the presence of smog. One study, published in Nature magazine, found that smog episodes in the city of Jinan, a large city in eastern China, during 2011 -- 15, were associated with a 5.87 % (95 % CI 0.16 -- 11.58 %) increase in the rate of overall mortality. This study highlights the effect of exposure to air pollution on the rate of mortality in China.
The U.S. EPA has developed an Air Quality Index to help explain air pollution levels to the general public. 8 hour average ozone concentrations of 85 to 104 ppbv are described as "Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups '', 105 ppbv to 124 ppbv as "unhealthy '' and 125 ppb to 404 ppb as "very unhealthy ''. The "very unhealthy '' range for some other pollutants are: 355 μg m -- 424 μg m for PM10; 15.5 ppm -- 30.4 ppm for CO and 0.65 ppm -- 1.24 ppm for NO.
In 2016, the Ontario Medical Association announced that smog is responsible for an estimated 9,500 premature deaths in the province each year.
A 20 - year American Cancer Society study found that cumulative exposure also increases the likelihood of premature death from a respiratory disease, implying the 8 - hour standard may be insufficient.
Tiny magnetic particles from air pollution have for the first time been discovered to be lodged in human brains -- and researchers think they could be a possible cause of Alzheimer 's disease. Researchers at Lancaster University found abundant magnetite nanoparticles in the brain tissue from 37 individuals aged three to 92 - years - old who lived in Mexico City and Manchester. This strongly magnetic mineral is toxic and has been implicated in the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) in the human brain, which are associated with neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer 's disease.
A study examining 806 women who had babies with birth defects between 1997 and 2006, and 849 women who had healthy babies, found that smog in the San Joaquin Valley area of California was linked to two types of neural tube defects: spina bifida (a condition involving, among other manifestations, certain malformations of the spinal column), and anencephaly (the underdevelopment or absence of part or all of the brain, which if not fatal usually results in profound impairment).
According to a study published in The Lancet, even a very small (5 μg) change in PM2. 5 exposure was associated with an increase (18 %) in risk of a low birth weight at delivery, and this relationship held even below the current accepted safe levels.
Smog can form in almost any climate where industries or cities release large amounts of air pollution, such as smoke or gases. However, it is worse during periods of warmer, sunnier weather when the upper air is warm enough to inhibit vertical circulation. It is especially prevalent in geologic basins encircled by hills or mountains. It often stays for an extended period of time over densely populated cities or urban areas, and can build up to dangerous levels.
According to the Canadian Science Smog Assessment published in 2012, smog is responsible for detrimental effects on human and ecosystem health, as well as socioeconomic well - being across the country. It was estimated that the province of Ontario sustains $201 million in damages annually for selected crops, and an estimated tourism revenue degradation of $7.5 million in Vancouver and $1.32 million in The Fraser Valley due to decreased visibility. Air pollution in British Columbia is of particular concern, especially in the Fraser Valley, because of a meteorological effect called inversion which decreases air dispersion and leads to smog concentration.
Delhi is the most polluted city in the world and according to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year. During 2013 -- 14, peak levels of fine particulate matter (PM) in Delhi increased by about 44 %, primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions, construction work and crop burning in adjoining states. Delhi has the highest level of the airborne particulate matter, PM2. 5 considered most harmful to health, with 153 micrograms. Rising air pollution level has significantly increased lung - related ailments (especially asthma and lung cancer) among Delhi 's children and women. The dense smog in Delhi during winter season results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year. According to Indian meteorologists, the average maximum temperature in Delhi during winters has declined notably since 1998 due to rising air pollution.
Environmentalists have criticised the Delhi government for not doing enough to curb air pollution and to inform people about air quality issues. Most of Delhi 's residents are unaware of alarming levels of air pollution in the city and the health risks associated with it. Since the mid-1990s, Delhi has undertaken some measures to curb air pollution -- Delhi has the third highest quantity of trees among Indian cities and the Delhi Transport Corporation operates the world 's largest fleet of environmentally friendly compressed natural gas (CNG) buses. In 1996, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) started a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India that ordered the conversion of Delhi 's fleet of buses and taxis to run on CNG and banned the use of leaded petrol in 1998. In 2003, Delhi won the United States Department of Energy 's first ' Clean Cities International Partner of the Year ' award for its "bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives ''. The Delhi Metro has also been credited for significantly reducing air pollutants in the city.
However, according to several authors, most of these gains have been lost, especially due to stubble burning, rise in market share of diesel cars and a considerable decline in bus ridership. According to CUE and System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFER), burning of agricultural waste in nearby Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh regions results in severe intensification of smog over Delhi. The state government of adjoining Uttar Pradesh is considering imposing a ban on crop burning to reduce pollution in Delhi NCR and an environmental panel has appealed to India 's Supreme Court to impose a 30 % cess on diesel cars.
Joint research between American and Chinese researchers in 2006 concluded that much of the city 's pollution comes from surrounding cities and provinces. On average 35 -- 60 % of the ozone can be traced to sources outside the city. Shandong Province and Tianjin Municipality have a "significant influence on Beijing 's air quality '', partly due to the prevailing south / southeasterly flow during the summer and the mountains to the north and northwest.
In 1306, concerns over air pollution were sufficient for Edward I to (briefly) ban coal fires in London. In 1661, John Evelyn 's Fumifugium suggested burning fragrant wood instead of mineral coal, which he believed would reduce coughing. The "Ballad of Gresham College '' the same year describes how the smoke "does our lungs and spirits choke, Our hanging spoil, and rust our iron. ''
Severe episodes of smog continued in the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly in the winter, and were nicknamed "pea - soupers, '' from the phrase "as thick as pea soup. '' The Great Smog of 1952 darkened the streets of London and killed approximately 4,000 people in the short time of 4 days (a further 8,000 died from its effects in the following weeks and months). Initially a flu epidemic was blamed for the loss of life.
In 1956 the Clean Air Act started legally enforcing smokeless zones in the capital. There were areas where no soft coal was allowed to be burned in homes or in businesses, only coke, which produces no smoke. Because of the smokeless zones, reduced levels of sooty particulates eliminated the intense and persistent London smog.
It was after this that the great clean - up of London began. One by one, historical buildings which, during the previous two centuries had gradually completely blackened externally, had their stone facades cleaned and restored to their original appearance. Victorian buildings whose appearance changed dramatically after cleaning included the British Museum of Natural History. A more recent example was the Palace of Westminster, which was cleaned in the 1980s. A notable exception to the restoration trend was 10 Downing Street, whose bricks upon cleaning in the late 1950s proved to be naturally yellow; the smog - derived black colour of the façade was considered so iconic that the bricks were painted black to preserve the image. Smog caused by traffic pollution, however, does still occur in modern London.
Other areas of the United Kingdom were affected by smog, especially heavily industrialised areas.
The cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, in Scotland, suffered smoke - laden fogs in 1909. Des Voeux, commonly credited with creating the "smog '' moniker, presented a paper in 1911 to the Manchester Conference of the Smoke Abatement League of Great Britain about the fogs and resulting deaths.
One Birmingham resident described near black - out conditions in the 1900s before the Clean Air Act, with visibility so poor that cyclists had to dismount and walk in order to stay on the road.
On 29 April 2015, the UK Supreme Court ruled that the government must take immediate action to cut air pollution, following a case brought by environmental lawyers at ClientEarth.
Due to its location in a highland "bowl '', cold air sinks down onto the urban area of Mexico City, trapping industrial and vehicle pollution underneath, and turning it into the most infamously smog - plagued city of Latin America. Within one generation, the city has changed from being known for some of the cleanest air of the world into one with some of the worst pollution, with pollutants like nitrogen dioxide being double or even triple international standards.
Similar to Mexico City, the air pollution of Santiago valley, located between the Andes and the Chilean Coast Range, turn it into the most infamously smog - plagued city of South America. Other aggravates of the situation reside in its high latitude (31 degrees South) and dry weather during most of the year.
In December 2005, schools and public offices had to close in Tehran and 1600 people were taken to hospital, in a severe smog blamed largely on unfiltered car exhaust.
Smog was brought to the attention of the general US public in 1933 with the publication of the book "Stop That Smoke '', by Henry Obermeyer, a New York public utility official, in which he pointed out the effect on human life and even the destruction of 3,000 acres (12 km) of a farmer 's spinach crop. Since then, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has designated over 300 U.S. counties to be non-attainment areas for one or more pollutants tracked as part of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. These areas are largely clustered around large metropolitan areas, with the largest contiguous non-attainment zones in California and the Northeast. Various U.S. and Canadian government agencies collaborate to produce real - time air quality maps and forecasts. To combat smog conditions, localities may declare "smog alert '' days, such as in the Spare the Air program in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Because of their locations in low basins surrounded by mountains, Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley are notorious for their smog. The millions of vehicles in these regions combined with the additional effects of the San Francisco Bay and Los Angeles / Long Beach port complexes frequently contribute to further air pollution.
Los Angeles in particular is strongly predisposed to accumulation of smog, because of peculiarities of its geography and weather patterns. Los Angeles is situated in a flat basin with ocean on one side and mountain ranges on three sides. A nearby cold ocean current depresses surface air temperatures in the area, resulting in an inversion layer: a phenomenon where air temperature increases, instead of decreasing, with altitude, suppressing thermals and restricting vertical convection. All taken together, this results in a relatively thin, enclosed layer of air above the city that can not easily escape out of the basin and tends to accumulate pollution.
Though Los Angeles was one of the best known cities suffering from transportation smog for much of the 20th century, so much so that it was sometimes said that Los Angeles was a synonym for smog, strict regulations by government agencies overseeing this problem, including tight restrictions on allowed emissions levels for all new cars sold in California and mandatory regular emission tests of older vehicles, resulted in significant improvements in air quality. For example, air concentrations of volatile organic compounds declined by a factor of 50 between 1962 and 2012. Concentrations of air pollutants such as nitrous oxides and ozone declined by 70 % to 80 % over the same period of time.
In the late 1990s, massive immigration to Ulaanbaatar from the countryside began. An estimated 150,000 households, mainly living in traditional Mongolian gers on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar, burn wood and coal (some poor families burn even car tires and trash) to heat themselves during the harsh winter, which lasts from October to April, since these outskirts are not connected to the city 's central heating system. A temporary solution to decrease smog was proposed in the form of stoves with improved efficiency, although with no visible results. Coal - fired ger stoves release high levels of ash and other particulate matter (PM). When inhaled, these particles can settle in the lungs and respiratory tract and cause health problems. At two to 10 times above Mongolian and international air quality standards, Ulaanbaatar 's PM rates are among the worst in the world, according to a December 2009 World Bank report. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that health costs related to this air pollution account for as much as 4 percent of Mongolia 's GDP.
Smog is a regular problem in Southeast Asia caused by land and forest fires in Indonesia, especially Sumatra and Kalimantan, although the term haze is preferred in describing the problem. Farmers and plantation owners are usually responsible for the fires, which they use to clear tracts of land for further plantings. Those fires mainly affect Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, and occasionally Guam and Saipan. The economic losses of the fires in 1997 have been estimated at more than US $9 billion. This includes damages in agriculture production, destruction of forest lands, health, transportation, tourism, and other economic endeavours. Not included are social, environmental, and psychological problems and long - term health effects. The second - latest bout of haze to occur in Malaysia, Singapore and the Malacca Straits is in October 2006, and was caused by smoke from fires in Indonesia being blown across the Straits of Malacca by south - westerly winds. A similar haze has occurred in June 2013, with the PSI setting a new record in Singapore on June 21 at 12pm with a reading of 401, which is in the "Hazardous '' range.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) reacted. In 2002, the Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution was signed between all ASEAN nations. ASEAN formed a Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) and established a co-ordination and support unit (CSU). RHAP, with the help of Canada, established a monitoring and warning system for forest / vegetation fires and implemented a Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS). The Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) has issued a daily rating of fire danger since September 2003. Indonesia has been ineffective at enforcing legal policies on errant farmers.
Since start of winter season heavy smog loaded with pollutants covered major part of Punjab especially the city of Lahore, causing breathing problems and disrupting normal traffic.
Doctors advised residents to stay indoors and wear facemasks outside.
The severity of smog is often measured using automated optical instruments such as Nephelometers, as haze is associated with visibility and traffic control in ports. Haze however can also be an indication of poor air quality though this is often better reflected using accurate purpose built air indexes such as the American Air Quality Index, the Malaysian API (Air Pollution Index) and the Singaporean Pollutant Standards Index.
In hazy conditions, it is likely that the index will report the suspended particulate level. The disclosure of the responsible pollutant is mandated in some jurisdictions.
The Malaysian API does not have a capped value; hence its most hazardous readings can go above 500. Above 500, a state of emergency is declared in the affected area. Usually, this means that non-essential government services are suspended, and all ports in the affected area are closed. There may also be prohibitions on private sector commercial and industrial activities in the affected area excluding the food sector. So far, state of emergency rulings due to hazardous API levels were applied to the Malaysian towns of Port Klang, Kuala Selangor and the state of Sarawak during the 2005 Malaysian haze and the 1997 Southeast Asian haze.
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list of new adventures of winnie the pooh episodes | List of the new Adventures of Winnie the Pooh episodes - wikipedia
This is a complete list of episodes of Disney 's The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh. The series premiered on January 17, 1988 on Disney Channel. Thirteen episodes were aired on the network before the series moved to ABC that fall.
Christopher Robin gives Piglet "magic earmuffs '' to help give him confidence in his ice skating.
After Tigger tells the gang a scary story about "the Grab Me - Cotcha '', they are alarmed to find that Pooh and Piglet are finding the honeymoon and comes home
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where was the movie me myself and irene filmed | Me, Myself & Irene - wikipedia
Me, Myself & Irene is a 2000 American dark comedy film directed by the Farrelly brothers, and starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger. Chris Cooper, Robert Forster, Richard Jenkins, Daniel Greene, Anthony Anderson, Jerod Mixon and Mongo Brownlee co-star. The film is about a Rhode Island state trooper named Charlie who, after years of continuously suppressing his rage and feelings, suffers a psychotic breakdown which results in a second personality, Hank. This was also Carrey 's first role in a 20th Century Fox film.
Charlie Baileygates (Jim Carrey) is a veteran Rhode Island State Police trooper who has been taken advantage of by those around him, starting with his former wife Layla (Traylor Howard). Despite his friends warning him of Layla 's infidelity, Charlie refused to accept she was in an affair, even after she gave birth to triplet black boys, until she ran off with her midget genius black lover, Shonté, abandoning her children. In the present, Charlie has raised the triplets as his own, Jamal, Lee Harvey, and Shonté Jr (Anthony Anderson, Jerod Mixon, Mongo Brownlee), likewise geniuses, but huge in size as compared to their biological father. While Charlie is consistently loved and respected by his "sons '', he is continually abused by the rest of the town, who see him as a stupid coward whom anyone can easily walk over. As a result of years of such treatment, Charlie develops a split personality named Hank to deal with the confrontations Charlie avoids. Emerging whenever Charlie is under extreme stress, Hank is an over-the - top, rude, and violent persona reminiscent of characters played by Clint Eastwood. A psychiatrist prescribes medication to keep Charlie 's Hank personality at bay.
Believing that Charlie needs a vacation, his commanding officer (Robert Forster) orders him to escort Irene Waters (Renée Zellweger) from Rhode Island to Massena, New York, because she reportedly committed a hit - and - run. Irene insists the hit - and - run accusation is a lie told by Dickie (Daniel Greene), her mob - connected ex-boyfriend, and by corrupt police officers in his employ, to keep her from revealing Dickie 's illegal activities to the proper authorities. In Massena, Charlie prepares to turn over Irene to two United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) agents, when a hitman with a contract on Irene 's life attempts to assassinate her, killing one of the EPA agents. Charlie keeps Irene safe, and they flee, accidentally leaving his medication behind, allowing the Hank personality to emerge frequently. Meanwhile, the FBI suspects that Charlie is responsible for the murder of the EPA agent. FBI agents begin pursuing him and Irene, as do crooked police officers in Dickie 's pay, Boshane (Richard Jenkins) and Gerke (Chris Cooper). The chase becomes a media spectacle, alerting Charlie 's sons to his predicament.
Charlie and Irene decide to return to Rhode Island, developing a bond along the way. Though Irene is taken by Charlie 's personality, the frequent emergences by Hank worry her, though his more aggressive personality keeps them out of trouble. Along the way they pick up Casper aka "Whitey '' (Michael Bowman), an albino waiter from a restaurant who claims he killed his entire family in the past. While stopping at a motel, Charlie discovers how he might be able to suppress Hank and goes to have a conversation with Irene about it, and they sleep together. The next morning, Hank reveals that actually it was he who slept with Irene. In the confusion, they are almost ambushed by Boshane and Gerke, but Charlie 's sons, having found them, create a distraction, stealing a police helicopter, they call in a false report, stating Charlie and Irene have been spotted in the woods nearby, allowing Charlie and Irene to leave without knowing about the police who had left before they exited their room, leaving Casper behind.
They board a train back to Rhode Island. Dickie boards the same train, unable to rely on his henchmen to stop Charlie and Irene. He kidnaps her, and Charlie gives chase, working together with Hank to save her. Hank then appears to try to stop Charlie from rescuing her, but Charlie finally stands up for himself against his own fears, thus permanently nullifying Hank for good. As Charlie tries to wrestle her back and disarm Dickie on a bridge, Dickie shoots off his thumb. Dickie is then hit from behind by a lawn dart thrown by Casper, killing him. Charlie and Irene fall from the bridge into a river below, where Charlie 's sons arrive to help rescue them. Regrouping with Casper, Charlie apologizes for making him kill again, but Casper reveals he made up his backstory due to the fact that Charlie talked too much at the motel and scared him. The police arrive but quickly learn of Irene 's plight and the corrupt cops working for Dickie. Gerke is arrested, Charlie is congratulated for bringing him to justice, and Irene is cleared of the charges against her.
Irene prepares to leave Rhode Island when she is pulled over by the police, but this proves only to be a diversion to allow Charlie to propose marriage to her, which she happily accepts.
The post-credits scene sees everyone looking for Charlie 's thumb in the river, Whitey finds it but a fish eats it.
The film 's original score was written by Pete Yorn, while the movie 's soundtrack contains several covers of Steely Dan songs performed by other bands. Examples are Smash Mouth 's cover of "Do It Again '', Ben Folds Five 's cover of "Barrytown '', and Marvelous 3 's cover of "Reelin ' in the Years ''. Other songs include "Breakout '' by Foo Fighters, "Totalimmortal '', originally by AFI but covered by The Offspring, "The World Ai n't Slowin ' Down '' by Ellis Paul, and "Strange Condition '' by Pete Yorn.
+ Steely Dan cover
"Motherfucker '' by The Dwarves, "Fire Like This '' by Hardknox, "Do n't Say You Do n't Remember '' by Beverly Bremers, "The Perpetrator '' by Hipster Daddy - O and the Handgrenades, and "Hem of Your Garment '' by Cake were included in the movie but not on the soundtrack. Pete Yorn 's, Just Another can also be heard it the background, during the scene where they discuss Hank 's Idea. Alta Mira 's "El Capitan '' can be heard in the background, during the scene where Hank fights himself at the train station. Other songs, that appeared in the film are not included on the soundtrack album.
The film opened at # 1 on the weekend of June 23, 2000, making US $ 24.2 million in its opening weekend.
The film earned $90,570,999 in the United States, and a further $58,700,000 internationally for a worldwide total of $149,270,999.
Review website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 47 %, based on 99 reviews, and an average rating of 5.4 / 10, with the consensus that "While Jim Carrey 's comedic skills earn some laughs, Me, Myself and Irene sports a tired, unsatisfying plot. '' Online review aggregator Metacritic states the film has a score of 49 out of a possible 100 based on 35 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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who did the voice for thomas the tank engine | List of Thomas & Friends voice actors - wikipedia
Thomas (the Tank Engine) & Friends is a British children 's television series, first broadcast on the ITV network on 9 October 1984. It is based on The Railway Series of books by the Reverend Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher Awdry.
These books deal with the adventures of a group of anthropomorphised trains and road vehicles who live on the fictional Island of Sodor. The books were based on stories Wilbert told to entertain his son, Christopher during his recovery from measles. Many of the stories are based on events from Awdry 's personal experience.
Until 2008, all characters were voiced by the narrator. Voices were given to the characters following the switch to full CGI animation in 2009.
* Pierce Brosnan narrated the original cut of Series 12, but withdrew from the series, and his narrations left unreleased.
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what came first the iliad or the odyssey | Iliad - wikipedia
Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194 -- 1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260 -- 1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy
Caused the war:
On the Greek side:
On the Trojan side:
The Iliad (/ ˈɪliəd /; Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς Ilias, pronounced (iː.li. ás) in Classical Attic; sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten - year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles.
Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege; the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war, and related concerns tend to appear near the beginning. Then the epic narrative takes up events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles ' imminent death and the fall of Troy, although the narrative ends before these events take place. However, as these events are prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly, when it reaches an end the poem has told a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War.
The Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC. Recent statistical modelling based on language evolution gives a date of 760 -- 710 BC. In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects.
(1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Greeks wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive of Agamemnon, the Greek leader. Although most of the Greek army is in favour of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo 's help, and Apollo causes a plague to afflict the Greek army.
After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles ' captive, Briseis, as compensation. Angered, Achilles declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon but will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and returns Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the plague.
In the meantime, Agamemnon 's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset, sits by the seashore, and prays to his mother, Thetis. Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to bring the Greeks to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Greeks need Achilles. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees.
(2) Zeus sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but decides to first test the Greek army 's morale, by telling them to go home. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout.
Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon 's war. After a meal, the Greeks deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe the provenance of each Greek contingent.
When news of the Greek deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans too sortie upon the plain. In a list similar to that for the Greeks, the poet describes the Trojans and their allies.
(3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by his brother and head of the Trojan army, Hector. While Helen tells Priam about the Greek commanders from the walls of Troy, both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him.
(4) Pressured by Hera 's hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Greeks, and battle is joined.
(5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats Aeneas, whom Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.
(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout; the Greek Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground and exchange unequal gifts. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle.
(7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Greeks agree to burn their dead, and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. A day 's truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Greeks also build their wall and a trench.
(8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Greeks back to their wall, while Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Greek wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars.
(9) Meanwhile, the Greeks are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon 's offer and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The embassy returns empty - handed.
(10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy 's.
(11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Greek casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor 's.
(12) The Trojans attack the Greek wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the terrible fighting. The Greeks are overwhelmed and routed, the wall 's gate is broken, and Hector charges in.
(13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and warns him about Achilles, but is ignored.
(14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks, and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain.
(15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon 's intervention. Against the mounting discontent of the Greek - supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.
(16) Patroclus can not stand to watch any longer and begs Achilles to be allowed to defend the ships. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition not to pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles ' glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing the Trojan hero Sarpedon. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles ' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.
(17) Hector takes Achilles ' armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around Patroclus ' body.
(18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus ' death and vows to take vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus ' body but has no armour. Made brilliant by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Greek wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance, and the Greeks manage to bear Patroclus ' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is mourned. Meanwhile, at Thetis ' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.
(19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Greeks take their meal, straps on his new armor, and heaves his great spear. His horse Xanthos prophesies to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle.
(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods ' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many.
(21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half their number in the river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them, filling the river with the dead. The river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles but is beaten back by Hephaestus ' firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan.
(22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the shame of the rout and resolves to face Achilles, despite the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba. When Achilles approaches, Hector 's will fails him, and he is chased around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die in the war. Achilles takes Hector 's body and dishonours it.
(23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream and urges the burial of Hector 's body. The Greeks hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes.
(24) Dismayed by Achilles ' continued abuse of Hector 's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Greek camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son 's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector 's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.
The many characters of the Iliad are catalogued; the latter - half of Book II, the "Catalogue of Ships '', lists commanders and cohorts; battle scenes feature quickly slain minor characters.
Much debate has surrounded the nature of the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus, as to whether it can be described as a homoerotic one or not. Classical and Hellenistic Athenian scholars perceived it as pederastic, while others perceived it as a platonic warrior - bond.
In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer 's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of fourth - century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to us from Homer. The Classical - era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods ' appearance and character.
In Greek Gods Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths, Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic - era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth '', because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence '' -- without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths -- then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people. The religion had no founder and was not the creation of an inspired teacher which were popular origins of existing religions in the world. The individuals were free to believe what they wanted, as the Greek religion was created out of a consensus of the people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. In the article "Greek Religion '' A.W.H. Adkins, agrees with this by saying, "The early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom - law (themis), and one 's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms. '' As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in Polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.
In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, psychologist Julian Jaynes uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of Bicameralism, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a much different mentality than present day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what we today call consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.
Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level. An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, "He offended Athena and Hera -- both goddesses. '' Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, "Hera 's and Athena 's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy. '' Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of The Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. "Now he 'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus 's daughter was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap. '' Aphrodite intervened out of her own self - interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective proteges, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with. This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.
Nostos (νόστος, "homecoming '') occurs seven times in the poem. Thematically, the concept of homecoming is much explored in Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey). Thus, nostos is impossible without sacking Troy -- King Agamemnon 's motive for winning, at any cost.
Kleos (κλέος, "glory, fame '') is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle. For most of the Greek invaders of Troy, notably Odysseus, kleos is earned in a victorious nostos (homecoming). Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos. In Book IX (IX. 410 -- 16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon 's envoys -- Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax -- begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).
The passage reads:
μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410) διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ. εἰ μέν κ ' αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι, ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ ' ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν, ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415) ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ ' ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.
For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either, if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans, my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting; but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers, the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.
In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, "fame imperishable ''). In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, "imperishable '') occurs five other times, each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon 's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe 's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as forever immortal and as forever imperishable -- connoting Achilles 's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy.
Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned.
Achilles ' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.
Akin to kleos is timê (τιμή, "respect, honor ''), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Greek troubles begin with King Agamemnon 's dishonorable, unkingly behavior -- first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior 's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Greek military cause.
The poem 's initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin, accusative of μῆνις, mēnis, "wrath, rage, fury ''), establishes the Iliad 's principal theme: The "Wrath of Achilles ''. His personal rage and wounded soldier 's vanity propel the story: the Greeks ' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles - convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis -- despite the proffered ransom of "gifts beyond count ''. The insulted priest prays his god 's help, and a nine - day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Greeks. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men ''. To that, Agamemnon replies:
But here is my threat to you. Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis. I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own followers; but I shall take the fair - cheeked Briseis, your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back from likening himself to me and contending against me.
After that, only Athena stays Achilles 's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus 's divine intervention -- favouring the Trojans -- until Achilles 's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Greeks back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war 's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her:
So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me. Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us. Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life, Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.
Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him ' round the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp.
Fate (κήρ, kēr, "fated death '') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one 's slated fate. Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life -- before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat; Patroclus retorts:
No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me, and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer. And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you. You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already death and powerful destiny are standing beside you, to go down under the hands of Aiakos ' great son, Achilleus.
Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector 's hand, and Hector 's fated death by Achilles 's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no - one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:
Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon, must go down under the hands of Menoitios ' son Patroclus.
About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus:
Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill - sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.
In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. Again, Hera asks him:
Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill - sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.
Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; yet, contrariwise, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:
But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor, that the generation of Dardanos shall not die...
Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead -- yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man.
The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical Antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th - century date. Herodotus placed Homer at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place Homer at circa 850 BC.
The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion.
The title Ἰλιάς "Ilias '' (genitive Ἰλιάδος "Iliados '') is elliptic for ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς "he poiesis Ilias '', meaning "the Trojan poem ''. Ἰλιάς, "of Troy '', is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον, "Troy ''; the masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος. It is used by Herodotus.
Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad. The first edition of the "Iliad '', editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488 / 89.
In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational - cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena 's birthday.
Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902 -- 1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style -- "stock epithets '' and "reiteration '' (words, phrases, stanzas) -- established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to an hexametric line. A two - word stock epithet (e.g. "resourceful Odysseus '') reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half - line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half - line of "original '' formulaic text to complete his meaning. In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912 -- 1991), studied the oral - formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry / Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy.
In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Greek Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with "careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns '', that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer 's established compositional formulae of "wrath, bride - stealing, and rescue ''; thus, stock - phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme. Likewise, in The Arming Motif, Prof. James Armstrong reports that the poem 's formulae yield richer meaning because the "arming motif '' diction -- describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus -- serves to "heighten the importance of... an impressive moment '', thus, "(reiteration) creates an atmosphere of smoothness '', wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former 's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.
In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect -- for example, Aphrodite is "laughter - loving '', despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150 -- 800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.
Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles. So, the Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, fights afoot, as an infantryman. The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well - described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount -- for hand - to - hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and a shoulder - borne hoplon (shield) fighting. Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος, sakos) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother:
Ajax 's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin, Achilles, sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans:
In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation, but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought. In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport - weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two - man chariots, with a long - spear - armed principal rider, unlike the three - man Hittite chariots with short - spear - armed riders, and unlike the arrow - armed Egyptian and Assyrian two - man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them:
Although Homer 's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man 's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory.
While the Homeric poems (the Iliad in particular) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart. '' Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.
Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one - on - one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements. Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one - on - one combat in the Iliad:
There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling 's beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short - lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high - hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.
The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare is the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer 's Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one - on - one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one 's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.
One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.
In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:
I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching
However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Greek guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Greeks in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.
Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.
Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically -- to the first half of the 7th century BC.
The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. It made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages. Prior to this reintroduction, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West, however, had tended to view Homer as unreliable, as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis who were supposedly present at the events.
These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoit de Sainte - Maure and Guido delle Colonne. These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War. Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.
Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus ' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war.
Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon.
William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.
William Theed the elder made an impressive bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013.
Robert Browning 's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship.
George Chapman published his translation of the Iliad, in installments, beginning in 1598, published in "fourteeners '', a long - line ballad metre that "has room for all of Homer 's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles ' rejection of the embassy in Iliad Nine; it has great rhetorical power ''. It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises "the daring fiery spirit '' of Chapman 's rendering, which is "something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion ''.
John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman 's Homer (1816). John Ogilby 's mid-seventeenth - century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope 's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is "The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions '', and, like Chapman 's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper 's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: "I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing '', Cowper says in prefacing his translation.
In the lectures On Translating Homer (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the Iliad to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice:
(i) that he is eminently rapid; (ii) that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; (iii) that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, (iv) that he is eminently noble.
After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the Iliad, like the original. "Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire Iliad or Odyssey in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart (1862) in response to Arnold ''. In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as "simple, faithful ''.
An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating during 1859.
Since 1950, there have been several English translations. Richmond Lattimore 's version (1951) is "a free six - beat '' line - for - line rendering that explicitly eschews "poetical dialect '' for "the plain English of today ''. It is literal, unlike older verse renderings. Robert Fitzgerald 's version (Oxford World 's Classics, 1974) strives to situate the Iliad in the musical forms of English poetry. His forceful version is freer, with shorter lines that increase the sense of swiftness and energy. Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding dramatic significance to Homer 's conventional and formulaic language. Barry B. Powell 's translation (Oxford University Press, 2014) renders the Homeric Greek with a simplicity and dignity reminiscent of the original.
There are more than 2000 manuscripts of Homer. Some of the most notable manuscripts include:
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who played mother nature in the santa clause 3 | The Santa Clause 3: the Escape Clause - wikipedia
The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause is a 2006 American Christmas fantasy comedy adventure film directed by Michael Lembeck. It is the third and final installment in The Santa Clause trilogy following The Santa Clause and The Santa Clause 2.
The film stars Tim Allen returning as Scott Calvin / Santa Claus and Martin Short as Jack Frost. Allen and Short had previously worked together in the 1997 Disney comedy feature film, Jungle 2 Jungle. Most of the supporting actors from the first two films reprise their roles, with the exception of David Krumholtz, who played Bernard the Arch - elf. As a result of his absence, Curtis (played by Spencer Breslin), who was previously the Assistant Head Elf, has now been promoted to Bernard 's former position. Like the previous film, this film was shot in the Canadian cities of Vancouver and Calgary. This was Peter Boyle 's final film to be released before he died from cancer one month after its release. (The 2008 film All Roads Lead Home would be released posthumously.)
Its production was completed in February 2006. The movie was released in theaters on November 3, 2006 in the US followed by a release date of November 24 for the UK. The DVD and Blu - ray were released on November 20, 2007 in the U.S. and November 12, 2007 for the UK.
Carol / Mrs. Claus is teaching a class of young elves and begins telling them a story of her life with Scott Calvin / Santa Claus. The couple are expecting their first child as Christmas Eve approached. Scott invites his in - laws, Sylvia and Bud Newman, to the North Pole, along with Scott 's former wife, Laura, her husband, Neil, and their daughter, Lucy. Meanwhile, he is summoned to a meeting of the Council of Legendary Figures, consisting of Mother Nature, Father Time, the Easter Bunny, Cupid, the Tooth Fairy, and the Sandman. Jack Frost also arrives, jealous that he has no holiday or special occasion in his honor. Because he has been promoting himself during the Christmas season, Mother Nature suggests sanctions against him. When Santa says he is dealing with how to get the in - laws to come without revealing that he is Santa, Jack Frost negotiates a light sentence of community service at the North Pole, helping Santa and the elves put up various Canadian - themed paraphernalia, as Carol 's parents believe Scott is a toymaker in Canada.
However, Frost 's ultimate goal is to trick Santa into renouncing his position. When elf Curtis inadvertently reveals the Escape Clause, Frost sneaks into Santa 's hall of snow globes and steals one containing Scott as Santa. If Scott holds the globe and says, "I wish I 'd never been Santa at all, '' he will go back in time and undo his career as Santa. When Lucy discovers this, Frost freezes her parents and locks her in a closet. He then orchestrates situations that make Scott think he must resign to make things better.
Frost tricks Scott into invoking the Escape Clause and both are sent to Scott 's front yard in 1994, when Scott caused the original Santa to fall off of his roof and had to replace him. Frost causes the original Santa to fall off the roof and grabs Santa 's coat before Scott can, making Frost the new Santa. Scott is sent back to the present day, where he has been CEO of his old company for the last 12 years and business takes priority over family. He also discovers that the new timeline has affected other people as well. Scott also learns he and Carol never married and Carol moved away years ago.
Scott goes to find Lucy and Neil, who are vacationing at the North Pole, which Frost has turned into a tourist resort. Christmas is now "Frostmas '', the elves are miserable, and the reindeer are confined to a petting zoo. When Scott finds Lucy and Neil, Neil expresses his resentment for Scott 's causing the separation between him and Laura. Scott confronts Frost as Santa Claus and tricks Jack Frost into recording his voice stating the Escape Clause. Scott has Lucy steal Frost 's snow globe and bring it to him; when Frost finds out and takes the globe back, Scott plays the recording of Frost saying, "I wish I 'd never been Santa at all '', invoking the Escape Clause and causing Scott and Frost to be sent back again to 1994. Scott restrains Jack long enough to let the Scott Calvin of 1994 get the coat, making him Santa Claus again and taking him back to the North Pole in the present and the family where no time has passed.
Scott as Santa reconciles with his family and Jack is arrested by elf police. He reveals he can not unfreeze his victims unless he is unfrozen himself. Scott convinces Lucy via a snow globe he had given her earlier of her warmly hugging a snowman, to give Frost a "magic hug '' to unfreeze and reform him. The "Canada '' ruse is dropped and Scott appears as Santa to Carol 's parents. With two hours remaining before Santa must leave for his Christmas deliveries, Carol goes into labor.
Back to the present time, while Carol is telling the tale to her students, Scott walks in to reveal his baby boy, Buddy Claus.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 15 % based on 65 reviews, with an average rating of 3.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Playing Jack Frost as an evil cross between Liza Minnelli and Liberace, Martin Short is a welcome presence, but this tired series continues drawing from its bag of bland gags and dumb slapstick. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Erid D. Snider, a reviewer wrote that Allen did The Santa Clause "The first time with enthusiasm, the second time with affection and the third time for a paycheck ''. Kyle Smith wrote, "We 're getting a turkey and a ham for the holidays. Santa is so dumb he should be demoted to cleaning up after Geoffrey the Giraffe at Toys ' R ' Us. '' Manohla Dargis dismissed the film as "Squeaky clean, but you might die of boredom. '' Finally, Mark Kermode described it on BBC Radio Five Live as "the cinematic equivalent of tertiary syphilis ''.
The first two films had become box - office successes during their opening weekends, but The Santa Clause 3 was beaten by Borat for the # 1 spot.
The Santa Clause 3 made $84,500,122 in North America and a worldwide gross of $110,768,122. The first film made $189,833,357 worldwide at the box - office while the second film made $172,855,065.
The film was released on both standard DVD and high - definition Blu - ray Disc on November 20, 2007.
A tie - in video game was released on November 1st, 2006 for the Game Boy Advance, developed by 1st Playable Productions and published by Buena Vista Games.
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where was the film butch cassidy and the sundance kid filmed | Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid - wikipedia
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid is a 1969 American Western film directed by George Roy Hill and written by William Goldman (who won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for the film). Based loosely on fact, the film tells the story of Wild West outlaws Robert LeRoy Parker, known as Butch Cassidy (Paul Newman), and his partner Harry Longabaugh, the "Sundance Kid '' (Robert Redford), who are on the run from a crack US posse after a string of train robberies. The pair and Sundance 's lover, Etta Place (Katharine Ross), flee to Bolivia in search of a more successful criminal career.
In 2003, the film was selected for the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' The American Film Institute ranked Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid as the 73rd - greatest American film on its "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) '' list. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid were ranked 20th greatest heroes on "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains ''.
In late 1890s Wyoming, Butch Cassidy is the affable, clever, talkative leader of the outlaw Hole in the Wall Gang. His closest companion is the laconic dead - shot "Sundance Kid ''. The two return to their hideout at Hole - in - the - Wall (Wyoming) to discover that the rest of the gang, irked at Butch 's long absences, have selected Harvey Logan as their new leader.
Harvey challenges Butch to a knife fight over the gang 's leadership. Butch defeats him using trickery, but embraces Harvey 's idea to rob the Union Pacific Overland Flyer train on both its eastward and westward runs, agreeing that the second robbery would be unexpected and likely reap even more money than the first.
The first robbery goes well. To celebrate, Butch and Sundance visit a favorite brothel in a nearby town and watch, amused, as the town sheriff unsuccessfully attempts to organize a posse to track down the gang. They then visit Sundance 's lover, schoolteacher Etta Place.
On the second train robbery, Butch uses too much dynamite to blow open the safe, blowing up the baggage car. As the gang scrambles to gather up the money, a second train arrives carrying a six - man team of lawmen pursuing Butch and Sundance, who unsuccessfully try to hide out in the brothel and to seek amnesty from the friendly Sheriff Bledsoe by enlisting in the army.
As the posse remains in pursuit, despite all attempts to elude them, Butch and Sundance determine that the group includes renowned Indian tracker "Lord Baltimore '' and relentless lawman Joe Lefors, recognizable by his white skimmer. Butch and Sundance finally elude their pursuers by jumping from a cliff into a river far below. They learn from Etta that the posse has been paid by Union Pacific head E.H. Harriman to remain on their trail until Butch and Sundance are both killed.
Butch convinces Sundance and Etta that the three should escape to Bolivia, which Butch envisions as a robber 's paradise. On their arrival there, Sundance is dismayed by the living conditions and regards the country with contempt, but Butch remains optimistic. They discover that they know too little Spanish to pull off a bank robbery, so Etta attempts to teach them the language. With her as an accomplice, they become successful bank robbers known as Los Bandidos Yanquis. However, their confidence drops when they see a man wearing a white hat (the signature of determined lawman Lefors) and fear that Harriman 's posse is still after them.
Butch suggests "going straight '', and he and Sundance land their first honest job as payroll guards for a mining company. However, they are ambushed by local bandits on their first run and their boss, Percy Garris, is killed. Butch and Sundance ambush and kill the bandits, the first time Butch has ever shot someone. Etta recommends farming or ranching as other lines of work, but they conclude the straight life is n't for them. Sensing they will be killed if they return to robbery, Etta decides to go back to the United States.
Butch and Sundance steal a payroll and the mules carrying it, and arrive in a small town. A boy recognizes the mules ' brand and alerts the local police, leading to a gunfight with the outlaws. They take cover in a building but are both seriously wounded, after Butch makes a futile attempt to run to the mules in order to bring more ammunition, while Sundance provides cover fire. As dozens of Bolivian soldiers surround the area, Butch suggests the duo 's next destination should be Australia. They charge out of the building guns blazing.
William Goldman first came across the story of Butch Cassidy in the late 1950s and researched it on and off for eight years before sitting down to write the screenplay. Goldman says he wrote the story as an original screenplay because he did not want to do the research to make it authentic as a novel. Goldman later stated:
The whole reason I wrote the... thing, there is that famous line that Scott Fitzgerald wrote, who was one of my heroes, "There are no second acts in American lives. '' When I read about Cassidy and Longbaugh and the superposse coming after them -- that 's phenomenal material. They ran to South America and lived there for eight years and that was what thrilled me: they had a second act. They were more legendary in South America than they had been in the old West... It 's a great story. Those two guys and that pretty girl going down to South America and all that stuff. It just seems to me it 's a wonderful piece of material.
The characters ' flight to South America caused one executive to reject the script, as it was then unusual in Western films for the protagonists to flee.
According to Goldman, when he first wrote the script and sent it out for consideration, only one studio wanted to buy it -- and that was with the proviso that the two lead characters did not flee to South America. When Goldman protested that that was what had happened, the studio head responded, "I do n't give a shit. All I know is John Wayne do n't run away. ''
Goldman rewrote the script, "did n't change it more than a few pages, and subsequently found that every studio wanted it. ''
The role of Sundance was offered to Jack Lemmon, whose production company, JML, had produced the film Cool Hand Luke (1967) starring Newman. Lemmon, however, turned down the role; he did not like riding horses, and he felt he had already played too many aspects of the Sundance Kid 's character before. Other actors considered for the role of Sundance were Steve McQueen and Warren Beatty, who both turned it down, with Beatty claiming that the film was too similar to Bonnie and Clyde. According to Goldman, McQueen and Newman both read the scripts at the same time and agreed to do the film. McQueen eventually backed out of the film due to disagreements with Newman. The two actors would eventually team up in the 1974 disaster film The Towering Inferno.
The world premiere of the movie was in September 1969, at the Roger Sherman Theater, in New Haven, Connecticut. The premiere was attended by Paul Newman, his wife Joanne Woodward, Robert Redford, George Roy Hill, William Goldman, and John Foreman, among others. It premiered in Los Angeles, the next day, and in New York City on October 1.
Early reviews of the film were mediocre, and New York and national reviews were "mixed to terrible '' though better elsewhere, screenwriter William Goldman recalled in his book Which Lie Did I Tell?: More Adventures in the Screen Trade.
Time magazine said the film 's two male stars are "afflicted with cinematic schizophrenia. One moment they are sinewy, battered remnants of a discarded tradition. The next they are low comedians whose chaffing relationship -- and dialogue -- could have been lifted from a Batman and Robin episode. '' Time also criticized the film 's score as absurd and anachronistic.
Roger Ebert 's review of the movie was a mixed 2.5 out of 4 stars. "The movie starts promisingly... a scene where Butch puts down a rebellion in his gang (is) one of the best things in the movie... And then we meet Sundance 's girlfriend, played by Katharine Ross, and the scenes with the three of them have you thinking you 've wandered into a really first - rate film. '' But after Harriman hires his posse, Ebert thought the movie 's quality declined: "Hill apparently spent a lot of money to take his company on location for these scenes, and I guess when he got back to Hollywood he could n't bear to edit them out of the final version. So the Super-posse chases our heroes unceasingly, until we 've long since forgotten how well the movie started. '' The dialogue in the final scenes is "so bad we ca n't believe a word anyone says. And then the violent, bloody ending is also a mistake; apparently it was a misguided attempt to copy "Bonnie and Clyde... '' we do n't believe it, and we walk out of the theater wondering what happened to that great movie we were seeing until an hour ago. ''
The Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay # 11 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written.
Over time, major American movie reviewers have been widely favorable. Rotten Tomatoes, a film review aggregator, give 89 % "Certified fresh '' favorable score based on 46 reviews with an average score of 8.2 / 10, the site 's critical consensus reads
With its iconic pairing of Paul Newman and Robert Redford, jaunty screenplay and Burt Bacharach score, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid has gone down as among the defining moments in late - ' 60s American cinema. Newman and Redford 's chemistry was praised as was the film 's charm and humor.
The film earned $15 million in rentals in North America during its first year of release.
With US box office of over US $100 million, it was the top - grossing film of the year. Adjusted for inflation, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ranks as the 34th top - grossing film of all time and the top 10 for its decade, due in part to subsequent re-releases.
It was the eighth most popular film of 1970 in France.
The film won four Academy Awards: Best Cinematography; Best Original Score for a Motion Picture (not a Musical); Best Music, Song (Burt Bacharach and Hal David for "Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head ''); and Best Writing, Story and Screenplay Based on Material Not Previously Published or Produced. It was also nominated for Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Sound (William Edmondson and David Dockendorf).
Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid also won numerous British Academy Film Awards, including Best Film, Best Direction, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Best Actor (won by Redford though Newman was also nominated), and Best Actress for Katharine Ross, among others.
William Goldman won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay.
In 2003, the film was selected for the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. The Academy Film Archive preserved Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid in 1998.
The film inspired the television series Alias Smith and Jones, starring Pete Duel and Ben Murphy as outlaws trying to earn an amnesty.
A parody titled "Botch Casually and the Somedunce Kid '' was published in MAD. It was illustrated by Mort Drucker and written by Arnie Kogen in issue No. 136, July 1970.
In 1979 Butch and Sundance: The Early Days, a prequel, was released starring Tom Berenger as Butch Cassidy and William Katt as the Sundance Kid. It was directed by Richard Lester and written by Allan Burns. William Goldman, the Oscar - winning writer of the original film, was an executive producer. Jeff Corey was the only actor to appear in the original and the sequel.
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the state with highest wind power installation in india as on march 2012 is | Wind power in India - Wikipedia
Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in recent years. As of the end of March 2017 the total installed wind power capacity was 32.17 GW, mainly spread across the South, West and North regions. By the end of 2015, India had the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. The levelised tariff of wind power reached a record low of ₹ 3.46 (5.4 ¢ US) per kWh (without any direct or indirect subsidies) during auctions for wind projects in February 2017. Subsequently the tariff plunged further in August 2017 in a competitive bid managed by TANGEDCO (Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation) to Rs. 3.42 / kWh.
The development of wind power in India began in 1986 with the first wind farms being set up in coastal areas of Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), Gujarat (Okha) and Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli) with 55 kW Vestas wind turbines. These demonstration projects were supported by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
The potential for wind farms in the country was first assessed in 2011 to be more than 2,000 GW by Prof. Jami Hossain of TERI University, New Delhi. This was subsequently re-validated by Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory, US (LBNL) in an independent study in 2012. As a result, the MNRE set up a committee to reassess the potential and through the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE, previously C - WET) has announced a revised estimation of the potential wind resource in India from 49,130 MW to 302,000 MW assessed at 100 m hub height. Wind turbines are now being set up at even 120 m hub height and the wind resource at higher hub heights of around 120 m or more that are prevailing is possibly even more. In 2015, the MNRE set the target for Wind Power generation capacity by the year 2022 at 60,000 MW.
East and North east regions have no grid connected wind power plant as of March 2015. No offshore wind farm are under implementation. However, an Offshore Wind Policy was announced in 2015 and presently weather stations and LIDARs are being set up by NIWE at some locations.
Wind power accounts nearly 9.87 % of India 's total installed power generation capacity and generated 46,011 million kWh in the fiscal year 2016 - 17 which is nearly 3 % of total electricity generation. The capacity utilisation factor is nearly 19.62 % in the fiscal year 2016 - 17 (14 % in 2015 - 16). 70 % of wind generation is during the five months duration from May to September coinciding with Southwest monsoon duration. In India, solar power is complementary to wind power as it is generated mostly during the non monsoon period in day time.
The table below shows the India 's year on year installed wind power, annual wind power generation and annual growth in wind power generation since 2007.
There is a growing number of wind energy installations in states across India.
Tamil Nadu 's wind power capacity is around 29 % of India 's total. The Government of Tamil Nadu realized the importance and need for renewable energy, and set up a separate Agency, as registered society, called the Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency (TEDA) as early as 1985. Now, Tamil Nadu has become a leader in Wind Power in India. In Muppandal windfarm the total capacity is 1500 MW, the largest wind power plant in India. The total wind installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 7633 MW. During the fiscal year 2014 - 15, the electricity generation is 9.521 GWh, with about a 15 % capacity utilization factor.
Maharashtra is one of the prominent states that installed wind power projects second to Tamil Nadu in India. As of end of March 2016, installed wind power capacity is 4655.25 MW. As of now there are 50 developers registered with state nodal agency "Maharashtra energy Development Agency '' for development of wind power projects. All the major manufacturers of wind turbines including Suzlon, Vestas, Gamesa, Regen, Leitner Shriram have presence in Maharashtra.
Gujarat government 's focus on tapping renewable energy has led to sharp rise in the wind power capacity in the last few years. According to official data, wind power generations capacity in the state has increased a staggering ten times in just six years. ONGC Ltd. has installed a 51MW wind energy farm at Bhuj in Gujarat. Renewable energy projects worth a massive Rs 1 lakh crore of memorandums of understanding (MoUs) in the Vibrant Gujarat Summit in 2017.
4031.99 MW wind power installed as per 31.03. 2016.
In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned another 15 MW project to Madhya Pradesh Windfarms Ltd. MPWL, Bhopal at Nagda Hills near Dewas under consultation from Consolidated Energy Consultants Ltd. CECL Bhopal. All the 25 WEGs have been commissioned on 31.03. 2008 and under successful operation.
55 MW production of wind power is installed in Kerala. The first wind farm of the state was set up 1997 at Kanjikode in Palakkad district.
The agency has identified 16 sites for setting up wind farms through private developers.
Odisha a coastal state has higher potential for wind energy. Current installation capacity stands at 2.0 MW. Odisha has a windpower potential of 1700MW. The Govt of Odisha is actively pursuing to boost Wind power generation in the state. however it has not progressed like other states primarily because Odisha having a huge coal reserve and number of existing and upcoming thermal power plants, is a power surplus state.
The total installation in West Bengal is 2.10 MW till Dec 2009 at Fraserganj, Distt - South 24 Paraganas. More 0.5 MW (approx) at Ganga Sagar, Kakdwip, Distt - South 24 Paraganas. Both the project owned by West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA), Govt. of WB and project was executed on turnkey basis by Utility Powertech Limited (UPL).
The Kargil, Ladakh, occupied Gilgit and China occupied Aksai Chin regions of Jammu and Kashmir state are potential wind energy areas, which are yet to be exploited. Wind Speeds are higher during the winter months in the state, which is complimentary to the hydro power available during the summer months from the snow melt water. Being a Himalayan state located at higher altitude, the heating energy requirements are high which can be met by the renewable energy resources such as wind, solar and hydro power. The state is yet to open its account in grid connected wind power installations.
India 's largest wind power production facilities (10MW and greater)
India is planning to enter into offshore wind power, with a 100 MW demonstration plant located off the Gujarat coast. In 2013, a consortium (instead of group of organizations), led by Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) started project FOWIND (Facilitating Offshore Wind in India) to identify potential zones for development of off - shore wind power in India and to stimulate R & D activities in this area. The other consortium partners include the Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP), DNV GL, the Gujarat Power Corporation Limited (GPCL) and the World Institute of Sustainable Energy (WISE). The consortium was awarded the grant of € 4.0 million by the delegation of the European Union to India in 2013 besides co-funding support from GPCL. The project action will be implemented from December 2013 to March 2018.
The project focuses on the States of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu for identification of potential zones for development through techno - commercial analysis and preliminary resource assessment. It will also establish a platform for structural collaboration and knowledge sharing between stakeholders from European Union and India, on offshore wind technology, policy, regulation, industry and human resource development. FOWIND activities will also help facilitate a platform to stimulate offshore wind related R&D activities in the country. The consortium published initial pre-feasibility assessment reports for offshore wind farm development in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu on 16 June 2015. In September 2015, the India 's cabinet has approved the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy. With this, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) has been authorized as the Nodal Ministry for use of offshore areas within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
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statue of a male freedom fighter posed for a revolt | Hungarian Revolution of 1956 - Wikipedia
Soviet Union
Hungary
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 or the Hungarian Uprising of 1956 (Hungarian: 1956 - os forradalom or 1956 - os felkelés) was a nationwide revolt against the communist government of the Hungarian People 's Republic and its Soviet - imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Though leaderless when it first began, it was the first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR 's forces drove Nazi Germany from its territory at the end of World War II.
The revolt began as a student demonstration, which attracted thousands as they marched through central Budapest to the Parliament building, calling out on the streets using a van with loudspeakers. A student delegation, entering the radio building to try to broadcast the students ' demands, was detained. When the delegation 's release was demanded by the demonstrators outside, they were fired upon by the State Security Police (ÁVH) from within the building. One student died and was wrapped in a flag and held above the crowd. This was the start of the revolution. As the news spread, disorder and violence erupted throughout the capital.
The revolt spread quickly across Hungary and the government collapsed. Thousands organised into militias, battling the ÁVH and Soviet troops. Pro-Soviet communists and ÁVH members were often executed or imprisoned and former political prisoners were released and armed. Radical impromptu workers ' councils wrested municipal control from the ruling Hungarian Working People 's Party and demanded political changes. A new government formally disbanded the ÁVH, declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact, and pledged to re-establish free elections. By the end of October, fighting had almost stopped and a sense of normality began to return.
After announcing a willingness to negotiate a withdrawal of Soviet forces, the Politburo changed its mind and moved to crush the revolution. On 4 November, a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country. The Hungarian resistance continued until 10 November. Over 2,500 Hungarians and 700 Soviet troops were killed in the conflict, and 200,000 Hungarians fled as refugees. Mass arrests and denunciations continued for months thereafter. By January 1957, the new Soviet - installed government had suppressed all public opposition. These Soviet actions, while strengthening control over the Eastern Bloc, alienated many Western Marxists, leading to splits and / or considerable losses of membership for communist parties in capitalist states.
Public discussion about this revolution was suppressed in Hungary for more than 30 years. Since the thaw of the 1980s, it has been a subject of intense study and debate. At the inauguration of the Third Hungarian Republic in 1989, 23 October was declared a national holiday.
During World War II Hungary was a member of the Axis powers, allied with the forces of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Romania, and Bulgaria. In 1941, the Hungarian military participated in the occupation of Yugoslavia and the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Red Army was able to force back the Hungarian and other Axis invaders, and by 1944 was advancing towards Hungary.
Fearing invasion, the Hungarian government began armistice negotiations with the Allies. These ended when Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the country and set up the pro-Axis Government of National Unity.
Both Hungarian and German forces stationed in Hungary were subsequently defeated when the Soviet Union invaded the country in late 1944.
Towards the end of World War II, the Soviet Army occupied Hungary, with the country coming under the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence. Immediately after World War II, Hungary was a multiparty democracy, and elections in 1945 produced a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. However, the Hungarian Communist Party, a Marxist -- Leninist group who shared the Soviet government 's ideological beliefs, constantly wrested small concessions in a process named salami tactics, which sliced away the elected government 's influence, despite the fact that it had received only 17 % of the vote.
After the elections of 1945, the portfolio of the Interior Ministry, which oversaw the Hungarian State Security Police (Államvédelmi Hatóság, later known as the ÁVH), was transferred from the Independent Smallholders Party to a nominee of the Communist Party. The ÁVH employed methods of intimidation, falsified accusations, imprisonment, and torture to suppress political opposition. The brief period of multi-party democracy came to an end when the Communist Party merged with the Social Democratic Party to become the Hungarian Working People 's Party, which stood its candidate list unopposed in 1949. The People 's Republic of Hungary was then declared.
The Hungarian Working People 's Party set about to modify the economy into socialism by undertaking radical nationalization based on the Soviet model. This forced method of economic socialisation during infrastructural recovery from the war initially resulted in economic stagnation, lower standards of living, and a deep malaise. Writers and journalists were the first to voice open criticism of the government and its policies, publishing critical articles in 1955. By 22 October 1956, Technical University students had resurrected the banned MEFESZ student union, and staged a demonstration on 23 October that set off a chain of events leading directly to the revolution.
Hungary became a communist state under the authoritarian leadership of Mátyás Rákosi. Under Rákosi 's reign, the Security Police (ÁVH) began a series of purges, first within the Communist Party to end opposition to Rákosi 's reign. The victims were labeled as "Titoists, '' "western agents, '' or "Trotskyists '' for as insignificant a crime as spending time in the West to participate in the Spanish Civil War. In total, about half of all the middle and lower level party officials -- at least 7,000 people -- were purged.
From 1950 to 1952, the Security Police forcibly relocated thousands of people to obtain property and housing for the Working People 's Party members, and to remove the threat of the intellectual and ' bourgeois ' class. Thousands were arrested, tortured, tried, and imprisoned in concentration camps, deported to the east, or were executed, including ÁVH founder László Rajk. In a single year, more than 26,000 people were forcibly relocated from Budapest. As a consequence, jobs and housing were very difficult to obtain. The deportees generally experienced terrible living conditions and were interned as slave labor on collective farms. Many died as a result of poor living conditions and malnutrition.
The Rákosi government thoroughly politicised Hungary 's educational system to supplant the educated classes with a "toiling intelligentsia ''. Russian language study and Communist political instruction were made mandatory in schools and universities nationwide. Religious schools were nationalized and church leaders were replaced by those loyal to the government. In 1949 the leader of the Hungarian Catholic Church, Cardinal József Mindszenty, was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment for treason. Under Rákosi, Hungary 's government was among the most repressive in Europe.
The post-war Hungarian economy suffered from multiple challenges. Hungary agreed to pay war reparations approximating US $300 million to the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia and to support Soviet garrisons. The Hungarian National Bank in 1946 estimated the cost of reparations as "between 19 and 22 per cent of the annual national income. '' In 1946, the Hungarian currency experienced marked depreciation, resulting in the highest historic rates of hyperinflation known. Hungary 's participation in the Soviet - sponsored COMECON (Council Of Mutual Economic Assistance) prevented it from trading with the West or receiving Marshall Plan aid.
In addition, Rákosi began his first Five - Year Plan in 1950 - based on Joseph Stalin 's industrial program of the same name that sought to raise industrial output by 380 percent. Like its Soviet counterpart, the Five - Year Plan never achieved these outlandish goals due in part to the crippling effect of the exportation of most of Hungary 's raw resources and technology to the Soviet Union as well as Rákosi 's purges of much of the former professional class. In fact, the Five - Year Plan weakened Hungary 's existing industrial structure and caused real industrial wages to fall by 18 percent between 1949 and 1952. Rákosi 's agricultural programs met with the same lack of success, with attempted collectivization of the peasantry causing a marked fall in agricultural output and a rise in food shortages.
Although national income per capita rose in the first third of the 1950s, the standard of living fell. Huge income deductions to finance industrial investment reduced disposable personal income; mismanagement created chronic shortages in basic foodstuffs resulting in rationing of bread, sugar, flour, and meat. Compulsory subscriptions to state bonds further reduced personal income. The net result was that disposable real income of workers and employees in 1952 was only two - thirds of what it had been in 1938, whereas in 1949, the proportion had been 90 %. These policies had a cumulative negative effect and fueled discontent as foreign debt grew and the population experienced shortages of goods.
On 5 March 1953, Joseph Stalin died, ushering in a period of moderate liberalization, when most European communist parties developed a reform wing. In Hungary, the reformist Imre Nagy replaced Rákosi, "Stalin 's Best Hungarian Disciple '', as Prime Minister. However, Rákosi remained General Secretary of the Party, and was able to undermine most of Nagy 's reforms. By April 1955, he had Nagy discredited and removed from office. After Khrushchev 's "secret speech '' of February 1956, which denounced Stalin and his protégés, Rákosi was deposed as General Secretary of the Party and replaced by Ernő Gerő on 18 July 1956. Radio Free Europe broadcast the "secret speech '' to Eastern Europe on the advice of Ray S. Cline, who saw it as a way to "as I think I told (Allen Dulles) to say, ' indict the whole Soviet system '. ''
On 14 May 1955, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact, binding Hungary to the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe. Among the principles of this alliance were "respect for the independence and sovereignty of states '' and "non-interference in their internal affairs ''.
In 1955, the Austrian State Treaty and ensuing declaration of neutrality established Austria as a demilitarised and neutral country. This raised Hungarian hopes of also becoming neutral and in 1955 Nagy had considered "... the possibility of Hungary adopting a neutral status on the Austrian pattern ''.
In June 1956, a violent uprising by Polish workers in Poznań was put down by the government, with scores of protesters killed and wounded. Responding to popular demand, in October 1956, the government appointed the recently rehabilitated reformist communist Władysław Gomułka as First Secretary of the Polish United Workers ' Party, with a mandate to negotiate trade concessions and troop reductions with the Soviet government. After a few tense days of negotiations, on 19 October the Soviets finally gave in to Gomułka 's reformist demands. News of the concessions won by the Poles, known as Polish October, emboldened many Hungarians to hope for similar concessions for Hungary and these sentiments contributed significantly to the highly charged political climate that prevailed in Hungary in the second half of October 1956.
Within the Cold War context of the time, by 1956, a fundamental tension had appeared in US policy towards Hungary and the Eastern Bloc generally. The United States hoped to encourage European countries to break away from the bloc through their own efforts but wanted to avoid a US - Soviet military confrontation, as escalation might lead to nuclear war. For these reasons, US policy makers had to consider other means of diminishing Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, short of a rollback policy. This led to the development of containment policies such as economic and psychological warfare, covert operations, and, later, negotiation with the Soviet Union regarding the status of the Eastern states. Vice President Richard Nixon had also argued to the National Security Council that it would serve US interests if the Soviet Union would turn on another uprising as they had in Poland, providing a source of anti-Communist propaganda. However, while CIA director Allen Dulles had claimed he was creating an extensive network in Hungary, at the time the agency had no Hungarian station, almost no agents who spoke the language, and unreliable, corrupt local assets. The agency 's own secret history admitted "at no time did we have anything that could or should have been mistaken for an intelligence operation ''.
In the summer of 1956, relations between Hungary and the US began to improve. At that time, the US responded very favourably to Hungary 's overtures about a possible expansion of bilateral trade relations. Hungary 's desire for better relations was partly attributable to the country 's catastrophic economic situation. Before any results could be achieved, however, the pace of negotiations was slowed by the Hungarian Ministry of Internal Affairs, which feared that better relations with the West might weaken Communist rule in Hungary.
Rákosi 's resignation in July 1956 emboldened students, writers, and journalists to be more active and critical in politics. Students and journalists started a series of intellectual forums examining the problems facing Hungary. These forums, called Petőfi circles, became very popular and attracted thousands of participants. On 6 October 1956, László Rajk, who had been executed by the Rákosi government, was reburied in a moving ceremony that strengthened the party opposition.
On 16 October 1956, university students in Szeged snubbed the official communist student union, the DISZ, by re-establishing the MEFESZ (Union of Hungarian University and Academy Students), a democratic student organization, previously banned under the Rákosi dictatorship. Within days, the student bodies of Pécs, Miskolc, and Sopron followed suit. On 22 October, students of the Technical University compiled a list of sixteen points containing several national policy demands. After the students heard that the Hungarian Writers ' Union planned on the following day to express solidarity with pro-reform movements in Poland by laying a wreath at the statue of Polish - born General Bem, a hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 (1848 -- 49), the students decided to organize a parallel demonstration of sympathy.
On the afternoon of 23 October 1956, approximately 20,000 protesters convened next to the statue of József Bem -- a national hero of Poland and Hungary. Péter Veres, President of the Writers ' Union, read a manifesto to the crowd, which included: The desire for Hungary to be independent from all foreign powers; a political system based on democratic socialism (land reform and public ownership of businesses); Hungary joining the United Nations; and citizens of Hungary should have all the rights of free men. After the students read their proclamation, the crowd chanted a censored patriotic poem the "National Song '', with the refrain: "This we swear, this we swear, that we will no longer be slaves. '' Someone in the crowd cut out the Communist coat of arms from the Hungarian flag, leaving a distinctive hole, and others quickly followed suit. Afterwards, most of the crowd crossed the River Danube to join demonstrators outside the Parliament Building. By 18: 00, the multitude had swollen to more than 200,000 people; the demonstration was spirited, but peaceful.
At 20: 00, First Secretary Ernő Gerő broadcast a speech condemning the writers ' and students ' demands. Angered by Gerő 's hard - line rejection, some demonstrators decided to carry out one of their demands, the removal of Stalin 's 30 - foot - high (9.1 m) bronze statue that was erected in 1951 on the site of a church, which was demolished to make room for the monument. By 21: 30, the statue was toppled and crowds celebrated by placing Hungarian flags in Stalin 's boots, which was all that was left of the statue.
At about the same time, a large crowd gathered at the Radio Budapest building, which was heavily guarded by the ÁVH. The flash point was reached as a delegation attempting to broadcast their demands was detained and the crowd grew increasingly unruly as rumours spread that the protesters had been shot. Tear gas was thrown from the upper windows and the ÁVH opened fire on the crowd, killing many. The ÁVH tried to re-supply itself by hiding arms inside an ambulance, but the crowd detected the ruse and intercepted it. Hungarian soldiers sent to relieve the ÁVH hesitated and then, tearing the red stars from their caps, sided with the crowd. Provoked by the ÁVH attack, protesters reacted violently. Police cars were set ablaze, guns were seized from military depots and distributed to the masses and symbols of the Communist regime were vandalised.
During the night of 23 October, Hungarian Working People 's Party Secretary Ernő Gerő requested Soviet military intervention "to suppress a demonstration that was reaching an ever greater and unprecedented scale. '' The Soviet leadership had formulated contingency plans for intervention in Hungary several months before. By 02: 00 on 24 October, acting in accordance with orders of Georgy Zhukov, the Soviet defence minister, Soviet tanks entered Budapest.
By noon, on 24 October, Soviet tanks were stationed outside the Parliament, and Soviet soldiers guarded key bridges and crossroads. Armed revolutionaries quickly set up barricades to defend Budapest, and were reported to have already captured some Soviet tanks by mid-morning. That day, Imre Nagy replaced András Hegedüs as Prime Minister. On the radio, Nagy called for an end to violence and promised to initiate political reforms that had been shelved three years earlier. The population continued to arm itself as sporadic violence erupted.
Armed protesters seized the radio building. At the offices of the Communist newspaper Szabad Nép unarmed demonstrators were fired upon by ÁVH guards who were then driven out as armed demonstrators arrived. At this point, the revolutionaries ' wrath focused on the ÁVH; Soviet military units were not yet fully engaged, and there were reports of some Soviet troops showing open sympathy for the demonstrators.
On 25 October, a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building. ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighbouring buildings. Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting. Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who joined the uprising, some in the crowd started shooting back.
During this time, the Hungarian Army was divided as the central command structure disintegrated with the rising pressures from the protests on the government. The majority of Hungarian military units in Budapest and the countryside remained uninvolved, as the local commanders generally avoided using force against the protesters and revolutionaries. From 24 to 29 October, however, there were 71 cases of armed clashes between the army and the populace in fifty communities, ranging from the defence of attacks on civilian and military objectives to fighting with insurgents depending on the commanding officer.
One example is in the town of Kecskemét on 26 October, where demonstrations in front of the office of State Security and the local jail led to military action by the Third Corps under the orders of Major General Lajos Gyurkó, in which seven protesters were shot and several of the organizers were arrested. In another case, a fighter jet strafed a protest in the town of Tiszakécske, killing 17 people and wounding 117.
The attacks at the Parliament forced the collapse of the government. Communist First Secretary Ernő Gerő and former Prime Minister András Hegedüs fled to the Soviet Union; Imre Nagy became Prime Minister and János Kádár First Secretary of the Communist Party. Revolutionaries began an aggressive offensive against Soviet troops and the remnants of the ÁVH.
Units led by Béla Király, after attacking the building of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, executed dozens of suspected communists, state security members, and military personnel. Photographs showed victims with signs of torture. On 30 October, Király 's forces attacked the Central Committee of the Communist Party building. Hungarian politician János Berecz referred to how rebels detained thousands of people, and that thousands more had their names on death lists. In the city of Kaposvár, 64 persons including 13 army officers were detained on 31 October.
In Budapest and other areas, the Hungarian Communist committees organised defence. At the Csepel neighbourhood of Budapest, some 250 Communists defended the Csepel Iron and Steel Works. On 27 October, army units were brought in to secure Csepel and restore order. They later withdrew on 29 October, after which the rebels seized control of the area. Communists of Budapest neighbourhood Angyalföld led more than 350 armed workers and 380 servicemen from the Láng Factory. Anti-fascist resistance veterans from World War II participated in the offensive by which the Szabad Nép newspaper 's building was recaptured. In the countryside, defence measures were taken by pro-Communist forces. In Békés County, in and around the town of Szarvas, the armed guards of the Communist Party were in control throughout.
As the Hungarian resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails in the narrow streets of Budapest, revolutionary councils arose nationwide, assumed local governmental authority, and called for general strikes. Public Communist symbols such as red stars and Soviet war memorials were removed, and Communist books were burned. Spontaneous revolutionary militias arose, such as the 400 - man group loosely led by József Dudás, which attacked or murdered Soviet sympathisers and ÁVH members. Soviet units fought primarily in Budapest; elsewhere the countryside was largely quiet. One armoured division stationed in Budapest, commanded by Pál Maléter, instead opted to join the insurgents. Soviet commanders often negotiated local cease - fires with the revolutionaries.
In some regions, Soviet forces managed to quell revolutionary activity. In Budapest, the Soviets were eventually fought to a stand - still and hostilities began to wane. Hungarian general Béla Király, freed from a life sentence for political offences and acting with the support of the Nagy government, sought to restore order by unifying elements of the police, army and insurgent groups into a National Guard. A ceasefire was arranged on 28 October, and by 30 October most Soviet troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrisons in the Hungarian countryside.
Fighting ceased between 28 October and 4 November, as many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were withdrawing from Hungary. There were approximately 213 Hungarian Working People 's Party members lynched or executed during this period.
The rapid spread of the uprising in the streets of Budapest and the abrupt fall of the Gerő - Hegedüs government left the new national leadership surprised, and at first disorganised. Nagy, a loyal party reformer described as possessing "only modest political skills '', initially appealed to the public for calm and a return to the old order. Yet Nagy, the only remaining Hungarian leader with credibility in both the eyes of the public and the Soviets, "at long last concluded that a popular uprising rather than a counter-revolution was taking place ''. At 13: 20 on 28 October, Nagy announced an immediate and general cease - fire over the radio and, on behalf of the new national government, declared the following:
On 1 November, in a radio address to the Hungarian people, Nagy formally declared Hungary 's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as well as Hungary 's stance of neutrality. Because it held office only ten days, the National Government had little chance to clarify its policies in detail. However, newspaper editorials at the time stressed that Hungary should be a neutral, multi-party social democracy. Many political prisoners were released, most notably Cardinal József Mindszenty. Political parties that were previously banned, such as the Independent Smallholders and the National Peasant Party (under the name "Petőfi Party ''), reappeared to join the coalition.
During this time, in 1,170 communities across Hungary there were 348 cases in which revolutionary councils and protesters dismissed employees of the local administrative councils, 312 cases in which they sacked the persons in charge, and 215 cases in which they burned the local administrative files and records. In addition, in 681 communities demonstrators damaged symbols of Soviet authority such as red stars, Stalin or Lenin statues; 393 in which they damaged Soviet war memorials, and 122 communities in which book burnings took place.
Local revolutionary councils formed throughout Hungary, generally without involvement from the preoccupied National Government in Budapest, and assumed various responsibilities of local government from the defunct Communist party. By 30 October, these councils had been officially sanctioned by the Hungarian Working People 's Party, and the Nagy government asked for their support as "autonomous, democratic local organs formed during the Revolution ''. Likewise, workers ' councils were established at industrial plants and mines, and many unpopular regulations such as production norms were eliminated. The workers ' councils strove to manage the enterprise while protecting workers ' interests, thus establishing a socialist economy free of rigid party control. Local control by the councils was not always bloodless; in Debrecen, Győr, Sopron, Mosonmagyaróvár and other cities, crowds of demonstrators were fired upon by the ÁVH, with many lives lost. The ÁVH were disarmed, often by force, in many cases assisted by the local police.
In total there were approximately 2,100 local revolutionary and workers councils with over 28,000 members. These councils held a combined conference in Budapest, deciding to end the nationwide labour strikes and resume work on 5 November, with the more important councils sending delegates to the Parliament to assure the Nagy government of their support.
On 24 October, the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (the Politburo) discussed the political upheavals in Poland and Hungary. A hard - line faction led by Molotov was pushing for intervention, but Khrushchev and Marshal Zhukov were initially opposed. A delegation in Budapest reported that the situation was not as dire as had been portrayed. Khrushchev stated that he believed that Party Secretary Ernő Gerő 's request for intervention on 23 October indicated that the Hungarian Party still held the confidence of the Hungarian public. In addition, he saw the protests not as an ideological struggle, but as popular discontent over unresolved basic economic and social issues. The concurrent Suez Crisis was another reason to not intervene; as Khrushchev said on 28 October, it would be a mistake to imitate the "real mess '' of the French and British.
After some debate, the Presidium on 30 October decided not to remove the new Hungarian government. Even Marshal Georgy Zhukov said: "We should withdraw troops from Budapest, and if necessary withdraw from Hungary as a whole. This is a lesson for us in the military - political sphere. '' They adopted a Declaration of the Government of the USSR on the Principles of Development and Further Strengthening of Friendship and Cooperation between the Soviet Union and other Socialist States, which was issued the next day. This document proclaimed: "The Soviet Government is prepared to enter into the appropriate negotiations with the government of the Hungarian People 's Republic and other members of the Warsaw Treaty on the question of the presence of Soviet troops on the territory of Hungary. '' Thus for a brief moment it looked like there could be a peaceful solution.
On 30 October, armed protesters attacked the ÁVH detachment guarding the Budapest Hungarian Working People 's Party headquarters on Köztársaság tér (Republic Square), incited by rumours of prisoners held there and the earlier shootings of demonstrators by the ÁVH in the city of Mosonmagyaróvár. Over 20 ÁVH officers were killed, some of them lynched by the mob. Hungarian army tanks sent to rescue the party headquarters mistakenly bombarded the building. The head of the Budapest party committee, Imre Mező, was wounded and later died. Scenes from Republic Square were shown on Soviet newsreels a few hours later. Revolutionary leaders in Hungary condemned the incident and appealed for calm, and the mob violence soon died down, but images of the victims were nevertheless used as propaganda by various Communist organs.
On 31 October the Soviet leaders decided to reverse their decision from the previous day. There is disagreement among historians whether Hungary 's declaration to exit the Warsaw Pact caused the second Soviet intervention. Minutes of 31 October meeting of the Presidium record that the decision to intervene militarily was taken one day before Hungary declared its neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Historians who deny that Hungarian neutrality -- or other factors such as Western inaction in Hungary or perceived Western weakness due to the Suez crisis -- caused the intervention state that the Soviet decision was based solely on the rapid loss of Communist control in Hungary. However, some Russian historians who are not advocates of the Communist era maintain that the Hungarian declaration of neutrality caused the Kremlin to intervene a second time.
Two days earlier, on 30 October, when Soviet Politburo representatives Anastas Mikoyan and Mikhail Suslov were in Budapest, Nagy had hinted that neutrality was a long - term objective for Hungary, and that he was hoping to discuss this matter with the leaders in the Kremlin. This information was passed on to Moscow by Mikoyan and Suslov. At that time, Khrushchev was in Stalin 's dacha, considering his options regarding Hungary. One of his speech writers later said that the declaration of neutrality was an important factor in his subsequent decision to support intervention. In addition, some Hungarian leaders of the revolution as well as students had called for their country 's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact much earlier, and this may have influenced Soviet decision making.
Several other key events alarmed the Presidium and cemented the interventionists ' position:
In the light of what was taking place in China and the news from Budapest, these militants arrived at the conclusion that "the Party is the incarnation of bureaucratic despotism '' and that "socialism can develop only on the foundations of direct democracy ''. For them the struggle of the Hungarian workers was a struggle "for the principle of direct democracy '' and "all power should be transferred to the Workers Committees of Hungary ''. The Presidium decided to break the de facto ceasefire and crush the Hungarian revolution. The plan was to declare a "Provisional Revolutionary Government '' under János Kádár, who would appeal for Soviet assistance to restore order. According to witnesses, Kádár was in Moscow in early November, and he was in contact with the Soviet embassy while still a member of the Nagy government. Delegations were sent to other Communist governments in Eastern Europe and China, seeking to avoid a regional conflict, and propaganda messages prepared for broadcast when the second Soviet intervention had begun. To disguise these intentions, Soviet diplomats were to engage the Nagy government in talks discussing the withdrawal of Soviet forces.
According to some sources, the Chinese leader Mao Zedong played an important role in Khrushchev 's decision to suppress the Hungarian uprising. Chinese Communist Party Deputy Chairman Liu Shaoqi pressured Khrushchev to send in troops to put down the revolt by force. Although the relations between China and the Soviet Union had deteriorated during the recent years, Mao 's words still carried great weight in the Kremlin, and they were frequently in contact during the crisis. Initially, Mao opposed a second intervention, and this information was passed on to Khrushchev on 30 October, before the Presidium met and decided against intervention. Mao then changed his mind in favour of intervention but, according to William Taubman, it remains unclear when and how Khrushchev learned of this and thus if it influenced his decision on 31 October.
From 1 to 3 November, Khrushchev left Moscow to meet with his European allies and inform them of the decision to intervene. At the first such meeting, he met with Władysław Gomułka in Brest. Then, he had talks with the Romanian, Czechoslovak, and Bulgarian leaders in Bucharest. Finally Khrushchev flew with Malenkov to Yugoslavia, where they met with Josip Broz Tito, who was on holiday on his island Brioni in the Adriatic. The Yugoslavs also persuaded Khrushchev to choose János Kádár instead of Ferenc Münnich as the new leader of Hungary. Two months after the Soviet crackdown, Tito confided in Nikolai Firiubin, the Soviet ambassador to Yugoslavia, that "the reaction raised its head, especially in Croatia, where the reactionary elements openly incited the employees of the Yugoslav security organs to violence. ''
Although John Foster Dulles, the United States Secretary of State recommended on 24 October for the United Nations Security Council to convene to discuss the situation in Hungary, little immediate action was taken to introduce a resolution, in part because other world events unfolded the day after the peaceful interlude started, when allied collusion started the Suez Crisis. The problem was not that Suez distracted US attention from Hungary but that it made the condemnation of Soviet actions very difficult. As Vice President Richard Nixon later explained, "We could n't on one hand, complain about the Soviets intervening in Hungary and, on the other hand, approve of the British and the French picking that particular time to intervene against (Gamel Abdel) Nasser ''.
The US response was reliant on the CIA to covertly effect change, with both covert agents and Radio Free Europe. However, their Hungarian operations collapsed rapidly and they could not locate any of the weapon caches hidden across Europe, nor be sure to whom they 'd send arms. The agency 's main source of information were the newspapers and a State Department employee in Budapest called Geza Katona. By 28 October, on the same night that the new Nagy government came to power, RFE was ramping up its broadcasts -- encouraging armed struggle, advising on how to combat tanks and signing off with "Freedom or Death! '' -- on the orders of Frank Wisner. When Nagy did come to power, CIA director Allen Dulles advised the White House that Cardinal Mindszenty would be a better leader (due to Nagy 's communist past); he had CIA radio broadcasts run propaganda against Nagy, calling him a traitor who 'd invited Soviet troops in. Broadcasts continued to broadcast armed response while the CIA mistakenly believed that the Hungarian army was switching sides and the rebels were gaining arms. (Wisner was recorded as having a "nervous breakdown '' by William Colby as the uprising was crushed)
Responding to the plea by Nagy at the time of the second massive Soviet intervention on 4 November, the Security Council resolution critical of Soviet actions was vetoed by the Soviet Union; instead resolution 120 was adopted to pass the matter onto the General Assembly. The General Assembly, by a vote of 50 in favour, 8 against and 15 abstentions, called on the Soviet Union to end its Hungarian intervention, but the newly constituted Kádár government rejected UN observers.
US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was aware of a detailed study of Hungarian resistance that recommended against US military intervention, and of earlier policy discussions within the National Security Council that focused upon encouraging discontent in Soviet satellite nations only by economic policies and political rhetoric. In a 1998 interview, Hungarian Ambassador Géza Jeszenszky was critical of Western inaction in 1956, citing the influence of the United Nations at that time and giving the example of UN intervention in Korea from 1950 to 1953.
However, a Department of Defense study recently declassified by the National Security Archive suggests that one of the main reasons the United States did not intervene was the risk of inadvertently starting a nuclear war with the Soviet Union. These concerns made the Eisenhower Administration take a more cautious approach to the situation.
During the uprising, the Radio Free Europe (RFE) Hungarian - language programs broadcast news of the political and military situation, as well as appealing to Hungarians to fight the Soviet forces, including tactical advice on resistance methods. After the Soviet suppression of the revolution, RFE was criticised for having misled the Hungarian people that NATO or United Nations would intervene if citizens continued to resist. Allen Dulles lied to Eisenhower that RFE had not promised US aid; Eisenhower believed him, as the transcripts of the broadcasts were kept secret.
On 1 November, Imre Nagy received reports that Soviet forces had entered Hungary from the east and were moving towards Budapest. Nagy sought and received assurances (which proved false) from Soviet ambassador Yuri Andropov that the Soviet Union would not invade. The Cabinet, with János Kádár in agreement, declared Hungary 's neutrality, withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, and requested assistance from the diplomatic corps in Budapest and the UN Secretary - General to defend Hungary 's neutrality. Ambassador Andropov was asked to inform his government that Hungary would begin negotiations on the removal of Soviet forces immediately.
On 3 November, a Hungarian delegation led by the Minister of Defense Pál Maléter were invited to attend negotiations on Soviet withdrawal at the Soviet Military Command at Tököl, near Budapest. At around midnight that evening, General Ivan Serov, Chief of the Soviet Security Police (KGB) ordered the arrest of the Hungarian delegation, and the next day, the Soviet army again attacked Budapest.
During the early morning hours of 4 November, Ferenc Münnich announced on Radio Szolnok the establishment of the "Revolutionary Workers ' - Peasants ' Government of Hungary ''.
The second Soviet intervention, codenamed "Operation Whirlwind '', was launched by Marshal Ivan Konev. The five Soviet divisions stationed in Hungary before 23 October were augmented to a total strength of 17 divisions. The 8th Mechanized Army under command of Lieutenant General Hamazasp Babadzhanian and the 38th Army under Lieutenant General Hadzhi - Umar Mamsurovs from the nearby Carpathian Military District were deployed to Hungary for the operation. Some rank - and - file Soviet soldiers reportedly believed they were being sent to Berlin to fight German fascists. By 21: 30 on 3 November, the Soviet Army had completely encircled Budapest.
At 03: 00 on 4 November, Soviet tanks penetrated Budapest along the Pest side of the Danube in two thrusts: one up the Soroksári road from the south and the other down the Váci road from the north. Thus before a single shot was fired, the Soviets had effectively split the city in half, controlled all bridgeheads, and were shielded to the rear by the wide Danube river. Armoured units crossed into Buda and at 04: 25 fired the first shots at the army barracks on Budaörsi Road. Soon after, Soviet artillery and tank fire was heard in all districts of Budapest. Operation Whirlwind combined air strikes, artillery, and the co-ordinated tank - infantry action of 17 divisions.
Between 4 and 9 November, the Hungarian Army put up sporadic and disorganised resistance, with Marshal Zhukov reporting the disarming of twelve divisions, two armoured regiments, and the entire Hungarian Air Force. The Hungarian Army continued its most formidable resistance in various districts of Budapest and in and around the city of Pécs in the Mecsek Mountains, and in the industrial centre of Dunaújváros (then called Stalintown). Fighting in Budapest consisted of between ten and fifteen thousand resistance fighters, with the heaviest fighting occurring in the working - class stronghold of Csepel on the Danube River. Although some very senior officers were openly pro-Soviet, the rank and file soldiers were overwhelmingly loyal to the revolution and either fought against the invasion or deserted. The United Nations reported that there were no recorded incidents of Hungarian Army units fighting on the side of the Soviets.
At 05: 20 on 4 November, Imre Nagy broadcast his final plea to the nation and the world, announcing that Soviet Forces were attacking Budapest and that the Government remained at its post. The radio station, Free Kossuth Rádió, stopped broadcasting at 08: 07. An emergency Cabinet meeting was held in the Parliament but was attended by only three ministers. As Soviet troops arrived to occupy the building, a negotiated evacuation ensued, leaving Minister of State István Bibó as the last representative of the National Government remaining at his post. He wrote For Freedom and Truth, a stirring proclamation to the nation and the world.
At 06: 00, on 4 November, in the town of Szolnok, János Kádár proclaimed the "Hungarian Revolutionary Worker - Peasant Government ''. His statement declared "We must put an end to the excesses of the counter-revolutionary elements. The hour for action has sounded. We are going to defend the interest of the workers and peasants and the achievements of the people 's democracy. '' Later that evening, Kádár called upon "the faithful fighters of the true cause of socialism '' to come out of hiding and take up arms. However, Hungarian support did not materialise; the fighting did not take on the character of an internally divisive civil war, but rather, in the words of a United Nations report, that of "a well - equipped foreign army crushing by overwhelming force a national movement and eliminating the Government. ''
By 08: 00 organised defence of the city evaporated after the radio station was seized, and many defenders fell back to fortified positions. During the same hour, the parliamentary guard laid down their arms, and forces under Major General K. Grebennik captured Parliament and liberated captured ministers of the Rákosi - Hegedüs government. Among the liberated were István Dobi and Sándor Rónai, both of whom became members of the re-established socialist Hungarian government. As they came under attack even in civilian quarters, Soviet troops were unable to differentiate military from civilian targets. For this reason, Soviet tanks often crept along main roads firing indiscriminately into buildings. Hungarian resistance was strongest in the industrial areas of Budapest, with Csepel heavily targeted by Soviet artillery and air strikes.
The longest holdouts against the Soviet assault occurred in Csepel and in Dunaújváros, where fighting lasted until 11 November before the insurgents finally succumbed to the Soviets. At the end of the fighting, Hungarian casualties totalled around 2,500 dead with an additional 20,000 wounded. Budapest bore the brunt of the bloodshed, with 1,569 civilians killed. Approximately 53 percent of the dead were workers, and about half of all the casualties were people younger than thirty. On the Soviet side, 699 men were killed, 1,450 men were wounded, and 51 men were missing in action. Estimates place around 80 percent of all casualties occurring in fighting with the insurgents in the eighth and ninth districts of Budapest.
Soviet reports of the events surrounding, during, and after the disturbance were remarkably consistent in their accounts, more so after the Second Soviet intervention cemented support for the Soviet position among international Communist Parties. Pravda published an account 36 hours after the outbreak of violence, which set the tone for all further reports and subsequent Soviet historiography:
The first Soviet report came out 24 hours after the first Western report. Nagy 's appeal to the United Nations was not reported. After Nagy was arrested outside the Yugoslav embassy, his arrest was not reported. Nor did accounts explain how Nagy went from patriot to traitor. The Soviet press reported calm in Budapest while the Western press reported a revolutionary crisis was breaking out. According to the Soviet account, Hungarians never wanted a revolution at all.
In January 1957, representatives of the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania met in Budapest to review internal developments in Hungary since the establishment of the Soviet - imposed government. A communiqué on the meeting "unanimously concluded '' that Hungarian workers, with the leadership of the Kádár government and support of the Soviet army, defeated attempts "to eliminate the socialist achievements of the Hungarian people ''.
Soviet, Chinese, and other Warsaw Pact governments urged Kádár to proceed with interrogation and trial of former Nagy government ministers, and asked for punitive measures against the "counter-revolutionists ''. In addition the Kádár government published an extensive series of "white books '' (The Counter-Revolutionary Forces in the October Events in Hungary) documenting real incidents of violence against Communist Party and ÁVH members, and the confessions of Nagy supporters. These white books were widely distributed in several languages in most of the socialist countries and, while based in fact, present factual evidence with a colouring and narrative not generally supported by non-Soviet aligned historians.
In the immediate aftermath, many thousands of Hungarians were arrested. Eventually, 26,000 of these were brought before the Hungarian courts, 22,000 were sentenced and imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 229 executed. Hundreds were also deported to the Soviet Union, many without evidence. Approximately 200,000 fled Hungary as refugees. Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed. Sporadic resistance and strikes by workers ' councils continued until mid-1957, causing economic disruption. By 1963, most political prisoners from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released.
With most of Budapest under Soviet control by 8 November, Kádár became Prime Minister of the "Revolutionary Worker - Peasant Government '' and General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party. Few Hungarians rejoined the reorganised Party, its leadership having been purged under the supervision of the Soviet Praesidium, led by Georgy Malenkov and Mikhail Suslov. Although Party membership declined from 800,000 before the uprising to 100,000 by December 1956, Kádár steadily increased his control over Hungary and neutralised dissenters. The new government attempted to enlist support by espousing popular principles of Hungarian self - determination voiced during the uprising, but Soviet troops remained. After 1956 the Soviet Union severely purged the Hungarian Army and reinstituted political indoctrination in the units that remained. In May 1957, the Soviet Union increased its troop levels in Hungary and by treaty Hungary accepted the Soviet presence on a permanent basis.
The Red Cross and the Austrian Army established refugee camps in Traiskirchen and Graz. Imre Nagy along with Georg Lukács, Géza Losonczy, and László Rajk 's widow, Júlia, took refuge in the Embassy of Yugoslavia as Soviet forces overran Budapest. Despite assurances of safe passage out of Hungary by the Soviets and the Kádár government, Nagy and his group were arrested when attempting to leave the embassy on 22 November and taken to Romania. Losonczy died while on a hunger strike in prison awaiting trial when his jailers "carelessly pushed a feeding tube down his windpipe. ''
The remainder of the group was returned to Budapest in 1958. Nagy was executed, along with Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes, after secret trials in June 1958. Their bodies were placed in unmarked graves in the Municipal Cemetery outside Budapest.
During the November 1956 Soviet assault on Budapest, Cardinal Mindszenty was granted political asylum at the United States embassy, where he lived for the next 15 years, refusing to leave Hungary unless the government reversed his 1949 conviction for treason. Because of poor health and a request from the Vatican, he finally left the embassy for Austria in September 1971.
Despite Cold War rhetoric by western countries espousing a roll - back of the domination of Europe by the USSR and Soviet promises of the imminent triumph of socialism, national leaders of this period as well as later historians saw the failure of the uprising in Hungary as evidence that the Cold War in Europe had become a stalemate.
The Foreign Minister of West Germany recommended that the people of Eastern Europe be discouraged from "taking dramatic action which might have disastrous consequences for themselves. '' The Secretary - General of NATO called the Hungarian revolt "the collective suicide of a whole people ''. In a newspaper interview in 1957, Khrushchev commented "support by United States... is rather in the nature of the support that the rope gives to a hanged man. ''
In January 1957, United Nations Secretary - General Dag Hammarskjöld, acting in response to UN General Assembly resolutions requesting investigation and observation of the events in Soviet - occupied Hungary, established the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary. The Committee, with representatives from Australia, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Denmark, Tunisia, and Uruguay, conducted hearings in New York, Geneva, Rome, Vienna, and London. Over five months, 111 refugees were interviewed including ministers, military commanders and other officials of the Nagy government, workers, revolutionary council members, factory managers and technicians, Communists and non-Communists, students, writers, teachers, medical personnel, and Hungarian soldiers. Documents, newspapers, radio transcripts, photos, film footage, and other records from Hungary were also reviewed, as well as written testimony of 200 other Hungarians.
The governments of Hungary and Romania refused the UN officials of the Committee entry, and the government of the Soviet Union did not respond to requests for information. The 268 - page Committee Report was presented to the General Assembly in June 1957, documenting the course of the uprising and Soviet intervention, and concluding that "the Kádár government and Soviet occupation were in violation of the human rights of the Hungarian people. '' A General Assembly resolution was approved, deploring "the repression of the Hungarian people and the Soviet occupation '' but no other action was taken. The chairman of the Committee was Alsing Andersen, a Danish politician and leading figure of Denmark 's Social Democratic Party. He served in the Buhl government in 1942 during the Nazi German occupation of Denmark. He defended collaboration with the occupation forces and denounced the Resistance. He was appointed Interior Minister in 1947, but resigned because of scrutiny of his role in 1940 as Defence Minister. He then entered Denmark 's UN delegation in 1948.
The Committee Report and the motives of its authors were criticised by delegations to the United Nations. The Hungarian representative disagreed with the report 's conclusions, accusing it of falsifying the events, and argued that the establishment of the Committee was illegal. The Committee was accused of being hostile to Hungary and its social system. An article in the Russian journal "International Affairs '', published by the Foreign Affairs Ministry, carried an article in 1957 in which it denounced the report as a "collection of falsehoods and distortions ''.
Time magazine named the Hungarian Freedom Fighter its Man of the Year for 1956. The accompanying Time article comments that this choice could not have been anticipated until the explosive events of the revolution, almost at the end of 1956. The magazine cover and accompanying text displayed an artist 's depiction of a Hungarian freedom fighter, and used pseudonyms for the three participants whose stories are the subject of the article.
In 2006, Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány referred to this famous Time Man of the Year cover as "the faces of free Hungary '' in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1956 uprising. Prime Minister Gyurcsány, in a joint appearance with British Prime Minister Tony Blair, commented specifically on the Time cover itself, that "It is an idealised image but the faces of the figures are really the face of the revolutionaries ''
At the Melbourne Olympics in 1956, the Soviet handling of the Hungarian uprising led to a boycott by Spain, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. At the Olympic Village, the Hungarian delegation tore down the Communist Hungarian flag and raised the flag of Free Hungary in its place. A confrontation between Soviet and Hungarian teams occurred in the semi-final match of the water polo tournament on 6 December. The match was extremely violent, and was halted in the final minute to quell fighting among spectators. This match, now known as the "blood in the water match '', became the subject of several films. The Hungarian team won the game 4 -- 0 and later was awarded the Olympic gold medal. Norway declined an invitation to the inaugural Bandy World Championship in 1957, citing the presence of a team from the Soviet Union as the reason.
On Sunday, 28 October 1956, as some 55 million Americans watched Ed Sullivan 's popular television variety show, with the then 21 - year - old Elvis Presley headlining for the second time, Sullivan asked viewers to send aid to Hungarian refugees fleeing from the effects of the Soviet invasion. Presley himself made another request for donations during his third and last appearance on Sullivan 's show on 6 January 1957. Presley then dedicated a song for the finale, which he thought fit the mood of the time, namely the gospel song "Peace in the Valley ''. By the end of 1957, these contributions, distributed by the Geneva - based International Red Cross as food rations, clothing, and other essentials, had amounted to some SFR 26 million (US $6 million in 1957 dollars), the equivalent of $52,300,000 in today 's dollars. On 1 March 2011, István Tarlós, the Mayor of Budapest, made Presley an honorary citizen, posthumously, and a plaza located at the intersection of two of the city 's most important avenues was named after Presley, as a gesture of gratitude.
Meanwhile, as the 1950s drew to a close the events in Hungary produced fractures within the Communist political parties of Western European countries. The Italian Communist Party (PCI) suffered a split. According to the official newspaper of the PCI, l'Unità, most ordinary members and the Party leadership, including Palmiro Togliatti and Giorgio Napolitano, supported the actions of the Soviet Union in suppressing the uprising. However Giuseppe Di Vittorio, chief of the Communist trade union CGIL, spoke out against the leadership 's position, as did prominent party members Antonio Giolitti, Loris Fortuna, and many others influential in the Communist party. Pietro Nenni of the Italian Socialist Party, a close ally of the PCI, opposed the Soviet intervention as well. Napolitano, elected in 2006 as President of the Italian Republic, wrote in his 2005 political autobiography that he regretted his justification of Soviet action in Hungary, stating at the time he believed Party unity and the leadership of Soviet communism was more important.
The Communist Party of Great Britain, (CPGB), suffered the loss of thousands of party members following the events in Hungary. Though Peter Fryer, correspondent for the CPGB newspaper The Daily Worker, reported on the violent suppression of the uprising, his dispatches were heavily censored by the party leadership. Upon his return from Hungary Fryer resigned from the paper. He was later expelled by the Communist Party.
In France, moderate Communists, such as historian Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, resigned, questioning the French Communist Party 's policy of supporting Soviet actions. The French philosopher and writer Albert Camus wrote an open letter, The Blood of the Hungarians, criticising the West 's lack of action. Even Jean - Paul Sartre, still a determined Communist, criticised the Soviets in his article Le Fantôme de Staline, in Situations VII. Left Communists were particularly supportive of the revolution.
In December 1991, the preamble of the treaties with the dismembered Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev, and Russia, represented by Boris Yeltsin, apologised officially for the 1956 Soviet actions in Hungary. This apology was repeated by Yeltsin in 1992 during a speech to the Hungarian parliament.
On 13 February 2006, the US State Department commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice commented on the contributions made by 1956 Hungarian refugees to the United States and other host countries, as well as the role of Hungary in providing refuge to East Germans during the 1989 protests against Communist rule. US President George W. Bush also visited Hungary on 22 June 2006, to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary.
On 16 June 1989, the 31st anniversary of his execution, Imre Nagy 's body was reburied with full honours. The Republic of Hungary was declared in 1989 on the 33rd anniversary of the Revolution, and 23 October is now a Hungarian national holiday.
In the north - west corner of MacArthur Park in Los Angeles, California, the Hungarian - American community built a commemorative statue to honour the Hungarian freedom fighters. Built in the late 1960s, the obelisk statue stands with an American eagle watching over the city of Los Angeles.
There are several monuments dedicated to the Commemoration of the Hungarian Revolution throughout the United States. One such monument may be found here in Cleveland, Ohio at the Cardinal Mindszenty Plaza
There is also a monument of A Boy From Pest in the town of Szczecin, Poland.
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how many have won the million on who wants to be a millionaire uk | Who Wants to be a Millionaire? (UK game show) - Wikipedia
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? is a British quiz show, created and produced by David Briggs, and made for the ITV network. The show 's format, devised by Briggs, sees contestants taking on multiple - choice questions, based upon general knowledge, winning a cash prize for each question they answer correctly, with the amount offered increasing as they take on more difficult questions. To assist each contestant who takes part, they are given three lifelines to use, may walk away with the money they already have won if they wish not to risk answering a question, and are provided with a safety net that grants them a guaranteed cash prize if they give an incorrect answer, provided they reach a specific milestone in the quiz.
The original series aired for 30 series and a total of 592 episodes, from 4 September 1998 to 11 February 2014, and was presented by Chris Tarrant. Over the course of its run, the original series had around five contestants walk away with the top cash prize of £ 1 million, and faced a number of controversies during its run, including an attempt to defraud the show of its top prize by a contestant. The original format of the programme was tweaked in later years, changing the number of questions from fifteen to twelve and altering the payout structure as a result, and later incorporating a time limit. Four years after the original series ended, ITV unveiled a revived series, created by Stellify Media, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the programme. The revived format, based upon the original design, was presented by Jeremy Clarkson, and broadcast in 2018, from 5 -- 11 May.
The gameshow became one of the most significant shows in British popular culture, ranking 23rd in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes. Its success led to the programme being exported to many other countries, all of which follow the same general format, though with some versions including unique differences in gameplay and lifelines provided.
The creation of the game show was led by David Briggs, assisted by Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight, who had helped him before with creating a number of promotional games for Chris Tarrant 's morning show on Capital FM radio. The basic premise for the show was a twist on the conventional game - show genre of the time, with a focus towards the setup used in radio quizzes, in that the programme would have one contestant taking on the game and answering questions, but with the ability to pull out at any time, to have certain points in the quiz where, once passed, they could have a set prize given to them if they should give a wrong answer, and be provided with special forms of assistance during their game. During the design phase, the show was given the working title of "Cash Mountain '', before Briggs decided upon using the name of the song written by Cole Porter for the 1956 film High Society, as the show 's finalised title. After presenting their idea to ITV, the broadcaster gave the green - light for production to begin on a series.
The set designed for Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? was conceived by British production designer Andy Walmsley, who focused the design towards making contestants feel uncomfortable, creating an atmosphere of tension similar to movie thriller. The design was in stark contrast to the design of sets made for more typical game shows, which are designed to make contestants feel more at ease. Walmsley 's design feature a central stage made primarily with Plexiglas, with a huge dish underneath covered in mirror paper, onto which two slightly - modified, 3 foot (0.91 m) - high Pietranera Arco All chairs were chosen for use by both the contestant and the host, each having an LG computer monitor directly facing each that would be used to display questions and other pertinent information. The rest of the set featured seating spaced out around the main stage in a circle, with breaks in them to allow movement of people on and off the set. The lighting rig used for the set was designed so as to allow only the lights to switch from illuminating the entire set, to focusing on the host and contestant on the main stage when a game was underway, but to include special lighting effects when the contestant reached higher cash prize amounts. His overall conception would eventually prove to be a success, becoming one of the most reproduced scenic designs in television history.
The music provided for the show was composed by father - and - son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. The Strachans ' composition for the game show helped with Briggs ' tense game design, by providing the necessary drama and tension. Unlike other game show musical scores, the music provided for Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? was designed to be played throughout the entire episode of the show. The Strachans main theme for the game show was inspired from the "Mars '' movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets. For the main game of the show, the pair designed the music to feature three variations, with the second and third compositions focused on emphasising the increased tension of the game - as a contestant made progress to higher cash amounts, the pitch of the music was increased by a semitone for each subsequent question. On Game Show Network 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as "mimicking the sound of a beating heart '', and stated that as the contestant works their way up the money ladder, the music is "perfectly in tune with their ever - increasing pulse ''.
With the show created, ITV assigned Chris Tarrant as its host, and set its premiere to 4 September 1998. The programme was assigned a timeslot of one hour, to provide room for three commercial breaks, with episodes produced by production company Celador. Originally, the show was broadcast on successive evening for around ten days, before the network modified its broadcast schedule to air it within a primetime slot on Saturday evenings, with occasional broadcasts on Tuesday evenings. Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? proved a ratings hit, pulling in average viewing figures of up to 19 million during its broadcast in 1999, though such figures often occurred when the programme was allocated to a half - hour timeslot; by 2003, the viewing figures declined to an average of around 8 million viewers. Over the course of his time presenting the game show, Tarrant developed a number of notable catchphrases, including "Is that your final answer? '', and "But we do n't want to give you that '', with the latter often used to emphasise his wish to see contestants continue on and win more money.
Since its launch, several individuals made claims over the origins of the format or elements of it, with each accusing Celador of breaching their copyrights. In three cases, the matters could not be proven by the claimants - in 2002, Mike Bull, a Southampton - based journalist, was given an out - of - court settlement when he claimed the authorship of lifelines was his work, though with a confidentiality clause attached; in 2003, Syndey resident John J. Leonard made claims in that the show 's format was based on one he had made of a similar nature, but without the concept of lifelines; in 2004, Alan Melville was given an out - of - court settlement after he claimed that the opening phrase "Who wants to be a millionaire? '' had been taken from document he sent to Granada Television, concerning his idea for a game show based on the lottery.
One of most significant claims Celador received against them was from John Bachini. In 2002, he started legal proceedings against the production company, ITV, and five individuals who had claimed they had created Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, stating that the idea from the show was taken from several elements he had created - a board game format he conceived in 1982; a two - page TV format, known as Millionaire, made in 1990; and the telephone mechanics for a TV concept he created in 1990, BT Lottery. In his claim, Bachini stated that he submitted documents for his TV concepts to Paul Smith, from a sister company of Celador 's, in March 1995 and again in January 1996, and to Claudia Rosencrantz of ITV, also in January 1996, accusing both of using roughly 90 % of the format for Millionaire in the pilot for the game show, including the use of twenty questions, lifelines and safety nets, although the lifelines were conceived under different names - Bachini claimed that he never coined the phrase "phone - a-friend '' that Briggs designed in his format. In response to this claim, Celdaor made a counter-claim that the franchise originated from the basic format idea conceived by Briggs. The defendants in the claim took Bachini to a summary hearing, but lost their right to have his claim dismissed. Although Bachini won the right to go to trial, he was unable to after the hearing due to serious illness. Celador eventually settled the matter with him out - of - court.
In March 2006, Celador began procedures to sell the format of the show and all UK episodes, as part of their first step towards the sale of their formats divisions. The purchase of both assets was made by Dutch company 2waytraffic, which were then passed on to Sony Pictures Entertainment in 2008 when it acquired 2waytraffic. As the original series progress, variations of the format were created, and screened as special episodes, including celebrity editions, games featuring couples as contestants, and episodes themed around special events such as Mother 's Day.
From April 2011, only celebrity contestants appeared on the show, in special live editions that coincided with holidays, events and other notable moments, such as the end of a school term. However, in 2012, three special episodes, entitled "The People Play '', were broadcast for three consecutive nights between 9 and 11 July, - they featured standard contestants, with viewers at home allowed to play along. The special was used three more times in 2013, once on 7 May, and twice more on 21 May, before the special 's format was discontinued.
On 22 October 2013, Tarrant announced that after fifteen years of hosting the programme, he would be leaving Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, which consequently led ITV to axe the programme once his contract was finished; no more specials would be filmed after this announcement, leaving only those made before it to be aired as the final episodes. After a few more celebrity editions of the game show, Tarrant hosted his final episode, a clip show entitled "Chris ' Final Answer '', aired on 11 February 2014.
In 2018, ITV revived the show for a new series, as part of its 20th anniversary commemorations of the programme. On 23 February, the broadcast put out a casting call for contestants who would appear on the game show. On 9 March, Jeremy Clarkson was confirmed as the new host of the show. On 13 April, the trailer for the revival premiered on ITV and confirmed that the show would return in May for a week long run, with it later confirmed on 25 April, that the show would begin airing from 5 May.
Over the course of the programme 's broadcast history, it has had to date five winners who managed to successfully receive its top prize of £ 1 million. They include:
Members of the public wishing to apply for the game show are provided with four options to choose form - calling / texting a premium - rate number; submitting an application via the show 's ITV website, using a system of £ 1 "credits ''; taking part in a casting audition, held at various locations around the UK. Once an application is made, production staff select an episode 's contestants through a combination of random selection, and a potential contestant 's ability to answer a set of test questions based on general knowledge.
Once a contestant has auditioned for a part on the programme and filming takes place, they undertake a preliminary round entitled "Fastest Finger First '' - the group of contestants seeking a chance to take on the main game of the show, must answer a single question correctly, but do so faster than their opponents. Initially, the round required contestants to provide the correct answer to a question, but from the second series onwards, they are tasked with putting four answers in the correct order stated within the question (i.e. earliest to latest). The contestant who answers a question correctly and in the fastest time, moves on towards playing the main game; in the event that no - one answers the question correctly, a new question is given, while if two or more contestants give the correct answer in the same amount of time, they undergo a tiebreaker question to determine who takes on the main game. This round is primarily used to determine the new contestant for the main game, and can often be used more than once in an episode.
After completing the preliminary round, the contestant now begins taking on the main game, tackling a series of increasingly difficult question, which offering increasingly high sums of money, up to the top prize of £ 1 million. The questions they undertake are randomly chosen from list of generated questions based on general knowledge, with each consisting of four answers to chose from. While undertaking questions, the contestant is allowed to use a set of lifelines to provide them assistance with a question at any time, and two safety nets - if a contestant gets a question wrong, but had reached a designated cash value during their game, they left with that amount as their prize. Unlike other game shows, if a contestant is unsure about a question they are facing, they are allowed to leave the game at that point with the cash amount they had managed to win by that stage. While the initial questions are generally easy, the subsequent ones after it require the contestant to confirm that their answer / decision is final by the host, at which point it is locked in and can not be reversed. As a rule, the host is not shown the correct answer, until a contestant has given their answer. If an episode is reaching the end of its allotted, an audio cue is triggered to highlight this; contestants still playing the main game are left to wait until filming for the next episode begins to continue, though this is not the case for special editions of the show, such as celebrity episodes.
Over the course of the show 's history on British television, the format of the programme was altered in a number of aspects, mainly towards the setup of questions and the payout structure used in the game show, along with minor tweaks and changes in other aspects:
During a contestant 's game, they may make use of a set of lifelines to provide assistance on a question. Throughout the course of the show 's history, these lifelines involve the following:
On 23 October 2004 the show included a new feature called the "Walkaway Text Game ''. The competition was offered to viewers at home to play the text game where they had to answer the question, if a contestant decided to walk home with the cash prize they have got, by choosing the letters ' A, B, C or D ' within 30 seconds to a specific mobile number. The viewer who answered the question won £ 1,000 by having their entries selected randomly.
On 9 September 2006, there were some changes. The competition stayed the same but this time, they played it before some commercial breaks. A question to which the contestant had given their final answer, but the correct answer had not yet been revealed, was offered as a competition to viewers. Entry was via SMS text message at a cost of £ 1 per entry, and the competition ran through the commercial break, after which the answer was revealed and the game continued. One viewer who answered the question correctly won £ 1,000. The text game ended on 28 July 2007.
In March 1999, the Daily Mirror published a report that accused the show of allowing a contestant, Tony Kennedy, to win a question by giving an incorrect answer. During Kennedy 's game, when he had reached the £ 64,000 question, he was asked "Theoretically, what is the minimum number of strokes with which a tennis player can win a set? '', and given four possible answers - twelve, twenty four, thirty six, and forty eight. Kennedy calculated that a player would need four shots to win a game, with six games in a set, giving an answer of twenty four, but the newspaper reported that this was incorrect, stating that a tennis player could win a game without playing a shot - if their opponent double - faulted on every serve, and the player aced each of their own serves, it would allow them to win with just 12 strokes. Based on their findings, the production staff acknowledged the mistake and apologised for it, but allowed Kennedy to keep the prize money he won by the end of his game.
When Judith Keppel 's victory as the first UK jackpot winner on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? was announced by ITV on the day of that the corresponding episode was to be broadcast, several allegations were made that Celador had rigged the show to spoil the BBC 's expected high ratings for the finale of One Foot in the Grave. Richard Wilson, the lead star on the sitcom, was quoted in particular for saying that the broadcaster had "planned '' the win, adding "it seems a bit unfair to take the audience away from Victor 's last moments on earth. '' David Renwick, writer of the sitcom, voiced annoyance that the episode would draw away interest from the sitcom 's finale, believing that a leaked press release on ITV 's announcement had been "naked opportunism '', and it "would have been more honorable to let the show go out in the normal way '', pointing out that it "killed off any element of tension or surprise in their own programme '', but that "television is all about ratings ''. Richard Webber 's account, in his 2006 book, cites "unnamed BBC sources '' as those who "questioned the authenticity of Keppel 's victory ''. The allegations in turn led to eleven viewers making complaints against the quiz show, of a similar nature, to the Independent Television Commission (ITC).
In response, ITV expressed distress to the allegations, claiming that it "undermined viewers ' faith in the programme. '' Leslie Hill, the chairman of ITV, wrote to Sir Christopher Bland, the chairman of the Board of Governors of the BBC, to complain about the issue. The corporation apologised, saying that any suggestion of ' rigging ' "did not represent the official view of the BBC '', while the ITC 's investigation cleared the programme of any wrongdoing.
On 11 February 2006, celebrity couple Laurence Llewelyn - Bowen and his wife Jackie took on the game show to raise money for their chosen charity - The Shooting Star Children 's Hospice. Having reached the final question of the quiz, they were asked "Translated from the Latin, what is the motto of the United States? '', to which the Bowens answered with "In God, We Trust '', only to learn that the question 's correct answer was "One Out of Many '' - the English translation for the Latin E pluribus unum. However, Celador later admitted that the question had been ambiguous and not fair to the pair - although E pluribus unum is considered the de-facto motto of the United States, it was never legally declared as such; In God, We Trust is the official motto of the country since 1956, although is not translated from any form of Latin. Following this revelation, the production company invited the Bowens back to tackle a new question, with their original winnings reinstated; the couple chose not to risk the new question, and left with £ 500,000 for their charity.
In September 2001, British Army Major Charles Ingram became a contestant on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, joined by his wife Diana, and a close friend and college lecturer, Tecwen Whittock. After the first day of filming, the group devised a scheme that would allow Ingram to win the £ 1 million cash prize when he returned for the second day of recording, on 10 September - for each question he faced, the correct answer would be signalled to Ingram by a cough made by Whittock; Ingram would differentiate the way he received this to avoid making the scheme too obvious, such as reading aloud all four answers, or dismissing an answer and then choosing it again later. Although the scheme proved successful, by the time he had reached the final questions, production staff off - stage had become suspicious over the amount of background noise being made by Whittock 's coughing, while noting that Ingram seemed to show no specialist knowledge of any subjects he faced with each questions.
After the second day of recording ended, the production staff ordered an immediate investigation on the grounds that cheating had occurred, suspending the broadcast of both episodes that had been filmed. Ingram was subsequently informed that he was being investigated for cheating and would not receive his winnings; his reaction to this news further justified suspicion that he had cheated on the programme. While reviewing the recording, production staff began to see a pattern between Whittock 's coughing, and Ingram 's unusual behaviour when he answered questions; at one point, they noticed Ingram gave an answer when Diana had coughed after he read it aloud. By this point, Celador was convinced that cheating had occurred, and the matter was handed over to police. Both the Ingrams and Whittock were charged with "procuring the execution of a valuable security by deception '', and taken to Southwark Crown Court in 2003.
During the four - week long trial, the Prosecution provided evidence towards the charges, which included a recording of Ingram 's second day on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, pager telephone records for a previous scheme the group intended to use, before deeming it too complicated - a system of four pagers intended to be hidden on Ingram 's body, in which a pager 's vibrations signalled the correct answer - and testimony from one of the production staff and a "Fastest Finger '' contestant attending the recording, Larry Whitehurst. Although the Defence provided evidence claiming Whittock 's coughing was a result of dust allergies and a hay fever he was suffering from, and Whittock himself testified against the accusations, the Prosecution refuted these claims with their evidence, including footage that showed Whittock stopped coughing when he became a contestant after Ingram. On 7 April 2003, the group were found guilty, with all three given suspended prison sentences and fines, with the Ingrams later ordered to pay legal costs within two months of the trial 's conclusion. On 24 July 2003, the British Army ordered Charles Ingram to resign his commission as a Major, in the wake of the trial.
In the aftermath of the trial, the scandal became the subject of a documentary entitled Millionaire: A Major Fraud, presented by Martin Bashir and broadcast on 21 April 2003, with a follow - up two weeks later entitled Millionaire: The Final Answer. The documentary featured excerpts from the recording that had been enhanced for the Ingrams ' trial, footage of the actions made by Ingram 's wife in the audience, and interviews with production staff and some of the contestants who had been present during the recording. None of the defendants in the case took part, with Ingram later describing Major Fraud and a subsequent programme of the matter, shown on ITV2, as "one of the greatest TV editing con tricks in history ''. Chess grandmaster James Plaskett later wrote an essay arguing in favour of the group 's innocence; journalists Bob Woffinden, and Jon Ronson, each wrote a piece influenced by this essay, with Woffiden collaborating with Plaskett on a book entitled Bad Show: The Quiz, the Cough, the Millionaire Major, published in 2015, arguing that Ingram 's appearance on the show coinciding with Whittock 's was "chance ''. A play based upon the events of the scandal was written by James Graham, entitled Quiz, and was performed from 3 November 2017 to 9 December 2017, before being performed in the West End from 31 March 2018 to 16 June 2018.
The Phone - a-Friend lifeline provided multiple instances of controversy during the show 's run. A 2002 edition of the Daily Mail reported that many contestants had selected strangers who were "contacts among the quizzing fraternity '' to act as their Phone - a-Friends. Specifically, game show champion Daphne Fowler was approached by a man she had not previously met and asked if she would be his lifeline in exchange for £ 200. Fowler refused, adding: "I thought a fair price would be a quarter of whatever the man won, so if I helped him get from £ 32,000 to £ 64,000 I would expect to get £ 16,000. '' The man was later revealed by ITV sources not to have made it onto the programme.
In March 2007 various UK newspapers reported that an organised syndicate had been getting quiz enthusiasts onto the show in return for a percentage of their winnings. The person behind the syndicate was Keith Burgess from Northern Ireland. Burgess admitted to helping around 200 contestants to appear on the show since 1999; he estimates those contestants to have won around £ 5,000,000. The show producers are believed to have been aware of this operation, with Burgess stating: "The show knows about me and these types of syndicates, but they cover it up to keep the show going. '' An earlier version of a Phone a Friend syndicate was reported in the Northampton Chronicle and Echo during 2003. Paul Smith, the Managing Director of Celador Productions, stated: "We are aware of Paddy Spooner and what people similar to him are doing, and we have made a priority of changing our question procedure. We are confident we have now made it impossible for anyone to manipulate the system. '' Since then, the options of people that can be called have a picture of themselves shown on - air.
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who is running for governor of va in 2017 | Virginia gubernatorial election, 2017 - wikipedia
Terry McAuliffe Democratic
The Virginia gubernatorial election of 2017 will take place on November 7, 2017. The incumbent Governor, Democrat Terry McAuliffe, is not eligible to run for re-election due to term limits established by the Virginia Constitution. Virginia is the only state that prohibits its Governor from serving consecutive terms.
Primary elections took place on June 13, 2017. Virginia utilizes an open primary, in which registered voters are allowed to vote in either party 's primary election. The Democratic Party nominated Ralph Northam and the Republican Party nominated Ed Gillespie. The Libertarian Party nominated Cliff Hyra by convention on May 6, 2017.
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From 2015 to 2017 Ralph Northam 's funds includes cash contributions which are one donation over $1,000,000 which is $1,050,000 from DGA (Democratic Governors Association) Action, two donations over $200,000 which are $250,000 from Micheal D. Bills, $223,000 from the Stronger Together PAC, four donations over 100,000 which are $122,000 from Thomas A. DePasquale, $110,000 from Common Good VA, $100,000 from Baltimore Washington Construction & Public Employees Laborers PAC and $100,000 from Firefighters - International Assn, eight thousand fifty two donations over $100 and twenty thousand two fifty five donations of $100 or less.
From 2014 to 2017 Ed Gillespie 's funds includes cash contributions which are two donations over $1,000,000 which are $1,147,355 from Let 's Grow Virginia and $1,000,000 from A Stronger Virginia, one donation over $100,000 which is $100,000 from Dwight C. Schar, two thousand forty nine cash contributions less than $100,000 and five thousand three hundred twelve cash contributions of $100 or Less.
From 2014 to 2017 Clif Hyra 's funds includes cash contributions more than $100 which are $10,000 from Michael E. Chastain, $1,000 from William Redpath, $500 from Toger Anderson, $500 from Xavian Draper, $200 from Justin Malkin and ninety one cash contributions of $100 or less.
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tom and jerry make all deliveries in rear | Sufferin ' cats! - Wikipedia
Sufferin ' Cats!, a 1943 American one - reel animated cartoon, is the 9th Tom and Jerry animated short released. It was produced in Technicolor and released to theatres on January 16, 1943 by Metro - Goldwyn Mayer and re-released on June 4, 1949. This is the final cartoon to have Clarence Nash voice Tom Cat, though he would later voice the vicious cats in Mouse in Manhattan. After this cartoon, Tom or any other MGM cat character would just yelp in pain whenever they get hurt. Tom 's yelps were done by creator William Hanna.
The cartoon opens with Jerry running with a fishing line tied to his tail, which proceeds to retreat; Jerry is pulled under the radiator, through a mousehole, and towards Tom at the end of the line. When Jerry reaches Tom, the cat makes a face and scares Jerry, causing him to run away. Tom starts to reel in Jerry again, but the mouse holds onto a bag of jerked beef, forcing Tom to struggle to regain control of the line. As the line returns to Tom, a piece of the bag is on the end, stating "JERK ''.
Jerry escapes through an open window and runs into an alley cat (Meathead), who is going through garbage cans trying to find lunch. Jerry quickly runs the other way, but then runs into Tom who is coming towards him. Choosing between evils, Jerry gives Meathead a kiss and hug, plays with his whiskers, and sticks his tongue out at Tom; in retaliation, Tom grabs Jerry and hisses at Meathead, who grabs Jerry back and hisses much louder than Tom. Knowing he is outclassed, Tom retreats. Meathead makes a Jerry sandwich, but when he adds pepper, Jerry sneezes and is propelled away from the bread - and runs into Tom. Jerry now hugs Tom and snubs Meathead, who grabs Jerry and breaks the bread over Tom 's head. Tom then grabs Meathead 's whiskers and pulls one of them out; after Meathead locks Jerry in a can, he returns the injury.
The two felines fight until Meathead, while holding Tom by the ears and fist back to punch him, spots Jerry walking out of the can. Meathead scolds Jerry and points to the can as if to say "You belong to me, get back in the can. '' Jerry complies grudgingly, but meanwhile Tom has replaced himself with a flower pot and stolen Jerry. Meathead chases after Tom, but runs into the front gate.
In the backyard, Tom sits on Jerry to hide Jerry and shows Meathead the empty sardine can as he comes by. Jerry reveals himself by sticking Tom with a gardening fork and runs away; Meathead attempts to catch him, but Tom has tied Meathead 's tail to the garden hose, who is then pulled back into the spigot and rained on. Tom then chases Jerry and catches him near an open window; a pie is sitting on the deck, and Tom holds it out for Meathead to promptly hit. Tom runs away with Jerry, but soon trips into a garbage can and loses Jerry to Meathead; as Tom emerges from the can, he wallops Meathead with a frying pan and flips Jerry in the pan a few times. The mouse escapes and wriggles through a hole in a fence, and when Tom peeks through, he is whacked with a length of pipe. When the cat sees his opponent arrive, he waves him ahead, and Meathead receives the same punishment.
Jerry runs away and disguises himself as an old mouse, using mop bristles in the shape of a beard. Both cats corner him, and Jerry points away from himself as if to say "He went that way ''. The two cats shrug, run away, soon realize their error and go back to search the mop. They then look in front of the drainpipe the mouse has hidden in, who ties both cats ' tails together and then provokes a chase. The alley cat moves first and drags Tom across the ground, and both cats end up tangled around a tree. Jerry continues running and sets out thumbtacks for the cats to step on; at their speed, they can not avoid the tacks, but manage to survive the podiatric assault and catch Jerry. After a brief fight, a tree stump with an ax on it catches their eyes and they agree to cut Jerry in half. The alley cat holds Jerry while Tom readies the ax, and as Tom raises the ax over his head, his devilish conscience appears and convinces him that he does n't have to share Jerry. He then makes an X on the alley cat 's head, which Tom swings for, but stops short, panting at his inability to commit murder. The devil appears again, disgusted, using his famed reasoning to convince the cat that Tom had priorities on Jerry, successfully breaking through to Tom.
Tom prepares to chop Meathead in half, but the blade slides off and instead of being beheaded, Meathead is whacked on the head and a bump forms on the top and goes through his toupee. The incensed alley cat chases Tom and beats him with the stick, Tom hissing and spitting. Meanwhile, Jerry escapes and ducks under the front gate. The cats chase the mouse instead, but crash through the gate with their heads, hands and feet on the front side and their defenseless rear ends hanging out the back. Jerry arrives with a huge smile carrying a wooden plank, and goes behind the cats ' back. He has decided that as punishment for tormenting him, that both cats deserve a good paddling, and uses their compromising position to do just that. Then he brushes off Tom 's waiting butt to let him know what is about to happen. Then he takes aim with the plank; the cats look up to see a sign on the gate saying MAKE ALL DELIVERIES IN REAR, and Jerry uses the plank to give both of them a good spanking on their presumably bare bottoms as the sound the paddle makes is met with yelps of pain. The cartoon goes to black while Jerry continues the spanking to his heart 's desire. Jerry had spanked Tom in past cartoons, but this cartoon was the first one to feature another cat being spanked along with Tom.
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what is at the centre of the earth | Geographical centre of Earth - wikipedia
The geographical centre of Earth is the geometric centre of all land surfaces on Earth. In a more strict definition, it is the superficial barycenter of the mass distribution produced by treating each continent or island as a region of a thin shell of uniform density and approximating the geoid with a sphere. The centre is inside Earth but can be projected to the closest point on the surface.
In 1864, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Royal for Scotland, gave in his book Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid the coordinates with 30 ° 00 ′ N 31 ° 00 ′ E / 30.000 ° N 31.000 ° E / 30.000; 31.000 (Geographical centre of all land surfaces on Earth (Smyth 1864)), the location of the Great Pyramid of Giza. In addition, in October of that year, Smyth proposed to position the prime meridian at the longitude of the Great Pyramid because there it would "pass over more land than any other ''. He also argued the cultural significance of the location and its vicinity to Jerusalem. The expert committee deciding the issue, however, voted for Greenwich because "so many ships used the port of London ''. Referring to Smyth 's book, Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard wrote in his 1884 book, The imaginary metrological system of the Great pyramid of Gizeh, that the perfect location of the Great Pyramid along the longitudinal line could only have been purposefully done by its builders.
In the September 1919 issue of Trestle Board Magazine, Mason William Galliher stated that knowledge of the Great Pyramid being the geographical centre was "determined by many years of scientific investigation '' and that the Great Pyramid was likely to be the "last of the present land surface of the earth '' to survive a cataclysmic event, due to its positioning.
In 1973, Andrew J. Woods, a physicist with Gulf Energy & Environmental Systems in San Diego, used a digital global map and calculated the coordinates on a mainframe system as 39 ° 00 ′ N 34 ° 00 ′ E / 39.000 ° N 34.000 ° E / 39.000; 34.000 (Geographical centre of all land surfaces on Earth (Woods 1973)), in modern Turkey, 1,000 km north of Giza
In 2007, Susan Wise Bauer claimed in her book Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome, that the theory that the Great Pyramid was the geographical centre of Earth would only hold true if a Mercator projection is used as the map for Earth, which was "unlikely to have been a common practice of the ancient Egyptians ''.
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how many games have tottenham played this season | 2016 -- 17 Tottenham Hotspur F.C. Season - wikipedia
The 2016 -- 17 season was Tottenham Hotspur 's 25th season in the Premier League and 39th successive season in the top division of the English football league system. Along with the Premier League, the club competed in the FA Cup, League Cup and the Champions League, as well as the Europa League since they finished third in their Champions League group. They played their home domestic fixtures at White Hart Lane and their home European fixtures at Wembley Stadium. The season covers the period from 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.
It was the club 's final season at White Hart Lane before it was demolished to make way for the new stadium. Tottenham went the season unbeaten at their old stadium in all competitions: it was the first time they had been unbeaten at home in a league campaign since the 1964 -- 65 season.In winning their final fourteen home league matches, they equalled the club record set over the final nine games of 1986 - 87 and the first five of 1987 - 88
Age listed below are accurate as of 21 May 2017
Summer: £ 67,400,000
Winter: £ 0
Total: £ 67,400,000
Summer: £ 39,000,000
Winter: £ 20,500,000
Total: £ 59,500,000
Summer: £ 28,400,000
Winter: £ 20,500,000
Total: £ 7,900,000
On 1 March 2016, it was announced that Tottenham will participate in the Australia edition of the 2016 International Champions Cup. On 24 June, it was announced on the Tottenham Hotspur website that they will also play against Inter Milan in Norway.
Win Draw Loss
On 8 May 2017, Spurs confirmed a return to Hong Kong to play an exhibition match against Kitchee SC, which closed Spurs ' season.
Last updated: 21 May 2017 Source: Competitions
Last updated: 21 May 2017. Source: Competitive matches
Last updated: 21 May 2017. Source: Statto Ground: A = Away; H = Home. Result: D = Draw; L = Loss; W = Win; P = Postponed.
On 15 June 2016, the fixtures for the forthcoming season were announced.
Last updated: 11 February 2017 Source: Competitions
Includes all competitive matches.
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who was the american cancer society founded by | American Cancer Society - wikipedia
The American Cancer Society (ACS) is a nationwide voluntary health organization dedicated to eliminating cancer. Established in 1913, the society is organized into eleven geographical divisions of both medical and lay volunteers operating in more than 900 offices throughout the United States. Its home office is located in the American Cancer Society Center in Atlanta, Georgia. The ACS publishes the journals Cancer, CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians and Cancer Cytopathology.
The society was founded on May 23, 1913 by 15 physicians and businessmen in New York City under the name American Society for the Control of Cancer (ASCC). The current name was adopted in 1944. According to Charity Navigator the ACS is one of the oldest and largest volunteer health organizations.
At the time of founding, it was not considered appropriate to mention the word ' cancer ' in public. Information concerning this illness was cloaked in a climate of fear and denial. Over 75,000 people died each year of cancer in just the United States. The top item on the founders ' agenda was to raise awareness of cancer, before any other progress could be made in funding research. Therefore, a frenetic writing campaign was undertaken to educate doctors, nurses, patients and family members about cancer. Articles were written for popular magazines and professional journals. The ASCC undertook to publish their own journal, Campaign Notes, which was a monthly bulletin with information about cancer. They began recruiting doctors from all over the United States to help educate the public about cancer.
In 1936, Marjorie Illig, an ASCC field representative, suggested the creation of a network consisting of new volunteers for the purpose of waging "war on cancer ''. From 1935 to 1938 the number of people involved in cancer control in the US grew from 15,000 to 150,000. According to Working to Give, The Women 's Field Army, a group of volunteers working for the ASCC was primarily responsible for this increase.
The sword symbol, adopted by the American Cancer Society in 1928, was designed by George E. Durant of Brooklyn, New York. According to Durant, the two serpents forming the handle represent the scientific and medical focus of the society 's mission and the blade expresses the "crusading spirit of the cancer control movement ''.
In 2013 the American Cancer Society embarked on a nationwide reorganization. The organization centralized its operations and consolidated, merging previous regional affiliates into the parent organization. It also required all employees to reapply for their jobs.
Its activities include providing grants to researchers, including funding 47 Nobel Laureate researchers, discovering the link between smoking and cancer, and serving one million callers every year through its National Cancer Information Center. The 47 Nobel Prize laureates include James D. Watson, Mario Capecchi, Oliver Smithies, Paul Berg, E. Donnall Thomas, and Walter Gilbert. The American Cancer Society 's website contained a chronological listing of specific accomplishments in the fight against cancer, for example the unipod technological device of UTD, that the ACS had a hand in, including the funding of various scientists who went on to discover life - saving cancer treatments, and advocating for increased use of preventative techniques. More than two million people volunteer with the ACS which has over 3,400 local offices.
It also runs public health advertising campaigns, and organizes projects such as the Relay For Life and the Great American Smokeout. It operates a series of thrift stores to raise money for its operations. The ACS participates in the Hopkins 4K for Cancer, a 4000 - mile bike ride from Baltimore to San Francisco to raise money for the society 's Hope Lodge.
The society 's allocation of funds for the fiscal year ending December 31, 2015, lists 75 % of funds for Program Services (Patient Support 37 %, Research 16 %, Prevention 13.1 %, Detection and Treatment 9.2 %). The remaining 25 % are allocated for supporting services (Fundraising 19.1 %, and Management, General administration 5.5 %). This meets the Better Business Bureau 's Standards for Charity Accountability: Standard 8 (Program Service Expense Ratio) of at least 65 % of total expenses spent on program activities.
In 2012 the American Cancer Society raised $934 million and spent $943 million prompting a national consolidation and cost - cutting reorganization.
John R. Seffrin, former CEO of the American Cancer Society, received $2,401,112 salary / compensation from the charity for the 2009 - 2010 fiscal year. This is the second most money given by any charity to the head of that charity, according to Charity Watch. The money included $1.5 million in a retention benefit approved in 2001, "to preserve management stability ''. Mr. Seffrin 's compensation for the fiscal year ending August 31, 2012 was $832,355.
In 1994, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, a nonprofit industry publication, released the results of the largest study of charitable and non-profit organization popularity and credibility conducted by Nye Lavalle & Associates. The study showed that the American Cancer Society was ranked as the 10th "most popular charity / non-profit in America '' of over 100 charities researched with 38 % of Americans over the age of 12 choosing "love '' and "like a lot '' for the American Cancer Society.
The Better Business Bureau lists American Cancer Society as an accredited charity meeting all of its Standards for Charity Accountability as of January 2012. Charity Navigator rates the society two of four stars for fiscal year 2011. According to Charity Navigator the society is directed to "eliminating cancer '' and destroying it. Charity Watch rates American Cancer Society a "C '', stating that the Society devotes 40 % of its annual expenditures to administration, fundraising, etc., with the other 60 % going to fund programs.
In 1995, the Arizona chapter of the American Cancer Society was targeted for its extremely high overhead. Two economists, James Bennett and Thomas DiLorenzo, issued a report analyzing the chapter 's financial statements and demonstrating that the Arizona chapter used about 95 % of its donations for paying salaries and other overhead costs, resulting in a 22 to 1 ratio of overhead to actual money spent on the cause. The report also asserted that the Arizona chapter 's annual report had grossly misrepresented the amount of money spent on patient services, inflating it by more than a factor of 10. The American Cancer Society responded by alleging that the two economists issuing the report were working for a group funded by the tobacco industry.
The American Cancer Society was criticized in 2011 for turning down participation from the Foundation Beyond Belief in its Relay For Life "National Team '' program.
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names in 50 ways to leave your lover | 50 Ways to Leave Your Lover - wikipedia
"50 Ways to Leave Your Lover '' is a song by the American singer - songwriter Paul Simon. It was the second single from his fourth studio album, Still Crazy After All These Years (1975), released on Columbia Records. Backing vocals on the single were performed by Patti Austin, Valerie Simpson, and Phoebe Snow. The song features a recognizable repeated drum riff performed by drummer Steve Gadd.
One of his most popular singles, "50 Ways '' was released in December 1975 and began to see chart success within the new year. It became Simon 's sole number - one hit as a solo artist on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, and was his highest position in France, where it peaked at number two. Elsewhere, the song was a top 20 hit in Canada and New Zealand. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting sales of over one million copies.
Written after Simon 's divorce from first wife Peggy Harper, the song is a mistress 's humorous advice to a husband on ways to end a relationship. The song was recorded in a small New York City studio on Broadway.
"50 Ways to Leave Your Lover '' was Paul Simon 's biggest solo hit and broke in the US in late 1975. It hit number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 on February 7, 1976 (his only number one on that chart as a solo act), soaring from number ten the previous week, and remained there for three weeks; it topped the adult contemporary chart for two weeks. Overseas, on the UK Singles Chart, the song reached number 23 in January 1976. It was certified gold on March 11, 1976, and remained a best seller for nearly five months. Billboard ranked it as the No. 8 song of 1976.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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lynyrd skynyrd free bird other recordings of this song | Free Bird - wikipedia
"Free Bird '', or "Freebird '', is a power ballad performed by American rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd. The song was first featured on the band 's debut album in 1973 and has been included on subsequent albums, including the unfaded - ending version of the original recording (featured on Skynyrd 's Innyrds).
Released as a single in November 1974, "Free Bird '' entered the Billboard Hot 100 on the 23. November at No. 87 and became the band 's second Top 40 hit in early 1975, peaking at No. 19. on 25. January. A live version of the song reentered the charts in late 1976, eventually peaking at No. 38 in January 1977.
"Free Bird '' also achieved the No. 3 spot on Guitar World 's 100 Greatest Guitar Solos.
It is considered to be Lynyrd Skynyrd 's signature song, is used as a finale during their live performances, and is their longest song, often going well over 14 minutes when played live.
According to guitarist Gary Rossington, for two years after Allen Collins wrote the initial chords, vocalist Ronnie Van Zant insisted that there were too many for him to create a melody in the belief that the melody needed to change alongside the chords. After Collins played the unused sequence at rehearsal one day, Van Zant asked him to repeat it, then wrote out the melody and lyrics in three or four minutes. The guitar solos that finish the song were added originally to give Van Zant a chance to rest, as the band was playing several sets per night at clubs at the time. Soon afterward, the band learned piano - playing roadie Billy Powell had written an introduction to the song; upon hearing it, they included it as the finishing touch and had him formally join as their keyboardist.
Allen Collins 's girlfriend, Kathy, whom he later married, asked him, "If I leave here tomorrow, would you still remember me? '' Collins noted the question and it eventually became the opening line of "Free Bird ''.
The song is dedicated to the memory of Duane Allman by the band in their live shows. During their 1975 performance on The Old Grey Whistle Test, Ronnie dedicated the song to both Allman and Berry Oakley, commenting, "they 're both free birds ''.
"Free Bird '' is included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll and at number 193 in Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 2009, it was named the 26th best hard rock song of all time by VH1.
The song -- half ballad, half up - tempo guitar solo -- quickly became a staple for Lynyrd Skynyrd at their live performances. Many recognize its 5: 12 triple guitar solo section that closes it out. It often turned into an extended jam session at concerts. The band consistently played it as the last song of their shows, as it was their biggest crowd pleaser. The song was a huge hit for Lynyrd Skynyrd and it remains a fan favorite to this day. It is also a classic rock radio staple.
It has become something of a humorous tradition for audience members at concerts to shout "Free Bird '' as a request to hear the song, regardless of the performer or style of music. For example, during the Nirvana 1993 MTV Unplugged in New York show, a shout - out for "Freebird! '' eventually resulted in a lyrically slurred, if short, rendition of "Sweet Home Alabama ''. The phenomenon began earlier in the 1970s with The Allman Brothers Band 's "Whipping Post '' and Deep Purple 's "Smoke on the Water '' but then took off with "Free Bird '' by 1979. On Skynyrd 's first live album, 1976 's One More from the Road, Van Zant can be heard asking the crowd, "What song is it you wan na hear? '' The calls for "Free Bird '' led into a 14 - minute rendition of the song. During the beginning of the song he would make the comment about "playing it pretty '' (e.g,, "Play it Pretty for Atlanta '') Kevin Matthews claimed to have further popularized it in the 1980s from his Chicago - area radio show.
In recent tours, since the song returned to their set list, it has become common for the band to again close concerts with it, with photos and film of the former band members being shown on a screen behind them, while lead singer Johnny Van Zant points his microphone to the sky as a tribute. This can be seen on the band 's 2003 Vicious Cycle Tour concert video.
An all - star band performed the song to conclude the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. Will Ferrell sang lead vocals and played cowbell, and was backed by Beck, ZZ Top 's Billy Gibbons, Ben Harper, and O'Brien himself on guitar, drummer Max Weinberg and the rest of the show 's house band. Some commentators found the lyrics especially resonant due to Conan 's decision to leave the show rather than allow it to be aired in a later time slot.
The song was featured in several video games, films, and television series, including Soylent Green, Westworld, The Towering Inferno, Logan 's Run, The Doors, The Last Boy Scout, Soldier, Blood Diamond, Time Bandits, Spaceballs, Wayne 's World, Josie and the Pussycats, Sid and Nancy, This Is Spinal Tap, Airheads, Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure, Dude, Where 's My Car?, Empire Records, High Fidelity, Rock Star, The Rocker, The Full Monty, Napoleon Dynamite, Idiocracy, Speed, Broken Arrow, Entrapment, Lethal Weapon 4, Exit Wounds, Mad Max: Fury Road, Guitar Hero II, Forrest Gump, American Pop, House of Cards, The Devil 's Rejects, Guitar Hero: Smash Hits, Rock Band 3, ER, Everybody Loves Raymond, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, Californication, Kingsman: The Secret Service, Free Birds, That ' 70s Show, Flushed Away, Chicken Little, Elizabethtown, Toy Story 3, The Simpsons and Family Guy.
The song has sold 2,111,000 downloads in the digital era.
Studio version (1973)
The addition of Steve Gaines returned Lynyrd Skynyrd to the formula that Ronnie Van Zant felt gave the band its first road to success with a three - person lead guitar sound. Collins ' "Free Bird '' solo at the end was changed so that the two guitars were complementing and challenging each other throughout that solo.
The American dance - pop group Will to Power created a medley of this song and the 1976 Peter Frampton song "Baby, I Love Your Way '' in 1988. Titled "Baby, I Love Your Way / Freebird Medley '', it spent one week at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Molly Hatchet covered the song on their 1985 live album Double Trouble Live. It was released as a promo single. It was also covered by Wynonna Judd on the 1994 tribute album Skynyrd Frynds. The song was also covered by Bronx Casket Co. on their 2005 album Hellectric in Goth style. American jam band Phish has performed an a cappella version of the song live, most frequently throughout 1993 -- 94 and 1998.
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what happens at the end of the game of thrones books | A Song of Ice and Fire - wikipedia
A Song of Ice and Fire is a series of epic fantasy novels by the American novelist and screenwriter George R.R. Martin. He began the first volume of the series, A Game of Thrones, in 1991, and it was published in 1996. Martin, who initially envisioned the series as a trilogy, has published five out of a planned seven volumes. The fifth and most recent volume of the series published in 2011, A Dance with Dragons, took Martin six years to write. He is still writing the sixth novel, The Winds of Winter.
A Song of Ice and Fire takes place on the fictional continents Westeros and Essos. The point of view of each chapter in the story is a limited perspective of a range of characters growing from nine, in the first novel, to 31 characters by the fifth novel. Three main stories interweave: a dynastic war among several families for control of Westeros, the rising threat of the supernatural Others in the northernmost reaches of Westeros, and the ambition of Daenerys Targaryen, the deposed king 's exiled daughter, to assume the Iron Throne.
Martin 's inspirations included the Wars of the Roses and the French historical novels The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon. A Song of Ice and Fire received praise for its diverse portrayal of women and religion, as well as its realism. An assortment of disparate and subjective points of view confronts the reader, and the success or survival of point of view characters is never assured. Within the often morally ambiguous world of A Song of Ice and Fire, questions concerning loyalty, pride, human sexuality, piety, and the morality of violence frequently arise.
As of August 2016, the books have sold more than 70 million copies worldwide and, as of January 2017, have been translated into 47 languages. The fourth and fifth volumes reached the top of The New York Times Best Seller lists upon their releases. Among the many derived works are several prequel novellas, a TV series, a comic book adaptation, and several card, board, and video games.
A Song of Ice and Fire takes place in a fictional world in which seasons last for years and end unpredictably. Nearly three centuries before the events of the first novel (see backstory), the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros were united under the Targaryen dynasty by Aegon I and his sister wives Visenya and Rhaenys, with Aegon Targaryen becoming the first king of the whole of the continent of Westeros, save for the southerly Dorne. At the beginning of A Game of Thrones, 15 peaceful years have passed since the rebellion led by Lord Robert Baratheon that deposed and killed the last Targaryen king, Aerys II "the Mad King '', and proclaimed Robert king of the Seven Kingdoms, with a nine - year - long summer coming to an end.
The principal story chronicles the power struggle for the Iron Throne among the great Houses of Westeros following the death of King Robert in A Game of Thrones. Robert 's heir apparent, the 13 - year - old Joffrey, is immediately proclaimed king through the machinations of his mother, Queen Cersei Lannister. When Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark, Robert 's closest friend and chief advisor, discovers that Joffrey and his siblings are the product of incest between Cersei and her twin brother Jaime "The Kingslayer '' Lannister, Eddard attempts to unseat Joffrey, but is betrayed and executed for treason. In response, Robert 's brothers Stannis and Renly both lay separate claims to the throne. During this period of instability, two of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros attempt to become independent from the Iron Throne: Eddard 's eldest son Robb is proclaimed King in the North, while Lord Balon Greyjoy desires to recover the sovereignty of his region, the Iron Islands. The so - called "War of the Five Kings '' is in full progress by the middle of the second book, A Clash of Kings.
The second story takes place in the far north of Westeros, where an 8,000 - year - old wall of ice, simply called "the Wall '', defends the Seven Kingdoms from the Others. The Wall 's sentinels, the Sworn Brotherhood of the Night 's Watch, also protect the realm from the incursions of the "wildlings '' or "Free Folk '', who are humans living north of the Wall. The Night 's Watch story is told primarily through the point of view of Jon Snow, Eddard 's bastard son. Jon follows the footsteps of his uncle Benjen Stark and joins the Watch at a young age, rising quickly through the ranks. He eventually becomes Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. In the third volume, A Storm of Swords, the Night 's Watch storyline becomes increasingly entangled with the War of the Five Kings.
The third story follows Daenerys Targaryen, daughter of Aerys, the last Targaryen king. On the continent of Essos, east of Westeros across the Narrow Sea, Daenerys is married off by her elder brother Viserys Targaryen to a powerful warlord, but slowly becomes an independent and intelligent ruler in her own right. Her rise to power is aided by the historic birth of three dragons, hatched from eggs given to her as wedding gifts. The three dragons soon become not only a symbol of her bloodline and her legitimate claim to the throne, but also devastating weapons of war.
Books in the A Song of Ice and Fire series are first published in hardcover and are later re-released as paperback editions. In the UK, Harper Voyager publishes special slipcased editions. The series has also been translated into more than 30 languages. All page totals given below are for the US first editions.
George R.R. Martin was already a successful fantasy and sci - fi author and TV writer before writing his A Song of Ice and Fire book series. Martin had published his first short story in 1971 and his first novel in 1977. By the mid-1990s, he had won three Hugo Awards, two Nebula Awards, and other awards for his short fiction. Although his early books were well - received within the fantasy fiction community, his readership remained relatively small and Martin took on jobs as a writer in Hollywood in the mid-1980s. He worked principally on the revival of The Twilight Zone throughout 1986 and on Beauty and the Beast until 1990, but he also developed his own TV pilots and wrote feature film scripts. He grew frustrated that his pilots and screenplays were not getting made and that TV - related production limitations like budgets and episode lengths were forcing him to cut characters and trim battle scenes. This pushed Martin back towards writing books, where he did not have to worry about compromising the size of his imagination. Admiring the works of J.R.R. Tolkien in his childhood, he wanted to write an epic fantasy, though he did not have any specific ideas.
When Martin was between Hollywood projects in the summer of 1991, he started writing a new science fiction novel called Avalon. After three chapters, he had a vivid idea of a boy seeing a man 's beheading and finding direwolves in the snow, which would eventually become the first non-prologue chapter of A Game of Thrones. Putting Avalon aside, Martin finished this chapter in a few days and grew certain that it was part of a longer story. After a few more chapters, Martin perceived his new book as a fantasy story and started making maps and genealogies. However, the writing of this book was interrupted for a few years when Martin returned to Hollywood to produce his TV series Doorways that ABC had ordered but ultimately never aired.
-- George R.R. Martin in 2014
In 1994, Martin gave his agent, Kirby McCauley, the first 200 pages and a two - page story projection as part of a planned trilogy with the novels A Dance with Dragons and The Winds of Winter intended to follow. When Martin had still not reached the novel 's end at 1400 manuscript pages, he felt that the series needed to be four and eventually six books long, which he imagined as two linked trilogies of one long story. Martin chose A Song of Ice and Fire as the overall series title: Martin saw the struggle of the cold Others and the fiery dragons as one possible meaning for "Ice and Fire '', whereas the word "song '' had previously appeared in Martin 's book titles A Song for Lya and Songs the Dead Men Sing, stemming from his obsessions with songs. Martin also named Robert Frost 's 1920 poem "Fire and Ice '' and cultural associations such as passion versus betrayal as possible influences for the series ' title.
The revised finished manuscript for A Game of Thrones was 1088 pages long (without the appendices), with the publication following in August 1996. Wheel of Time author Robert Jordan had written a short endorsement for the cover that was influential in ensuring the book 's and hence series ' early success with fantasy readers. Blood of the Dragon, a pre-release sample novella drawn from Daenerys 's chapters, went on to win the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella.
The 300 pages removed from the A Game of Thrones manuscript served as the opening of the second book, entitled A Clash of Kings. It was released in February 1999 in the United States, with a manuscript length (without appendices) of 1184 pages. A Clash of Kings was the first book of the A Song of Ice and Fire series to make the best - seller lists, reaching 13 on The New York Times Best Seller list in 1999. After the success of The Lord of the Rings films, Martin received his first inquiries to the rights of the A Song of Ice and Fire series from various producers and filmmakers.
Martin was several months late turning in the third book, A Storm of Swords. The last chapter he had written was about the "Red Wedding '', a pivotal scene notable for its violence (see Themes: Violence and death). A Storm of Swords was 1521 pages in manuscript (without appendices), causing problems for many of Martin 's publishers around the world. Bantam Books published A Storm of Swords in a single volume in the United States in November 2000, whereas some other - language editions were divided into two, three, or even four volumes. A Storm of Swords debuted at number 12 in the New York Times bestseller list.
After A Game of Thrones, A Clash of Kings, and A Storm of Swords, Martin originally intended to write three more books. The fourth book, tentatively titled A Dance with Dragons, was to focus on Daenerys Targaryen 's return to Westeros and the associated conflicts. Martin wanted to set this story five years after A Storm of Swords so that the younger characters could grow older and the dragons grow larger. Agreeing with his publishers early on that the new book should be shorter than A Storm of Swords, Martin set out to write the novel closer in length to A Clash of Kings. A long prologue was to establish what had happened in the meantime, initially just as one chapter of Aeron Damphair on the Iron Islands at the Kingsmoot. Since the events on the Iron Islands were to have an impact in the book and could not be told with existing POV characters, Martin eventually introduced three new viewpoints.
In 2001, Martin was still optimistic that the fourth installment might be released in the last quarter of 2002. However, the five - year gap did not work for all characters during writing. On one hand, Martin was unsatisfied with covering the events during the gap solely through flashbacks and internal retrospection. On the other hand, it was implausible to have nothing happen for five years. After working on the book for about a year, Martin realized he needed an additional interim book, which he called A Feast for Crows. The book would pick up the story immediately after the third book, and Martin scrapped the idea of a five - year gap. The material of the written 250 - page prologue was mixed in as new viewpoint characters from Dorne and the Iron Islands. These expanded storylines and the resulting story interactions complicated the plot for Martin.
The manuscript length of A Feast for Crows eventually surpassed A Storm of Swords. Martin was reluctant to make the necessary deep cuts to get the book down to publishable length, as that would have compromised the story he had in mind. Printing the book in "microtype on onion skin paper and giving each reader a magnifying glass '' was also not an option for him. On the other hand, Martin rejected the publishers ' idea of splitting the narrative chronologically into A Feast for Crows, Parts One and Two. Being already late with the book, Martin had not even started writing all characters ' stories and also objected to ending the first book without any resolution for its many viewpoint characters as in previous books.
With the characters spread out across the world, a friend suggested that Martin divide the story geographically into two volumes, of which A Feast for Crows would be the first. This approach would give Martin the room to complete his commenced story arcs as he had originally intended, which he still felt was the best approach years later. Martin moved the unfinished characters ' stories set in the east (Essos) and north (Winterfell and the Wall) into the next book, A Dance with Dragons, and left A Feast for Crows to cover the events on Westeros, King 's Landing, the Riverlands, Dorne, and the Iron Islands. Both books begin immediately after the end of A Storm of Swords, running in parallel instead of sequentially, and involve different casts of characters with only little overlap. Martin split Arya 's chapters into both books after having already moved the three other most popular characters (Jon Snow, Tyrion, and Daenerys) into A Dance with Dragons.
Upon its release in October 2005 in the UK and November 2005 in the US, A Feast for Crows went straight to the top of The New York Times bestseller list. Among the positive reviewers was Lev Grossman of Time, who dubbed Martin "the American Tolkien ''. However, fans and critics alike were disappointed with the story split that left the fates of several popular characters unresolved after A Storm of Swords ' cliffhanger ending. With A Dance with Dragons said to be half - finished, Martin mentioned in the epilogue of A Feast for Crows that the next volume would be released by the next year. However, planned release dates were repeatedly pushed back. Meanwhile, HBO acquired the rights to turn A Song of Ice and Fire into a dramatic series in 2007 and aired the first of ten episodes covering A Game of Thrones in April 2011.
With around 1600 pages in manuscript length, A Dance with Dragons was eventually published in July 2011 after six years of writing, longer in page count and writing time than any of the preceding four novels. The story of A Dance with Dragons catches up with and goes beyond A Feast for Crows around two - thirds into the book, but nevertheless covers less story than Martin had intended, omitting at least one planned large battle sequence and leaving several character threads ending in cliff - hangers. Martin attributed the delay mainly to his untangling "the Meereenese knot '', which the interviewer understood as "making the chronology and characters mesh up as various threads converged on (Daenerys) ''. Martin also acknowledged spending too much time on rewriting and perfecting the story, but soundly rejected the theories of some of his critics that he had lost interest in the series or would bide his time to make more money.
Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be big books of 1500 manuscript pages each. The sixth book will be called The Winds of Winter, taking the title of the last book of the originally planned trilogy. Displeased with the provisional title A Time for Wolves for the final volume, Martin ultimately announced A Dream of Spring as the title for the seventh book in 2006. Martin said in March 2012 that the final two novels will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and that the Others will appear in the book.
The Winds of Winter will resolve the cliffhangers from A Dance with Dragons early on and "will open with the two big battles that (the fifth book) was building up to, the battle in the ice and the battle (...) of Slaver 's Bay. And then take it from there. '' By the middle of 2010, Martin had already finished five chapters of The Winds of Winter from the viewpoints of Sansa Stark, Arya Stark, Arianne Martell, and Aeron Greyjoy, accumulating to around 100 completed pages. After the publication of A Dance with Dragons in 2011, Martin announced he would return to writing in January 2012. He spent the meantime on book tours, conventions, and continued working on his The World of Ice & Fire companion guide and a new Tales of Dunk and Egg novella.
In December 2011, Martin posted a chapter from The Winds of Winter from the viewpoint of Theon Greyjoy; several other chapters have been made public since. Four hundred pages of the sixth novel had been written as of October 2012, although Martin considered only 200 as "really finished ''; the rest needed revising. In 2011, Martin gave three years as a realistic estimate for finishing the sixth book at a good pace, but said ultimately the book "will be done when it 's done '', acknowledging that his publication estimates had been too optimistic in the past. Martin did not intend to separate the characters geographically again.
In 2015 there were indications that the book would be published before the sixth season of the HBO show but in early January 2016 Martin confirmed that he had not met an end - of - year deadline that he had established with his publisher for release of the book before the sixth season. He also revealed there had been a previous deadline of October 2015 that he had considered achievable in May 2015, and that in September 2015 he had still considered the end - of - year deadline achievable. He further confirmed that some of the plot of the book might be revealed in the upcoming season of Game of Thrones. In February 2016, Martin stated that he dropped all his editing projects except for Wild Cards, and that he would not be writing any teleplays, screenplays, short stories, introductions or forewords before delivering The Winds of Winter. In April 2018, Martin announced in a blog post that The Winds of Winter would not be published in 2018.
During the Guadalajara International Book Fair in Mexico in early December 2016, Martin offered the following hint as to the tone of this book:
There are a lot of dark chapters right now... I 've been telling you for 20 years that winter was coming. Winter is the time when things die, and cold and ice and darkness fill the world, so this is not going to be the happy feel - good that people may be hoping for. Some of the characters (are) in very dark places.
Martin is firm about ending the series with the seventh novel "until I decide not to be firm ''. With his stated goal of telling the story from beginning to end, he will not truncate the story to fit into an arbitrary number of volumes. He knows the ending in broad strokes as well as the future of the main characters, and will finish the series with bittersweet elements where not everyone will live happily ever after. Martin hopes to write an ending similar to The Lord of the Rings that he felt gave the story a satisfying depth and resonance. On the other hand, Martin noted the challenge to avoid a situation like the finale of the TV series Lost, which left some fans disappointed by deviating too far from their own theories and desires. In 2015, Martin said that he was not writing A Dream of Spring together with The Winds of Winter, and in early 2016, he said he did not believe A Dream of Spring would be published before the last season of the HBO show. In 2018, Martin commented he had not started working on the book.
Martin offered the following hint as to how the series would conclude during a Q&A at the Guadalajara International Book Fair. "I 'm not going to tell you how I 'm going to end my book, but I suspect the overall flavor is going to be as much bittersweet as it is happy. ''
Early during the development of the TV series, Martin told major plot points to producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. (The New York Times reported in 2011 that, at age 62, Martin was by all accounts in robust health.) Martin was confident he would have published at least The Winds of Winter before the TV series overtook him. Nevertheless, there was general concern about whether Martin would be able to stay ahead of the show. As a result, head writers Benioff and Weiss learned more future plot points from Martin in 2013 to help them set up the show 's new possible seasons. This included the end stories for all the core characters. Deviations from the books ' storylines are also being considered, but a two - year show hiatus to wait for new books is not an option for them as the child actors continue to grow and the show 's popularity would wane. Martin indicated he would not permit another writer to finish the book series. On January 2, 2016, Martin confirmed that the sixth volume would not be published before the start of the sixth season of the HBO series.
Regarding A Song of Ice and Fire as his magnum opus, Martin is certain never to write anything on this scale again and would only return to this fictional universe in the context of stand - alone novels. He prefers to write stories about characters from other A Song of Ice and Fire periods of history such as his Tales of Dunk and Egg project, instead of continuing the series directly. A possible future side project is a prequel set during Aegon 's conquest of Westeros. Martin said he would love to return to writing short stories, novellas, novelettes, and stand - alone novels from diverse genres such as science fiction, horror, fantasy, or even a murder mystery. However, he will see if his audience follows him after publishing his next project.
George R.R. Martin believes the most profound influences to be the ones experienced in childhood. Having read H.P. Lovecraft, Robert E. Howard, Robert A. Heinlein, Eric Frank Russell, Andre Norton, Isaac Asimov, Fritz Leiber, and Mervyn Peake in his youth, Martin never categorized these authors ' literature into science fiction, fantasy, or horror and will write from any genre as a result. Martin classified A Song of Ice and Fire as "epic fantasy '', and specifically named Tad Williams ' high fantasy epic Memory, Sorrow, and Thorn as very influential for the writing of the series. One of his favorite authors is Jack Vance, although Martin considered the series not particularly Vancean.
Martin experienced some harsh winters when living in Dubuque a few years in the 70s, and suspects these winters had an influence on his writing; "I think a lot of the stuff in A Game of Thrones, the snow and ice and freezing, comes from my memories of Dubuque ''.
-- Fantasy writer Joe Abercrombie in 2008
The medieval setting has been the traditional background for epic fantasy. However, where historical fiction leaves versed readers knowing the historical outcome, original characters may increase suspense and empathy for the readers. Yet Martin felt historical fiction, particularly when set during the Middle Ages, had an excitement, grittiness, and a realness to it that was absent in fantasy with a similar backdrop. Thus, he wanted to combine the realism of historical fiction with the magic appeal of the best fantasies, subduing magic in favor of battles and political intrigue. He also decided to avoid the conventional good versus evil setting typical for the genre, using the fight between Achilles and Hector in Homer 's Iliad, where no one stands out as either a hero or a villain, as an example of what he wants to achieve with his books.
Martin is widely credited with broadening the fantasy fiction genre for adult content, including incest, paedophilia, and adultery. For The Washington Post 's Writing for The Atlantic, Amber Taylor assessed the novels as hard fantasy with vulnerable characters to which readers become emotionally attached. CNN found in 2000 that Martin 's mature descriptions were "far more frank than those found in the works of other fantasy authors '', although Martin assessed the fantasy genre to have become rougher - edged a decade later and that some writers ' work was going beyond the mature themes of his novels. Adam Roberts called Martin 's series the most successful and popular example of the emerging subgenre of grimdark fantasy, influencing other writers associated with that style, such as Joe Abercrombie.
Setting out to write something on an epic scale, Martin projected to write three books of 800 manuscript pages in the very early stages of the series. His original 1990s contract specified one - year deadlines for his previous literary works, but Martin only realized later that his new books were longer and hence required more writing time. In 2000, Martin planned to take 18 months to two years for each volume and projected the last of the planned six books to be released five or six years later. However, with A Song of Ice and Fire series evolving into the biggest and most ambitious story he has ever attempted writing, he still has two more books to write as of 2018. Martin said he needed to be in his own office in Santa Fe, New Mexico to immerse himself in the fictional world and write. As of 2011, Martin was still typing his fiction on a DOS computer with WordStar 4.0 software. He begins each day at 10 am with rewriting and polishing the previous day 's work, and may write all day or struggle to write anything. Excised material and previous old versions are saved to be possibly re-inserted at a later time. Martin does not consider A Song of Ice and Fire a "series '' but a single story published in several volumes.
Martin set the A Song of Ice and Fire story in a secondary world inspired by Tolkien 's writing. Unlike Tolkien, who created entire languages, mythologies, and histories for Middle - earth long before writing The Lord of the Rings, Martin usually starts with a rough sketch of an imaginary world that he improvises into a workable fictional setting along the way. He described his writing as coming from a subconscious level in "almost a daydreaming process '', and his stories, which have a mythic rather than a scientific core, draw from emotion instead of rationality. Martin employs maps and a cast list topping 60 pages in the fourth volume, but keeps most information in his mind. His imagined backstory remains subject to change until published, and only the novels count as canon. Martin does not intend to publish his private notes after the series is finished.
Martin drew much inspiration from actual history for the series, having several bookcases filled with medieval history for research and visiting historic European landmarks. For an American who speaks only English, the history of England proved the easiest source of medieval history for him, giving the series a British rather than a German or Spanish historic flavor. For example, Ned and Robb Stark resemble Richard, 3rd Duke of York and his son Edward IV, and Queen Cersei resembles both Margaret of Anjou and Elizabeth Woodville. Martin immersed himself in many diverse medieval topics such as clothing, food, feasting, and tournaments, to have the facts at hand if needed during writing. The series was in particular influenced by the Hundred Years ' War, the Crusades, the Albigensian Crusade, and the Wars of the Roses, although Martin refrained from making any direct adaptations. Martin was also inspired by the French historical novels The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon, which are about the French monarchy in the 13th and 14th centuries.
The story is written to follow principal landmarks with an ultimate destination, but leaves Martin room for improvisation. On occasion, improvised details significantly affected the planned story. By the fourth book, Martin kept more private notes than ever before to keep track of the many subplots, which became so detailed and sprawling by the fifth book as to be unwieldy. Martin 's editors, copy editors, and readers monitor for accidental mistakes, although some errors have slipped into publication. For instance, Martin has inconsistently referred to certain characters ' eye colors, and has described a horse as being of one sex and then another.
The books are divided into chapters, each one narrated in the third person limited through the eyes of a point of view character, an approach Martin learned himself as a young journalism student. Beginning with nine POV characters in A Game of Thrones, the number of POV characters grows to a total of 31 in A Dance with Dragons (see table). The short - lived one - time POV characters are mostly restricted to the prologue and epilogue. David Orr of The New York Times noted the story importance of "the Starks (good guys), the Targaryens (at least one good guy, or girl), the Lannisters (conniving), the Greyjoys (mostly conniving), the Baratheons (mixed bag), the Tyrells (unclear) and the Martells (ditto), most of whom are feverishly endeavoring to advance their ambitions and ruin their enemies, preferably unto death ''. However, as Time 's Lev Grossman noted, readers "experience the struggle for Westeros from all sides at once '', such that "every fight is both triumph and tragedy (...) and everybody is both hero and villain at the same time ''.
Modeled on The Lord of the Rings, the story of A Song of Ice and Fire begins with a tight focus on a small group (with everyone in Winterfell, except Daenerys) and then splits into separate stories. The storylines are to converge again, but finding the turning point in this complex series has been difficult for Martin and has slowed down his writing. Depending on the interview, Martin is said to have reached the turning point in A Dance with Dragons, or to not quite have reached it yet in the books. The series ' structure of multiple POVs and interwoven storylines was inspired by Wild Cards, a multi-authored shared universe book series edited by Martin since 1985. As the sole author, Martin begins each new book with an outline of the chapter order and may write a few successive chapters from a single character 's viewpoint instead of working chronologically. The chapters are later rearranged to optimize character intercutting, chronology, and suspense.
Influenced by his television and film scripting background, Martin tries to keep readers engrossed by ending each A Song of Ice and Fire chapter with a tense or revelational moment, a twist or a cliffhanger, similar to a TV act break. Scriptwriting has also taught him the technique of "cutting out the fat and leaving the muscle '', which is the final stage of completing a book, a technique that brought the page count in A Dance with Dragons down almost eighty pages. Dividing the continuous A Song of Ice and Fire story into books is much harder for Martin. Each book shall represent a phase of the journey that ends in closure for most characters. A smaller portion of characters is left with clear - cut cliffhangers to make sure readers come back for the next installment, although A Dance with Dragons had more cliffhangers than Martin originally intended. Both one - time and regular POV characters are designed to have full character arcs ending in tragedy or triumph, and are written to hold the readers ' interest and not be skipped in reading. Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not rely on the hero to come through unscathed and will instead feel the character 's fear with each page turn.
The unresolved larger narrative arc encourages speculation about future story events. According to Martin, much of the key to A Song of Ice and Fire 's future lies over a dozen years in the fictional past, of which each volume reveals more. Events planned from the beginning are foreshadowed, although Martin is careful not to make the story predictable. The viewpoint characters, who serve as unreliable narrators, may clarify or provide different perspectives on past events. Therefore, what the readers believe to be true may not necessarily be true.
Regarding the characters as the heart of the story, Martin planned the epic A Song of Ice and Fire to have a large cast of characters and many different settings from the beginning. A Feast for Crows has a 63 - page list of characters, with many of the thousands of characters mentioned only in passing or disappearing from view for long stretches. When Martin adds a new family to the ever - growing number of genealogies in the appendices, he devises a secret about the personality or fate of the family members. However, their backstory remains subject to change until written down in the story. Martin drew most character inspiration from history (without directly translating historical figures) and his own experiences, but also from the manners of his friends, acquaintances, and people of public interest. Martin aims to "make my characters real and to make them human, characters who have good and bad, noble and selfish well - mixed in their natures ''. Jeff VanderMeer of the Los Angeles Times remarked that "Martin 's devotion to fully inhabiting his characters, for better or worse, creates the unstoppable momentum in his novels and contains an implied criticism of Tolkien 's moral simplicity '' (see Themes: Moral ambiguity).
Martin deliberately ignored the writing rule of never giving two characters names starting with the same letter. Instead, character names reflect the naming systems in various European family histories, where particular names were associated with specific royal houses and where even the secondary families assigned the same names repeatedly. The story of A Song of Ice and Fire therefore has children called "Robert '' in honor of King Robert of House Baratheon, a "Brandon '' in every other generation of the Starks in commemoration of Brandon the Builder (of the Wall), and the syllable "Ty '' commonly occurring in given names of House Lannister. Confident that readers would pay attention, Martin distinguished people sharing a given name by adding numbers or locations to their given names (e.g. Henry V of England). The family names were designed in association with ethnic groups (see backstory): the First Men in the North of Westeros had very simply descriptive names like Stark and Strong, whereas the descendants of the Andal invaders in the South have more elaborate, undescriptive house names like Lannister or Arryn, and the Targaryens and Valyrians from the Eastern continent have the most exotic names with the letter Y.
All characters are designed to speak with their own internal voices to capture their views of the world. The Atlantic pondered whether Martin ultimately intended the readers to sympathize with characters on both sides of the Lannister -- Stark feud long before plot developments force them to make their emotional choices. Contrary to most conventional epic fantasies, the characters of A Song of Ice and Fire are vulnerable so that, according to The Atlantic, the reader "can not be sure that good shall triumph, which makes those instances where it does all the more exulting. '' Martin gets emotionally involved in the characters ' lives during writing, which makes the chapters with dreadful events sometimes very difficult to write. Seeing the world through the characters ' eyes requires a certain amount of empathy with them, including the villains, all of whom he has said he loves as if they were his own children. Martin found that some characters had minds of their own and took his writing in different directions. He returns to the intended story if it does not work out, but these detours sometimes prove more rewarding for him.
Arya Stark, Tyrion Lannister, Jon Snow, and Daenerys Targaryen generate the most feedback from readers. Martin has stated that Tyrion is his personal favorite, as the grayest of the gray characters, with his cunning and wit making him the most fun to write. Martin has also said that Bran Stark is the hardest character to write. As the character most deeply involved in magic, Bran 's story needs to be handled carefully within the supernatural aspects of the books. Bran is also the youngest viewpoint character, and has to deal with the series ' adult themes like grief, loneliness, and anger. Martin set out to have the young characters grow up faster between chapters, but, as it was implausible for a character to take two months to respond, a finished book represents very little time passed. Martin hoped the planned five - year break would ease the situation and age the children to almost adults in terms of the Seven Kingdoms, but he later dropped the five - year gap (see section Bridging the timeline gap).
Although modern fantasy may often embrace strangeness, A Song of Ice and Fire series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. Believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre, Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters. Though the amount of magic has gradually increased throughout the story, the series is still to end with less overt magic than most contemporary fantasies. In Martin 's eyes, literary effective magic needs to represent strange and dangerous forces beyond human comprehension, not advanced alien technologies or formulaic spells. As such, the characters understand only the natural aspects of their world, but not the magical elements like the Others.
Since Martin drew on historical sources to build the world of A Song of Ice and Fire, Damien G. Walter of The Guardian saw a strong resemblance between Westeros and England in the period of the Wars of the Roses. The Atlantic 's Adam Serwer regarded A Song of Ice and Fire as "more a story of politics than one of heroism, a story about humanity wrestling with its baser obsessions than fulfilling its glorious potential '', where the emergent power struggle stems from the feudal system 's repression and not from the fight between good and evil. Martin not only wanted to reflect the frictions of the medieval class structures in the novels, but also explore the consequences of the leaders ' decisions, as general goodness does not automatically make competent leaders and vice versa.
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin rejects for not mirroring the real world. Attracted to gray characters, Martin instead endorses William Faulkner 's view that only the human heart in conflict with itself was worth writing about. Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. The multiple viewpoint structure allows characters to be explored from many sides, such that the supposed villains can provide their viewpoint.
Although fantasy comes from an imaginative realm, Martin sees an honest necessity to reflect the real world where people die sometimes ugly deaths, even beloved people. Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not expect the supposed hero to survive, and instead will feel the same tension and fear that the characters might. The novels also reflect the substantial death rates in war. The deaths of supernumerary extras or orcs have no major effect on readers, whereas a friend 's death has much more emotional impact. Martin prefers a hero 's sacrifice to say something profound about human nature.
According to Martin, the fantasy genre rarely focuses on sex and sexuality, instead often treating sexuality in a juvenile way or neglecting it completely. Martin, however, considers sexuality an important driving force in human life that should not be excluded from the narrative. Providing sensory detail for an immersive experience is more important than plot advancement for Martin, who aims to let the readers experience the novels ' sex scenes, "whether it 's a great transcendent, exciting, mind blowing sex, or whether it 's disturbing, twisted, dark sex, or disappointing perfunctory sex. '' Martin was fascinated by medieval contrasts where knights venerated their ladies with poems and wore their favors in tournaments while their armies mindlessly raped women in wartime. The non-existent concept of adolescence in the Middle Ages served as a model for Daenerys ' sexual activity at the age of 13 in the books. The novels also allude to the incestuous practices in the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt to keep their bloodlines pure.
Martin provides a variety of female characters to explore the place of women in a patriarchal society. Writing all characters as human beings with the same basic needs, dreams, and influences, his female characters are to cover the same wide spectrum of human traits as the males.
Science Fiction Weekly stated in 2000 that "few would dispute that Martin 's most monumental achievement to date has been the groundbreaking A Song of Ice and Fire historical fantasy series '', for which reviews have been "orders of magnitude better '' than for his previous works, as Martin described to The New Yorker. In 2007, Weird Tales magazine described the series as a "superb fantasy saga '' that "raised Martin to a whole new level of success ''. Shortly before the release of A Dance with Dragons in 2011, Bill Sheehan of The Washington Post was sure that "no work of fantasy has generated such anticipation since Harry Potter 's final duel with Voldemort '', and Ethan Sacks of Daily News saw the series turning Martin into a darling of literary critics as well as mainstream readers, which was "rare for a fantasy genre that 's often dismissed as garbage not fit to line the bottom of a dragon 's cage ''. Salon.com 's Andrew Leonard stated:
The success is all the more remarkable because (the series debuted) without mass market publicity or any kind of buzz in the fantasy / SF scene. George R.R. Martin earned his following the hard way, by word of mouth, by hooking his characters into the psyche of his readers to an extent that most writers of fantasy only dream of.
Publishers Weekly noted in 2000 that "Martin may not rival Tolkien or Robert Jordan, but he ranks with such accomplished medievalists of fantasy as Poul Anderson and Gordon Dickson. '' After the fourth volume came out in 2005, Time 's Lev Grossman considered Martin a "major force for evolution in fantasy '' and proclaimed him "the American Tolkien '', explaining that, although Martin was "(not) the best known of America 's straight - up fantasy writers '' at the time and would "never win a Pulitzer or a National Book Award... his skill as a crafter of narrative exceeds that of almost any literary novelist writing today ''. As Grossman said in 2011, the phrase American Tolkien "has stuck to (Martin), as it was meant to '', being picked up by the media including The New York Times ("He 's much better than that ''), the New Yorker, Entertainment Weekly ("an acclaim that borders on fantasy blasphemy ''), The Globe and Mail, and USA Today. Time magazine named Martin one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2011, and USA Today named George R.R. Martin their Author of the Year 2011.
According to The Globe and Mail 's John Barber, Martin manages simultaneously to master and transcend the genre so that "Critics applaud the depth of his characterizations and lack of cliché in books that are nonetheless replete with dwarves and dragons ''. Publishers Weekly gave favorable reviews to the first three A Song of Ice and Fire novels at their points of release, saying that A Game of Thrones had "superbly developed characters, accomplished prose and sheer bloody - mindedness '', that A Clash of Kings was "notable particularly for the lived - in quality of (their fictional world and) for the comparatively modest role of magic '', and that A Storm of Swords was one "of the more rewarding examples of gigantism in contemporary fantasy ''. However, they found that A Feast For Crows as the fourth installment "sorely misses its other half. The slim pickings here are tasty, but in no way satisfying. '' Their review for A Dance with Dragons repeated points of criticism for the fourth volume, and said that, although "The new volume has a similar feel to Feast '', "Martin keeps it fresh by focusing on popular characters (who were) notably absent from the previous book. ''
According to the Los Angeles Times, "Martin 's brilliance in evoking atmosphere through description is an enduring hallmark of his fiction, the settings much more than just props on a painted stage '', and the novels captivate readers with "complex storylines, fascinating characters, great dialogue, perfect pacing, and the willingness to kill off even his major characters ''. CNN remarked that "the story weaves through differing points of view in a skillful mix of observation, narration and well - crafted dialogue that illuminates both character and plot with fascinating style '', and David Orr of The New York Times found that "All of his hundreds of characters have grace notes of history and personality that advance a plot line. Every town has an elaborately recalled series of triumphs and troubles. '' Salon. com 's Andrew Leonard "could n't stop reading Martin because my desire to know what was going to happen combined with my absolute inability to guess what would happen and left me helpless before his sorcery. At the end, I felt shaken and exhausted. '' The Christian Science Monitor advised reading the novels with an A Song of Ice and Fire encyclopedia at hand to "catch all the layered, subtle hints and details that (Martin) leaves throughout his books. If you pay attention, you will be rewarded and questions will be answered. ''
Among the most critical voices were Sam Jordison and Michael Hann, both of The Guardian. Jordison detailed his misgivings about A Game of Thrones in a 2009 review and summarized "It 's daft. It 's unsophisticated. It 's cartoonish. And yet, I could n't stop reading... Archaic absurdity aside, Martin 's writing is excellent. His dialogue is snappy and frequently funny. His descriptive prose is immediate and atmospheric, especially when it comes to building a sense of deliciously dark foreboding (of the long impending winter). '' Hann did not consider the novels to stand out from the general fantasy genre, despite Martin 's alterations to fantasy convention, although he rediscovered his childhood 's views:
That when things are, on the whole, pretty crappy (in the real world), it 's a deep joy to dive headfirst into something so completely immersive, something from which there is no need to surface from hours at a time. And if that immersion involves dragons, magic, wraiths from beyond death, shapeshifting wolves and banished princes, so be it.
The reported overall sales figures of the A Song of Ice and Fire series vary. The New Yorker said in April 2011 (before the publication of A Dance with Dragons) that more than 15 million A Song of Ice and Fire books had been sold worldwide, a figure repeated by The Globe and Mail in July 2011. Reuters reported in September 2013 that the books including print, digital and audio versions have sold more than 24 million copies in North America. The Wall Street Journal reported more than six million sold copies in North America by May 2011. USA Today reported 8.5 million copies in print and digital overall in July 2011, and over 12 million sold copies in print in December 2011. The series has been translated into more than 20 languages; USA Today reported the fifth book to be translated into over 40 languages. Forbes estimated that Martin was the 12th highest - earning author worldwide in 2011 at $15 million.
Martin 's publishers initially expected A Game of Thrones to be a best - seller, but the first installment did not even reach any lower positions in bestseller list. This left Martin unsurprised, as it is "a fool 's game to think anything is going to be successful or to count on it ''. However, the book slowly won the passionate advocacy of independent booksellers and the book 's popularity grew by word of mouth. The series ' popularity skyrocketed in subsequent volumes, with the second and third volume making The New York Times Best Seller lists in 1999 and 2000, respectively. The series gained Martin 's old writings new attention, and Martin 's American publisher Bantam Spectra was to reprint his out - of - print solo novels.
The fourth installment, A Feast for Crows, was an immediate best - seller at its 2005 release, hitting number one on "The New York Times '' hardcover fiction bestseller list November 27, 2005, which for a fantasy novel suggested that Martin 's books were attracting mainstream readers. The paperback edition of A Game of Thrones reached its 34th printing in 2010, surpassing the one million mark. Before it even premiered, the TV series had boosted sales of the book series, with A Song of Ice and Fire approaching triple - digit growth in year - on - year sales. Bantam was looking forward to seeing the tie - ins boost sales further, and Martin 's British publisher Harper Voyager expected readers to rediscover their other epic fantasy literature. With a reported 4.5 million copies of the first four volumes in print in early 2011, the four volumes re-appeared on the paperback fiction bestseller lists in the second quarter of 2011.
At its point of publication in July 2011, A Dance with Dragons was in its sixth print with more than 650,000 hardbacks in print. It also had the highest single and first - day sales of any new fiction title published in 2011 at that point, with 170,000 hardcovers, 110,000 e-books, and 18,000 audio books reportedly sold on the first day. A Dance with Dragons reached the top of The New York Times bestseller list on July 31, 2011. Unlike most other big titles, the fifth volume sold more physical than digital copies early on, but nevertheless, Martin became the tenth author to sell 1 million Amazon Kindle e-books. All five volumes and the four - volume boxed set were among the top 100 best - selling books in the United States in 2011 and 2012.
The TV series has contributed significantly boosting sales of both the books and collectibles like box - sets, merchandise, and other items. The TV series also contributed in increasing the geographic coverage of the books, introducing new customers in emerging countries like India and Brazil to the book series. All this has significantly increased the overall book sales.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, Martin 's novels had slowly earned him a reputation in science fiction circles, although he said to only have received a few fans ' letters a year in the pre-internet days. The publication of A Game of Thrones caused Martin 's following to grow, with fan sites springing up and a Trekkie - like society of followers evolving that meet regularly. Westeros.org, one of the main A Song of Ice and Fire fansites with about seventeen thousand registered members as of 2011, was established in 1999 by a Swedish - based fan of Cuban - American descent, Elio M. García, Jr., and his girlfriend; their involvement with Martin 's work has now become semi-professional. The Brotherhood Without Banners, an unofficial fan club operating globally, was formed in 2001. Their founders and other longtime members are among Martin 's good friends.
Martin runs an official website and administers a lively blog with the assistance of Ty Franck. He also interacts with fandom by answering emails and letters, although he stated in 2005 that their sheer numbers might leave them unanswered for years. Since there are different types of conventions nowadays, he tends to go to three or four science - fiction conventions a year simply to go back to his roots and meet friends. He does not read message boards anymore, so that his writing will not be influenced by fans foreseeing twists and interpreting characters differently from what he intended.
-- George R.R. Martin on his blog in 2009
While Martin calls the majority of his fans "great '', and enjoys interacting with them, some of them turned against him because of the six years it took to release A Dance with Dragons. A movement of disaffected fans called GRRuMblers formed in 2009, creating sites such as Finish the Book, George and Is Winter Coming?. When fans ' vocal impatience for A Dance with Dragons peaked shortly after, Martin issued a statement called "To My Detractors '' on his blog that received media attention. The New York Times noted that it was not uncommon for Martin to be mobbed at book signings either. The New Yorker called this "an astonishing amount of effort to devote to denouncing the author of books one professes to love. Few contemporary authors can claim to have inspired such passion. ''
Martin has written several prequel novellas. The Tales of Dunk and Egg series, three novellas set ninety years before the events of the novel series, feature the adventures of Ser Duncan the Tall and his squire "Egg '', the later King Aegon V Targaryen. The stories have no direct connection to the plot of A Song of Ice and Fire, although both characters are mentioned in A Storm of Swords and A Feast For Crows, respectively. The first installment, The Hedge Knight, was published in the 1998 anthology Legends. The Sworn Sword followed in 2003, published in Legends II. Both were later adapted into graphic novels. The third novella, titled The Mystery Knight, was first published in the 2010 anthology Warriors, and is planned to be adapted as a graphic novel as well. Martin planned to release the first three novellas as one collection in 2014. Up to eight further Dunk and Egg installments are planned.
The novella The Princess and the Queen or, the Blacks and the Greens appeared in Tor Books 's 2013 anthology Dangerous Women, and explains some of the Targaryen backstory two centuries before the events of the novels. The Rogue Prince, or, the King 's Brother, published in the 2014 anthology Rogues, is itself a prequel to the events of The Princess and the Queen. The novella The Sons of the Dragon appeared in the 2017 anthology The Book of Swords, is the story of Aegon the Conqueror 's two sons Aenys I and Maegor I "the cruel ''.
Chapter sets from the novels were also compiled into three novellas that were released between 1996 and 2003 by Asimov 's Science Fiction and Dragon:
With the popularity of the series growing, HBO optioned A Song of Ice and Fire for a television adaptation in 2007. A pilot episode was produced in late 2009, and a series commitment for nine further episodes was made in March 2010. The series, titled Game of Thrones, premiered in April 2011 to great acclaim and ratings (see Game of Thrones: Reception). The network picked up the show for a second season covering A Clash of Kings two days later. Shortly after the conclusion of the first season, the show received 13 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, winning Outstanding Main Title Design and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Peter Dinklage 's portrayal of Tyrion Lannister. HBO announced a renewal for a third season in April 2012, ten days after the season 2 premiere. Due to the length of the corresponding book, the third season only covered roughly the first half of A Storm of Swords.
Shortly after the season 3 premiere in March 2013, the network announced that Game of Thrones would be returning for a fourth season, which would cover the second half of A Storm of Swords along with the beginnings of A Feast for Crows and A Dance With Dragons. Game of Thrones was nominated for 15 Emmy Awards for season 3. Two days after the fourth season premiered in April 2014, HBO renewed Game of Thrones for a fifth and sixth season. Season 5 premiered on April 12, 2015 and set a Guinness World Records for winning the highest number of Emmy Awards for a series in a single season and year, winning 12 out of 24 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. These episodes were watched by 8 million viewers, setting a record number for the series. The sixth season premiered on April 24, 2016. These episodes received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards with 23, winning 12, including the award for Outstanding Drama Series. The seventh season premiered on July 16, 2017. The eighth and final season is set to premiere in 2019.
A Song of Ice and Fire spawned an industry of spin - off products. Fantasy Flight Games released a collectible card game, a board game, and two collections of artwork inspired by A Song of Ice and Fire series. Various roleplaying game products were released by Guardians of Order and Green Ronin. Dynamite Entertainment adapted A Game of Thrones into a same - titled monthly comic in 2011. Several video games are available or in production, including A Game of Thrones: Genesis (2011) and Game of Thrones (2012) by Cyanide; both received mediocre ratings from critics. A social network game titled Game of Thrones Ascent (2013) by Disruptor Beam allows players to live the life of a noble during the series ' period setting. Random House released an official map book called The Lands of Ice and Fire, which includes old and new maps of the Ice and Fire world. The companion book The World of Ice & Fire by Martin and the Westeros.org owners Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson was published in October 2014. Other licensed products include full - sized weapon reproductions, a range of collectable figures, Westeros coinage reproductions, and a large number of gift and collectible items based on the HBO television series. The popularity of the HBO series has made its version of the Iron Throne an icon of the entire media franchise.
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what was thrown off the bridge in ode to billy joe | Ode to Billie Joe - wikipedia
"Ode to Billie Joe '' is a 1967 song written and recorded by Bobbie Gentry, a singer - songwriter from Chickasaw County, Mississippi. The single, released in late July, was a number - one hit in the United States, and became a big international seller. Billboard ranked the record as the No. 3 song for 1967 (the other two were # 2 "The Letter '' by the Box Tops and # 1 "To Sir With Love '' by Lulu). The song is ranked # 412 on Rolling Stone 's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. The recording of "Ode to Billie Joe '' generated eight Grammy nominations, resulting in three wins for Gentry and one win for arranger Jimmie Haskell.
The song is a first - person narrative that reveals a Southern Gothic tale in its verses by including the dialog of the narrator 's family at dinnertime on the day that "Billie Joe McAllister jumped off the Tallahatchie Bridge. '' Throughout the song, the suicide and other tragedies are contrasted against the banality of everyday routine and polite conversation. The quick passage of events and deaths in just a year 's time remind the listeners how quickly things can change.
The song begins with the narrator, her brother and her father returning, after agricultural morning chores, to the family house for dinner (on June 3). After cautioning them about tracking in dirt, "Mama '' says that she "got some news this mornin ' from Choctaw Ridge '' that "Billie Joe McAllister jumped off the Tallahatchie Bridge, '' apparently to his death.
At the dinner table, the narrator 's father is unsurprised at the news and says, "Well, Billie Joe never had a lick o ' sense; pass the biscuits, please '' and mentions that there are "five more acres in the lower forty I got to plow. '' Although her brother seems to be somewhat taken aback ("I saw him at the sawmill yesterday... And now you tell me Billie Joe has jumped off the Tallahatchie Bridge ''), he 's not shocked enough to forgo a second piece of pie. The brother recalls that while he was with his friends Tom and Billie Joe, they had put a frog down the narrator 's back at the Carroll County picture show (movie theater), and that he had seen her and Billie Joe together last Sunday speaking after church. Late in the song, Mama questions the narrator 's complete change of mood ("Child, what 's happened to your appetite? I been cookin ' all mornin ' and you have n't touched a single bite '') and then recalls a visit earlier that morning by Brother Taylor, the local preacher, who mentioned that he had seen Billie Joe and a girl who looked very much like the narrator herself and they were "throwin ' somethin ' off the Tallahatchie Bridge. '' Brother Taylor served very likely served as a communication "link '' or gossip for families in this 1950s rural community. Mam 's referring to him as "that nice, young Preacher '' whom she invited to Sunday 's dinner may suggest that Mama had matchmaking for her daughter and the young preacher in mind.
In the song 's final verse, a year has passed, during which the narrator 's brother has married Becky Thompson, and moved away ("bought a store in Tupelo ''). Also, her father died from an unspecified viral infection, which has left her mother despondent. ("And now mama does n't seem to wan na do much of anything ''.) Interestingly, the narrator speaks of her brother 's marriage before talking of her father 's death. The narrator herself now visits Choctaw Ridge often, picking flowers there to drop from the Tallahatchie Bridge into the murky waters flowing beneath.
Questions arose among the listeners: what did Billie Joe and his girlfriend throw off the Tallahatchie Bridge, and why did Billie Joe commit suicide? Speculation ran rampant after the song hit the airwaves, and Gentry said in a November 1967 interview that it was the question most asked of her by everyone she met. She named flowers, an engagement ring, a draft card, a bottle of LSD pills, and an aborted baby as the most often guessed items. Although she knew definitely what the item was, she would not reveal it, saying only "Suppose it was a wedding ring. '' "It 's in there for two reasons, '' she said. "First, it locks up a definite relationship between Billie Joe and the girl telling the story, the girl at the table. Second, the fact that Billie Joe was seen throwing something off the bridge -- no matter what it was -- provides a possible motivation as to why he jumped off the bridge the next day. ''
When Herman Raucher met Gentry in preparation for writing a novel and screenplay based on the song, she confessed that she had no idea why Billie Joe killed himself. Gentry has, however, commented on the song, saying that its real theme was indifference:
Those questions are of secondary importance in my mind. The story of Billie Joe has two more interesting underlying themes. First, the illustration of a group of people 's reactions to the life and death of Billie Joe, and its subsequent effect on their lives, is made. Second, the obvious gap between the girl and her mother is shown when both women experience a common loss (first Billie Joe, and later, Papa), and yet Mama and the girl are unable to recognize their mutual loss or share their grief.
The bridge mentioned in this song collapsed in June 1972. It crossed the Tallahatchie River at Money, about ten miles (16 km) north of Greenwood, Mississippi, and has since been replaced. The November 10, 1967, issue of Life Magazine contained a photo of Gentry crossing the original bridge.
"Ode to Billie Joe '' was originally intended as the B - side of Gentry 's first single recording, a blues number called "Mississippi Delta '', on Capitol Records. The original recording, with no other musicians backing Gentry 's guitar, had eleven verses lasting seven minutes, telling more of Billie Joe 's story. The executives realized that this song was a better option for a single, so they cut the length by almost half and re-recorded it with a string orchestra. The shorter version left more of the story to the listener 's imagination, and made the single more suitable for radio airplay. The song is noted for its long descending scale by the strings at the conclusion, suggesting the flowers falling after being dropped off the Tallahatchie Bridge and ending up in the river water below.
The song 's popularity proved so enduring that in 1976, nine years after its release, Warner Bros. commissioned author Herman Raucher to adapt it into a novel and screenplay, Ode to Billy Joe. The poster 's tagline, which treats the film as being based on a true story and even gives a date of death for Billy (June 3, 1953), led many to believe that the song was based on actual events. In Raucher 's novel and screenplay, Billy Joe kills himself after a drunken homosexual experience, and the object thrown from the bridge is the narrator 's ragdoll. The film was released in 1976, directed and produced by Max Baer, Jr, and starring Robby Benson and Glynnis O'Connor. Only the first, second, and fifth verses were sung by Bobbie Gentry in the film, omitting the third and fourth verses.
In the novel, the ragdoll is the central character 's confidant and advisor. Tossing him off the bridge symbolizes throwing away her childhood, becoming a self - contained adult.
Billy Joe 's story is analyzed in Professor John Howard 's history of gay Mississippi entitled Men Like That: A Queer Southern History as an archetype of what Howard calls the "gay suicide myth ''.
Soon after the song 's chart success, the Tallahatchie Bridge saw an increase in those willing to jump off of it. Since the bridge height is only 20 feet (6 m), death or injury was unlikely. To curb the trend, the Leflore County Board enacted a law fining jumpers $100.
In 1967 American / French singer - songwriter Joe Dassin had much success with a French translation of the song titled "Marie - Jeanne '', that tells exactly the same story almost word for word, only with the characters reversed. The narrator is one of the sons of the household, and the character who committed suicide is a girl named Marie - Jeanne Guillaume.
A quick overview of the translated names and places:
Besides the change in character names and locations, there are also obvious changes to various environments like the food, the crops, etc. For example, instead of "Choppin ' cotton '', the narrator took care of the vineyards. The setting is a fictitious small town in southwest France. The River Garonne, however, is real.
In 1967, a Swedish translation by Olle Adolphson titled "Jon Andreas visa '' was recorded by Siw Malmkvist. It is faithful to the story in "Ode to Billie Joe '', but has changed the setting to rural Sweden. The name of Billie Joe has been changed to the Swedish name Jon Andreas.
A German translation titled "Billy Joe McAllister '' was released in 1978 by Wencke Myhre.
A number of jazz versions have been recorded, including Willis Jackson, Howard Roberts, Cal Tjader, Mel Brown, Jimmy Smith, Buddy Rich, King Curtis, Jaco Pastorius, Dave Bartholomew, and Jaki Byard.. In a 1967 appearance on Frank Sinatra: A Man and His Music + Ella + Jobim, Ella Fitzgerald sang one full verse of the song.
Lou Donaldson released a version of the song on his 1967 album Mr. Shing - A-Ling on Blue Note Records.
The Detroit Emeralds released a version of the song as the B - side to their 1968 single, "Shades Down ''.
A version of the song appears on Tammy Wynette 's 1968 album Take Me to Your World / I Do n't Wanna Play House, and later on her 1970 Greatest Hits album.
In 1985, the new wave band Torch Song released a version of the song on I.R.S. Records.
Danish rock band Sort Sol released a version of the song on their 1987 album Everything That Rises Must Converge
Sinéad O'Connor released a version of this song in 1995.
Melinda Schneider and Beccy Cole covered the song on their album Great Women of Country (2014).
Lorrie Morgan covered the song at a slower pace for her 2016 album Letting Go... Slow. Morgan says of recording the song with producer Richard Landis, "Richard purposely slowed the record down to make the musical passages through there really feel kind of spooky and eerie. Everything just felt so swampy and scary. Everybody has their own interpretation of that song and just what they threw off of the Tallahatchie Bridge. ''
In 2017, Lydia Lunch & Cypress Grove covered the song on their album Under The Covers.
Paula Cole recorded a version on her 2017 Ballads album.
Bob Dylan 's "Clothes Line Saga '' (recorded in 1967; released on the 1975 album The Basement Tapes) is a parody of the song. It mimics the conversational style of "Ode to Billie Joe '' with lyrics concentrating on routine household chores. The shocking event buried in all the mundane details is the revelation that "The Vice-President's gone mad! ''. Dylan 's song was originally titled "Answer to ' Ode ' ''.
A comedy group named "Slap Happy '' recorded "Ode to Billy Joel '' in the 1980s, which was featured on the Dr. Demento show. In this version, the singer is alleged to have jumped from the Verrazano - Narrows Bridge.
Jill Sobule 's album California Years features "Where is Bobbie Gentry? '' which uses the same melody in a lyrical sequel. The narrator, seeking the reclusive Gentry, claims to be the abandoned lovechild of Gentry and Billie Joe, i.e., the object thrown off of the bridge. Sobule would later write the introduction to a book on Gentry.
Suicide of Tyler Clementi - parallel story of young homosexual college student who committed suicide jumping off a bridge, following a session webcam privacy violation reveal.
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revolutionary set up the united india house in usa | India House - Wikipedia
India House was a student residence that existed between 1905 and 1910 at Cromwell Avenue in Highgate, North London. With the patronage of lawyer Shyamji Krishna Varma, it was opened to promote nationalist views among Indian students in Britain. The building rapidly became a hub for political activism, one of the most prominent for overseas revolutionary Indian nationalism. "India House '' came to informally refer to the nationalist organisations that used the building at various times.
Patrons of India House published an anti-colonialist newspaper, The Indian Sociologist, which the British Raj banned as "seditious ''. A number of prominent Indian revolutionaries and nationalists were associated with India House, including Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Bhikaji Cama, V.N. Chatterjee, Lala Har Dayal, V.V.S. Aiyar, M.P.T. Acharya and P.M. Bapat. In 1909, a member of India House, Madan Lal Dhingra, assassinated Sir W.H. Curzon Wyllie, political aide - de-camp to the Secretary of State for India.
The investigations by Scotland Yard and the Indian Political Intelligence Office that followed the assassination sent the organisation into decline. A crackdown on India House activities by the Metropolitan Police prompted a number of its members to leave Britain for France, Germany and the United States. Many members of the house were involved in revolutionary conspiracies in India. The network created by India House played a key part in the Hindu -- German Conspiracy for nationalist revolution in India during World War I. In the coming decades, India House alumni went on to playing a leading role in the founding of Indian communism and Hindu nationalism.
The consolidation of the British East India Company 's rule in the Indian subcontinent during the 18th century brought about socio - economic changes which led to the rise of an Indian middle class and steadily eroded pre-colonial socio - religious institutions and barriers. The emerging economic and financial power of Indian business - owners and merchants and the professional class brought them increasingly into conflict with the British Raj. A rising political consciousness among the native Indian social elite (including lawyers, doctors, university graduates, government officials and similar groups) spawned an Indian identity and fed a growing nationalist sentiment in India in the last decades of the nineteenth century.
The creation in 1885 of the Indian National Congress in India by the political reformer A.O. Hume intensified the process by providing an important platform from which demands could be made for political liberalisation, increased autonomy, and social reform. The leaders of the Congress advocated dialogue and debate with the Raj administration to achieve their political goals. Distinct from these moderate voices (or loyalists) who did not preach or support violence was the nationalist movement, which grew particularly strong, radical and violent in Bengal and in Punjab. Notable, if smaller, movements also appeared in Maharashtra, Madras and other areas across the south. The controversial 1905 partition of Bengal escalated the growing unrest, stimulating radical nationalist sentiments and becoming a driving force for Indian revolutionaries.
From its inception, the Congress had also sought to shape public opinion in Britain in favour of Indian political autonomy. The Congress 's British Committee, established in 1889, published a periodical called India which featured moderate, loyalist opinion and provided information about India tailored to a British readership. The committee was successful in calling the British public 's attention to issues of civil liberties in India, but it largely failed to bring about political change, prompting socialists such as Henry Hyndman to advocate a more radical approach. In 1893 an "Indian committee '' was established in the British Parliament as a pressure group to influence policy directly, but it grew increasingly distant from an emerging movement which advocated absolute Indian self - governance. Nationalist leaders in India (such as Bipin Chandra Pal, who led the agitation against the Bengal partition) and Indian students in Britain criticised the committee for what they perceived as its overcautious approach. Against this background, coincident with the political upheaval caused by the 1905 partition of Bengal, a nationalist lawyer named Shyamji Krishna Varma founded India House in London.
India House is a large Victorian Mansion at 65 Cromwell Avenue, Highgate, North London. It was inaugurated on 1 July 1905 by Henry Hyndman in a ceremony attended by, among others, Dadabhai Naoroji, Charlotte Despard and Bhikaji Cama When opened as a student - hostel in 1905, it provided accommodation for up to thirty students. In addition to being a student - hostel, the mansion also served as the headquarters for several organisations, the first of which was the Indian Home Rule Society (IHRS).
Krishna Varma admired Swami Dayananda Saraswati 's cultural nationalism and believed in Herbert Spencer 's dictum that "Resistance to aggression is not simply justified, but imperative ''. A graduate of Balliol College, Oxford, he returned to India in the 1880s and served as divan (administrator) of a number of princely states, including Ratlam and Junagadh. He preferred this position to working under what he considered the alien rule of Britain. However, a supposed conspiracy of local British officials at Junagadh, compounded by differences between Crown authority and British Political Residents regarding the states, led to Varma 's dismissal. He returned to England, where he found freedom of expression more favourable. Varma 's views were staunchly anti-colonial, extending even to support for the Boers during the Second Boer War in 1899.
Krishna Varma co-founded the IHRS in February 1905, with Bhikaji Cama, S.R. Rana, Lala Lajpat Rai and others, as a rival organisation to the British Committee of the Congress. Subsequently, Krishna Varma used his considerable financial resources to offer scholarships to Indian students in memory of leaders of the 1857 uprising, on the condition that the recipients would not accept any paid post or honorary office from the British Raj upon their return home. These scholarships were complemented by three endowments of 2000 Rupees courtesy S.R. Rana, in memory of Rana Pratap Singh. Open to "Indians only '', the IHRS garnered significant support from Indians -- especially students -- living in Britain. Funds received by Indian students as scholarships and bursaries from universities also found their way to the organisation. Following the model of Victorian public institutions, the IHRS adopted a constitution. The aim of the IHRS, clearly articulated in this constitution, was to "secure Home Rule for India, and to carry on a genuine Indian propaganda in this country by all practicable means ''. It recruited young Indian activists, raised funds, and possibly collected arms and maintained contact with revolutionary movements in India. The group professed support for causes in sympathy with its own, such as Turkish, Egyptian and Irish republican nationalism.
The Paris Indian Society, a branch of the IHRS, was launched in 1905 under the patronage of Bhikaji Cama, Sardar Singh Rana and B.H. Godrej. A number of India House members who later rose to prominence -- including V.N. Chatterjee, Har Dayal and Acharya and others -- first encountered the IHRS through this Paris Indian Society. Cama herself was at this time deeply involved with the Indian revolutionary cause, and she nurtured close links with both French and exiled Russian socialists. Lenin 's views are thought to have influenced Cama 's works at this time, and Lenin is believed to have visited India House during one of his stays in London. In 1907, Cama, along with V.N. Chatterjee and S.R. Rana, attended the Socialist Congress of the Second International in Stuttgart. There, supported by Henry Hyndman, she demanded recognition of self - rule for India and in a famous gesture unfurled one of the first Flags of India.
In 1904, Krishna Varma founded The Indian Sociologist (TIS), a penny monthly (with Spencer 's dictum as its motto), as a challenge to the British Committee 's Indian. The title of the publication was intended to convey Krishna Varma 's conviction that the ideological basis of Indian independence from Britain was to the discipline of sociology. TIS was critical of the moderate loyalist approach and its appeal to British liberalism, exemplified by the work of Indian leader G.K. Ghokale; instead, TIS advocated Indian self - rule. It was critical of the British Committee, whose members -- being mostly from the Indian Civil Service -- were in Krishna Varma 's view complicit in exploitation of India. TIS quoted extensively from the works of British writers, which Krishna Varma interpreted to explain his views that the Raj was colonial exploitation, and that the Indians had a right to oppose it, by violence if necessary. It advocated confrontation and demands rather than petition and accommodation. However, Krishna Varma 's views and justifications of political violence in nationalist struggle were still cautious, considering violence as a last resort. His support was initially intellectual, and he was not actively involved in planning revolutionary violence. Freedom of the press and the liberal approach of the British establishment meant Krishna Varma could air views that would have been rapidly suppressed in India.
The views expressed in TIS drew criticisms from ex-Indian civil servants in the British press and Parliament. Highlighting Krishna Varma 's citation of British writers and lack of reference to Indian tradition or values, they argued that he was disconnected from the Indian situation and Indian feelings, and was intellectually dependent on Britain. Valentine Chirol, foreign editor of The Times, who had close associations with the Raj, accused Krishna Varma of preaching "disloyal sentiments '' to Indian students, and demanded he be prosecuted. Chirol later described India House as "the most dangerous organisation outside India ''. Krishna Varma and TIS also drew the attention of King Edward VII. Greatly concerned, the King asked John Morley, the Secretary of State for India, to stop the publication of such messages. Morley refused to take any action contrary to his liberal political principles, but Chirol 's tirade against TIS and Krishna Varma forced the Government to investigate. Detectives visited India House and interviewed the printers of its publication. Krishna Varma saw these actions as the start of a crackdown on his work and, fearing arrest, moved to Paris in 1907; he never returned to Britain.
After Krishna Varma 's departure, the organisation found a new leader in Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, a law student who had first arrived in London in 1906 on scholarship from Krishna Varma. Savarkar was an admirer of the Italian nationalist philosopher Giuseppe Mazzini and a protégé of the Indian Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He was associated with the nationalist movement in India, having founded the Abhinav Bharat Society (Young India Society) in 1906 while studying at Fergusson College in Pune (these links put him in contact with the still largely unknown Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.) In London, Savarkar 's fiery nationalist views had at first alienated the residents of India House, most significantly V.V.S. Aiyar. Over time, however, he became a central figure in the organisation. He devoted his efforts to writing nationalist material, organising public meetings and demonstrations, and establishing branches of Abhinav Bharat in the country. He kept in touch with B.G. Tilak in India, to whom he passed on manuals on bomb - making.
Impressed and influenced by the Italian wars of Independence, Savarkar believed in an armed revolution in India and was prepared to seek assistance from Germany toward this end. He proposed the indoctrination of Indian soldiery in the British army, just as the Young Italy movement had indoctrinated Italians serving in the Austrian forces. In London, Savarkar founded the Free India Society (FIS), and in December 1906 he opened a branch of Abhinav Bharat. This organisation drew a number of radical Indian students, including P.M. Bapat, V.V.S. Aiyar, Madanlal Dhingra, and V.N. Chatterjee. Savarkar had lived in Paris for some time, and frequently visited the city after moving to London. By 1908, he had recruited to the organisation a number of Indian businessmen residing in Paris. During one visit, Savarkar met Gandhi again when the latter visited India House in 1906 and 1909, and his hardline views may have influenced Gandhi 's opinion on nationalist violence.
India House, which now housed the Abhinav Bharat Society and its relatively peaceful front the Free India Society, rapidly developed into a radical meeting ground quite different from the IHRS. Unlike the latter, it became wholly self - reliant with regard to finances and organisation, and it developed independent nationalist ideologies that moved away from European philosophies. Under Savarkar 's influence, it drew inspiration from past Indian revolutionary movements, religious scriptures (including the Bhagavad Gita), and Savarkar 's own studies in Indian history, including The Indian War of Independence. Savarkar translated Giuseppe Mazzini 's autobiography into Marathi and extolled the virtues of secret societies.
India House was soon transformed into the headquarters of the Indian revolutionary movement in Britain. Its newest members were young men and women in London who came from all over India. A large number, each comprising about a quarter of the total membership, were from Bengal and Punjab, while a significant but smaller group came from Bombay and Maharashtra. The Free India Society had a semi-religious oath of initiation, and served as a cover for the Abhinav Bharat Society 's meetings. The members were predominantly Hindus. Most were students in their mid-twenties, and usually belonged to the Indian social elite, from families of millionaires, mill owners, lawyers and doctors. Nearly seventy people, including several women, regularly attended the Sunday evening meetings at which Savarkar gave lectures on topics ranging from the philosophy of revolution to bomb - making and assassination techniques. Only a small proportion of these recruits to the society were known to have previously engaged in political activity or the Swadeshi movement in India.
Abhinav Bharat Society had two goals: to create through propaganda in Europe and North America an Indian public opinion in favour of nationalist revolution, and to raise funds, knowledge and supplies to carry out such a revolution. It emphasised actions of self - sacrifice by its members for the Indian cause. These were revolutionary activities which the masses could emulate, but which did not require a mass movement. The outbuilding of India House was converted to a "war workshop '' where chemistry students attempted to produce explosives and manufacture bombs, while the printing press turned out "seditious '' literature, including bomb - making manuals and pamphlets promoting violence toward Europeans in India. In the house was an arsenal of small arms that were intermittently dispatched to India through different avenues. Savarkar was at the heart of these, spending a great deal of time in the explosives workshop and emerging on some evenings, according to a fellow revolutionary, "with telltale yellow stains of Picric acid on his hands ''. The residents of India House and members of Abhinav Bharat practiced shooting at a range in Tottenham Court Road in central London, and rehearsed assassinations they planned to carry out.
The deliveries of weapons to India included, among others, a number of Browning pistols smuggled by Chaturbhuj Amin, Chanjeri Rao, and V.V.S. Aiyar when they returned to India. Revolutionary literature was shipped under false covers and from different addresses to prevent detection by Indian postal authorities. Savarkar 's The Indian War of Independence was published (in 1909) and was considered inflammatory enough to be removed from the catalogue of the British Library to prevent Indian students from accessing it. Sometime in 1908, India House acquired a manual for making bombs. Some suggest Savarkar acquired this in the French capital from a bomb manual given to Hemchandra Das -- a Bengali revolutionary of the Anushilan Samiti -- by a Russian revolutionary in Paris by the name of Nicholas Safranski. Others opine that it was acquired through Russian revolutionaries in Paris by Bapat. Bapat was declared absconder (a fugitive) in the Alipore bomb case of 1909, which followed the attempt to bomb a district magistrate 's carriage in Bengal by Khudiram Bose.
By 1908, the popularity of the India House group had overtaken the London Indian Society (LIS), established in 1865 by Dadabhoi Naoroji and until then the largest association of Indians in London. Subsequently, India House took over the control of LIS when, at the annual general meeting that year, members of India House packed the gathering and ousted the old guard of the society.
The activities of India House did not go unnoticed. In addition to questions raised in official Indian and British circles, Savarkar 's unrestrained views had been published in English newspapers including the Daily Mail, Manchester Guardian and Dispatch. By 1909, India House was under surveillance from Scotland Yard and Indian intelligence, and its activities were considerably curtailed. Savarkar 's elder brother Ganesh was arrested in India in June of that year, and was tried and exiled to the penal colony in the Andamans for publication of seditionist literature. Savarkar 's speeches grew increasingly strident and called for revolution, widespread violence, and murder of all Englishmen in India. The culmination of these events was the assassination of Sir William H. Curzon Wyllie, the political aide - de-camp to the Secretary of State for India, by Madanlal Dhingra on the evening of 1 July 1909, at a meeting of Indian students in the Imperial Institute in London. Dhingra was arrested and later tried and executed.
In the aftermath of the assassination, India House was rapidly shut down. Investigations into the killing were expanded to look for broader conspiracies originating from India House; although Scotland Yard stated that none existed, Indian intelligence sources suggested otherwise. These sources further suggested that Dhingra 's intended target was John Morley, the Secretary of State for India himself. Savarkar possessed a copy of a written political statement by Dhingra which was confiscated at the latter 's arrest. Its existence was denied by police, but through Irish sympathiser David Garnett Savarkar had this published in the Daily News on the day Dhingra was sentenced to death. A number of sources suggested the assassination was in fact Savarkar 's idea, and that he planned further action in Britain as well as India. In March 1910, Savarkar was arrested upon his return to London from Paris and later deported to India. While he was held at Brixton Prison during the deportation hearing, an attempt was made in May 1910 by the remnant of India House to storm his prison van and free him. This plot was coordinated with help from Irish republicans led by Maud Gonne. However, the plan failed when the ambush stormed an empty decoy van while Savarkar was transported along a different route. In the following year, police and political sources brought pressure on the residents of India House to leave England. While some of its leaders like Krishna Varma had already fled to Europe, others like Chattopadhyaya moved to Germany. Many others moved to Paris. With the influence and work of a large number of nationalist students moving to the city, the Paris Indian Society gradually took India House 's place as the centre of Indian nationalism on the continent.
Although India House had stated its goals in The Indian Sociologist, the threat arising from the organisation was initially not considered serious by either Indian intelligence or British Special Branch. This was compounded by a lack of clarity and communication from the Department of Criminal Intelligence operating in India under Charles Cleveland, and Scotland Yard 's Special Branch. Lack of direction and information from Indian political intelligence, compounded by Lord Morley 's reluctance to engage in postal censorship, led to Special Branch underestimating the threat.
In spite of these problems, and although Special Branch was wholly inexperienced in dealing with political crime, the first observations of India House by Scotland Yard began as early as 1905. Detectives attended Sunday meetings at India House in May 1907, where they gained access to seditious literature. The appearance of one agent, disguised as an Irish - American by the name of O'Brien, convinced Krishna Varma of the need to decamp to Paris. In June 1908, concrete plans for cooperation between Indian and British police were arranged between India Office and Scotland Yard; the decision was made to place an ex-Indian policeman in charge of surveillance of India House.
The arrival of B.C. Pal and G.S. Khaparde in London in 1908 further stirred the matter, since both were known to have been radical nationalist politicians in India. By September 1908, an agent had been installed within India House who was able to invite detectives to the Sunday night meetings of the Free India Society (attendance for Europeans was by invitation only). The agent passed on some additional information, but was not able to infiltrate Savarkar 's inner circle. Savarkar himself did not come under special scrutiny as a dangerous suspect until November 1909, when the agent delivered information about discussions of assassinations at Indian House. The agent may have been a young Maharashtrian by the name of Kirtikar, who had arrived at India House as an acquaintance of V.V.S. Aiyar, ostensibly to study dentistry in London. Kirtikar was discovered after Aiyar made enquiries at the London Hospital where he was supposed to be training, and was one night forced by Savarkar to confess at gun - point.
After this incident, Kirtikar 's reports were probably screened by Savarkar before they were passed on to Scotland Yard. M.P.T. Acharya was at this time instructed by Aiyar and Savarkar to set himself up as an informer to Scotland Yard; they believed this would provide information to the police and help corroborate the reports sent by Kirtikar. Although it pursued Indian students and shadowed them closely, Scotland Yard was severely criticised for its inability to penetrate the organisation. The Viceroy 's secretary, William Lee - Warner, was assaulted twice in London: he was slapped in the face in his office by a young Bengali student named Kunjalal Bhattacharji and assaulted in a London park by another Indian student. The Yard 's inefficiency was blamed for these events.
Unknown to Scotland Yard, by the beginning of 1909 the Indian Department of Criminal Intelligence (DCI) had made covert efforts of its own to infiltrate India House, with more success. An agent named "C '' had been residing in India House for nearly a year; after convincing the residents that he was a genuine patriot, he began reporting back to India. Possible reasons why DCI did not inform the Yard include a wish not to interfere with London investigations, a desire to maintain control over "C '', and a fear of being accused of "deviousness '' by the Yard.
However, the DCI agent 's first reports in early 1909 were of little value. Only in the months immediately preceding the Curzon Wyllie assassination did they prove useful. In June, the agent described the shooting practice at Tottenham Court range and rifle practice in the back of India House. This was followed by reports of Savarkar and V.V.S. Aiyar (who was considered his lieutenant) advising M.P.T. Acharya on acts of martyrdom. Following the arrest and subsequent transportation of Savarkar 's elder brother Ganesh in India on 9 June 1909, C reported increasing ferocity and calls for vengeance in Savarkar 's speeches. In the following weeks, Savarkar was barred from joining the bar due to his political activity. These were the events leading up to the assassination of Sir Curzon Wyllie. Although it was believed that Savarkar may have personally instructed or trained Dhingra, Metropolitan police were unable to bring a prosecution against the former since he had an alibi for the night.
In the aftermath of Curzon Wyllie 's assassination, Metropolitan Police Special Branch was reorganised in July 1909 following a meeting between India Office and the Commissioner of Police Sir Edward Henry. This led to the opening of an Indian Special Branch with a staff of 38 officers by the end of July. It received considerable resources during the investigation of Curzon Wyllie 's assassination, and satisfied the demands of Indian Criminal Intelligence with regard to monitoring the Indian seditionist movement in Britain.
The police brought strong pressure on India House and began gathering intelligence on Indian students in London. These, along with threats to their careers, robbed India House of its student support base. It slowly began to disassemble as a centre of radical Indian Nationalism. As Thirumal Acharya described bitterly, the residence was treated akin to a "leper 's home '' by the Indian students in the city. In addition, although student political activism could not be curtailed too heavily for fear of accusations of repression, the British Government successfully implemented laws to curtail the publication and distribution of nationalist or seditious material from Britain. Among these was Bipin Pal 's Swaraj, which was forced to close, an event which ultimately drove Pal to penury and mental collapse in London. India House ceased to be an influence in Britain.
Political activities at India House were chiefly aimed at young Indians, especially students, in Britain. Political discontent was at the time growing steadily among this group, especially those in touch with the professional class in India and those studying in depth the philosophies of European liberalism. Their discontent was noted among British academic and political circles quite early on, with some voicing fear that these students would take refuge in extremist politics.
A committee set up in 1907 under Sir William Lee - Warner to investigate political unrest among Indian students in Britain noted the strong influence that India House had on this group. This was while India House was under the stewardship of Shyamji Krishna Varma. Indian students who discussed the community at the time described the growing influence of India House -- especially in the context of the 1905 partition of Bengal -- and attributed to this influence the decrease in the number of Indian applicants for Government posts and the Indian Civil Service. The Indian Sociologist attracted considerable attention in London newspapers. Others, however, disagreed with these views and described India House 's appeal as limited. S.D. Bhaba, president of the Indian Christian Union, once described Krishna Varma as a man "whose bark was worse than his bite ''.
Under Savarkar, the organisation became the focus of the Indian revolutionary movement abroad and one of the most important links between revolutionary violence in India and Britain. Although the organisation welcomed both moderates and those with extremist views, the former outnumbered the latter. Significantly, a number of the residents, especially those who agreed with Savarkar 's views, did not have any history of participation in nationalist movements in India, suggesting they were indoctrinated during their stay at India House.
More significantly, India House was a source of arms and seditious literature that was rapidly distributed in India. In addition to The Indian Sociologist, pamphlets like Bande Mataram and Oh Martyrs! by Savarkar extolled revolutionary violence. Direct influences and incitement from India House were noted in several incidents of political violence, including assassinations, in India at the time. One of the two charges against Savarkar during his trial in Bombay was for abetting the murder of the District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson, by Anant Kanhere in December 1909. The arms used were directly traced through an Italian courier to India House. Ex-India House residents M.P.T. Acharya and V.V.S. Aiyar were noted in the Rowlatt report to have aided and influenced political assassinations, including the murder of Robert D'Escourt Ashe at the hands of Vanchi Iyer. The Paris - Safranski link was strongly suggested by French police to be involved in the 1907 attempt in Bengal to derail the train carrying the Lieutenant - Governor Sir Andrew Fraser. The activities of nationalists abroad is believed to have shaken the loyalty of a number of native regiments of the British Indian Army. The assassination of Curzon Wyllie was highly publcised. The symbolic impact of Dhingra 's actions on the colonial authorities and on the Indian revolutionary movement was profound at the time. The British empire had never been targeted in its own metropolis. Dhingra 's last statement is said to have earned the admiration of Winston Churchill, who described it as the finest ever made in the name of Patriotism.
India House and its activities had some influence on the subsequent nonviolent philosophy adopted by Gandhi. He had met some members of India House, including Savarkar, in London as well as in India, and disagreed with the adoption of nationalist and political philosophies from the west. Gandhi dismissively labelled this revolutionary violence as anarchist and its practitioners as "The Modernists ''. Some of his subsequent writings, including Hind Swaraj, were opposed to the activities of Savarkar and Dhingra, and disputed the argument that violence was innocent if perpetrated under a nationalist identity or while under Colonial victimhood. It was against this strategy of revolutionary violence -- and in recognition of its consequences -- that the formative background of Gandhian nonviolence was framed.
Following the example laid by the original India House, India Houses were opened in the United States and in Japan. Krishna Varma had built close contacts with the Irish Republican movement. As a result, articles from The Indian Sociologist were reprinted in the United States in the Gaelic American. In addition, with the efforts of the growing Indian student population, other organisations mirroring India House emerged. The first of these was the Pan-Aryan Association, modelled after the Indian Home Rule Society, opened in 1906 through the joint Indo - Irish efforts of Mohammed Barkatullah, S.L. Joshi and George Freeman. Barkatullah himself had been closely associated with Krishna Varma during his earlier stay in London, and his subsequent career in Japan put Barkatullah at the heart of Indian political activities there.
The American branch also invited Bhikaji Cama -- who at the time was close to the works of Krishna Varma -- to give a series of lectures in the United States. An India House, though not officially allied to the London organisation, was founded in Manhattan in New York in January 1908 with funds from a wealthy lawyer of Irish descent named Myron Phelps. Phelps admired Swami Vivekananda, and the Vedanta Society (established by the Swami) in New York was at the time under Swami Abhedananda, who was considered "seditionist '' by the British. In New York, Indian students and ex-residents of London India House took advantage of liberal press laws to circulate The Indian Sociologist and other nationalist literature. New York increasingly became an important centre for the global Indian movement; Free Hindustan, a political revolutionary journal published by Taraknath Das, closely mirroring The Indian Sociologist, moved from Vancouver and Seattle to New York in 1908. Das collaborated extensively with the Gaelic American with help from George Freeman before Free Hindustan was proscribed in 1910 under British diplomatic pressure. After 1910, the American east coast activities began to decline and gradually shifted to San Francisco. The arrival of Har Dayal around this time bridged the gap between the intellectual agitators and the predominantly Punjabi labour workers and migrants, laying the foundations of the Ghadar movement.
An India House was opened in Tokyo in 1907. The city -- like London and New York -- had by the end of the 19th century a steadily growing Indian student population, with whom Krishna Varma kept in close contact. However, Krishna Varma was initially concerned about spreading his resources too thin, especially since the Japanese centre lacked a strong leadership. He further feared interference from Japan, which was on friendly terms with Britain. Nonetheless, the presence of revolutionaries from Bengal and close correspondence between the London and Tokyo houses allowed the latter to gain prominence in The Indian Sociologist. The India House in Tokyo was a residence for sixteen Indian students in 1908; it accepted students from other Asian countries including Ceylon, aiming to build a broad foundation for Indian nationalism based on pan-Asiatic values. The movement gained new momentum after Barkatullah, on the advice of Krishna Varma and George Freeman, moved from New York to Tokyo in 1909. Taking up the post of Professor of Urdu at Tokyo University, Barkatullah was responsible for East Asian distribution of The Indian Sociologist and other nationalist literature from London. His work at the time also included the publication of Islamic Fraternity, which was financed by the Ottoman Empire. Barkatullah transformed it into an anti-British mouthpiece, invited contributions from Krishna Varma, and advocated Hindu -- Muslim unity in India. He published other nationalist pamphlets which found their way to the Pacific coast and East Asian settlements. Further, Barkatullah established links with prominent Japanese politicians including Okawa Shumei, whom he won over to the Indian cause. British CID, concerned about the threat that Barkatullah 's work posed to the empire, exerted diplomatic pressure to have Islamic Fraternity closed down in 1912. Barkatullah was denied tenure and was forced to leave Japan in 1914.
Following the liquidation of India House in 1909 and 1910, its members gradually dispersed to different countries in Europe, including France and Germany, as well as the United States. The network founded at India House was to be key in the efforts by the Indian revolutionary movement against the British Raj through World War I. During the war, the Berlin Committee in Germany, the Ghadar Party in North America, and the Indian revolutionary underground attempted to transport men and arms from United States and East Asia into India, intended for a revolution and mutiny in the British Indian Army. During the conspiracy, the revolutionaries collaborated extensively with the Irish Republican Brotherhood, Sinn Féin, Japanese patriotic societies, Ottoman Turkey and, most prominently, the German Foreign Office. The conspiracy has since been called the Hindu - German conspiracy. Among other efforts, the alliance attempted to rally Afghanistan against British India.
A number of failed mutinies erupted in India in 1914 and 1915, of which the Ghadar Conspiracy, the Singapore Mutiny, and the Christmas Day Plot were the most notable. The threat posed by the conspiracy was key in the passage of the Defence of India Act 1915, and suppression of the movement necessitated an international counter-intelligence operation on the part of the British empire lasting nearly ten years. Among the more famous recruits of this intelligence operation was W. Somerset Maugham, tasked to assassinate V.N. Chatterjee, who worked with the Berlin committee.
At this time, the foundation was laid for British counter-intelligence operations against the Indian revolutionary movement. In January 1910, John Arnold Wallinger, the Superintendent of Police at Bombay, was reassigned to the India Office in London, where he established the Indian Political Intelligence Office. Wallinger used his considerable skills to establish contacts with police officials in London, Paris and throughout continental Europe, creating a network of informants and spies. During World War I, this organisation, working with the French Political Police, called the Sûreté, was key in tracing the Indo - German conspiracy and attempted to assassinate ex-members of India House who were at the time planning a nationalist mutiny in British India. Somerset Maugham, who was among Wallinger 's recruits, later based some of his characters and stories on his experiences during the war. Wallinger 's organisation was renamed Indian Political Intelligence in 1921, and later expanded to form the Intelligence Bureau in independent India.
From the time it was founded, India House cultivated a close relationship with socialist movements in Europe. Prominent Socialists of the time like Henry Hyndman were closely linked to the house. Cama cultivated a close relationship with French Socilaists and Russian communists. The IHRS delegation to Stuttgart in 1907 is known to have met with Hyndman, Karl Liebknecht, Jean Jaures, Rosa Luxemburg and Ramsey Macdonald. Chatterjee moved to Paris in 1909 and joined the French Socialist Party. M.P.T. Acharya was introduced to the socialist circle in Paris in 1910. With the help of the socialists in Paris, notably Jean Longuet, the Paris Indian Society brought pressure on the French Government when Savarkar was rearrested at Marseilles after escaping from a ship that was deporting him to India. Acharya utillused press freedom in France and the socialist platform to press for Savarkar 's re-extradition to France and built French public opinion in support of such moves. Under public pressure at home, the French Government conceded and made a request to Britain, which was ultimately settled in Britain 's favour at the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. The Paris Indian Society became one of the most powerful Indian organisations outside India at the time, and grew to initiate contacts with not only French Socialists, but also those in continental Europe. It sent delegates to the International Socialist Congress in August 1910, where Krishna Varma and Iyer succeeded in having a resolution passed demanding Savarkar 's release and his extradition to France.
After World War I, ex-members of India House and erstwhile members of the Berlin Committee and the Indian revolutionary movement increasingly turned to the young Soviet Union, becoming closely associated with communism. The Berlin India Committee moved to Stockholm after the war. Led by V.N. Chatterjee, the committee wrote to Leon Trotsky to secure Bolshevik aid for the accused at the Hindu - German Conspiracy Trial. Many involved in the conspiracy subsequently moved to Soviet Russia. When the Communist Party of India was founded in Tashkent in October 1920, a number of its founding members, including M.P.T. Acharya, Virendranath Chatterjee, Champakaraman Pillai and Abdul Rab, had been associated with India House or the Paris Indian Society. Individuals like Acharya attended the second congress of the Communist International. Chatterjee and Acharya later worked with the League against Imperialism. Moving to Weimar Germany after the war, Chatterjee 's program of revolutionary nationalism developed into the Indian Independence Party in 1922 which won Chicherin 's approval and Comintern funding. Chatto later joined the German Communist party. In 1927, Chatto accompanied Jawaharlal Nehru to the Brussels Conference of the League against Imperialism. However support from Soviet Russia for Chatterjee 's program waned as M.N. Roy, a Bengali revolutionary in Moscow previously of the Anushilan Samiti was considered more close to ideology of Marxism than Chatterjee 's aims of nationalist revolution. Roy steadily developed the Indian Communist Party with Stalin 's encouragement and support. Chatterjee and Pillai later moved to Soviet Russia where they are believed to have been shot in Stalin 's purges
A branch of the nationalist and revolutionary philosophy that arose from India House, especially from the works of V.D. Savarkar, was consolidated in India in the 1920s as an explicit ideology of Hindu nationalism. Exemplified by the Hindu Mahasabha, it was distinct from Gandhian devotionalism, and acquired the support of a mass movement that has been described by some as chauvinist. The Indian War of Independence is considered one of Savarkar 's most influential works in developing and framing ideas of masculine Hinduism. Amongst Savarkar 's work during his stay at India House was a history of the Maratha Confederacy which he described as an exemplary Hindu empire (Hindu Padpadshahi). Further, the Spencerian theories of evolutionism and functionalism that Savarkar examined at India House strongly influenced his social and political philosophy, and helped lay the foundations of early Hindu nationalism. It charted the latter 's approach to state, society and colonialism, and Spencer 's doctrines led Savarkar to stress a "rationalist '' and "scientific '' approach to national evolution, as well as military aggression for national survival. A number of his ideas featured prominently in Savarkar 's works well into his political writings and works with the Hindu Mahasabha.
Krishna Varma 's ashes along with those of his wife Bhanuben were repatriated to India in 2003 from Switzerland. Kachchh University, established by Gujarat government, is named in his honour. In 2010, a memorial named Kranti Teerth (Lit: Warrior 's rest) was unveiled in his home town of Mandavi in Gujarat by (then) chief minister of Gujarat Narendra Modi. Spread over 52 acres, the memorial complex houses a replica of India House building at Highgate along with statues of Krishna Varma and his wife. Urns containing Krishna Verma 's ashes, those of his wife, and a gallery dedicated to earlier activists of Indian independence movement is housed within the memorial. Krishna Verma was disbarred from the Inner Temple in 1909. This decision was revisited in 2015, and a unanimous decision taken to posthumously re-instate him. Savarkar 's stay at India House is today commemorted with a Blue Plaque by English Heritage. Members of India House have been commemorated at various times independent India. Bhikaji Cama, Krishna Varma, Savarkar, among others have had commemorative postage stamps released by India Post. V.N. Chatterjee is commemorated at the Nehru Memorial Museum in New Delhi, where his name and photo is exhibited in a room for Indian revolutionaries. Dimitrov Museum in Leipzig housed a section on Chatterjee before it closed in 1989.
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when is the ap college football poll released | AP Poll - wikipedia
The Associated Press (AP Poll) provides weekly rankings of the top 25 NCAA teams in one of three Division I college sports: football, men 's basketball and women 's basketball. The rankings are compiled by polling 65 sportswriters and broadcasters from across the nation. Each voter provides his own ranking of the top 25 teams, and the individual rankings are then combined to produce the national ranking by giving a team 25 points for a first place vote, 24 for a second place vote, and so on down to 1 point for a twenty - fifth place vote. Ballots of the voting members in the AP Poll are made public.
The football poll is released Sundays at 2pm Eastern time during the football season, unless ranked teams have not finished their games.
The AP college football poll has a long history. The news media began running their own polls of sports writers to determine who was, by popular opinion, the best football team in the country at the end of the season. One of the earliest such polls was the AP College Football Poll, first run in 1934. In 1935, AP sports editor Alan J. Gould declared a three way tie for national champion in football between Minnesota, Princeton, and Southern Methodist. Minnesota fans protested, and a number of Gould 's colleagues led by Charles "Cy '' Sherman suggested he create a poll of sports editors instead of only using his own list, and the next year the poll was born. It has run continuously from 1936.
Due to the long - standing historical ties between individual college football conferences and high - paying bowl games like the Rose Bowl and Orange Bowl, the NCAA had not held a tournament or championship game to determine the champion of what is now the highest division, NCAA Division I, Football Bowl Subdivision (the Division I, Football Championship Subdivision and lower divisions do hold championship tournaments). As a result, the public and the media began to acknowledge the leading vote - getter in the final AP Poll as the national champion for that season.
While the AP Poll currently lists the Top 25 teams in the nation, from 1936 to 1961 the wire service only ranked 20 teams. From 1962 to 1967 only 10 teams were recognized. From 1968 to 1988, the AP again resumed its Top 20 before expanding to the current 25 teams in 1989.
The AP began conducting a preseason poll starting in 1950.
At the end of the 1947 season the AP released an unofficial post-bowl poll which differed from the regular season final poll. Until the 1968 college football season, the final AP poll of the season was released following the end of the regular season, with the lone exception of the 1965 season. In 1964, Alabama was named the national champion in the final AP Poll following the completion of the regular season, but lost in the Orange Bowl to Texas, leaving Arkansas as the only undefeated, untied team after the Razorbacks defeated Nebraska in the Cotton Bowl Classic. In 1965, the AP 's decision to wait to crown its champion paid handsomely, as top - ranked Michigan State lost to UCLA in the Rose Bowl, number two Arkansas lost to LSU in the Cotton Bowl Classic, and fourth - ranked Alabama defeated third - ranked Nebraska in the Orange Bowl, vaulting the Crimson Tide to the top of the AP 's final poll (Michigan State was named national champion in the final UPI Coaches Poll, which did not conduct a post-bowl poll).
Beginning in the 1968 season, the post bowl game poll became permanent and the AP championship reflected the bowl game results. The UPI did not follow suit with the coaches ' poll until the 1974 season.
As of the completion of the 2015 season the number one ranked team has faced the number two ranked team 50 times since the inception of the AP Poll in 1936. The number one team has a record of 28 -- 20 -- 2 against the number two team.
In 1997, the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) was developed to try to unify the poll results by picking two teams for a "real '' national championship game. For the first several years the AP Poll factored in the determination of the BCS rankings, along with other factors including the Coaches Poll and computer - based polls. Because of a series of controversies surrounding the BCS, the AP demanded in December, 2004, that its poll no longer be used in the BCS rankings, and so the 2004 -- 2005 season was the last season that the AP Poll was used for this purpose.
In the 2003 season the BCS system broke down when the final BCS standings ranked the University of Southern California (USC) at No. 3 while the two human polls in the system had ranked USC at No. 1. As a result, USC did not play in the BCS ' designated national championship game. After defeating another highly ranked team, Michigan, in its final game, the AP Poll kept USC at No. 1 while the Coaches Poll was contractually obligated to select the winner of the BCS game, Louisiana State University (LSU), as the No. 1 team. The resulting split national title was the very problem that the BCS was created to solve, and has been widely considered an embarrassment.
In 2004, a new controversy erupted at the end of the season when Auburn and Utah, who both finished the regular season 12 -- 0, were left out of the BCS title game in favor of Oklahoma who also was 12 -- 0 and had won decisively over Colorado in the Big 12 Championship game. USC went on to a win easily over Oklahoma in the Orange Bowl while Auburn and Utah both won their bowl games, leaving three undefeated teams at the end of the season. Also, in that same year, Texas made up late ground on California (Cal) in the BCS standings and as a result grabbed a high - payout, at - large spot in the Rose Bowl. Previous to that poll, Cal had been ranked ahead of Texas in both human polls and the BCS poll. Going into their final game, the Golden Bears were made aware that while margin of victory did not affect computer rankings, it did affect human polls and just eight voters changing their vote could affect the final standings. Both teams won their game that week, but the Texas coach, Mack Brown, had made a public effort to lobby for his team to be moved higher in the ranking. When the human polls were released, Texas remained behind Cal, but it had closed the gap enough so that the BCS poll (which determines placement) placed Texas above Cal, angering both Cal and its conference, the Pac - 10. The final poll positions had been unchanged with Cal at No. 4 AP, No. 4 coaches, and No. 6 computers polls and Texas at No. 6 AP, No. 5 coaches, and No. 4 computer polls. The AP Poll voters were caught in the middle because their vote changes were automatically made public, while the votes of the Coaches poll were kept confidential. Although there had been a more substantial shift in the votes of the Coaches Poll, the only clear targets for the ire of fanatical fans were the voters in the AP Poll. While officials from both Cal and the Pac - 10 called for the coaches ' votes to be made public, the overtures were turned down and did little to solve the problem of AP voters. Cal went on to lose to Texas Tech in the Holiday Bowl. Texas defeated Michigan in the Rose Bowl.
Many members of the press who voted in the AP Poll were upset by the controversy and, at the behest of its members, the AP asked that its poll no longer be used in the BCS rankings. The 2004 season was the last season that the AP Poll was used in the BCS rankings, it was replaced in the BCS equation by the newly created Harris Interactive College Football Poll.
The AP Poll is not the only college football poll. The other major poll is the Coaches Poll, which has been sponsored by several organizations: the United Press (1950 -- 1957), the United Press International (1958 -- 1990), USA Today (1991 -- present), CNN (1991 -- 1996), and ESPN (1997 -- 2005). Having two major polls has led to numerous "split '' national titles, where the two polls disagreed on the No. 1 team. This has occurred on eleven different occasions (1954, 1957, 1965, 1970, 1973, 1974, 1978, 1990, 1991, 1997, 2003).
In Division I men 's and women 's college basketball, the AP Poll is largely just a tool to compare schools throughout the season and spark debate, as it has no bearing on postseason play. Generally, all top 25 teams in the poll are invited to the men 's and women 's NCAA basketball tournament, also known as March Madness. The poll is usually released every Monday and voters ' ballots are made public.
The AP began compiling a ranking of the top 20 college men 's basketball teams during the 1948 -- 1949 season. It has issued this poll continuously since the 1950 -- 1951 season. As of January 2018, UCLA and Duke are tied for the most appearances atop the rankings at 134 times.
The women 's basketball poll began during the 1976 -- 1977 season, and was initially compiled by Mel Greenberg and published by The Philadelphia Inquirer. At first, it was a poll of coaches conducted via telephone, where coaches identified top teams and a list of the Top 20 team was produced. The initial list of coaches did not include Pat Summitt, who asked to join the group, not to improve her rankings, but because of the lack of media coverage, Summitt believed it would be a good way to stay on top of who the top teams were outside of her own schedule. The contributors continued to be coaches until 1994, when the AP took over administration of the poll from Greenberg, and switched to a panel of writers. In 1994, Tennessee started out as No. 1 in the polls with Connecticut at No. 4. After losses by the No. 2 and No. 3 teams, Tennessee and Connecticut were ranked No. 1 and No. 2, headed into a showdown, scheduled as a special event on Martin Luther King day, the only women 's basketball game scheduled on that day. Because of the unusual circumstances, the decision was made to hold off the AP voting for one day, to ensure it would be after the game. Connecticut won the game, and moved into first place in the AP poll, published on Tuesday for the only time. (Connecticut went on to complete an undefeated season.) Over the history of the poll, over 255 coaches have had a team represented in polls.
Beginning in 2012, the AP began issuing a weekly pro football ranking, the AP Pro32 rankings.
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the song safe and sound by taylor swift | Safe & Sound (Taylor Swift song) - wikipedia
"Safe & Sound '' is a song by American recording artist Taylor Swift and alternative country duo The Civil Wars, taken from The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, the official soundtrack for the 2012 film The Hunger Games. The artists co-wrote the track with its producer, T - Bone Burnett; the song was written at Burnett 's house within two hours.
The song was released to the iTunes Store in the United States on December 26, 2011, and was later added to the BBC Radio 1 playlist in the United Kingdom. The song was critically lauded, with critics praising Swift 's breathy vocals, the simplicity of the music, and its lyrics, with some citing it as a welcome return to form for Swift.
"Safe & Sound '' was written by Taylor Swift, Joy Williams, John Paul White, and T - Bone Burnett. In summer 2011, Lionsgate required Burnett to record songs for The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, and he subsequently corralled a range of artists, including Swift, Maroon 5, The Civil Wars, and Arcade Fire. On a fall night in 2011, Burnett and the production team, as well as Swift and The Civil Wars, came to Burnett 's house in Los Angeles to write the lyrics. After two hours, the song was finished. Swift further elaborated, "The Civil Wars had a show that night in L.A., so they raced right over to T Bone 's house. There 's so many things he could 've done production-wise to make that song bigger sonically than it is, but I think that would have possibly been a mistake. For him to have left the song as a lullaby is brilliant. ''
On December 22, 2011, Swift posted a portion of the song 's lyrics via her Twitter account and said that "Something I 've been (very) excited about for a (very) long time is going to be happening very soon. '' Four days later, the song was released digitally on iTunes Store.
"Safe and Sound '' is a departure of Swift from her previous country pop releases, and is rather described as a moody folk ballad. Rolling Stone deemed the song reminiscent of alternative country music. Written in the key of G major, the track has a moderate slow tempo of 72 beats per minute. Swift 's vocal range on the song spans from the low - note of G to the high - note of D. The song is mainly accompanied by an acoustic guitar and features The Civil Wars ' "harmony '' vocals. According to Swift, the theme of "Safe & Sound '' represents "the empathy and compassion Katniss feels for Rue, Peeta, and Prim in different parts of (The Hunger Games). ''
"Safe & Sound '' received mainly positive reviews from music critics. Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone gave the song four out of five stars, calling it Swift 's "prettiest ballad. '' In a review of The Hunger Games: Songs from District 12 and Beyond, AllMusic 's Heather Phares picked it as one of the highlights on the soundtrack, calling it "the most crucial '' track. Idolator praised Swift 's "breathiness that sounds more eerie than sweet '', while Jason Lipshutz writing for Billboard commended the "non-Swiftian anthem that embraces the folksiness of the soundtrack '' and favored the guest appearance contributed by The Civil Wars. In a less favorable feedback, Darren Franich, and editor from Entertainment Weekly, was not impressed towards the track 's lyrics and Swift 's vocals, writing that "there 's no sense of triumph ''. He further added that "Safe & Sound '' "sounds more like a funeral dirge than a victory chant, especially as the song continues with light percussion that sounds like soldiers marching to their doom. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Christopher John Farley agreed, opining that the song "has a rural feel, but does n't sound like a commercial country song. ''
At the 2012 Country Music Association Awards, "Safe & Sound '' was nominated for Musical Event of the Year. It also garnered a CMT Music Award nomination for Collaborative of the Year in that year. The song was nominated for Best Original Song at the 70th Golden Globe Awards in 2013, but lost to Adele 's "Skyfall ''. At the 2013 Grammy Awards, "Safe & Sound '' received a nomination for Best Country Duo / Group Performance, but lost to "Pontoon '' by Little Big Town, and won the Best Song Written for Visual Media.
During the first week of release, "Safe & Sound '' entered the Billboard Hot Digital Songs at number 19 with 136,000 digital units sold. On the Billboard Hot 100, the single debuted and peaked at number 30. Following the release of the song 's music video, it re-entered the Hot 100 at number 56. In its eleventh week on chart, the song rose number 71 to number 35, prior to the release of The Hunger Games soundtrack. The track was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). As of November 2017, the song has sold 1.9 million copies in the United States.
The track also peaked at number 31 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart. Internationally, "Safe & Sound '' attained moderate commercial success. The single peaked at number 38 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart and stayed on the chart for three weeks. It was more successful in New Zealand, peaking at number 11 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and remained for five weeks. "Safe & Sound '' also charted on the UK Singles Chart at number 67.
The song 's music video, which is directed by Philip Andelman, premiered on February 13, 2012 at 7: 54 p.m. ET on MTV.As of May 2018, the video has over 135 million views on YouTube.
The video features Swift, walking barefoot through a forest in Watertown, Tennessee, wearing a long white gown. Between scenes, The Civil Wars are seen inside a cottage house sitting in front of a fireplace as they sing along to the song. It contains multiple references to The Hunger Games, including Swift finding a mockingjay pin.
The music video was shot in a cemetery, and features a scene of Swift sitting atop the graves of a couple who died in 1853.
During the Australian leg of the Speak Now World Tour, Swift added "Safe & Sound '' to the tour 's setlist. Swift performed the track while sitting on a couch onstage, wearing a "sparkling, floor - length gown '', which, according to Brittany Cooper of Taste of Country, was slightly reminiscent of Belle from Disney 's Beauty and the Beast (1991). Cooper provided a positive feedback to the performance, writing that "(Swift) took the song with a whimsical air and gave it all the mystique you would expect from the haunting ballad. ''
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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99 of all is found inside the cells of the body | Composition of the human body - wikipedia
Body composition may be analyzed in terms of molecular type e.g., water, protein, connective tissue, fats (or lipids), hydroxylapatite (in bones), carbohydrates (such as glycogen and glucose) and DNA. In terms of tissue type, the body may be analyzed into water, fat, muscle, bone, etc. In terms of cell type, the body contains hundreds of different types of cells, but notably, the largest number of cells contained in a human body (though not the largest mass of cells) are not human cells, but bacteria residing in the normal human gastrointestinal tract.
Almost 99 % of the mass of the human body is made up of six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. Only about 0.85 % is composed of another five elements: potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium. All 11 are necessary for life. The remaining elements are trace elements, of which more than a dozen are thought on the basis of good evidence to be necessary for life. All of the mass of the trace elements put together (less than 10 grams for a human body) do not add up to the body mass of magnesium, the least common of the 11 non-trace elements.
Not all elements which are found in the human body in trace quantities play a role in life. Some of these elements are thought to be simple bystander contaminants without function (examples: caesium, titanium), while many others are thought to be active toxics, depending on amount (cadmium, mercury, radioactives). The possible utility and toxicity of a few elements at levels normally found in the body (aluminium) is debated. Functions have been proposed for trace amounts of cadmium and lead, although these are almost certainly toxic in amounts very much larger than normally found in the body. There is evidence that arsenic, an element normally considered a toxic in higher amounts, is essential in ultratrace quantities, in mammals such as rats, hamsters, and goats.
Some elements (silicon, boron, nickel, vanadium) are probably needed by mammals also, but in far smaller doses. Bromine is used abundantly by some (though not all) lower organisms, and opportunistically in eosinophils in humans. One study has found bromine to be necessary to collagen IV synthesis in humans. Fluorine is used by a number of plants to manufacture toxins (see that element) but in humans only functions as a local (topical) hardening agent in tooth enamel, and not in an essential biological role.
The average 70 kg (150 lb) adult human body contains approximately 7027700000000000000 ♠ 7 × 10 atoms and contains at least detectable traces of 60 chemical elements. About 29 of these elements are thought to play an active positive role in life and health in humans.
The relative amounts of each element vary by individual, mainly due to differences in the proportion of fat, muscle and bone in their body. Persons with more fat will have a higher proportion of carbon and a lower proportion of most other elements (the proportion of hydrogen will be about the same). The numbers in the table are averages of different numbers reported by different references.
The adult human body averages ~ 53 % water. This varies substantially by age, sex, and adiposity. In a large sample of adults of all ages and both sexes, the figure for water fraction by weight was found to be 48 ± 6 % for females and 58 ± 8 % water for males. Water is ~ 11 % hydrogen by mass but ~ 67 % hydrogen by atomic percent, and these numbers along with the complementary % numbers for oxygen in water, are the largest contributors to overall mass and atomic composition figures. Because of water content, the human body contains more oxygen by mass than any other element, but more hydrogen by atom - fraction than any element.
The elements listed below as "Essential in humans '' are those listed by the (US) Food and Drug Administration as essential nutritients, as well as six additional elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen (the fundamental building blocks of life on Earth), sulfur (essential to all cells) and cobalt (a necessary component of vitamin B). Elements listed as "Possibly '' or "Probably '' essential are those cited by the National Research Council (United States) as beneficial to human health and possibly or probably essential.
* Iron = ~ 3 g in men, ~ 2.3 g in women
Most of the elements needed for life are relatively common in the Earth 's crust. Aluminium, the third most common element in the Earth 's crust (after oxygen and silicon), serves no function in living cells, but is harmful in large amounts. Transferrins can bind aluminium.
Of the 94 naturally occurring chemical elements, 60 are listed in the table above. Of the remaining 34, it is not known how many occur in the human body. For some of these elements, numbers for concentrations in various tissues or organs is available, typically from studies involving small population sample sizes.
Concentration of noble gases in whole blood.
* hypothetical value for radon based on 10 Bq / m and 0.4 blood / air partition coefficient.
Of the seventeen rare - earth elements (REEs), fifteen belong to the lanthanide series. The other two, scandium and yttrium, are listed in the table above, as are three lanthanides: lanthanum, cerium, and samarium. Of the remaining twelve lanthanides, eleven are listed below. No information is available regarding the remaining lanthanide, the highly radioactive promethium.
Concentration of rare - earth elements / lanthanides in blood serum.
Concentration of platinum group metals in the blood.
Periodic table highlighting dietary elements
The composition of the human body is expressed in terms of chemicals:
The composition of the human body can be viewed on an atomic and molecular scale as shown in this article.
The estimated gross molecular contents of a typical 20 - micrometre human cell is as follows:
Body composition can also be expressed in terms of various types of material, such as:
There are many species of bacteria and other microorganisms that live on or inside the healthy human body. In fact, 90 % of the cells in (or on) a human body are microbes, by number (much less by mass or volume). Some of these symbionts are necessary for our health. Those that neither help nor harm humans are called commensal organisms.
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who is ra al ghul in batman begins | Ra 's al Ghul - Wikipedia
Ra 's al Ghul (Arabic: راس الغول Raʾs al - Ġūl; "Ghoul 's Head '' or "Demon 's Head '') is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly as an adversary of the superhero Batman. Created by editor Julius Schwartz, writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams, the character first appeared in Batman # 232 's "Daughter of the Demon '' (June 1971). The character is one of Batman 's most enduring enemies and belongs to the collective of adversaries that make up Batman 's rogues gallery, though given his high status as a supervillain, he has also come into conflict with Superman and other superheroes in the DC Universe.
Most notable as the leader of the League of Assassins, Ra 's al Ghul 's name in Arabic translates to "The Demon 's Head ''. He is the son of Sensei, the father of Talia al Ghul, Nyssa Raatko, and Dusan al Ghul, and the maternal grandfather of Damian Wayne. Stories featuring Ra 's al Ghul often involve the Lazarus Pits, which restore life to the dying. The Lazarus Pits have kept Ra 's alive for centuries, making him particularly dangerous as he has honed his combat skills for a millennium.
Ra 's al Ghul has been featured in various media adaptions. The character was voiced by David Warner in Batman: The Animated Series, which became his first appearance in media other than the comic books. Ra 's was subsequently portrayed by Liam Neeson in the Dark Knight Trilogy, Jason Isaacs in Batman: Under the Red Hood, Dee Bradley Baker in the Batman: Arkham video game series, Matt Nable in the Arrowverse television series, and Alexander Siddig in Gotham.
IGN 's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time List ranked Ra 's as # 7.
Created by editor Julius Schwartz, writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams, he was introduced in Batman # 232 's "Daughter of the Demon '' (June 1971). The character 's creation and depiction was inspired by other works of fiction, such as the 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, and the Fu Manchu fiction. The Bond film has international crime lord Draco wanting the agent to marry his daughter Contessa Teresa. Another visual antecedent for Ra 's al Ghul and his daughter Talia are found in Saloud (actor James Lanphier) and Princess Darla (Claudia Cardinale) in the 1963 film The Pink Panther.
Ra 's al Ghul is an international criminal mastermind whose ultimate goal is a world in perfect environmental balance. He believes that the best way to achieve this balance is to eliminate most of humanity. Ra 's usually tries to assault the world 's human populace with a biological weapon, such as a genetically - engineered virus. He is aided in this quest by the Lazarus Pits, reservoirs of rejuvenating chemicals that restore the dead and dying to life; these pits have granted him a lifespan of several centuries.
He regards Batman as his worthiest opponent, addressing him as "Detective '' out of respect for his intellectual brilliance, and has frequently sought to make the Dark Knight his successor. He is one of the few criminals in Batman 's rogues gallery to have deduced his secret identity as Bruce Wayne, but keeps silent on the matter due to the same sense of respect for Batman. For his own part, Batman 's opposition to Ra 's is complicated by both his own respect for al Ghul 's genius (if not his goals and methods) and his attraction to his daughter, Talia, which she reciprocates.
Ra 's al Ghul 's real name, early life, and exact age have been described differently by various writers. His Post-Crisis origin story is told in the graphic novel Batman: Birth of the Demon (1992) by Dennis O'Neil and Norm Breyfogle.
As told in Birth of the Demon, Ra 's al Ghul was born over 600 years before his first appearance in Batman comics, to a Bedouin tribe of nomads in a desert somewhere in Arabia, near a city whose inhabitants ' ancestors had journeyed to the Arabian Peninsula from Morocco. Developing an interest in the sciences at an early age, Ra 's abandoned his tribe to live in the city where he pursued life as a researcher. He subsequently became a physician and married a woman named Sora.
Ra 's discovered the secret of the Lazarus Pit, and he saves a dying prince by lowering him into it. The prince, who is sadistic to begin with, is driven completely insane by the Lazarus Pit. He proceeds to strangle Sora, on whom he has already had his eye for some time. The sultan, unwilling to admit to himself his son 's culpability, declares Ra 's guilty of the crime and sentences him to a slow, tortured death in a cage with Sora 's corpse.
Ra 's is set free by the son of a dying elderly woman, who Ra 's had earlier examined. The son feels that he owes Ra 's a debt for easing his mother 's suffering during her last few hours. Ra 's and the son head into the desert to seek the tribe of Ra 's ' birth. Ra 's convinces the head of his tribe, his uncle, to follow Ra 's in his quest for revenge by promising the downfall of the sultan. By understanding the germ theory of disease hundreds of years before anyone else, Ra 's is able to infect the prince with a deadly virus by sending him contaminated fabrics. When the sultan comes to ask Ra 's to cure the prince again, Ra 's kills both him and his son. Ra 's then leads his tribe to raze the city to the ground and kill all of its inhabitants. Subsequently, Ra 's declares himself "Ra 's al Ghul '', the "Demon 's Head ''.
Batman: Birth of the Demon provides a rough figure of 500 years for Ra 's al Ghul 's age. Due to living so long, he is assumed to have lost track of how old he is. Azrael # 6 (July 1995; written by Dennis O'Neil) places Ra 's age closer to 450 years. As he tells Jean Paul Valley, "I appear to be a vigorous fifty. I am actually a very vigorous four hundred and forty - eight... or is it four hundred and fifty - three? I lost count during the Black Plague. No matter ''. In Batman Annual # 25 (published in 2006), Ra 's al Ghul is described as a "700 - Year Old International Terrorist ''.
Using the Lazarus Pits to extend his life, Ra 's spends the next several centuries journeying the world. He fights in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and becomes a formidable warrior. As the world entered the modern age and industrialization began to cover much of the Earth, Ra 's grew to despise the humans who he believed were destroying the world 's natural beauty, thus setting him on a path of eco-terrorism. Also during this time, Ra 's, his uncle, and the boy who freed him from the sultan are all using the Lazarus Pits to prolong their lives until an incident in London. Ra 's catches the boy writing his own memoirs in their original language, of which Ra 's has forbidden all records. During a battle, Ra 's kills the boy and flees to a Lazarus Pit, which he uses. When he returns to their home in London, his uncle has vanished with the remnants of their historical records.
Over time, he becomes a master of many forms of combat, notably fencing. He also builds up vast wealth and creates The Demon, a huge international organization. According to Justice League of America (1st series) # 94; "It has been whispered in the darkest places for 500 years that a cartel of criminals has slowly sucked its way into the rich veins of the Earth. Many are its names spit from the mouths of men, but most often it is cursed only as. The Demon. It has a leader. A Head ''. The League of Assassins, one of the many smaller organizations making up The Demon, is thus sometimes called "The Demon 's Fang '' or "Demonfang ''.
Ra 's returns to prominence and comes dangerously close to realizing his dream of worldwide genocide in the "Contagion '' story arc of the Batman titles. His organization unleashes a deadly virus known as Ebola Gulf A (a.k.a. "The Clench '') in Gotham City, putting Batman in conflict with a force he seemingly can not defeat. A cure is eventually located by Batman and his allies, though the mastermind behind the outbreak is not discovered until the follow - up story "Legacy ''.
Learning that the Demon 's Head still lives, Batman and his team circle the globe, preventing further outbreaks of the virus. Ra 's allies himself with Bane, the man who once crippled and nearly killed Batman. Ra 's considers Bane a potential heir to his empire, despite his daughter Talia 's distaste for the criminal mastermind. Eventually, Batman deduces a way to eliminate the Clench virus from an ancient "Wheel of Plagues '' artifact whose knowledge has aided Ra 's in the creation of the disease. The long - lived madman eludes justice again.
In the "Tower of Babel '' storyline, in JLA # 43 -- 46, Ra 's discovers Batman 's contingency plans for stopping the other members of the Justice League of America, should they turn or be turned evil, and uses them to try to destroy the group. Meanwhile, Ra 's steals the bodies of Batman 's parents. This theft prevents Batman from realizing Ra 's is using his traps until it is too late, as he is distracted by the search for the corpses of his parents.
Though defeated, Ra 's does cause the temporary exit of Batman from the JLA, who now distrust the Caped Crusader. However, though some of the League resent Batman 's plans, they eventually accept that the plans were created for the right reasons once Batman confirms that he trusts them by revealing his secret identity to the rest of the team.
Talia, disillusioned with her father, leaves the League to run LexCorp for former U.S. President Lex Luthor, before selling the company to Bruce Wayne for his Wayne Foundation to aid Batman and Superman 's victory over Luthor. Ra 's blames Batman for his failed relationship with Talia, and stages a plot where he tries to separate Batman from his heir, Dick Grayson, shortly before Wayne officially adopts his former ward as his son. The plan fails, and Wayne and Grayson go ahead with the adoption.
Ra 's is also featured in Birds of Prey # 31 -- 35, where he has a romantic fling with the Black Canary. The superheroine is injured and healed in the Lazarus Pit, which also restores the Canary Cry she lost years earlier.
In Death and the Maidens (2004), Ra 's ' other daughter, Nyssa Raatko, furious at her father for abandoning her in a Nazi concentration camp during World War II, begins plotting to destroy him, prompting Ra 's to contact Batman to make a deal for access to a Lazarus Pit to give him the strength for a final confrontation with Nyssa; in exchange for the location of a Pit, Ra 's provides Batman with a serum that will allow him to walk in the spirit world and speak with his parents. While Batman experiences his "vision '', Nyssa befriends Talia and then kidnaps and brainwashes her. Nyssa plots to destroy all hope and optimism in the world by assassinating Superman with Kryptonite bullets she steals from the Batcave. While Batman stops Nyssa from killing Superman, he is unable to stop her from mortally injuring her father. A dying Ra 's reveals that this is all part of his greater plan to ensure that his daughters will realize that he is correct in his perceptions about the world and what needs to be done to it, and that they would come to accept their destinies as his heirs. Ra 's ' plan works: both Nyssa and Talia become the heads of The Demon and the League of Assassins. Talia disavows her love for Bruce Wayne, and both sisters declare Batman their enemy. It is too late for Ra 's, as Nyssa stabs her father through the heart, seemingly killing him for good. To ensure Ra 's will not return, Batman oversees his nemesis ' cremation.
In Batman Annual # 26, Talia is prompted to read the history of Ra 's al Ghul to her son Damian by a mysterious figure from Ra 's ' past: the White Ghost. Unbeknownst to her, the White Ghost plans to use Damian as a vessel for Ra 's ' return. However, mother and son escape before the plan is completed. After the escape, Batman confronts the White Ghost; he fights Batman, but accidentally falls into a Lazarus Pit.
As of Batman # 670 Ra 's al Ghul has returned, having evaded death by transferring his consciousness into the body of another. Because his host body is decaying from radiation poisoning, he needs to transfer his mind into another host body. His first choice is that of his grandson Damian Wayne, but Damian escapes to alert his father.
Upon taking Ra 's to a "Fountain of Essence '', which contains the qualities of a Lazarus Pit, Batman is confronted with the sight of the Sensei, who is revealed to be Ra 's ' father. After defeating Ra 's, Sensei fights and impales Batman with a cane. Determined to win, Batman drags the Sensei into the Fountain, where he is killed for not being a pure soul. Ra 's, meanwhile, has taken over the body of a Nanda Parbat monk and departs. Healed by the Fountain, Batman emerges and yells for Ra 's.
Ra 's attempts to make amends with Batman after his resurrection, but Batman responds by crushing his decaying fingers. Ra 's accepts this latest rebuke and, with the help of his men, overpowers Batman and captures Damian, who has arrived to try to help his father. Ra 's attempts to take over Damian, but Batman breaks free just as Robin, Talia, Alfred Pennyworth, and Nightwing arrive to save him. While the battle ensues at Nanda Parbat, the White Ghost takes Ra 's to a secluded place, where he appears to accept the fact that his death is inevitable. The White Ghost is revealed as Ra 's ' estranged albino son Dusan, and offers up his own body instead. Ra 's performs the transfer of souls, but the White Ghost apparently dies soon afterward. Ra 's resumes the battle and attempts to kill Batman, but the monks at Nanda Parbat stop him and banish him from the temple.
Following his resurrection, Ra 's al Ghul, in his new body, moves his base of operations to Gotham City where it is revealed that a remnant of his son Dusan 's consciousness still remains within him. Since the White Ghost was his son, Ra 's was able to use the resemblance between them to modify his new body 's appearance to be more like his own. This arrogance contributes to the brazen move to Gotham and a subsequent ninja attack on Batman, which indirectly leads to the discovery of a map of all the known Lazarus Pit locations across the globe. Batman then infiltrates Ra 's al Ghul 's new Gotham penthouse headquarters and easily defeats his horde of ninjas and Ra 's himself. To ensure Ra 's is not a constant threat within Gotham City, Batman comes up with the false identity of "Terry Gene Kase '', and plants it along with credible photos, medical records, and police records for both Blackgate Penitentiary and Arkham Asylum. Batman takes an unconscious Ra 's directly to Arkham where it is believed he really is the prisoner "Terry Gene Kase '', a criminal with multiple personality disorder who has just been transferred to Arkham to finish out multiple life sentences. Along with attaching false information and a false identity to Ra 's al Ghul 's file, Batman attaches a false prescription of potent medication that ensures slurred speech and next to zero mobility.
Despite these precautions, Ra 's eventually escapes when the orderlies miss his dosage once, which allows him to become conscious enough to escape from Arkham.
Ra 's realizes that Batman has apparently died after Darkseid 's invasion during Final Crisis. After confronting Nightwing with his knowledge, he and the hero eventually duel with swords. Nightwing defeats Ra 's and earns the immortal 's respect, signified by leaving his sword in the Batcave as a gift after their fight. Ra 's refuses to believe his enemy 's passing despite the evidence, leading him to be involved in the Red Robin 's (Tim Drake) quest concerning the fate of the original Dark Knight. After Drake finds proof that Wayne is still alive but lost in time after his battle with Darkseid, the former Boy Wonder cripples Ra 's ' organization, the League of Assassins, from within. In response, Ra 's returns to Gotham to begin his attack to destroy every legacy of the Wayne Family. While his men target everyone close to the Waynes, Ra 's makes a pact with Hush as part of his plans. Unknown to both men, Bruce Wayne has already named Tim as his heir prior to his disappearance, leaving him in control of the Wayne Family resources.
Enraged, Ra 's then engages Tim Drake in combat, which ends with Tim mocking Ra 's by saying that there 's nothing he can do to harm the Bat Family anymore; in response, Ra 's smiles and says "Well done. Detective '' (a name he has only ever reserved for Batman, and Nightwing once before). He then proceeds to kick him out of a skyscraper window and retreats from the battle. Later, in seclusion, Ra 's reveals everything which happened was a test for Tim Drake, from the League, the Council, the Men of Death, and the plot against Bruce Wayne.
Learning of Bruce Wayne 's return, Ra 's muses that his next confrontation with the detective will be particularly interesting as he believes that Batman has at last had a taste of the immortality that Ra 's himself enjoys.
He goes after Vicki Vale and almost kills her. He spares her life only after she refuses to publish the identity of Batman and gets rid of all of the evidence she has to that effect. He also realizes that Vale may be a descendant of a French opponent, Marcel du Valliere, from centuries before; therefore, his business with her may not be finished.
In The New 52 (a reboot of the DC Comics universe), Ra 's al Ghul appears in a hooded robe at the League of Assassins ' city of ' Eth Alth'eban. He enters the Well of Sins after an encounter with Jason Todd. When he emerges, Ra 's is consumed by the evil that corrupted the Untitled centuries before, and he feels compelled to rid himself of the machinations of his daughter and Ducra by killing Jason. At Ra 's ' command, the prisoners are brought to him, and he promises to use his newfound power to destroy them. Red Hood engages Ra 's, as Essence joins the battle. She insists that he will allow Jason and his friends to leave his realm, or he will be forced to die a mortal death just as he always feared he would. Despite having destroyed the All - Caste, Ra 's al Ghul 's actions have led to their eventual rebirth. Defeated, he swears that he will visit great agony upon Red Hood if he ever sees him again.
Batman and Aquaman head to an island, where the League of Assassins are located, after Ra 's has the bodies of Damian Wayne and Talia exhumed. Ra 's had ordered the hunt of whales, creating genetically altered super-humans in the wombs of sperm whales, part of a plan to rebuild the League of Assassins. Inside the compound, they find that Ra 's is wiping the hard drives clean, preventing data recovery. As his parting gift, he has left Batman the Heretics to keep him entertained. Batman fights his way to Ra 's escape aircraft. He sees Talia and Damian 's bodies stored within it, and clings to the fuselage from outside as the plane takes off. Though Ra 's plans to go to Paradise Island, he is nearly surprised to see Batman pounding on the cockpit 's windshield. From outside, Batman screams for Ra 's to give back his son, but Ra 's responds that he is blood of Damian 's blood and the boy is in good hands. He orders the plane to tilt its angle, causing the wind shear to rip Batman from his purchase and drop down into the sea. Luckily, Aquaman is there to catch Batman.
Batman and Ra 's then encounter Glorious Godfrey. Glorious Godfrey 's reason to come to Earth is to retrieve the Chaos Shard, a powerful crystal once belonged to Darkseid which Ra 's al Ghul revealed was hidden inside the sarcophaus he crafted for Damian.
During Batman Eternal, Bruce briefly speculates that Ra 's is the mastermind behind most of the attacks against him that have left Wayne Enterprises bankrupt and Batman pushed to the limit. However, when he confronts Ra 's, his foe reveals that, while he was invited to participate in the attack by the true mastermind, he rejected the offer as Ra 's would prefer to destroy Batman when the Dark Knight believes that his legacy will be as eternal as Ra 's, rather than tear him down in such a manner.
Ra 's al Ghul appears in Detective Comics issues # 953 - 956 as part of the "League of Shadows '' story arc, which runs from issue # 951 - 956 (April -- July 2017).
Ra 's al Ghul appears in Dark Nights: Metal issue # 2 as a member of the Immortals, a group formed by the oldest beings in the multiverse. He participates in a discussion on how they will fight the Dark Multiverse invasion.
Due to his expanded life span, Ra 's has accumulated a vast knowledge of hand - to - hand combat, chemistry, detective artistry, physics, and martial arts (all of which rival or are greater than that of Batman). He has also gained many international contacts and a vast fortune over the course of centuries. When in combat, he favors more ancient weaponry (as he has had more time to utilize them than more modern weaponry). These weapons include scimitars, katana, bolas, throwing stars (shuriken), smoke pellets, and miniaturized explosives. Ra 's is also assisted by his devoted, musclebound servant Ubu.
Ra 's ' greatest tools are his Lazarus Pits, which will heal him of any injury (even if he is recently deceased) while restoring him back to his prime of life. His constant exposure to the pits have granted him slightly enhanced endurance, strength, and healing but also comes with the price of a gradual onset of insanity if overused.
Along with his physical abilities and resources, Ra 's al Ghul has been shown to possess a certain degree of proficiency with mysticism. In an effort to guarantee his continued existence, he has on several occasions demonstrated the ability to transfer his soul into the bodies of others, giving him a way to live on in the event that his physical body is destroyed and unable to be transported into a Lazarus Pit. The exact details of this process have remained inconsistent; at times it appears as though a complicated ritual is required to achieve this effect, while on other occasions he is capable of performing this feat on a whim, merely by making physical contact with his intended host.
The following are members of Ra 's al Ghul 's family:
Created by Neal Adams in 1968, the Sensei was originally introduced as high - ranking member of the League of Assassins. He was portrayed as an aged but highly skilled martial artist. During the Resurrection of Ra 's al Ghul storyline, he was revealed to be Ra 's al Ghul 's centuries - old father. He dies during the same storyline.
Created by Peter Milligan and David Lopez in 2007, Dusan al Ghul (Arabic: دوسان الغول ) was Ra 's ' only known son. He was also referred to as Ash'Shabah Al - Abyad (Arabic: الشبح الأبيض ), meaning "the White Ghost ''. Though little is known about his past, it is stated that he was born out of a union meant to strengthen his father 's hold over "some long - extinct people '', suggesting that he was older than Ra 's ' other children. As an albino, he was never considered a potential heir to his father 's empire. He ultimately sacrificed himself to ensure his father 's survival during the Resurrection of Ra 's al Ghul storyline.
Created by Greg Rucka and Klaus Janson in 2003, Nyssa Raatko (Arabic: نيسا رعتكو ) is Ra 's al Ghul 's oldest known daughter. She was born to an unnamed woman in 18th century Russia. She would later become a Holocaust survivor. She is murdered by Cassandra Cain during the One Year Later storyline. Nyssa appears in Arrow.
Created by Dennis O'Neil and Bob Brown in 1971, Talia al Ghul (Arabic: تاليه الغول ) is Ra 's al Ghul 's daughter. Talia 's mother was a woman of Arab ancestry named Melisande, who met Ra 's at the Woodstock festival. Talia was born not long after. Talia also appears in 2012 's The Dark Knight Rises. Talia also appears in Arrow season 5.
Originally appearing as an unnamed infant in the 1987 graphic novel Batman: Son of the Demon, the character was introduced as Damian Wayne or Damian al Ghul (Arabic: دميان الغول) by Grant Morrison and Andy Kubert in 2006. Damian is the son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul, making him the grandson of Ra 's al Ghul. Heir to the Demon Head and expected to one day lead the League. He raised to be the new Alexanda the great. Bred from birth to take and rule the world by his mother Talia al Ghul. He was very aggressive until he met his father, Batman. Batman taught him how to calm himself and trained him to be the new Robin. His genetic perfection and genetic makeup unfortunately marked him as the ideal host for his grandfather who wants to take over his body.
Although he fathered children with several women, Ra 's al Ghul has only two confirmed marriages. The first was to Sora, whose death set Ra 's on the path to becoming the "Demon 's Head ''. The second was to Melisande, Talia 's mother.
Ra 's also appears to have an unnamed sister or half - sister, a female assassin belonging to a group called the "Daughters of Acheron '', whose members share the same father. Another member is a woman using the alias "Promise ''. It is unclear if their common father, "Acheron '', is in fact the Sensei (making them all Ra 's ' half - sisters) or if Ra 's only has one half - sister on his mother 's side.
In Batman and Robin # 12, it is revealed that Talia has cloned her son, Damian. The clone is, therefore, a grandson of sorts of Ra 's al Ghul. Additionally, Nyssa once stated that she has given birth twelve times, opening the possibility of Ra 's having many other descendants.
After Talia encounters and falls in love with Batman in Detective Comics # 411 (May 1971), Ra 's begins to consider Batman as a possible heir. Ra 's first deduces Batman 's secret identity when he reasons that the Dark Knight has to be rich, and learns that only Bruce Wayne has bought the equipment that a crime fighter would have; he is then ready to put Batman to a final test.
Ra 's surprises Batman in the Batcave, seemingly to enlist Batman 's aid in rescuing both Talia and Dick Grayson, the first Robin, both of whom have apparently been kidnapped. Batman soon discovers that the whole affair is a charade orchestrated by Ra 's to test Batman, which he passes. Ra 's asks that Batman become his heir, which Batman refuses, appalled by his genocidal plan to "cleanse '' the world. This story was later adapted into a two - part story in Batman: The Animated Series during its third season under the title "The Demon 's Quest ''.
Despite being mortal enemies, Ra 's al Ghul and Batman maintain some level of respect towards one another. Similar to The Riddler, Ra 's admires Batman 's intellectual prowess first and foremost, regularly referring to Batman as "Detective '' or "The Detective '' when speaking to or about him. And despite being aware of Batman 's true identity as Bruce Wayne since their first meeting, Ra 's has never exposed that information to the public or Batman 's other foes; something Batman once attributed to Ra 's ' personal code of honor. However, Ra 's has repeatedly used that knowledge to his own advantage when fomenting plans and contingencies against Batman.
In the story "Resurrection Night '' in Batman # 400, Ra 's helps all of Batman 's foes to escape from Arkham Asylum and the Gotham State Penitentiary, setting them on a plan to abduct certain individuals across Gotham City who are linked in one form or another to Batman. Ra 's ' true intent is to show Batman the folly of his efforts to protect a corrupt society that, to his mind, allows criminals to exist and flourish. Ra 's eventually uses the Pit while still healthy, both increasing his strength and putting his life at risk, in an attempt to outmatch the Dark Knight. The plan backfires, as Ra 's is left writhing in the pit, seemingly destroyed.
In the graphic novel Son of the Demon, Ra 's successfully enlists Batman 's aid in defeating a rogue assassin and warlord, Qayin (a variation on the spelling of Cain), who has murdered Ra 's ' then - wife Melisande (Talia 's mother). During this storyline, Batman marries Talia and she becomes pregnant. Batman is nearly killed protecting Talia from the assassin 's agents. In the end, Talia ends her relationship with Batman, unwilling to put him in danger. She claims to have miscarried and the marriage is dissolved. The child is eventually born and left at an orphanage (eventually taking the name Ibn al Xu'ffasch). The only identification provided is Talia 's jewel - encrusted necklace, which once belonged to Talia 's mother. Two Elseworlds stories, Kingdom Come and Brotherhood of the Bat, feature two alternate versions of Ibn as an adult, coming to terms with his dual heritage. For a time, DC Comics ' policy was that Son of the Demon was not canon and that Batman had no son. The recent appearance of the child (under the name Damian) in an issue of Batman implies that this policy may have changed.
Ra 's has previously been revealed as alive in the 31st century setting of the post-Zero Hour reboot Legion of Super-Heroes, impersonating Leland McCauley.
In the first Superman & Batman: Generations series, created by John Byrne, Bruce Wayne tracks down Ra 's al Ghul after passing the Batman mantle on to his son. Ra 's offers Bruce (whom he addresses as "Adversary '') a chance at immortality. Ra 's has determined that if two people enter the Lazarus Pit, the Pit will merge both life forces together, destroying one soul in the process and imbuing the other with youth and immortality without the ensuing madness. With his only alternatives being a fifty - fifty chance at death in the Pit or being murdered by Ra 's ' men, Bruce agrees to the process. He survive exposure to the Pit and subsequently uses Ra 's ' criminal empire to clandestinely set up an international humanitarian network. He also becomes a near - immortal, aging one year for every century.
In the Batman & Spider - Man: New Age Dawning crossover book (considered an Elseworlds story), Ra 's begins plans for worldwide devastation. He manipulates the Kingpin to his side by infecting the crime lord 's wife Vanessa with cancer and promising him the cure in return for his allegiance. Ra 's then orders him to press the button on his machines which would send New York City under the ocean. Ultimately, Spider - Man and Batman interfere and the Kingpin reveals that he knows Ra 's ' plans and allows the two heroes to board his plane so they can assist him. Defeated, Ra 's bows out of the plan gracefully but claims that there is no cure for the cancer. Vanessa convinces her husband that she wishes no further violence, and they leave. Talia soon gives the cure to Batman, who then gives it to Spider - Man, who passes it on to the Kingpin.
In The Batman Adventures # 1, albeit Ra 's did n't appear, he plays a larger role behind - the - scenes along the Society of Shadows and the Penguin. Ra 's finally appears in issue # 4, in which he fights Batman again only to be defeated by him once more time. Series writer Ty Templeton originally wanted to bring back Ra 's in issue # 5 depicting him at prison, but his script for the planned story was rejected because DC Comics told him and Dan Slott that they were ' done ' with Ra 's and it was time to move with other characters, resulting in issue # 5 as a story of Black Mask 's False Face Society.
In the Amalgam Comics alternate dimension, Ra 's is fused with Marvel Comics supervillain Apocalypse to become "Ra 's Al - Pocalypse ''. Ra 's ' daughter Talia is fused with Lady Deathstrike to become "Lady Talia ''.
In Kingdom Come, a rogue superhuman claimed that Ra 's al Ghul was killed. Ra 's ' grandson, Ibn al Xu'ffasch, is a member of Lex Luthor 's Mankind Liberation Front. When the appearance of Gog threatens this reality, Ibn uses a Lazarus Pit to restore Ra 's to life to try to find a solution in collaboration with Lex Luthor and Brainiac, but they fail to find a solution. All three of them attempt to betray Ibn, and Lex and Brainiac die in their own trap for him. Ra 's gets into a sword duel with his grandson in the Batcave and is killed by him.
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Ra 's al Ghul is a young boy and member of the H.I.V.E. council. He voted against using nuclear weapons to end the war in Western Europe between Aquaman and Wonder Woman.
In the Batman / Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles crossover miniseries, when the Foot Clan initially arrive in Gotham, Batman considers the possibility that they are a branch of the League of Assassins, but dismisses the idea as the Foot 's combat skills show a focus on a specific area of martial arts as opposed to the more varied skills of the League. After Shredder attempts to escape a confrontation with Batman and the Turtles, he is confronted by Ra 's, who offers him an alliance. With a batch of fresh mutagen brought to the DC Universe by Casey Jones, Shredder and Ra 's try to bring the world to its knees by unleashing their mutated monstrosities (starting with the inmates of Arkham Asylum), but are defeated by the combined efforts of Batman, Ra 's ' own grandson Damian, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Splinter, who force Ra 's into flight.
Ra 's appears as the main antagonist in a crossover story between Batman ' 66 and Wonder Woman ' 77 (taking place in the continuity of Adam West 's portrayal of Batman and Lynda Carter 's portrayal of Wonder Woman). He and his daughter Talia first meet Bruce in the 40s at a Wayne Foundation auction to support the war effort, where The League of Shadows and the Nazis attempt to bid for a book detailing ancient treasures and locations. When they confront the book 's auction winner Mr. Finlay, the young Bruce and Talia escape with both of the books to keep them safe. Ra 's finds Bruce in the maze and threatens his life, but Bruce escapes as Ra 's manages to obtain one of the books. Twenty - two years later, Talia hires Catwoman to steal the second book from Mr. Finlay. Batman, Robin and Catwoman travel to Paradise Island to warn Wonder Woman and her people that the League of Shadows will be invading one of the nearby areas, with Diana knowing that Ra 's is after the island 's Lazarus Pit. Ra 's uses the pit to restore his youth and offers the four the chance to join the League of Shadows, but they refuse. Ra 's tries to bury them alive, but they are saved thanks to the intervention of Wonder Girl and Talia rescuing them behind her father 's back (still harboring feelings for Bruce). Talia is placed in prison by the Amazons while Ra 's manages to escape. 11 years later, Catwoman aids Talia in escaping Paradise Island and the two Ghuls continue their search for Lazarus Pits. Thanks to spying on Wonder Woman and Batman, the League discovers there 's a Pit in Gotham underneath Arkham Asylum. Ra 's hires the Riddler, Mr. Freeze, Clayface, Killer Croc, and Cheetah to keep the heroes at bay. Batman follows Ra 's near the Pit and tries to stop him, but Ra 's uses his magical assassins to prevent them from stopping him. Due to using the Pit sooner than the last time he used it, Ra 's is de-aged into a ten year old. The two Ghuls are taken into authorities, with Batman being saddened that Talia chose to follow her father 's influence.
Ra 's al Ghul has been a staple in the Batman: Arkham franchise where he has been voiced by Dee Bradley Baker:
His stories have been collected into a number of volumes:
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where was sumer located and why was that important | Sumer - wikipedia
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Sumer (/ ˈsuːmər /) is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia, modern - day southern Iraq, during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages, and arguably one of the first civilizations in the world along with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley. Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers were able to grow an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus of which enabled them to settle in one place. Proto - writing in the prehistory dates back to c. 3000 BC. The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC; early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.
Modern historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c. 5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language (pointing to the names of cities, rivers, basic occupations, etc., as evidence), an agglutinative language isolate. These conjectured, prehistoric people are now called "proto - Euphrateans '' or "Ubaidians '', and are theorized to have evolved from the Samarra culture of northern Mesopotamia. The Ubaidians (though never mentioned by the Sumerians themselves) are assumed by modern - day scholars to have been the first civilizing force in Sumer, draining the marshes for agriculture, developing trade, and establishing industries, including weaving, leatherwork, metalwork, masonry, and pottery.
Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto - Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the marshland and the Eastern Arabia littoral region and were part of the Arabian bifacial culture. Reliable historical records begin much later; there are none in Sumer of any kind that have been dated before Enmebaragesi (c. 26th century BC). Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, today 's Persian Gulf region, before it was flooded at the end of the Ice Age.
Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period (4th millennium BC), continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian - speakers, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a Sprachbund. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic - speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (short chronology), but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Third Dynasty of Ur at approximately 2100 -- 2000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use.
The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to have been the world 's first city, where three separate cultures may have fused: that of peasant Ubaidian farmers, living in mud - brick huts and practicing irrigation; that of mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists living in black tents and following herds of sheep and goats; and that of fisher folk, living in reed huts in the marshlands, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians.
The term Sumerian is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic - speaking inhabitants of Mesopotamia by the East Semitic - speaking Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as ùĝ saĝ gíg ga (cuneiform: 𒌦 𒊕 𒈪 𒂵), phonetically / uŋ saŋ gi ga /, literally meaning "the black - headed people '', and to their land as ki - en - gi (- r) (cuneiform: 𒆠𒂗𒄀) (' place ' + ' lords ' + ' noble '), meaning "place of the noble lords ''. The Akkadian word Shumer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term šumerû is uncertain. Hebrew Shinar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar (a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of Shumer.
In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent city - states, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priestly governor (ensi) or by a king (lugal) who was intimately tied to the city 's religious rites.
The five "first '' cities, said to have exercised pre-dynastic kingship "before the flood '':
Other principal cities:
Minor cities (from south to north):
(an outlying city in northern Mesopotamia)
Apart from Mari, which lies full 330 kilometres (205 miles) north - west of Agade, but which is credited in the king list as having "exercised kingship '' in the Early Dynastic II period, and Nagar, an outpost, these cities are all in the Euphrates - Tigris alluvial plain, south of Baghdad in what are now the Bābil, Diyala, Wāsit, Dhi Qar, Basra, Al - Muthannā and Al - Qādisiyyah governorates of Iraq.
The Sumerian city - states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, c. the 23rd century BC, when a now deciphered syllabary writing system was developed, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there was a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, cut short in the 20th century BC by invasions by the Amorites. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin '' persisted until c. 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian (Assyro - Babylonian) population.
The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. During this time, the first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was established at Eridu (Cuneiform: nun.ki 𒉣𒆠), c. 6500 BC, by farmers who brought with them the Hadji Muhammed culture, which first pioneered irrigation agriculture. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. The rise of the city of Uruk may be reflected in the story of the passing of the gifts of civilization (me) to Inanna, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by Enki, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect the transition from Eridu to Uruk.
The archaeological transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from painted pottery domestically produced on a slow wheel to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass - produced by specialists on fast wheels. The Uruk period is a continuation and an outgrowth of Ubaid with pottery being the main visible change.
By the time of the Uruk period (c. 4100 -- 2900 BC calibrated), the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, stratified, temple - centered cities (with populations of over 10,000 people) where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of slave labor captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area -- from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as central Iran.
The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists (like that found at Tell Brak), had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. The cities of Sumer could not maintain remote, long - distance colonies by military force.
Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest - king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women. It is quite possible that the later Sumerian pantheon was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants.
The ancient Sumerian king list includes the early dynasties of several prominent cities from this period. The first set of names on the list is of kings said to have reigned before a major flood occurred. These early names may be fictional, and include some legendary and mythological figures, such as Alulim and Dumizid.
The end of the Uruk period coincided with the Piora oscillation, a dry period from c. 3200 -- 2900 BC that marked the end of a long wetter, warmer climate period from about 9,000 to 5,000 years ago, called the Holocene climatic optimum.
The dynastic period begins c. 2900 BC and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "En '' (a male figure when it was a temple for a goddess, or a female figure when headed by a male god) towards a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great) and includes such legendary patriarchal figures as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh -- who are supposed to have reigned shortly before the historic record opens c. 2700 BC, when the now deciphered syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. The center of Sumerian culture remained in southern Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own.
The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is Etana, 13th king of the first dynasty of Kish. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 26th century BC), whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh epic -- leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. (Both Enmerkar and Gilgamesh are credited with having built the walls of Uruk).
c. 2500 -- 2270 BC
The dynasty of Lagash, though omitted from the king list, is well attested through several important monuments and many archaeological finds.
Although short - lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city - state of Umma, arch - rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. Eannatum 's Stele of the Vultures depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death.
Later, Lugal - Zage - Si, the priest - king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before Sargon of Akkad.
c. 2270 -- 2083 BC (short chronology)
The Eastern Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish c. 2800 BC, preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from c. 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of Sargon the Great (c. 2270 -- 2215 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the "Neo-Sumerian Renaissance '' that followed it. Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre - and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian '' conflict. However, it is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered, by Sargon.
c. 2083 -- 2050 BC (short chronology)
c. 2093 -- 2046 BC (short chronology)
Following the downfall of the Akkadian Empire at the hands of Gutians, another native Sumerian ruler, Gudea of Lagash, rose to local prominence and continued the practices of the Sargonid kings ' claims to divinity. The previous Lagash dynasty, Gudea and his descendants also promoted artistic development and left a large number of archaeological artifacts.
c. 2047 -- 1940 BC (short chronology)
Later, the 3rd dynasty of Ur under Ur - Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far as southern Assyria, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance '', but already the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the resurgence of the Akkadian speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (Amorites) who were to found several competing local powers in the south, including Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna and some time later Babylonia. The last of these eventually came to briefly dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the Babylonian Empire, just as the Old Assyrian Empire had already done so in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized.
This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. Soil salinity in this region had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt - tolerant barley, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths. This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth, Sumerian would remain only a literary and liturgical language, similar to the position occupied by Latin in medieval Europe.
Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur during the rule of Ibbi - Sin (c. 1940 BC), Sumer came under Amorites rule (taken to introduce the Middle Bronze Age). The independent Amorite states of the 20th to 18th centuries are summarized as the "Dynasty of Isin '' in the Sumerian king list, ending with the rise of Babylonia under Hammurabi c. 1700 BC.
Later rulers who dominated Assyria and Babylonia occasionally assumed the old Sargonic title "King of Sumer and Akkad '', such as Tukulti - Ninurta I of Assyria after c. 1225 BC.
Uruk, one of Sumer 's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,000 - 80,000 at its height; given the other cities in Sumer, and the large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer 's population might be 0.8 million to 1.5 million. The world population at this time has been estimated at about 27 million.
The Sumerians spoke a language isolate, but a number of linguists have claimed to be able to detect a substrate language of unknown classification beneath Sumerian because names of some of Sumer 's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early Ubaid period (5300 -- 4700 BC C - 14) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Some archaeologists have speculated that the original speakers of ancient Sumerian may have been farmers, who moved down from the north of Mesopotamia after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid period pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami transitional ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700 -- 4900 BC C - 14) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple - centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.
Others have suggested a continuity of Sumerians, from the indigenous hunter - fisherfolk traditions, associated with the bifacial assemblages found on the Arabian littoral. Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians may have been the people living in the Persian Gulf region before it flooded at the end of the last Ice Age.
In the early Sumerian period, the primitive pictograms suggest that
There is considerable evidence concerning Sumerian music. Lyres and flutes were played, among the best - known examples being the Lyres of Ur.
Inscriptions describing the reforms of king Urukagina of Lagash (c. 2300 BC) say that he abolished the former custom of polyandry in his country, prescribing that a woman who took multiple husbands be stoned with rocks upon which her crime had been written.
Sumerian culture was male - dominated and stratified. The Code of Ur - Nammu, the oldest such codification yet discovered, dating to the Ur III, reveals a glimpse at societal structure in late Sumerian law. Beneath the lu - gal ("great man '' or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "lu '' or free person, and the slave (male, arad; female geme). The son of a lu was called a dumu - nita until he married. A woman (munus) went from being a daughter (dumu - mi), to a wife (dam), then if she outlived her husband, a widow (numasu) and she could then remarry another man who was from the same tribe.
Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride 's father. One Sumerian proverb describes the ideal, happy marriage through the mouth of a husband who boasts that his wife has borne him eight sons and is still eager to have sex.
The Sumerians generally seem to have discouraged premarital sex, but it was probably very commonly done in secret. The Sumerians, as well as the later Akkadians, had no concept of virginity. When describing a woman 's sexual inexperience, instead of calling her a "virgin '', Sumerian texts describe which sex acts she had not yet performed. The Sumerians had no knowledge of the existence of the hymen and whether or not a prospective bride had engaged in sexual intercourse was entirely determined by her own word.
From the earliest records, the Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and their sexual mores were determined not by whether a sexual act was deemed immoral, but rather by whether or not it made a person ritually unclean. The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women, and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners. The Sumerians did not regard anal sex as taboo either. Entu priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control.
Prostitution existed but it is not clear if sacred prostitution did.
The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of clay tablets written in cuneiform script. Sumerian writing is considered to be a great milestone in the development of humanity 's ability to not only create historical records but also in creating pieces of literature, both in the form of poetic epics and stories as well as prayers and laws. Although pictures -- that is, hieroglyphs -- were used first, cuneiform and then ideograms (where symbols were made to represent ideas) soon followed. Triangular or wedge - shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. A large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language have survived, such as personal and business letters, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and daily records. Full libraries of clay tablets have been found. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects, like statues or bricks, are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes in training. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant.
A prime example of cuneiform writing would be a lengthy poem that was discovered in the ruins of Uruk. The Epic of Gilgamesh was written in the standard Sumerian cuneiform. It tells of a king from the early Dynastic II period named Gilgamesh or "Bilgamesh '' in Sumerian. The story is based around the fictional adventures of Gilgamesh and his companion, Enkidu. It was laid out on several clay tablets and is claimed to be the earliest example of a fictional, written piece of literature discovered so far.
The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a language isolate in linguistics because it belongs to no known language family; Akkadian, by contrast, belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages. There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other language families. It is an agglutinative language; in other words, morphemes ("units of meaning '') are added together to create words, unlike analytic languages where morphemes are purely added together to create sentences. Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a substratum or adstratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously Proto - Euphratean or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others.
Understanding Sumerian texts today can be problematic. Most difficult are the earliest texts, which in many cases do not give the full grammatical structure of the language and seem to have been used as an "aide - mémoire '' for knowledgeable scribes.
During the 3rd millennium BC a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influences between Sumerian on Akkadian are evident in all areas including lexical borrowing on a massive scale -- and syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This mutual influence has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian of the 3rd millennium BC as a Sprachbund.
Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC, but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Babylonia and Assyria until the 1st century AD.
The Sumerians credited their divinities for all matters pertaining to them and exhibited humility in the face of cosmic forces, such as death and divine wrath.
Sumerian religion seems to have been founded upon two separate cosmogenic myths. The first saw creation as the result of a series of hieroi gamoi or sacred marriages, involving the reconciliation of opposites, postulated as a coming together of male and female divine beings; the gods. This continued to influence the whole Mesopotamian mythos. Thus, in the later Akkadian Enuma Elish, the creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water; as male Abzu, and female Tiamat. The products of that union, Lahm and Lahmu, "the muddy ones '', were titles given to the gate keepers of the E-Abzu temple of Enki, in Eridu, the first Sumerian city. Describing the way that muddy islands emerge from the confluence of fresh and salty water at the mouth of the Euphrates, where the river deposited its load of silt, a second hieros gamos supposedly created Anshar and Kishar, the "sky - pivot '' or axle, and the "earth pivot '', parents in turn of Anu (the sky) and Ki (the earth). Another important Sumerian hieros gamos was that between Ki, here known as Ninhursag or "Lady of the Mountains '', and Enki of Eridu, the god of fresh water which brought forth greenery and pasture.
At an early stage, following the dawn of recorded history, Nippur, in central Mesopotamia, replaced Eridu in the south as the primary temple city, whose priests exercised political hegemony on the other city - states. Nippur retained this status throughout the Sumerian period.
Sumerians believed in an anthropomorphic polytheism, or the belief in many gods in human form. There was no common set of gods; each city - state had its own patrons, temples, and priest - kings. Nonetheless, these were not exclusive; the gods of one city were often acknowledged elsewhere. Sumerian speakers were among the earliest people to record their beliefs in writing, and were a major inspiration in later Mesopotamian mythology, religion, and astrology.
The Sumerians worshiped:
These deities formed a core pantheon; there were additionally hundreds of minor ones. Sumerian gods could thus have associations with different cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with those cities ' political power. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. The temples organized the mass labour projects needed for irrigation agriculture. Citizens had a labor duty to the temple, though they could avoid it by a payment of silver.
Sumerians believed that the universe consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a dome. The Sumerian afterlife involved a descent into a gloomy netherworld to spend eternity in a wretched existence as a Gidim (ghost).
The universe was divided into four quarters:
Their known world extended from The Upper Sea or Mediterranean coastline, to The Lower Sea, the Persian Gulf and the land of Meluhha (probably the Indus Valley) and Magan (Oman), famed for its copper ores.
Ziggurats (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification. The temple itself had a central nave with aisles along either side. Flanking the aisles would be rooms for the priests. At one end would stand the podium and a mudbrick table for animal and vegetable sacrifices. Granaries and storehouses were usually located near the temples. After a time the Sumerians began to place the temples on top of multi-layered square constructions built as a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style.
It was believed that when people died, they would be confined to a gloomy world of Ereshkigal, whose realm was guarded by gateways with various monsters designed to prevent people entering or leaving. The dead were buried outside the city walls in graveyards where a small mound covered the corpse, along with offerings to monsters and a small amount of food. Those who could afford it sought burial at Dilmun. Human sacrifice was found in the death pits at the Ur royal cemetery where Queen Puabi was accompanied in death by her servants.
The Sumerians adopted an agricultural lifestyle perhaps as early as c. 5000 BC -- 4500 BC. The region demonstrated a number of core agricultural techniques, including organized irrigation, large - scale intensive cultivation of land, mono - cropping involving the use of plough agriculture, and the use of an agricultural specialized labour force under bureaucratic control. The necessity to manage temple accounts with this organization led to the development of writing (c. 3500 BC).
In the early Sumerian Uruk period, the primitive pictograms suggest that sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated. They used oxen as their primary beasts of burden and donkeys or equids as their primary transport animal and "woollen clothing as well as rugs were made from the wool or hair of the animals... By the side of the house was an enclosed garden planted with trees and other plants; wheat and probably other cereals were sown in the fields, and the shaduf was already employed for the purpose of irrigation. Plants were also grown in pots or vases. ''
The Sumerians were one of the first known beer drinking societies. Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers. Beer brewing was very important to the Sumerians. It was referenced in the Epic of Gilgamesh when Enkidu was introduced to the food and beer of Gilgamesh 's people: "Drink the beer, as is the custom of the land... He drank the beer - seven jugs! and became expansive and sang with joy! ''
The Sumerians practiced similar irrigation techniques as those used in Egypt. American anthropologist Robert McCormick Adams says that irrigation development was associated with urbanization, and that 89 % of the population lived in the cities.
They grew barley, chickpeas, lentils, wheat, dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. Sumerians caught many fish and hunted fowl and gazelle.
Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of shaduf, canals, channels, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs. The frequent violent floods of the Tigris, and less so, of the Euphrates, meant that canals required frequent repair and continual removal of silt, and survey markers and boundary stones needed to be continually replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a corvee, although the rich were able to exempt themselves.
As is known from the "Sumerian Farmer 's Almanac '', after the flood season and after the Spring Equinox and the Akitu or New Year Festival, using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they made oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. After drying, they plowed, harrowed, and raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a mattock, before planting seed. Unfortunately, the high evaporation rate resulted in a gradual increase in the salinity of the fields. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt - tolerant barley as their principal crop.
Sumerians harvested during the spring in three - person teams consisting of a reaper, a binder, and a sheaf handler. The farmers would use threshing wagons, driven by oxen, to separate the cereal heads from the stalks and then use threshing sleds to disengage the grain. They then winnowed the grain / chaff mixture.
The Tigris - Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of plano - convex mudbrick, not fixed with mortar or cement. Mud - brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, which thus came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resultant hills, known as tells, are found throughout the ancient Near East.
According to Archibald Sayce, the primitive pictograms of the early Sumerian (i.e. Uruk) era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower - like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. The foundation stones -- or rather bricks -- of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them. ''
The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered platforms that supported temples. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the Marsh Arabs of Southern Iraq until as recently as 400 CE. The Sumerians also developed the arch, which enabled them to develop a strong type of dome. They built this by constructing and linking several arches. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as buttresses, recesses, half columns, and clay nails.
The Sumerians developed a complex system of metrology c. 4000 BC. This advanced metrology resulted in the creation of arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. From c. 2600 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. The period c. 2700 -- 2300 BC saw the first appearance of the abacus, and a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system. The Sumerians were the first to use a place value numeral system. There is also anecdotal evidence the Sumerians may have used a type of slide rule in astronomical calculations. They were the first to find the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.
Discoveries of obsidian from far - away locations in Anatolia and lapis lazuli from Badakhshan in northeastern Afghanistan, beads from Dilmun (modern Bahrain), and several seals inscribed with the Indus Valley script suggest a remarkably wide - ranging network of ancient trade centered on the Persian Gulf. For example, Imports to Ur came from many parts of the world. In particular, the metals of all types had to be imported.
The Epic of Gilgamesh refers to trade with far lands for goods, such as wood, that were scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized. The finding of resin in the tomb of Queen Puabi at Ur, indicates it was traded from as far away as Mozambique.
The Sumerians used slaves, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave women worked as weavers, pressers, millers, and porters.
Sumerian potters decorated pots with cedar oil paints. The potters used a bow drill to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian masons and jewelers knew and made use of alabaster (calcite), ivory, iron, gold, silver, carnelian, and lapis lazuli.
Large institutions kept their accounts in barley and silver, often with a fixed rate between them. The obligations, loans and prices in general were usually denominated in one of them. Many transactions involved debt, for example goods consigned to merchants by temple and beer advanced by "ale women ''.
Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans. The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. The interest rate was set at 1 / 60 a month (one shekel per mina) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years. Rural loans commonly arose as a result of unpaid obligations due to an institution (such as a temple), in this case the arrears were considered to be lent to the debtor. They were denominated in barley or other crops and the interest rate was typically much higher than for commercial loans and could amount to 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of the loan principal.
Periodically, rulers signed "clean slate '' decrees that cancelled all the rural (but not commercial) debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily, rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure. The first known ones were made by Enmetena and Urukagina of Lagash in 2400 - 2350 BC. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened the fighting force, which could happen if peasants lost the subsistence land or became bondservants due to the inability to repay the debt.
The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city - states for 2000 years helped to develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level. The first war recorded in any detail was between Lagash and Umma in c. 2525 BC on a stele called the Stele of the Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of infantry. The infantry carried spears, wore copper helmets, and carried rectangular shields. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the phalanx formation, which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have made use of professional soldiers.
The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to onagers. These early chariots functioned less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle - axes and lances. The Sumerian chariot comprised a four or two - wheeled device manned by a crew of two and harnessed to four onagers. The cart was composed of a woven basket and the wheels had a solid three - piece design.
Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. The Sumerians engaged in siege warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes.
Examples of Sumerian technology include: the wheel, cuneiform script, arithmetic and geometry, irrigation systems, Sumerian boats, lunisolar calendar, bronze, leather, saws, chisels, hammers, braces, bits, nails, pins, rings, hoes, axes, knives, lancepoints, arrowheads, swords, glue, daggers, waterskins, bags, harnesses, armor, quivers, war chariots, scabbards, boots, sandals, harpoons and beer. The Sumerians had three main types of boats:
Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared in the mid 4th millennium BC, near - simultaneously in Mesopotamia, the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe. The wheel initially took the form of the potter 's wheel. The new concept quickly led to wheeled vehicles and mill wheels. The Sumerians ' cuneiform script is the oldest (or second oldest after the Egyptian hieroglyphs) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the Jiahu symbols and Tartaria tablets is controversial). The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks. They were also aware of the five planets that are easily visible to the naked eye.
They invented and developed arithmetic by using several different number systems including a mixed radix system with an alternating base 10 and base 6. This sexagesimal system became the standard number system in Sumer and Babylonia. They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry, and archers. They developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and government records. The first true city - states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously with similar entities in what are now Syria and Lebanon. Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expanded beyond debt / payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BC, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits. Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools were established, usually under the auspices of a city - state 's primary temple.
Finally, the Sumerians ushered in domestication with intensive agriculture and irrigation. Emmer wheat, barley, sheep (starting as mouflon), and cattle (starting as aurochs) were foremost among the species cultivated and raised for the first time on a grand scale.
Coordinates: 32 ° 00 ′ N 45 ° 30 ′ E / 32.0 ° N 45.5 ° E / 32.0; 45.5
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who is the women's basketball coach at notre dame | Muffet McGraw - wikipedia
Ann O'Brien "Muffet '' McGraw (born December 5, 1955) is an American basketball coach, currently the head women 's basketball coach at Notre Dame, where she has compiled an 800 -- 229 (. 777) record over 31 seasons. She has led her team to 8 Final Fours (1997, 2001, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2018), and won the National Championship in 2001 and 2018. McGraw has led the Irish to 24 NCAA tournament appearances including a current streak of 22 straight. In the current streak, Notre Dame made it to the second round in all but one of the appearances. McGraw graduated from Saint Joseph 's University and briefly played professionally for the California Dreams of the Women 's Professional Basketball League.
McGraw has compiled 50 wins over ranked opponents, including 40 over the last 8 seasons. Her teams appeared in the AP poll 139 times during her tenure. Notre Dame finished in the Top 3 of the Big East in 9 out of the 11 seasons they were in the league and finished in first place in the Atlantic Coast Conference in all 4 seasons since they entered the conference. Notre Dame also received 11 consecutive Top 20 ranked recruiting classes. She is the 27th coach in NCAA history to win over 500 career games, and is currently the 10th head coach in NCAA Division I basketball history to reach 800 career wins.
McGraw was awarded the US Basketball Writers Association (USBWA) Coach of the Year award, the Women 's Basketball Coaches Association Coach of the Year and the Naismith College Coach of the Year in 2001. She was inducted into the Women 's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2011 and the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2017. In 2016, the John R Wooden award committee recognized McGraw with the 2017 Legends of Coaching Award.
On April 1, 2018 McGraw achieved her 800th career victory at Notre Dame with a win over the Mississippi State Bulldogs in the National Championship game, marking her second national title with the Fighting Irish. She holds a record of 888 -- 270 (. 767) over 36 years of coaching, the past 31 years at Notre Dame.
National champion Postseason invitational champion Conference regular season champion Conference regular season and conference tournament champion Division regular season champion Division regular season and conference tournament champion Conference tournament champion
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who is the publisher of the wall street journal | The Wall Street Journal - wikipedia
The Wall Street Journal is a U.S. business - focused, English - language international daily newspaper based in New York City. The Journal, along with its Asian and European editions, is published six days a week by Dow Jones & Company, a division of News Corp. The newspaper is published in the broadsheet format and online.
The Wall Street Journal is the largest newspaper in the United States by circulation. According to News Corp, in its June 2017 10 - K filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Journal had a circulation of about 2.277 million copies (including nearly 1,270,000 digital subscriptions) as of June 2017, compared with USA Today 's 1.7 million.
The newspaper, which has won 37 Pulitzer Prizes through 2017, derives its name from Wall Street in the heart of the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The Journal has been printed continuously since its inception on July 8, 1889, by Charles Dow, Edward Jones, and Charles Bergstresser.
The Journal also publishes the luxury news and lifestyle magazine WSJ, which was originally launched as a quarterly but expanded to 12 issues as of 2014.
The Journal launched an online version in 1996, which has been accessible only to subscribers since it began.
The first products of Dow Jones & Company, the publisher of the Journal, were brief news bulletins, nick - named "flimsies '', hand - delivered throughout the day to traders at the stock exchange in the early 1880s. They were later aggregated in a printed daily summary called the Customers ' Afternoon Letter. Reporters Charles Dow, Edward Jones, and Charles Bergstresser converted this into The Wall Street Journal, which was published for the first time on July 8, 1889, and began delivery of the Dow Jones News Service via telegraph. In 1896, The "Dow Jones Industrial Average '' was officially launched. It was the first of several indices of stock and bond prices on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1899, the Journal 's Review & Outlook column, which still runs today, appeared for the first time, initially written by Charles Dow.
Journalist Clarence Barron purchased control of the company for US $130,000 in 1902; circulation was then around 7,000 but climbed to 50,000 by the end of the 1920s. Barron and his predecessors were credited with creating an atmosphere of fearless, independent financial reporting -- a novelty in the early days of business journalism. In 1921, Barron 's, America 's premier financial weekly, was founded. Barron died in 1928, a year before Black Tuesday, the stock market crash that greatly affected the Great Depression in the United States. Barron 's descendants, the Bancroft family, would continue to control the company until 2007.
The Journal took its modern shape and prominence in the 1940s, a time of industrial expansion for the United States and its financial institutions in New York. Bernard Kilgore was named managing editor of the paper in 1941, and company CEO in 1945, eventually compiling a 25 - year career as the head of the Journal. Kilgore was the architect of the paper 's iconic front - page design, with its "What 's News '' digest, and its national distribution strategy, which brought the paper 's circulation from 33,000 in 1941 to 1.1 million at the time of Kilgore 's death in 1967. Under Kilgore, in 1947, the paper won its first Pulitzer Prize for William Henry Grimes 's editorials.
In 1967, Dow Jones Newswires began a major expansion outside of the United States that ultimately put journalists in every major financial center in Europe, Asia, Latin America, Australia, and Africa. In 1970, Dow Jones bought the Ottaway newspaper chain, which at the time comprised nine dailies and three Sunday newspapers. Later, the name was changed to "Dow Jones Local Media Group ''.
1971 to 1997 brought about a series of launches, acquisitions, and joint ventures, including "Factiva '', The Wall Street Journal Asia, The Wall Street Journal Europe, the WSJ.com website, Dow Jones Indexes, MarketWatch, and "WSJ Weekend Edition ''. In 2007, News Corp. acquired Dow Jones. WSJ., a luxury lifestyle magazine, was launched in 2008.
A complement to the print newspaper, The Wall Street Journal Online, was launched in 1996 and has allowed access only by subscription from the beginning. In 2003, Dow Jones began to integrate reporting of the Journal 's print and online subscribers together in Audit Bureau of Circulations statements. In 2007, it was commonly believed to be the largest paid - subscription news site on the Web, with 980,000 paid subscribers. Since then, online subscribership has fallen, due in part to rising subscription costs, and was reported at 400,000 in March 2010. In May 2008, an annual subscription to the online edition of The Wall Street Journal cost $119 for those who do not have subscriptions to the print edition. By June 2013, the monthly cost for a subscription to the online edition was $22.99, or $275.88 annually, excluding introductory offers.
On November 30, 2004, Oasys Mobile and The Wall Street Journal released an app that would allow users to access content from the Wall Street Journal Online via their mobile phones.
Many of The Wall Street Journal news stories are available through free online newspapers that subscribe to the Dow Jones syndicate. Pulitzer Prize -- winning stories from 1995 are available free on the Pulitzer web site.
In September 2005, the Journal launched a weekend edition, delivered to all subscribers, which marked a return to Saturday publication after a lapse of some 50 years. The move was designed in part to attract more consumer advertising.
In 2005, the Journal reported a readership profile of about 60 percent top management, an average income of $191,000, an average household net worth of $2.1 million, and an average age of 55.
In 2007, the Journal launched a worldwide expansion of its website to include major foreign - language editions. The paper had also shown an interest in buying the rival Financial Times.
The nameplate is unique in having a period at the end.
On September 5, 2006, the Journal included advertising on its front page for the first time. This followed the introduction of front - page advertising on the European and Asian editions in late 2005.
After presenting nearly identical front - page layouts for half a century -- always six columns, with the day 's top stories in the first and sixth columns, "What 's News '' digest in the second and third, the "A-hed '' feature story in the fourth (with ' hed ' being jargon for headline) and themed weekly reports in the fifth column -- the paper in 2007 decreased its broadsheet width from 15 to 12 inches while keeping the length at 22 ⁄ inches, to save newsprint costs. News design consultant Mario Garcia collaborated on the changes. Dow Jones said it would save US $18 million a year in newsprint costs across all The Wall Street Journal papers. This move eliminated one column of print, pushing the "A-hed '' out of its traditional location (though the paper now usually includes a quirky feature story on the right side of the front page, sandwiched among the lead stories).
The paper still uses ink dot drawings called hedcuts, introduced in 1979 and originally created by Kevin Sprouls, in addition to photographs, a method of illustration considered a consistent visual signature of the paper. The Journal still heavily employs the use of caricatures, notably those of Ken Fallin, such as when Peggy Noonan memorialized then - recently deceased newsman Tim Russert. The use of color photographs and graphics has become increasingly common in recent years with the addition of more "lifestyle '' sections.
The daily was awarded by the Society for News Design World 's Best Designed Newspaper award for 1994 and 1997.
On May 2, 2007, News Corporation made an unsolicited takeover bid for Dow Jones, offering US $60 a share for stock that had been selling for US $33 a share. The Bancroft family, which controlled more than 60 % of the voting stock, at first rejected the offer, but later reconsidered its position.
Three months later, on August 1, 2007, News Corporation and Dow Jones entered into a definitive merger agreement. The US $5 billion sale added The Wall Street Journal to Rupert Murdoch 's news empire, which already included Fox News Channel, financial network unit and London 's The Times, and locally within New York, the New York Post, along with Fox flagship station WNYW (Channel 5) and MyNetworkTV flagship WWOR (Channel 9).
On December 13, 2007, shareholders representing more than 60 percent of Dow Jones 's voting stock approved the company 's acquisition by News Corporation.
In an editorial page column, publisher L. Gordon Crovitz said the Bancrofts and News Corporation had agreed that the Journal 's news and opinion sections would preserve their editorial independence from their new corporate parent:
A special committee was established to oversee the paper 's editorial integrity. When the managing editor Marcus Brauchli resigned on April 22, 2008, the committee said that News Corporation had violated its agreement by not notifying the committee earlier. However, Brauchli said he believed that new owners should appoint their own editor.
A 2007 Journal article quoted charges that Murdoch had made and broken similar promises in the past. One large shareholder commented that Murdoch has long "expressed his personal, political and business biases through his newspapers and television stations ''. Former Times assistant editor Fred Emery remembers an incident when "Mr. Murdoch called him into his office in March 1982 and said he was considering firing Times editor Harold Evans. Mr. Emery says he reminded Mr. Murdoch of his promise that editors could n't be fired without the independent directors ' approval. ' God, you do n't take all that seriously, do you? ' Mr. Murdoch answered, according to Mr. Emery. '' Murdoch eventually forced out Evans.
In 2011, The Guardian found evidence that the Journal had artificially inflated its European sales numbers, by paying Executive Learning Partnership for purchasing 16 % of European sales. These inflated sales numbers then enabled the Journal to charge similarly inflated advertising rates, as the advertisers would think that they reached more readers than they actually did. In addition, the Journal agreed to run "articles '' featuring Executive Learning Partnership, presented as news, but effectively advertising. The case came to light after a Belgian Wall Street Journal employee, Gert Van Mol, informed Dow Jones CEO Les Hinton about the questionable practice. As a result, the then Wall Street Journal Europe CEO and Publisher Andrew Langhoff was fired after it was found out he personally pressured journalists into covering one of the newspaper 's business partners involved in the issue. Since September 2011 all the online articles that resulted from the ethical wrongdoing carry a Wall Street Journal disclaimer informing the readers about the circumstances in which they were created.
The Journal, along with its parent Dow Jones & Company, was among the businesses News Corporation spun off in 2013 as the new News Corp. In November 2016, in an effort to cut costs, the Journal 's editor - in - chief, Gerard Baker, announced that layoffs and consolidation to its sections would take place. In the memo, the new format for the newspaper will have a "Business & Finance '' section that will combine its current "Business & Tech '' and "Money & Investing '' sections. It will also include a new "Life & Arts '' section that will combine its current "Personal Journal '' and "Arena '' sections. In addition, the current "Greater New York '' coverage will be reduced and will move into the main section of paper.
Since 1980, the Journal has been published in multiple sections. At one time, The Journal 's page count averaged as much as 96 pages an issue, but with the industry - wide decline in advertising, the Journal in 2009 -- 10 more typically published about 50 to 60 pages per issue. Regularly scheduled sections are:
In addition, several columnists contribute regular features to the Journal opinion page and OpinionJournal.com:
In addition to these regular opinion pieces, on Fridays the Journal publishes a religion - themed op - ed, titled "Houses of Worship '', written by a different author each week. Authors range from the Dalai Lama to cardinals.
WSJ. is The Wall Street Journal 's luxury lifestyle magazine. Its coverage spans art, fashion, entertainment, design, food, architecture, travel and more. Kristina O'Neill is Editor in Chief and Anthony Cenname is Publisher.
Launched as a quarterly in 2008, the magazine grew to 12 issues a year for 2014. The magazine is distributed within the U.S. Weekend Edition of The Wall Street Journal newspaper (average paid print circulation is + 2.2 million *), the European and Asian editions, and is available on WSJ.com. Each issue is also available throughout the month in The Wall Street Journal 's iPad app.
Penélope Cruz, Carmelo Anthony, Woody Allen, Scarlett Johansson, Emilia Clarke, Daft Punk, and Gisele Bündchen have all been featured on the cover.
In 2012, the magazine launched its signature platform, The Innovator Awards. An extension of the November Innovators issue, the awards ceremony, held in New York City at Museum of Modern Art, honors visionaries across the fields of design, fashion, architecture, humanitarianism, art and technology. The 2013 winners were: Alice Waters (Humanitarianism); Daft Punk (Entertainment); David Adjaye (Architecture); Do Ho Su (Art); Nick D'Aloisio (Technology); Pat McGrath (Fashion); Thomas Woltz (Design).
In 2013, Adweek awarded WSJ. "Hottest Lifestyle Magazine of the Year '' for its annual Hot List.
As of 2012, The Wall Street Journal had a global news staff of around 2,000 journalists in 85 news bureaus across 51 countries. As of 2012, it had 26 printing plants.
The Journal won its first two Pulitzer Prizes for editorial writing in 1947 and 1953. Subsequent Pulitzer Prizes have been awarded for editorial writing to Robert L. Bartley in 1980 and Joseph Rago in 2011; for criticism to Manuela Hoelterhoff in 1983 and Joe Morgenstern in 2005; and for commentary to Vermont Royster in 1984, Paul Gigot in 2000, Dorothy Rabinowitz in 2001, Bret Stephens in 2013, and Peggy Noonan in 2017.
Two summaries published in 1995 by the progressive blog Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, and in 1996 by the Columbia Journalism Review criticized the Journal 's editorial page for inaccuracy during the 1980s and 1990s.
The Journal describes the history of its editorials:
They are united by the mantra "free markets and free people '', the principles, if you will, marked in the watershed year of 1776 by Thomas Jefferson 's Declaration of Independence and Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations. So over the past century and into the next, the Journal stands for free trade and sound money; against confiscatory taxation and the ukases of kings and other collectivists; and for individual autonomy against dictators, bullies and even the tempers of momentary majorities. If these principles sound unexceptionable in theory, applying them to current issues is often unfashionable and controversial.
Its historical position was much the same. As former editor William H. Grimes wrote in 1951:
On our editorial page we make no pretense of walking down the middle of the road. Our comments and interpretations are made from a definite point of view. We believe in the individual, in his wisdom and his decency. We oppose all infringements on individual rights, whether they stem from attempts at private monopoly, labor union monopoly or from an overgrowing government. People will say we are conservative or even reactionary. We are not much interested in labels but if we were to choose one, we would say we are radical. Just as radical as the Christian doctrine.
Each Thanksgiving the editorial page prints two famous articles that have appeared there since 1961. The first is titled The Desolate Wilderness, and describes what the Pilgrims saw when they arrived at the Plymouth Colony. The second is titled And the Fair Land, and describes the bounty of America. It was written by a former editor, Vermont C. Royster, whose Christmas article In Hoc Anno Domini has appeared every December 25 since 1949.
On September 12, 2018, the Census Bureau released data showing improvement in household income and the poverty rate during 2017, Trump 's first year in office. The Journal published an editorial that day attributing the improvement to Trump 's purportedly superior economic policies, compared to Obama 's. However, The Journal 's news division reported that both figures also showed improvement in 2015 and 2016, and they improved to a greater degree in both those years than they did in 2017.
During the Reagan administration, the newspaper 's editorial page was particularly influential as the leading voice for supply - side economics. Under the editorship of Robert Bartley, it expounded at length on economic concepts such as the Laffer curve, and how a decrease in certain marginal tax rates and the capital gains tax could allegedly increase overall tax revenue by generating more economic activity.
In the economic argument of exchange rate regimes (one of the most divisive issues among economists), the Journal has a tendency to support fixed exchange rates over floating exchange rates. For example, the Journal was a major supporter of the Chinese yuan 's peg to the dollar, and strongly disagreed with American politicians who criticized the Chinese government about the peg. It opposed China 's move to let the yuan gradually float, arguing that the fixed rate benefited both the United States and China.
The Journal 's views compare with those of the British publication The Economist, with its emphasis on free markets. However, the Journal demonstrates important distinctions from European business newspapers, most particularly in regard to the relative significance of, and causes of, the American budget deficit. (The Journal generally points to the lack of foreign growth, while business journals in Europe and Asia blame the low savings rate and concordant high borrowing rate in the United States).
The Journal 's editorial pages and columns, run separately from the news pages, are highly influential in American conservative circles. As editors of the editorial page, Vermont C. Royster (served 1958 -- 1971) and Robert L. Bartley (served 1972 -- 2000) were especially influential in providing a conservative interpretation of the news on a daily basis. Some of the Journal 's former reporters claim that the paper has adopted a more conservative tone since Rupert Murdoch 's purchase.
The editorial board has long argued for a pro-business immigration policy. In a July 3, 1984, editorial, the board wrote: "If Washington still wants to ' do something ' about immigration, we propose a five - word constitutional amendment: There shall be open borders. '' This stand on immigration reform places the Journal in contrast to most conservative activists, politicians, and media publications for example National Review and The Washington Times, who favor heightened restrictions on immigration.
The Journal 's editorial page has been seen as critical of many aspects of Barack Obama 's presidency. In particular, it has been a prominent critic of the Affordable Care Act legislation passed in 2010, and has featured many opinion columns attacking various aspects of the bill. The Journal 's editorial page has also criticized the Obama administration 's energy policies and foreign policy.
The editorial board of The Wall Street Journal tends to reject widely held views on climate change -- namely that it poses a major threat to human existence, is largely caused by fossil fuel emissions, and can be prevented through public policy. The Journal is regarded as a forum for climate change skeptics, publishing articles by scientists skeptical of the consensus position on climate change in its op - ed section, including several essays by Richard Lindzen of MIT. Similarly, the Journal has been accused of refusing to publish opinions of scientists which present the mainstream view on climate change. According to a 2016 analysis, 14 % of the guest editorials presented the results of "mainstream climate science '', while the majority did not. Also, none of 201 editorials published in the WSJ since 1997 concede that the burning of fossil fuels was causing climate change. A 2015 study found The Wall Street Journal was the newspaper that was least likely to present negative effects of global warming among several newspapers. It was also the most likely to present negative economic framing when discussing climate change mitigation policies, tending to taking the stance that the cost of such policies generally outweighs their benefit.
On October 25, 2017, the editorial board called for Special Counsel Robert Mueller to resign from the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections and accused Hillary Clinton 's 2016 presidential campaign of colluding with Russia. In December 2017, the editorial board repeated its calls for Mueller 's resignation. The editorials by the editorial board caused fractures within the Wall Street Journal, as reporters say that the editorials undermine the paper 's credibility.
The Journal 's editors stress the independence and impartiality of their reporters.
In a 2004 study, Tim Groseclose and Jeff Milyo argue the Journal 's news pages have a pro-liberal bias because they more often quote liberal think tanks. They calculated the ideological attitude of news reports in 20 media outlets by counting the frequency they cited particular think tanks and comparing that to the frequency that legislators cited the same think tanks. They found that the news reporting of The Journal was the most liberal (more liberal than NPR or The New York Times). The study did not factor in editorials. Mark Liberman criticized the model used to calculate bias in the study and argued that the model unequally affected liberals and conservatives and that "... the model starts with a very peculiar assumption about the relationship between political opinion and the choice of authorities to cite. '' (The authors assume that) "think tank ideology (...) only matters to liberals. ''
The company 's planned and eventual acquisition by News Corp in 2007 led to significant media criticism and discussion about whether the news pages would exhibit a rightward slant under Rupert Murdoch. An August 1 editorial responded to the questions by asserting that Murdoch intended to "maintain the values and integrity of the Journal. ''
The Journal has won more than 30 Pulitzer Prizes in its history. Staff journalists who led some of the newspaper 's best - known coverage teams have later published books that summarized and extended their reporting.
In 1987, a bidding war ensued between several financial firms for tobacco and food giant RJR Nabisco. Bryan Burrough and John Helyar documented the events in more than two dozen Journal articles. Burrough and Helyar later used these articles as the basis of a bestselling book, Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco, which was turned into a film for HBO.
In the 1980s, then Journal reporter James B. Stewart brought national attention to the illegal practice of insider trading. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in explanatory journalism in 1988, which he shared with Daniel Hertzberg, who went on to serve as the paper 's senior deputy managing editor before resigning in 2009. Stewart expanded on this theme in his book, Den of Thieves.
David Sanford, a Page One features editor who was infected with HIV in 1982 in a bathhouse, wrote a front - page personal account of how, with the assistance of improved treatments for HIV, he went from planning his death to planning his retirement. He and six other reporters wrote about the new treatments, political and economic issues, and won the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting about AIDS.
Jonathan Weil, a reporter at the Dallas bureau of The Wall Street Journal, is credited with first breaking the story of financial abuses at Enron in September 2000. Rebecca Smith and John R. Emshwiller reported on the story regularly, and wrote a book, 24 Days.
The Journal claims to have sent the first news report, on the Dow Jones wire, of a plane crashing into the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. Its headquarters, at One World Financial Center, was severely damaged by the collapse of the World Trade Center just across the street. Top editors worried that they might miss publishing the first issue for the first time in the paper 's 112 - year history. They relocated to a makeshift office at an editor 's home, while sending most of the staff to Dow Jones 's South Brunswick, N.J., corporate campus, where the paper had established emergency editorial facilities soon after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. The paper was on the stands the next day, albeit in scaled - down form. Perhaps the most compelling story in that day 's edition was a first - hand account of the Twin Towers ' collapse written by then - Foreign Editor (and current Washington bureau chief) John Bussey, who holed up in a ninth - floor Journal office, literally in the shadow of the towers, from where he phoned in live reports to CNBC as the towers burned. He narrowly escaped serious injury when the first tower collapsed, shattering all the windows in the Journal 's offices and filling them with dust and debris. The Journal won a 2002 Pulitzer Prize in Breaking News Reporting for that day 's stories.
The Journal subsequently conducted a worldwide investigation of the causes and significance of 9 / 11, using contacts it had developed while covering business in the Arab world. In Kabul, Afghanistan, a reporter from The Wall Street Journal bought a pair of looted computers that Al Qaeda leaders had used to plan assassinations, chemical and biological attacks, and mundane daily activities. The encrypted files were decrypted and translated. It was during this coverage that terrorists kidnapped and killed Journal reporter Daniel Pearl.
In 2007, the paper won the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service, with its iconic Gold Medal, for exposing companies that illegally backdate stock options they awarded executives to increase their value.
Kate Kelly wrote a three - part series that detailed events that led to the collapse of Bear Stearns.
A report published on September 30, 2010, detailing allegations McDonald 's had plans to drop health coverage for hourly employees drew criticism from McDonald 's as well as the Obama administration. The Wall Street Journal reported the plan to drop coverage stemmed from new health care requirements under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. McDonald 's called the report "speculative and misleading '', stating they had no plans to drop coverage. The Wall Street Journal report and subsequent rebuttal received coverage from several other media outlets.
In 2015, a report published by the Journal alleged that up to US $700 million was wired from 1MDB, a Malaysian state investment company, to the personal accounts of Malaysia Prime Minister Najib Razak at AmBank, the fifth largest lender in Malaysia. Razak responded by threatening to sue the New York - based newspaper.
The report prompted some governmental agencies in Malaysia to conduct an investigation into the allegation.
In 2015, a report written by the Journal 's John Carreyrou alleged that blood testing company Theranos ' technology was faulty and founder Elizabeth Holmes was misleading investors. According to Vanity Fair, "a damning report published in The Wall Street Journal had alleged that the company was, in effect, a sham -- that its vaunted core technology was actually faulty and that Theranos administered almost all of its blood tests using competitors ' equipment. '' The Journal has subsequently published several more reports questioning Theranos ' and Holmes ' credibility. On June 15, 2018, the U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of California announced the indictment of Holmes on wire fraud and conspiracy charges in relation to her role as CEO of Theranos.
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who is wendy in springsteen's born to run | Born to Run (Bruce Springsteen song) - wikipedia
"Born to Run '' is a song by American singer songwriter Bruce Springsteen, and the title song of his album Born to Run. Upon its release, music critic Robert Christgau took note of its wall of sound influence and called it "the fulfillment of everything ' Be My Baby ' was about and lots more. ''
The song ranked number 21 on the Rolling Stone list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and is included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
Written at 71⁄2 West End Court in Long Branch, New Jersey in early 1974, the song was Bruce Springsteen 's final attempt to become successful. The prior year, Springsteen had released two albums to critical acclaim but with little commercial movement.
Written in the first person, the song is a love letter to a girl named Wendy, for whom the hot - rod - riding protagonist seems to possess the passion to love, just not the patience. However, Springsteen has noted that it has a much simpler core: getting out of Freehold. U.S. Route 9 is mentioned from the lyric "sprung from cages out on Highway 9 ''.
In his 1996 book Songs, Springsteen relates that while the beginning of the song was written on guitar around the opening riff, the song 's writing was finished on piano, the instrument that most of the Born to Run album was composed on. The song was recorded in the key of E major.
In the period prior to the release of Born to Run Springsteen was becoming well - known (especially in his native northeast) for his epic live shows. "Born to Run '' joined his concert repertoire well before the release of the album, being performed in concert by May 1974, if not earlier.
The first recording of the song was made by Allan Clarke of the British group The Hollies, although its release was delayed, only appearing after Springsteen 's own now - famous version.
In recording the song Springsteen first earned his noted reputation for perfectionism, laying down as many as eleven guitar tracks to get the sound just right. The recording process and alternate ideas for the song 's arrangement are described in the Wings For Wheels documentary DVD included in the 2005 reissue Born to Run 30th Anniversary Edition package.
The track was recorded at 914 Sound Studios in Blauvelt, New York amidst touring breaks during 1974, with final recording done on August 6, well in advance of the rest of the album, and featured Ernest "Boom '' Carter on the drums and David Sancious on keyboards; they would be replaced by Max Weinberg and Roy Bittan for the rest of the album and in the ongoing E Street Band (which was still uncredited on Springsteen 's records at the time). The song was also recorded with only Springsteen and Mike Appel as producers; it would be later in the following year, when work on the album bogged down, that Jon Landau was brought in as an additional producer. Future record executive Jimmy Iovine engineered the majority of the sessions.
A pre-release version of the song, with a slightly different mix, was given by Appel to disc jockey Ed Sciaky of WMMR in Philadelphia in early November 1974, and within a couple of weeks was given to other progressive rock radio outlets as well, including WNEW - FM in New York, WMMS in Cleveland, WBCN in Boston, and WVBR in Ithaca, New York. It immediately became quite popular on these stations, and led to cuts from Springsteen 's first two albums being frequently played as well as building anticipation for the album release.
Upon release in August 1975, the song and the album became unparalleled successes for Springsteen, springing him into stardom, and resulting in simultaneous cover stories in Time and Newsweek magazines.
No music video was made for the original release of "Born to Run '', as they had not achieved significant popularity at the time.
Both videos are included in the compilations Video Anthology / 1978 - 88 and The Complete Video Anthology / 1978 - 2000.
The song has been played at nearly every non-solo Springsteen concert since 1975 (although it was not included in the 2006 Sessions Band Tour). Most of the time the house lights are turned fully on and fans consistently sing along with Springsteen 's signature wordless vocalizations throughout the song 's performance.
The song has also been released in live versions on six albums or DVDs:
"Born to Run '' was also performed as the second number of four during Springsteen and the E Street Band 's halftime performance at Super Bowl XLIII.
On Jon Stewart 's last episode as host of The Daily Show on August 6, 2015, Springsteen performed "Land of Hope and Dreams '' and "Born to Run ''.
The B - side was simply another cut from the album; Springsteen would not begin releasing unused tracks as B - sides until 1980.
"Born to Run '' was Springsteen 's first worldwide single release, although it achieved little initial success outside of the United States.
Within the U.S. it received extensive airplay on progressive or album - oriented rock radio stations and the single was a top 40 hit, reaching number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100.
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why does the navy dress blue pants have 13 buttons | Uniforms of the United States Navy - wikipedia
The uniforms of the United States Navy include dress uniforms, daily service uniforms, working uniforms, and uniforms for special situations, which have varied throughout the history of the navy. For simplicity in this article, Officers refers to both commissioned officers and warrant officers.
The United States Navy has three categories of dress uniforms, from least to most formal: service, full, and dinner dress.
Service dress uniforms are worn for official functions not rising to the level of full or dinner dress. They are also commonly worn when traveling in official capacity, or when reporting to a command. The civilian equivalent is a business suit. They are seasonal, with the white uniform worn in summer and the blue in winter. Service Dress Blue may be worn year round for travel only. Ribbons are worn over the left breast pocket in all variations of the service dress uniform. The All - Weather Coat, Overcoat, or Reefer may be worn with service dress uniforms in cold or inclement weather.
The Service Dress Blue (SDB) uniform consists of a navy blue suit coat and trousers (or the optional skirt for women) that are nearly black in color, a white shirt, and a four - in - hand necktie for men or a neck tab for women. The material is generally wool or a wool blend, depending on the vendor. The men 's jacket is double breasted with six gold - colored buttons, and the women 's jacket has a single row of four gold - colored buttons. Rank insignia is the gold sleeve stripes for commissioned officers, while rating badges and service stripes are worn on the left sleeve by Chief Petty Officers (CPOs). The prescribed headgear is the white combination cap, although a navy blue garrison cap is optional, unless stated otherwise by the prescribing authority in some situations when the jacket is not worn. Beginning in 2016, the Navy began phasing out the female combination cap and now prescribes a cover similar to the male version for female officers and CPOs. Commissioned and warrant officers wear a cap badge of the American shield and eagle in silver upon gold crossed anchors; CPOs wear a single fouled anchor. The combination cover 's chinstrap is gold for commissioned and warrant officers, narrower gold for midshipmen, and black for CPOs. Female officers and chief petty officers wear beltless slacks with the SDB, although since January 2017, belted slacks can be worn as an alternative.
While both styles share the same 100 % Polyester CNT fabric (formerly cotton), The Service Dress White uniform has been different for the men 's and women 's variations. Men wear a high stand - collared white tunic, with shoulder boards for officers or the metal anchor collar devices for CPOs, white trousers, and white shoes. This uniform is informally called "chokers '' due to the standing collar. The material, formerly cotton, today is a weave of polyester known as "Certified Navy Twill ''. Women wear a uniform similar to the Service Dress Blue but with a white coat and skirt or trousers. The white combination cap is the prescribed headgear.
A noticeable difference between the male uniforms and the female uniforms is the placement of the women officer 's rank insignia lacing on the sleeves (in the same manner as on the blue uniform) and the placement of CPO rank insignia (the fouled anchor with USN monogram and five - pointed cocked "line '' stars) on the lapels of the jacket. However, the Navy has announced female uniform changes to resemble the men 's uniforms, and that female officers and CPOs will start wearing stand - collared tunics like males in early 2017 and they will completely replace the old - style uniform in January 2020.
Service Dress Blues for male junior enlisted personnel are based on the standard Navy jumper in navy blue, colloquially referred to as "crackerjacks '' because of the Navy - uniformed figure that adorns the Cracker Jack snack box. They consist of navy blue wool jumper with three rows of white stripes on the collar and cuffs. There are two white stars, one at each corner of the collar. A traditional white hat or "Dixie cup '' is also worn, as well as black leather shoes. A black silk or synthetic fiber neckerchief, rolled diagonally, is worn around the neck, under the collar, with the ends tied in a square knot in the center of the chest. The trousers for the dress blue uniform are flared as "bell bottoms ''. These trousers have a broad - fall, opening with thirteen buttons (which, contrary to popular belief, do not represent the original Thirteen Colonies of the United States). The female junior enlisted sailors ' Service Dress Blue, introduced in the 1970s, is similar to the CPO / Officer service dress blues, with the exception that silver - colored buttons, rather than gold, are on the jacket. This uniform is being phased out and will be replaced by a female - cut variant of the "crackerjacks '' with the transition beginning in October 2016 and to be completed by January 2020.
Until 2016, the Service Dress Whites, for both sexes, consist of white straight - leg or bell - bottom trousers with a fly front (or optional skirt for women), black leather shoes, a white jumper with plain navy collar, the black neckerchief worn in the same fashion as with the Service Dress Blues, and the white Dixie cup cap for males and combination cover with a silver eagle emblem and the letters "USN '' for females. The Service Dress White jumper is actually derived from the former Undress White, with its wide cuff-less sleeves and no piping. However, beginning in October 2015, The Service Dress White blouses will be changed to feature navy blue piping on cuffed sleeves, stars and navy blue piping on the navy collar, and a yoke, making it a ' photo - negative ' of the Service Dress Blue jumper.
Ribbons are worn with these uniforms over the top left pocket opening, along with warfare insignia. If these uniforms are to be assigned as the Uniform of the Day, a Plan of the Day / Plan of the Week will state either "Service Dress White '' or "Service Dress Blue. '' Either the all - weather Coat or peacoat may be worn with this uniform in cold or inclement weather. The color of the enlisted rank insignia and service stripes for the Service Dress Blues is either gold or red based upon the U.S. Navy Good Conduct Variation. The colors on the Service Dress Whites are always black.
In May 2012, the Navy announced upcoming changes to the Service Dress Blues and Service Dress Whites, adding side zippers to both uniform blouses, and a zipper will also be added to Service Dress Blue trousers. Women will no longer wear the chiefs ' and officers ' style uniforms and combination covers, and will wear a women 's - cut variation of the jumper style uniforms with White hats, "dixie cups '', like the men. This new uniform roll - out began in 2016 and will be completed by 2021.
The U.S. Navy announced in 2014 that female sailors have been testing out a female - cut version of the male combination covers. Soon thereafter, it was announced by the U.S. Navy that the female - cut "bucket - styled '' combination covers will be replaced completely by newer ones more resembling the already extant male versions, to maintain a more unisex appearance across all sailors. The new covers will completely replace the female versions for chief petty officers and commissioned officers by the end of October 2018; their replacement was originally scheduled for the end of October 2016 but was extended by another two years. The enlisted female covers were replaced in October 2016 for dress whites as scheduled, but remain authorized and mandatory for the four - button enlisted service dress blue uniform until that uniform is retired at the end of December 2019.
Full Dress uniforms are worn for ceremonies such as changes of command, retirements, commissionings and decommissionings, funerals, weddings, or when otherwise appropriate. Full Dress is similar to Service Dress except that instead of ribbons, full - size medals are worn above the left breast pocket, with ribbons worn on the opposite side for decorations without corresponding medals. Swords or cutlasses are authorized for wear by officers and Chief Petty Officers, and may be required for Lt. Commander and above. For the U.S. Navy Ceremonial Guard in Washington, D.C., the enlisted (E6 and below) Full Dress uniforms are further modified with the wearing of a white pistol belt, ascot, and dress aiguilette (the latter two are white for winter and navy blue for summer), and white canvas leggings. Other honor guards are only authorized leggings and white pistol belt.
The dinner dress uniforms of the United States Navy are the most formal and have the most variations. For officers, there are Dinner Dress Blue and Dinner Dress White, Dinner Dress Blue Jacket and Dinner Dress White Jacket, and Formal Dress. Although trousers are authorized, women frequently wear the appropriate color skirt. Dinner Dress Blue and White are identical to their Service Dress versions, but worn with miniature medals and badges with no ribbons. Dinner Dress Blue is additionally worn with a dress shirt and black bow tie. These variants are commonly worn by many junior officers and enlisted personnel as substitutes for the more formal Dinner Dress Jacket variant which is only prescribable for Lieutenant Commander and above and optional for Lieutenant and below. The Dinner Dress Blue / White Jacket uniforms feature a short jacket with three buttons on either side, worn open with a black bow tie and cummerbund (women substitute a neck tab for the bow tie). Male officers show rank stripes on the sleeves of the jacket for the blue version and on shoulder boards for the white version, while women officers only wear sleeve stripes. This uniform is equivalent to black tie in usage.
The Formal Dress variation is the most formal, and is identical to the Dinner Dress Blue Jacket uniform but worn with a white waistcoat with gold buttons in place of the cummerbund, a white bow tie, and matching mother - of - pearl studs and cuff links. Though rarely used, men can also substitute a tailcoat for the standard dinner dress jacket with this uniform. The female version is substantially the same as Dinner Dress Blue Jacket, but substitutes the mother - of - pearl studs and cuff links for gold. This uniform is equivalent to white tie in usage. Additionally, this uniform is only prescribed for chiefs and officers.
Headgear is not required for dinner dress uniforms unless an outer jacket is worn.
Those holding the rank of Lieutenant and below have the option of using the Dinner Dress uniform when Dinner Dress Jacket is prescribed. The enlisted sailors who are Chief Petty Officer and above wear a uniform similar to the officers, but with rank insignia and service stripes on the left sleeve. While enlisted who are Petty Officer First Class and below have optional Dinner Dress Jacket uniforms similar to the officers and chiefs, they may also wear their Dinner Dress uniform, which is the traditional Service Dress "sailor suit '', with miniature medals instead of ribbons.
Service uniforms are the U.S. Navy 's daily wear uniforms, and exist in several variations. They are intended for use in office environments, in positions that interact with the public, and in watch situations. Skirts are authorized for women in all service uniforms.
The Navy first authorized a khaki uniform in 1913 as a practical garment for early naval aviators; they were given permission to wear Marine Corps khaki uniforms with naval insignia, when flying or working on aircraft. Khakis were authorized aboard submarines in 1931 and as a working uniform on all ships ten years later.
The Service Khaki uniform today is reserved for commissioned officers (grades O - 1 through O - 10), chief warrant officers (current grades W - 2 through W - 5, W - 1 not in use) and chief petty officers (grades E-7 through E-9). It is a khaki button - up shirt and trousers, worn with a gold belt buckle. The shirt features two front flap pockets and a pointed collar. Ribbons are worn above the left pocket of the shirt, with the warfare insignia above them. A nametag may be worn above the right pocket, and rank insignia is worn on the collar. The regulations for ribbons state the highest three awards, or all ribbons can be worn at once. There are two kinds of headgear authorized: a khaki combination cap is standard, but a khaki garrison cover is also authorized. Currently black and brown oxford shoes are authorized for all officers and CPOs. However, tradition and social pressure tend to restrict the wearing of brown shoes to members of the aviation community. Females are authorized to wear the same over-blouse as junior enlisted sailors.
The Summer White Service uniform (formerly known as Tropical White Long; nicknamed the "milkman '' and "Good Humor '') consists of a short - sleeved white button - up shirt worn open - collared, white trousers and belt, and white dress shoes. Authorized headwear is the combination cap. Officers wear shoulder boards with this uniform, while chiefs wear metal collar insignia. The women 's shirt for all ranks has shoulder straps, but carry nothing except for shoulder boards worn by officers. Like Service Khakis, Summer Whites are available in several materials (poly / cotton and Certified Navy Twill). When assigned as the Uniform of the Day, a Plan of the Day / Plan of the week will state "Summer White. '' Either the All - Weather Coat, Blue jacket, or Peacoat may be worn with this uniform. While once authorized for junior enlisted, it is now restricted to officers and chiefs. Members E-6 and below previously wore a short - sleeved Summer White uniform with rate insignia on the left sleeve, but the uniform was discontinued by the Navy in December 2010.
The U.S. Navy underwent a comprehensive review of every uniform from 2004 through 2007, intending to replace the different working uniform for all hands and the seasonal service uniforms with a single year - round service uniform for personnel E-1 through E-6. Accordingly, the Navy Service Uniform has replaced the Winter Blue Uniform and Summer White Uniform (both discussed below), which were phased out on 31 December 2010 when the rollout of the New Service Uniform was completed. Enlisted personnel now have a single Service Uniform. Navy Junior ROTC units also received this new uniform, where, unlike in the U.S. Navy proper, it is worn by both cadet officers and enlisted cadets.
The Navy Service Uniform is a year - round service uniform to withstand day - to - day classroom and office - like environments where the service uniform is typically worn. It consists of a short - sleeve khaki shirt for males and a khaki weskit - style blouse for females, made from a wash and wear 75 % polyester, 25 % wool blend, with permanent military creases, black trousers for males with beltless slacks for females and optional beltless skirt, and a black unisex garrison cap. Silver anodized - metal rank insignia is worn on shirt / blouse collars and cap. The service uniform also includes a black relaxed - fit Eisenhower - style jacket with a knit stand - up collar and epaulets, on which petty officers wear large, silver anodized - metal rate insignia. Those entitled to wear gold chevrons continue to wear gold chevrons on the large metal rate insignia on the jacket.
Working uniforms are described by the navy as being worn when other uniforms may become unduly soiled or are otherwise inappropriate for the task at hand. These are worn at sea and in industrial environments ashore. In July 2010, the Navy Working Uniform and coveralls became the only authorized working uniforms.
The Navy Working Uniform (NWU) is a utility uniform with multiple pockets on the shirt and trousers. Three versions of the uniform exist, each with a multi-color digital camouflage print pattern similar to those introduced by other services. Type I is predominantly blue with some gray for the majority of sailors. It was originally developed for shipboard use, but proved unsuitable for shipboard environments and is due to be discontinued in 2019. Type II is a desert digital pattern currently restricted to SEALs and other sailors such as Seabees assigned to Naval Special Warfare Units when in desert environments. Type III is a woodland digital pattern for sailors in shore commands and riverine units. The camouflage patterns are similar to the MARPAT Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform worn by U.S. Marines.
The colors of the NWU Type I, according to the U.S. Navy, were intended to reflect the navy 's heritage and connection to seaborne operations, while hiding wear and stains, something unavoidable with the utilities and working khakis used previously. The colors were chosen to match the most commonly used paint colors aboard ship, extending the lifetime of the uniform on long deployments where uniforms often come into contact with freshly painted surfaces. An anchor, USS Constitution, and eagle (ACE) emblem is embroidered on the left breast pocket on all Type I NWUs. Accessories include a navy blue cotton T - shirt, an eight - point utility cover, and a web belt with closed buckle. The uniform is worn with rank insignia on both collar points and on the front panel of the utility cover, with sew - on name and "U.S. NAVY '' tapes, also on the new digital background pattern, having gold - colored lettering for officers, CPOs and midshipmen. All ranks below CPO wear silver - lettered name tapes. The NWU Type I was phased into service beginning in January 2009.
The Type II and III patterns are overall darker than their respective MARPAT progenitors, modified with different color shades and a vertically - aligned pixel pattern for the woodland version (compared to the horizontal alignment of woodland MARPAT). The additional patterns addressed the fact that the blue and grey Type I pattern was not meant for a tactical environment. Rank insignia is embroidered and worn on a tab in the center of the torso, name and "U.S. Navy '' taps are embroidered in brown (Type II) or black (Type III). Backlash from Marines, including an objection from Commandant Conway, led to restrictions when wear regulations were released in 2010. The Type II is restricted for wear to Naval Special Warfare personnel, while Type III was restricted to Navy ground units until late 2016. The ACE emblem is omitted from the NWU Type II and NWU Type III.
The uniforms are primarily composed of a 50 / 50 nylon and cotton blend, which eliminates the need for a "starch and press '' appearance and reduces the possibility of snags and tears from sharp objects (thus making the garment last longer). However this blend combines high flammability with the strength to hold onto the sailor 's body while burning.
In August 2016 the U.S. Navy announced that it is eliminating the NWU Type I in favor of the Type III which will completely replace it by 1 October 2019 for wear as the standard working uniform ashore for all Navy personnel. Type III will begin being issued to new navy recruits in October 2017. The Type II will remain restricted to wear by Naval Special Warfare sailors when in desert environments. The Navy 's goal of developing a single working uniform for wear aboard ship and ashore and by all ranks and rates which the NWU Type I was supposed to fulfill was never realized by the Type I. Soon after its introduction it was found to be unsuitable for shipboard wear because of its lack of flame resistance and so was banned from wear aboard ship (except for when in port) thus making it essentially a uniform to be worn while ashore only. As a uniform for wear ashore only, a pattern designed to conceal stains aboard ships is not nearly as effective at concealment as a pattern designed to conceal people on land, thus the IIIs are used ashore. The Navy continues to work to develop a new shipboard working uniform.
All - weather garments include a unisex pullover sweater, a fleece jacket, and a parka, all of which are available in matching camouflage patterns. Beginning in 2016 the Navy had planned to also issue a lightweight version of the NWU more suitable to hot environments.
Black safety boots, identical to those worn by United States Coast Guard personnel with their Operational Dress Uniform, are worn with the NWU Type I. Brown or tan boots can be authorized for wear with the Type II and III, though black is the standard color for sailors located in the contiguous United States. Boots come in two versions: black smooth leather boots, and black suede no - shine boots for optional wear while assigned to non-shipboard commands.
The U.S. Navy issued a new model coverall for use as a shipboard working uniform beginning in early 2014. The new flame resistant variant (FRV) coverall is used aboard all ships. It has largely replaced for shipboard use polyester cotton blend coveralls that provided inadequate fire protection and the NWU Type I for the same reason. The all cotton FRVs are dark blue in color compared to the older coveralls, which are lighter. They use rectangular velcro - backed nametags similar to those worn on flight crew suits, rather than the nametapes of the previous coverall.
U.S. Fleet Forces Command (FFC) continues a multi-phase wear test of improved flame resistant variant (IFRV) working uniform components for shipboard wear. FFC most recently conducted in - depth focus groups with fleet sailors aimed at refining the design of the IFRV coverall. The IFRV coverall was approved for issue on 17 January 2017. Additional feedback from the focus groups, subsequently validated by a senior level working group, resulted in the preliminary design of a more professional looking two - piece utility shipboard uniform that can be worn both at sea and operational support jobs ashore. Wear tests of the prototype two - piece variants are expected to occur in 2017.
All enlisted sailors may wear the navy blue pea coat with a rate insignia for petty officer third class and up on the left sleeve, a navy blue "All Weather Coat '' with rate insignia worn on the collar, or a navy blue Working Uniform Jacket with rate insignia worn on the collar.
Officers and Chiefs may wear the calf - length wool "bridge coat '' or waist - length reefer, with gold buttons and rank insignia worn on the epaulettes, or the all - weather coat, with rank insignia also worn on the shoulder or collar, depending on rank.
All sailors are authorized to wear the "Eisenhower '' jacket with short - sleeved service uniforms with appropriate rank devices on the shoulder epaulets. The "Eisenhower '' jacket is a waist length, black jacket with knit cuffs, and is named for its association with the famous general and president. The khaki windbreaker, previously authorized only with the service khaki uniform, was retired on 30 September 2016.
Naval Aviators, Naval Flight Officers, Naval Flight Surgeons, Naval Aviation Physiologists, and Naval Aircrewmen are authorized to wear G - 1 seal - brown goatskin - leather flight jackets, with warfare insignia listed on a name tag (rank optional) over the left breast pocket, either permanently stitched to the leather or attached with a Velcro hook - and - loop fastener. These jackets were previously adorned with various "mission patches, '' which indicate places the wearer has served. Today, patches on the G - 1 are limited to a maximum of three in addition to the nametag, i.e., a unit insignia on the right breast, an aircraft type insignia on the right sleeve and an aircraft type insignia or embroidered U.S. flag on the left sleeve.
Also, the Navy issues foul - weather or cold - weather jackets as appropriate for the environment, which are generally olive or Navy blue in color. These jackets are considered "Organizational Clothing ''. They do not belong to the sailor, and are not allowed for wear off of the ship unless working in the near vicinity of the ship.
In certain duty stations, Navy personnel are issued woodland or desert utility uniforms. These were similar to the other military services ' utility uniforms. The Navy is in the process of phasing out woodland - pattern and three - color desert Battle Dress Utilities in favor of combat uniforms in digital Type II (desert) and Type III (woodland) camouflage based on, but using different colors from, the Marine Corps ' MARPAT. Currently issue of Type II is restricted to SEALs and SWCC crews; Type III is issued to personnel such as Seabees and aviation support crew stationed ashore in desert combat zones. In August 2016 the Navy announced that Type III would be issued to all Navy personnel ashore in lieu of the blue Type I NWU, which is to be phased out.
As the Marines do not have medical personnel and chaplains, the Navy provides them. The officers and enlisted include doctors, physician assistants, dentists, nurses, hospital corpsmen, chaplains, religious program specialists, and Naval Gunfire Liaison Officers. There are also specialized ratings that will be attached to Marine commands such as Navy Divers for example. Because of this relationship, these personnel are authorized to wear U.S. Marine Corps utility (desert / woodland) uniforms with Navy rank insignia replacing the Marine insignia for enlisted personnel (Navy and Marine officer rank insignia are identical) and with a "U.S. Navy '' patch replacing the "U.S. Marines '' one. They wear the 8 - point utility cover, but it lacks the Marine Corps emblem. Additionally, Navy personnel attached to Marine units can elect to wear Marine service uniforms, with Navy insignia. Those opting to wear Marine Corps service uniforms must meet Marine Corps grooming and physical appearance standards, which are more stringent than Navy standards. This does not apply to the MARPAT uniforms, as this uniform is required for wear in the field when attached to Marine units, regardless of adherence to Marine Corps grooming standards. Navy personnel are not authorized to wear the Marine Corps Dress Blue Uniform; instead Navy Dress Blue and White uniforms are worn.
In addition to Marine Corps detachments, combat utilities are also worn by Navy SEAL teams, along with SWCC crews who conduct clandestine maritime operations including supporting SEAL platoons and SOF cells. The Combat Utility Uniform (CUU) is authorized for those in the Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and Fleet Diver communities. Combat utilities are also authorized for those attached to the Naval Construction Force (NCF) (Seabee), Navy 's Expeditionary Logistics Group, or the Navy 's Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC). Also, Navy personnel assigned to some joint headquarters units, like Central Command in Qatar and Iraq, wear Desert Utility Uniforms (DUU). Navy personnel such as Individual Augmentees, Combat Camera Groups, Detainee OPS, and some in the special warfare community have been wearing the Army 's ACU (Army Combat Uniform) when working closely with or attached to Army commands.
Pilots, Naval Flight Officers, and Naval Aircrewmen are authorized to wear green or desert flight suits (made of nomex for fire protection), with rank insignia for officers stitched on the shoulders, and a name tag / warfare insignia on the left breast pocket. Either a Command / Navy ballcap or a Khaki Garrison Cap (for Commissioned Officers and CPOs) are worn with this uniform. Green flight suits are the standard wear; however, wing commanders may authorize desert flight suits for personnel located in hot climates. As of 2012, flight suits may now be worn off base in the same manner as the Navy Working Uniform.
Coveralls are authorized to be worn with either the all - weather coat or utility jacket (Petty Officers only).
Due to the extreme noise on the flight deck of an aircraft carrier, personnel handling the aircraft have specific - colored flight deck jerseys which by sight describes that person 's function and is also the basis for referring to these personnel as "Skittles ''. Due to the inevitable wear, lubricant stains, and short service life, flight deck personnel often wear a variety of trousers (NWUs, khakis, etc.) with the jerseys on deck.:
The ship USS Constitution is the oldest commissioned ship in the U.S. Navy, the only one of the six original United States frigates still in existence. Constitution is presented to the public as the ship appeared during the War of 1812, and personnel stationed aboard Constitution still wear uniforms according to regulations posted in 1813. These uniforms are worn on ceremonial occasions, such as the annual turn - around cruise in Boston every Independence Day.
Midshipmen at the United States Naval Academy, in addition to regular Navy uniforms, also wear parade dress of traditional 19th - century military cut, with stand collars and double rows of gold buttons.
Navy Uniform Regulations Change No. 11 issued 22 June 1917 authorized naval aviators to wear a summer service flying uniform of Marine Corps khaki of the same pattern as the officers ' service dress white uniform tunic and trousers. It was to be worn with high, laced tan leather shoes only "when on immediate and active duty with aircraft '', and might be worn under similarly colored moleskin or khaki canvas coveralls as a "working dress '' uniform.
Naval aviators typically flew patrol bombers from shore bases until the first United States aircraft carrier USS Langley was commissioned on 20 March 1922. Differing uniforms afloat precipitated a 13 October 1922 Bureau of Navigation letter: "Uniforms for aviation will be the same as for other naval officers, doing away with the green and khaki, which may be worn until June 1, 1923, but only at air stations. '' Khaki aviation uniforms of a somewhat different pattern were reinstated on 8 April 1925.
During World War II, a single - breasted heavy cotton twill jacket with shoulder boards was worn with cotton twill trousers over a long - sleeved cotton shirt with a black necktie as "Service Dress Khaki '', allowing cleaning in shipboard laundry facilities. Later on, through the Vietnam War, the trousers and jacket were often made of light wool or wool - blend fabric as routine access to dry - cleaning facilities became available. The uniform was dropped in 1975 by then - Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Elmo Zumwalt, in order to reduce the number of items in the officer 's seabag. A revived version of the uniform was announced in 2006 on a test basis. It was authorized for wear by commissioned officers and CPOs during the summer months and in tropical climates. Some commentators, including the periodical Navy Times, spoke of this uniform as having a "throwback '' look.
The uniform reintroduced a khaki service coat worn with a black necktie and shoulder boards. The prescribed headgear was a combination cap with khaki cover, or optionally a khaki garrison cap. It was intended to provide a more practical alternative to the Service Dress Whites and a more formal alternative to the Service Khakis. This uniform was frequently worn in public by then - CNO and subsequently Joint Chiefs Chairman Admiral Mike Mullen; on 1 May 2011, Mullen was seen wearing this uniform in the iconic photograph in the White House Situation Room during the Navy SEAL raid on Osama bin Laden 's compound. In October 2012, cost considerations led to the cancellation of the full - scale reintroduction of the uniform, and the uniform was dropped from the Navy.
The rarely seen Service Dress Blue Yankee uniform replaced the dark trousers and black shoes of Service Dress Blue with white trousers and shoes from the white uniform. Prescribed for officers.
The Winter Blue uniform was authorized for all ranks. Due to its near - black color, it was called the "Johnny Cash '' uniform (a reference to the song / album Man in Black by the singer of the same name) It was a long sleeve black button - up shirt and black belt and trousers (optional skirt for females), with the headgear either the combination cover (all E-7 and above, female E-6s and below) or white Dixie Cup (male E-6s and below). Garrison caps were an optional secondary headgear, allowed to be worn for all ranks.
As a service uniform, ribbons and badges were worn, and officers and Chief Petty Officers wore metal collar insignia, while enlisted E-6 and below wore just the rating badge on the left arm. All men wore ties, females necktabs, with an optional silver clip for Petty Officers First Class and below, others a gold clip.
The Working Khaki uniform was worn by Officers and Chief Petty Officers, primarily aboard ship or in selected working areas at bases ashore. Originally it was simply the Service Dress Khaki uniform worn without the coat and tie. Similar to, but less formal than, the Service Khaki, it consisted of a short or long - sleeve khaki uniform shirt, with warfare insignia and badges (i.e. command pins, nametags, etc., but no ribbons) worn on the top of the left pocket, and pin - on metal rank devices located on the collar. It also came with a set of khaki trousers, a khaki belt with a gold belt buckle, a command or "U.S. Navy '' ballcap (garrison cap optional), and black or brown low quarter shoes, black or brown boots, or black leather safety shoes. It was often referred to as the "Wash Khaki '' uniform, because it was a 100 % cotton uniform that could be laundered but required pressing, differentiating it from the Summer Khaki made of Certified Navy Twill (CNT) or a poly - wool blend that is considered acceptable for wear ashore and off base, but which requires dry - cleaning. At the beginning of January 2011, the working khakis were replaced by the Navy Working Uniform, although the Navy Junior ROTC still uses them.
A winter working green uniform for commissioned officers and Chief Petty Officers in the Naval Aviation community was authorized on 7 September 1917 in conjunction with adoption of the naval aviator wings breast insignia. The initial uniform pattern was the same as the officers ' service dress white uniform tunic and trousers. Like the summer khaki uniform, it was to be worn with high, laced tan leather shoes. Like the aviation khaki uniform, the green uniform was temporarily banished during the early years of United States aircraft carrier operations from 1922 until a modified design was reauthorized in 1925. The final version, discontinued in January 2011, was somewhat similar to the Navy 's revived Service Dress Khaki uniform in cut and design and bore additional similarities to the Marine Corps ' Service Dress "Alpha '' green uniform. It consisted of a green wool coat and green wool trousers with bronze buttons and a long - sleeve khaki shirt with black tie. Rank insignia consisted of black embroidery on sleeves in a style similar to the gold sleeve braid for officers, or rating marks and service "hash '' marks for Chief Petty Officers, on Service Dress Blue uniforms. Metal rank insignia was worn concurrently on the collar points of the khaki shirt by line officers and CPOs. For staff corps officers, rank insignia was worn on the right collar point and staff corps insignia on the left collar point (typically Medical Corps for Naval Flight Surgeons, etc.) of the shirt. Warfare insignia and, if applicable, Command at Sea and / or Command Ashore insignia, were worn on the jacket and optionally on the shirt. Command nametags were also optional on both the blouse and / or shirt. Brown shoes were typically worn, although this transitioned to black between 1975 and 1986 when brown shoes were discontinued. Following the reinstatement of brown shoes in 1986, brown shoes again became the most common footwear. Authorized headgear included a combination cover in green, or a green garrison cover.
During World War II and the Korean War, ribbons were also authorized with this uniform, making it a de facto "service uniform '' or "liberty uniform, '' authorized for wear off base. But by the early 1960s, it had become limited to that of a "working uniform '' for use on base or aboard ship only. It was infrequently worn, primarily due its expense and its 100 % wool fabric that typically made it unsuitable outside of the winter months; in the working environments where AWGs were authorized, aviators typically found working khakis or flight suits more convenient.
The AWG uniform was formally phased out on 1 January 2011. The Navy Working Uniform took its place.
The rarely seen Tropical White Uniform (also referred to as Tropical White Short) was similar to the Summer White Service uniform, except white knee shorts and knee socks were worn. It was colloquially known as the "Captain Steubing '' uniform, after the character on The Love Boat TV show. Exceptionally rarely worn, though authorized with this uniform, was a pith helmet, with a Naval Officer 's insignia at the front, above the brim.
Tropical working uniforms existed, but were variations on the working khaki and utility uniforms. Knee shorts and black knee socks are worn, along with short sleeved button - up shirts.
Initially worn by E-6 and below beginning in the mid-1970s with the temporary phaseout (until 1982) of the traditional "crackerjack '' uniforms for E-6 and below, it was later expanded to include Chief Petty Officers and commissioned officers. Best known by the nickname "salt and peppers, '' the uniform consisted of a summer white shirt and winter blue trousers for males and summer white blouse and winter blue trousers or winter blue skirt for females. Headgear consisted of a combination cover (e.g., coinciding with the mid-1970s / pre-1982 period when use of the "crackerjack '' uniform and "Dixie Cup '' headgear was suspended for male E-6 and below) and black shoes. Although naval personnel still retained all the components that made up this uniform, its use was discontinued in 1983. Though the U.S. Navy proper discontinued the uniform in 1983, Navy Junior ROTC units continued to wear it for decades after, until they themselves finally discontinued their usage in June 2010.
This short - lived uniform for officers and CPOs was only authorized from 1943 -- 49, but was a common sight on the East Coast and in the Atlantic / European Theater during World War II. It was identical in cut and material to the Service Dress Khaki uniform but medium gray in color with black buttons, worn with a matching gray shirt and garrison or combination cover. Officers ' shoulder boards were likewise gray, with stars / corps insignia and rank stripes in black. "Working grays '' were the same uniform worn without the jacket and tie. The gray uniform was introduced by then - Chief of Naval Operations Ernest King, who thought khaki was more appropriate to land forces; Admiral Nimitz disliked it and discouraged its wear in the Pacific Fleet.
From 1893 until 1975, Chief Petty Officers wore a Service Dress White uniform consisting of white cotton trousers and double - breasted reefer jacket with black necktie. Rating badges and service stripes in black were worn on the left sleeve. This uniform was also worn by members of Navy bands regardless of rank. Officer - pattern whites were authorized for CPOs in 1981.
Dungarees were the junior enlisted (E1 - E6) working uniform worn from 1913 through the 1990s; through World War II dungarees with a garrison or combination cover were also worn by CPOs engaged in dirty jobs. Unlike later working uniforms, dungarees were not allowed to be worn outside of military installations; service members were allowed to wear the uniform to and from the installation in a vehicle, but were not authorized to make any stops between while in the dungarees. In fact, until World War II dungarees could only be worn in port in ships ' interior spaces, below the main deck or inside gun turrets.
Dungarees consisted of a short or long - sleeve blue chambray shirt, white T - shirt, and bell - bottom denim jeans (the jeans in question had heptagonal "patch '' pockets sewn on the front of the pant - legs rather than the traditional "slash '' pockets often seen on civilian - worn jeans). Head gear was the white "dixie cup '' cover for men and an early form of the black garrison cap or a black beret for women; after graduation from boot camp, the command ball cap was optional (and in practice more common). Starting in 1995, the white hat was no longer authorized for wear with dungarees, and the command (or Navy) ballcap became the predominant cover. During cold weather a black watch cap was allowed.
The sailor 's last name was stenciled in white on the pants just above the back pocket on the right side. The name was also placed in black on the shirt just above the right breast pocket, usually stenciled on. Names could also be reinforced with embroidered thread of the appropriate color on both the pants and shirt. Rate badges (for petty officers) and warfare devices were iron - on. The rate badges consisted of an all - black eagle (nicknamed a "crow '') and chevrons, omitted the rating device found on other enlisted uniforms ' rate badges.
Low black leather boots called "boondockers '' were issued with the dungaree uniform, however, sailors were allowed to wear black leather jump boots. Flight deck personnel were issued a type of taller cap - toe boot similar in design to jump boots known colloquially as "wing walkers ''. These types of boots had zig - zag patterned out - soles to avoid gathering FOD (Foreign Object Debris) between the ridges that could litter the flight deck and cause potential damage to aircraft. "Dealer / Chelsea '' style ankle boots (known colloquially as Lox boots) with elastic - sides were issued to personnel working with Liquid oxygen for easier removal in case the boots would freeze upon contact.
The enlisted utilities uniform was worn by junior enlisted sailors, from paygrades E-1 to E-6, from the mid-1990s until 2010, when they were phased out in favor of the NWU. Utilities consisted of dark blue chino cloth trousers with a polyester -- cotton blend shirt, and were considered an updated version of the dungarees uniform. Utilities were meant to be worn in a working environment but were authorized to be worn outside military installations, unlike coveralls.
Usually sailors wore the command ball cap with this uniform, although a black watch cap was allowed in cold weather. Cloth name tapes were worn similar to that used on utility uniforms of the other services. In 1995 a tape with the words "U.S. NAVY '' began being included above the left breast pocket with embroidered enlisted warfare insignia authorized above it, and an embroidered rating badge. The footwear for this uniform was full black, round - toed boots (referred to as boondockers), preferably with steel toes. The blue utility jacket was authorized in climates not cold enough as to warrant wearing the black All - Weather Coat.
Prior to the introduction of the Winter Blue / Winter Working Blue uniform, personnel E-6 and below in office and classroom environments were authorized to wear the Undress Blue uniform; this broadly resembled the Dress Blue "crackerjack '' uniform but carried no piping or stars, and the sleeves were wide and cuffless like those of the current Dress Whites. Before 1941 this was the standard working uniform for all "above - deck '' duties since dungarees were not permitted anywhere the public might see them. Ribbons and neckerchief were not worn and the uniform was not authorized for liberty.
Until 1941, the summer and tropical equivalent to the Dress Blue "crackerjacks '' was a white cotton jumper uniform with blue tar flap and cuffs, adorned with white piping and stars like the blue uniform. This uniform was discontinued "for the duration '' and was never reinstated; instead the Undress Whites with the addition of ribbons and neckerchief became the summer dress uniform for sailors.
From 1852 until 1962 (although in practice rarely worn after the middle of World War II), enlisted sailors were issued a round, flat blue wool hat with a ribbon around the band similar to that worn by the Royal Navy. The "Donald Duck '' was worn with the Service Dress Blue uniform on more formal occasions in lieu of the white "Dixie cup. '' The ribbon until 1941 carried the name of the wearer 's ship embroidered in gold; as a wartime security measure this was replaced with a generic "U.S. Navy. ''
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who is the original singer of sweet child of mine | Sweet Child O ' Mine - wikipedia
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' is a song by American rock band Guns N ' Roses, appearing on their debut album, Appetite for Destruction. Released in August 1988 as the album 's third single, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the band 's only number 1 US single. Billboard ranked it the number 5 song of 1988. Re-released in 1989, it reached number 6 on the UK Singles Chart. Guitarist Slash said in 1990, "(The song) turned into a huge hit and now it makes me sick. I mean, I like it, but I hate what it represents. ''
Duff McKagan, 1988
Slash has been quoted as having an initial disdain for the song due to its roots as simply a "string skipping '' exercise and a joke at the time. During a jam session at the band 's house in the Sunset Strip, drummer Steven Adler and Slash were warming up and Slash began to play a "circus '' melody while making faces at Adler. Rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin asked Slash to play it again. Stradlin came up with some chords, Duff McKagan created a bassline and Adler planned a beat. In his autobiography, Slash said "within an hour my guitar exercise had become something else ''. Lead singer Axl Rose was listening to the musicians upstairs in his room and was inspired to write lyrics, which he completed by the following afternoon. He based it on his girlfriend Erin Everly, and declared that Lynyrd Skynyrd served as an inspiration "to make sure that we 'd got that heartfelt feeling ''. On the next composing session in Burbank, the band added a bridge and a guitar solo.
When the band recorded demos with producer Spencer Proffer, he suggested adding a breakdown at the song 's end. The musicians agreed, but were not sure what to do. Listening to the demo in a loop, Rose started saying to himself, "Where do we go? Where do we go now? '' and Proffer suggested that he sing that.
The "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' video depicts the band rehearsing in the Huntington Ballroom at Huntington Beach, surrounded by crew members. All of the band members ' girlfriends at the time were shown in the clip: Rose 's girlfriend Erin Everly, whose father is Don Everly of The Everly Brothers; McKagan 's girlfriend Mandy Brix, from the all - female rock band the Lame Flames; Stradlin 's girlfriend Angela Nicoletti; Adler 's girlfriend Cheryl Swiderski; and Slash 's girlfriend Sally McLaughlin. Stradlin 's dog was also featured. The video was successful on MTV, and helped launch the song to success on mainstream radio.
To make "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' more marketable to MTV and radio stations, the song was cut from 5: 56 to 4: 59, for the video / radio edit, with much of Slash 's solo removed. This drew the ire of the band, including Rose, who commented on it in a 1989 interview with Rolling Stone: "I hate the radio edit of ' Sweet Child O ' Mine. ' Radio stations said, "Well, your vocals are n't cut. '' "My favorite part of the song is Slash 's slow solo; it 's the heaviest part for me. There 's no reason for it to be missing except to create more space for commercials, so the radio - station owners can get more advertising dollars. When you get the chopped version of ' Paradise City ' or half of ' Sweet Child ' and ' Patience ' cut, you 're getting screwed. '' The video uses the same edits as the radio version.
A 7 - inch vinyl format and cassette single were released. The album version of the song was included on the US single release, while the UK single was the "edit / remix '' version. The 12 '' vinyl format also contained the longer LP version. The b - side to the single is a non-album, live version of "It 's So Easy ''.
On an interview on Eddie Trunk 's New York radio show in May 2006, Rose stated that his original concept for the video focused on the theme of drug trafficking. According to Rose, the video was to depict an Asian woman carrying a baby into a foreign land, only to discover at the end that the child was dead and filled with heroin. This concept was rejected by Geffen Records.
There is also an alternative video for "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' in the same place, but with different shots and filmed in black & white.
"Sweet Child o ' Mine '' placed number 37 on Guitar World 's list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Solos. '' It also came in at number 3 on Blender 's 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born, and at number 198 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In March 2005, Q magazine placed it at number 6 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks. On a 2004 Total Guitar magazine poll, the introduction 's famous riff was voted number 1 riff of all - time by the readers of the magazine. It was also in Rolling Stone 's 40 Greatest Songs that Changed the World. It places number 7 in VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the ' 80s '', and placed number 210 on the RIAA Songs of the Century list.
The song is currently ranked as the 104th greatest song of all time, as well as the best song of 1987, by Acclaimed Music. The song has sold 2,609,000 digital copies in the United States as of March 2012.
In 2015, the web page of the Australian music TV channel MAX published an article by music writer Nathan Jolly that noted similarities between "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' and the song "Unpublished Critics '' by the Australian band Australian Crawl, from 1981. The article included both songs, inviting readers to compare the two. It also cited a reader 's comment on an earlier article that had originally drawn attention to the similarities between the songs. As of May 2015, this comment no longer appeared on the earlier article. The story went viral quickly, encouraging several comments on both the MAX article and the suggestion that "Unpublished Critics '' had influenced "Sweet Child o ' Mine '', including one from Duff McKagan, bass player with Guns N ' Roses when "Sweet Child o ' Mine '' was written and recorded. McKagan found the similarities between the songs "stunning, '' but said he had not previously heard "Unpublished Critics. ''
All tracks written by Guns N ' Roses except where noted.
The song was covered by Sheryl Crow on the soundtrack to Big Daddy, and released as a bonus track on her third studio album, The Globe Sessions. This version earned her a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. The recording was produced by Rick Rubin and Crow. A music video for Crow 's version was also released, directed by Stéphane Sednaoui. Crow performed the song live at Woodstock ' 99. Ultimate Classic Rock profiled the song as part of a series on "Terrible Classic Rock Covers '', and Rolling Stone readers named it the 4th worst cover song of all - time.
"Sweet Child O ' Mine '' has been used in several films, such as:
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what is the muslim month of fasting called | Ramadan - wikipedia
Ramadan (/ ˌræməˈdɑːn /; Arabic: رمضان Ramaḍān, IPA: (ramaˈdʕaːn); also romanized as Ramzan, Ramadhan, or Ramathan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and is observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting (Sawm) to commemorate the first revelation of the Quran to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. This annual observance is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The month lasts 29 -- 30 days based on the visual sightings of the crescent moon, according to numerous biographical accounts compiled in the hadiths.
The word Ramadan comes from the Arabic root ramiḍa or ar - ramaḍ, which means scorching heat or dryness. Fasting is fard (obligatory) for adult Muslims, except those who are suffering from an illness, travelling, are elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, diabetic, chronically ill or menstruating. Fasting the month of Ramadan was made obligatory (wājib) during the month of Sha'ban, in the second year after the Muslims migrated from Mecca to Medina. Fatwas have been issued declaring that Muslims who live in regions with a natural phenomenon such as the midnight sun or polar night should follow the timetable of Mecca, but the more commonly accepted opinion is that Muslims in those areas should follow the timetable of the closest country to them in which night can be distinguished from day.
While fasting from dawn until sunset, Muslims refrain from consuming food, drinking liquids, smoking, and engaging in sexual relations. Muslims are also instructed to refrain from sinful behavior that may negate the reward of fasting, such as false speech (insulting, backbiting, cursing, lying, etc.) and fighting except in self - defense. Food and drinks are served daily, before dawn and after sunset, referred to as Suhoor and Iftar respectively. Spiritual rewards (thawab) for fasting are also believed to be multiplied within the month of Ramadan. Fasting for Muslims during Ramadan typically includes the increased offering of salat (prayers), recitation of the Quran and an increase of doing good deeds and charity.
Chapter 2, Verse 185, of the Quran states:
The month of Ramadan is that in which was revealed the Quran; a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the criterion (of right and wrong). And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, a number of other days. Allah desires for you ease; He desires not hardship for you; and that you should complete the period, and that you should magnify Allah for having guided you, and that perhaps you may be thankful.
It is believed that the Quran was first revealed to Muhammad during the month of Ramadan which has been referred to as the "best of times ''. The first revelation was sent down on Laylat al - Qadr (The night of Power) which is one of the five odd nights of the last ten days of Ramadan. According to hadith, all holy scriptures were sent down during Ramadan. The tablets of Ibrahim, the Torah, the Psalms, the Gospel and the Quran were sent down on 1st, 6th, 12th, 13th and 24th Ramadan respectively.
According to the Quran, fasting was also obligatory for prior nations, and is a way to attain taqwa, fear of God. God proclaimed to Muhammad that fasting for His sake was not a new innovation in monotheism, but rather an obligation practiced by those truly devoted to the oneness of God. The pagans of Mecca also fasted, but only on tenth day of Muharram to expiate sins and avoid droughts.
The ruling to observe fasting during Ramadan was sent down 18 months after Hijra, during the month of Sha'ban in the second year of Hijra in 624 CE.
Abu Zanad, an Arabic writer from Iraq who lived after the founding of Islam, in around 747 CE, wrote that at least one Mandaean community located in al - Jazira (modern northern Iraq) observed Ramadan before converting to Islam.
According to historian Philip Jenkins, Ramadan comes "from the strict Lenten discipline of the Syrian Churches '', a postulation corroborated by other scholars, such as the theologian Paul - Gordon Chandler. This suggestion is based on the orientalist idea that the Qur'an itself has Syriac Christian origins, a claim to which some Muslim academics such as M. Al - Azami, object.
The beginning and end of Ramadan are determined by the lunar Islamic calendar.
Hilāl (the crescent) is typically a day (or more) after the astronomical new moon. Since the new moon marks the beginning of the new month, Muslims can usually safely estimate the beginning of Ramadan. However, to many Muslims, this is not in accordance with authenticated Hadiths stating that visual confirmation per region is recommended. The consistent variations of a day have existed since the time of Muhammad.
The Arabic Laylat al - Qadr, translated to English is "the night of power '' or "the night of decree '', is considered the holiest night of the year. This is the night in which Muslims believe the first revelation of the Quran was sent down to Muhammad stating that this night was "better than one thousand months (of proper worship), as stated in Chapter 97: 3 of the Qu'ran.
Also, generally, Laylat al - Qadr is believed to have occurred on an odd - numbered night during the last ten days of Ramadan, i.e., the night of the 21st, 23rd, 25th, 27th or 29th. The Dawoodi Bohra Community believe that the 23rd night is laylat al Qadr.
The holiday of Eid al - Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) marks the end of Ramadan and the beginning of the next lunar month, Shawwal. This first day of the following month is declared after another crescent new moon has been sighted or the completion of 30 days of fasting if no visual sighting is possible due to weather conditions. This first day of Shawwal is called Eid al - Fitr. Eid al - Fitr may also be a reference towards the festive nature of having endured the month of fasting successfully and returning to the more natural disposition (fitra) of being able to eat, drink and resume intimacy with spouses during the day...
The common practice during Ramadan is fasting from dawn to sunset. The pre-dawn meal before the fast is called the suhur, while the meal at sunset that breaks the fast is the iftar. Considering the high diversity of the global Muslim population, it is impossible to describe typical suhur or iftar meals.
Muslims also engage in increased prayer and charity during Ramadan. Ramadan is also a month where Muslims try to practice increased self - discipline. This is motivated by the Hadith, especially in Al - Bukhari and Muslim, that "When Ramadan arrives, the gates of Paradise are opened and the gates of hell are locked up and devils are put in chains. ''
Ramadan is a time of spiritual reflection, improvement and increased devotion and worship. Muslims are expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam. The fast (sawm) begins at dawn and ends at sunset. In addition to abstaining from eating and drinking, Muslims also increase restraint, such as abstaining from sexual relations and generally sinful speech and behavior. The act of fasting is said to redirect the heart away from worldly activities, its purpose being to cleanse the soul by freeing it from harmful impurities. Ramadan also teaches Muslims how to better practice self - discipline, self - control, sacrifice, and empathy for those who are less fortunate; thus encouraging actions of generosity and compulsory charity (zakat).
It becomes compulsory for Muslims to start fasting when they reach puberty, so long as they are healthy and sane, and have no disabilities or illnesses. Many children endeavour to complete as many fasts as possible as practice for later life.
Exemptions to fasting are travel, menstruation, severe illness, pregnancy, and breastfeeding. However, many Muslims with medical conditions insist on fasting to satisfy their spiritual needs, although it is not recommended by the hadith. Professionals should closely monitor such individuals who decide to persist with fasting. Those who were unable to fast still must make up the days missed later.
Each day, before dawn, Muslims observe a pre-fast meal called the suhur. After stopping a short time before dawn, Muslims begin the first prayer of the day, Fajr.
At sunset, families hasten for the fast - breaking meal known as iftar. Dates are usually the first food to break the fast; according to tradition, Muhammad broke fast with three dates. Following that, Muslims generally adjourn for the Maghrib prayer, the fourth of the five daily prayers, after which the main meal is served.
Social gatherings, many times in a buffet style, are frequent at iftar. Traditional dishes are often highlighted, including traditional desserts, and particularly those made only during Ramadan. Water is usually the beverage of choice, but juice and milk are also often available, as are soft drinks and caffeinated beverages.
In the Middle East, the iftar meal consists of water, juices, dates, salads and appetizers, one or more main dishes, and various kinds of desserts. Usually, the dessert is the most important part during iftar. Typical main dishes are lamb stewed with wheat berries, lamb kebabs with grilled vegetables, or roast chicken served with chickpea - studded rice pilaf. A rich dessert, such as luqaimat, baklava or kunafeh (a buttery, syrup - sweetened kadaifi noodle pastry filled with cheese), concludes the meal.
Over time, iftar has grown into banquet festivals. This is a time of fellowship with families, friends and surrounding communities, but may also occupy larger spaces at masjid or banquet halls for 100 or more diners.
Charity is very important in Islam, and even more so during Ramadan. Zakāt, often translated as "the poor - rate '', is obligatory as one of the pillars of Islam; a fixed percentage of the person 's savings is required to be given to the poor. Sadaqah is voluntary charity in giving above and beyond what is required from the obligation of zakāt. In Islam, all good deeds are more handsomely rewarded during Ramadan than in any other month of the year. Consequently, many will choose this time to give a larger portion, if not all, of the zakāt that they are obligated to give. In addition, many will also use this time to give a larger portion of sadaqah in order to maximize the reward that will await them at the Last Judgment.
Tarawih (Arabic: تراويح ) refers to extra prayers performed by Muslims at night in the Islamic month of Ramadan. Contrary to popular belief, they are not compulsory. However, many Muslims pray these prayers in the evening during Ramadan. Some scholars maintain that Tarawih is neither fard or a Sunnah, but is the preponed Tahajjud (night prayer) prayer shifted to post-Isha ' for the ease of believers. But a majority of Sunni scholars regard the Tarawih prayers as Sunnat al - Mu'akkadah, a salaat that was performed by the Islamic prophet Muhammad very consistently.
In addition to fasting, Muslims are encouraged to read the entire Quran. Some Muslims perform the recitation of the entire Quran by means of special prayers, called Tarawih. These voluntary prayers are held in the mosques every night of the month, during which a whole section of the Quran (juz ', which is 1 / 30 of the Quran) is recited. Therefore, the entire Quran would be completed at the end of the month. Although it is not required to read the whole Quran in the Tarawih prayers, it is common.
In some Muslim countries today, lights are strung up in public squares, and across city streets, to add to the festivities of the month. Lanterns have become symbolic decorations welcoming the month of Ramadan. In a growing number of countries, they are hung on city streets. The tradition of lanterns as a decoration becoming associated with Ramadan is believed to have originated during the Fatimid Caliphate primarily centered in Egypt, where Caliph al - Mu'izz li - Din Allah was greeted by people holding lanterns to celebrate his ruling. From that time, lanterns were used to light mosques and houses throughout the capital city of Cairo. Shopping malls, places of business, and people 's homes can be seen with stars and crescents and various lighting effects, as well.
As the nation with the world 's largest Muslim population, Indonesia has diverse Ramadan traditions. On the island of Java, many Javanese Indonesians bathe in holy springs to prepare for fasting, a ritual known as Padusan. The city of Semarang marks the beginning of Ramadan with the Dugderan carnival, which involves parading the Warak ngendog, a horse - dragon hybrid creature allegedly inspired by the Buraq. In the Chinese - influenced capital city of Jakarta, fire crackers were traditionally used to wake people up for morning prayer, until the 19th century. Towards the end of Ramadan, most employees receive a one - month bonus known as Tunjangan Hari Raya. Certain kinds of food are especially popular during Ramadan, such as beef in Aceh, and snails in Central Java. The iftar meal is announced every evening by striking the bedug, a giant drum, in the mosque.
Common greetings during Ramadan are "Ramadan Mubarak '' or "Ramadan Kareem '', which wish the recipient a blessed or generous Ramadan.
In some Muslim countries, failing to fast during Ramadan is considered a crime and is prosecuted as such. For instance, in Algeria, in October 2008 the court of Biskra condemned six people to four years in prison and heavy fines.
In Kuwait, according to law number 44 of 1968, the penalty is a fine of no more than 100 Kuwaiti dinars, (about US $330, GB £ 260 in May 2017) or jail for no more than one month, or both penalties, for those seen eating, drinking or smoking during Ramadan daytime. In some places in the U.A.E., eating or drinking in public during the daytime of Ramadan is considered a minor offence and would be punished by up to 150 hours of community service. In neighbouring Saudi Arabia, described by The Economist as taking Ramadan "more seriously than anywhere else '', there are harsher punishments including flogging, imprisonment and, for foreigners, deportation. In Malaysia, however, there are no such punishments.
In 2014 in Kermanshah, Iran, a non-Muslim was sentenced to having his lips burnt with a cigarette and five Muslims were publicly flogged with 70 stripes for eating during Ramadan.
Some countries have laws that amend work schedules during Ramadan. Under U.A.E. labor law, the maximum working hours are to be 6 hours per day and 36 hours per week. Qatar, Oman, Bahrain and Kuwait have similar laws.
In Egypt, alcohol sales are banned during Ramadan.
Schools all over the world criticize Ramadan. Not eating or drinking can lead to concentration problems and bad grades.
Ramadan fasting is safe for healthy people, but those with medical conditions should seek medical advice. The fasting period is usually associated with modest weight loss, but the weight tends to return afterwards.
A review of the literature by an Iranian group suggested fasting during Ramadan might produce renal injury in patients with moderate (GFR < 60 ml / min) or worse kidney disease, but was not injurious to renal transplant patients with good function or most stone - forming patients.
The correlation of Ramadan with crime rates is mixed: some statistics show that crime rates drop during Ramadan, while others show that it rises. Decreases in crime rates have been reported by the police in some cities in Turkey (Istanbul and Konya) and the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. A 2012 study showed that crime rates decreased in Iran during Ramadan, and that the decrease was statistically significant. A 2005 study found that there was a decrease in assault, robbery and alcohol - related crimes during Ramadan in Saudi Arabia, but only the decrease in alcohol - related crimes was statistically significant. Increases in crime rates during Ramadan have been reported in Turkey, Jakarta, parts of Algeria, Yemen and Egypt.
Various mechanisms have been proposed for the effect of Ramadan on crime:
The length of the dawn to sunset time varies in different parts of the world according to summer or winter solstices of the sun. Most Muslims fast for 11 -- 16 hours during Ramadan. However, in polar regions, the period between dawn and sunset may exceed 22 hours in summers. For example, in 2014, Muslims in Reykjavik, Iceland, and Trondheim, Norway, fasted almost 22 hours, while Muslims in Sydney, Australia, fasted for only about 11 hours. Muslims in areas where continuous night or day is observed during Ramadan follow the fasting hours in the nearest city where fasting is observed at dawn and sunset. Alternatively, Muslims may follow Mecca time.
Muslims will continue to work during Ramadan. The prophet Muhammad said that it is important to keep a balance between worship and work. In some Muslim countries, such as Oman, however, working hours are shortened during Ramadan. It is often recommended that working Muslims inform their employers if they are fasting, given the potential for the observance to impact performance at work. The extent to which Ramadan observers are protected by religious accommodation varies by country. Policies putting them at a disadvantage compared to other employees have been met with discrimination claims in the UK and the US.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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when was drink driving made illegal in the uk | Drunk driving law by country - wikipedia
The laws of driving under the influence vary between countries. One difference is the acceptable limit of blood alcohol content before a person is charged with a crime.
The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1968 -- 69 made it a per se offence to drive with a BAC in excess of 80 mg / 100 ml of blood. Refusal of a police officer 's demand to provide a breath sample was made an offence at the same time and both began as summary conviction offences, with a mandatory minimum $ 50 fine.
Some states now have two statutory offenses. The first is the traditional offense, variously called driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI), driving while intoxicated / impaired (DWI), operating under the influence (OUI), or operating while intoxicated / impaired (OWI). The second and more recent is the so - called illegal per se offense of driving with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) by volume (mass of alcohol / volume of blood) of 0.08 % (previously 0.10 %) or higher. In most states, the timing of the chemical test is important because the law mandates a result within a given time period after the driving stopped, usually two hours. The first offense requires proof of intoxication, although evidence of BAC is admissible as rebuttably presumptive evidence of that intoxication; the second requires only proof of BAC at the time of being in physical control of a motor vehicle. An accused may be convicted of both offenses, but may only be punished for one. The differences between state penalties still varies. Wisconsin, for instance, is the only state that continues to treat first offense drunk driving arrests as forfeiture.
Some states also include a lesser charge of driving with a BAC of 0.05 %; other states limit this offense to drivers under the age of 21. All states and DC also now have zero tolerance laws: the license of anyone under 21 driving with any detectable alcohol in their bloodstream (BAC limits of 0.01 % or 0.02 % apply in some states, such as Florida.) will be suspended. In 2009, Puerto Rico joined these states, setting a limit of 0.02 for drivers under 21, despite maintaining a legal drinking age of 18.
The blood alcohol limit for commercial drivers is 0.04 %. Pilots of aircraft may not fly within eight hours of consuming alcohol, while under the impairing influence of alcohol or any other drug, or while showing a blood alcohol concentration equal to or greater than 0.04 grams per decilitre of blood.
Utah became the first U.S. state to lower the legal limit to. 05 % BAC by volume on March 24, 2017. The law takes effect on December 30, 2018. The bill 's passage, HB155, was controversial in the state. A poll published on July 29, 2017 found 50 percent of Utahns supported the new law, but 47 percent opposed it.
Note: Take zero to usually mean below detection limit.
In British law it is a criminal offence to be drunk in charge of a motor vehicle. The definition depends on such things as being in or near the vehicle, and having access to a means of starting the vehicle 's engine and driving it away (i.e., the keys to a vehicle). A passenger in the vehicle can also be prosecuted if the police can prove that they were driving under the influence at some point.
The UK 's drug driving laws were updated in 2015. The changes included: a new roadside testing kit, which could detect the presence of cocaine and cannabis in a suspect 's saliva; zero tolerance limits for a number of illegal drugs, Limits were also set for certain prescription medications. The laws, however, did not end the use of the field impairment test, but made them more relevant for determining driver impairment by those drugs that are not now covered by the new legislation, or can not be identified by the limited use of a device, that currently are only authorised for cannabis and cocaine.
In the UK, driving or attempting to drive whilst above the legal limit or unfit through drink carries a maximum penalty of six months ' imprisonment, a fine of up to £ 5,000 and a minimum twelve months ' disqualification. For a second offence committed within ten years of conviction, the minimum ban is three years. Being in charge of a vehicle whilst over the legal limit or unfit through drink could result in three months ' imprisonment plus a fine of up to £ 2,500 and a driving ban. Causing death by careless driving when under the influence of alcohol or other drugs carries a maximum penalty of fourteen years in prison, a minimum two - year driving ban and a requirement to pass an extended driving test before the offender is able to drive legally again.
It is an offence to refuse to provide a specimen of breath, blood or urine for analysis. The penalties for refusing are the same as those for actual drunk driving.
The offence of driving whilst under the influence of alcohol is one to which there is no defence, as such (although defences such as duress or automatism, which are not specific to the offence of driving with excess alcohol, may apply in certain rare circumstances). However, it may be possible to argue that special reasons exist which are such that you should not be disqualified from driving despite having committed the offence. Special reasons are notoriously difficult to establish and the burden of proof is always upon the accused to establish them. Such reasons may include:
In England and Wales, when DWI offenders appear before a magistrates ' court, the magistrates have guidelines they refer to before they decide on a suitable sentence to give the offender. These guidelines are issued by the Sentencing Guidelines Council and cover offences for which sentence is frequently imposed in a magistrates ' court when dealing with adult offenders.
Offences can either be tried summarily which means they can only be heard in the magistrates ' court or they can be either way offences which means magistrates may find their sentencing powers are insufficient and indict the case to crown court. The majority of drunk driving offences are summary only offences which can only be tried in a magistrates ' court. Only the most serious offences such as a collision, death or injury involved are indicted to crown court. The maximum sentence magistrates can usually impose is a £ 5,000 fine, a six - month prison sentence or both.
As with England and Wales, road traffic law in Scotland is in the main framed within the Road Traffic Act 1988 as amended. Prosecution and disposal of drink - drive offences is broadly similar to England and Wales with less serious cases prosecuted on complaint through the sheriff summary courts. Cases involving aggravations, life - changing or fatal injuries are prosecuted on indictment via the sheriff solemn or high court. As with most UK - wide legislation, the penalties and sentencing guidelines for drunk driving in Scotland mirror those in effect in England and Wales.
Road laws are state or territory based, but all states and territories have set similar rules.
Australian law allow police officers to stop any driver and perform a random breath test without reason. Roadblocks can be set up (for example, leading out of town centres on Friday and Saturday nights and after football matches or other major events), where every single driver will be breath - tested.
This differs from UK and US laws where police generally need a reason to suspect that the driver is intoxicated before requesting a breath or sobriety test. It is an offence to refuse to provide a sample of breath when requested with severe penalties including prison.
There are also other restrictions for drivers in Victoria:
Readings over 0.08 % but under 0.15 % BAC, and 0.15 % BAC and above (legally defined as Drunk Driving) comprise separate offenses, the latter attracting heavier penalties. Persistent offenders may be barred from driving for terms up to and including life, and may also be imprisoned.
The law allows a police officer to require any driver to perform a random saliva test for methamphetamine, Cannabis or MDMA, all of which are subject to a zero limit.
New Zealand operates a program called Compulsory Breath Testing, which allows police to stop motorists at any time. CBT is usually carried out at roadside checkpoints but mobile patrol cars can also randomly stop motorists to administer a test. The police also carry out roadside drug tests upon motorists they suspect have used drugs.
The system in New Zealand is age - based. the limits are:
The penalties for exceeding the limits are:
Note that penalties apply to the lowest reading taken across both breath and blood tests. For example, if a driver twenty years or over has a breath test result of 426 μg / L but a subsequent blood test returns 0.077 % BAC, then the driver is not charged with any drink driving offence despite the breath reading being over the breath alcohol limit. The penalty for injuring or killing someone when under the influences is the same as dangerous driving (up to five years imprisonment, up to NZ $20,000 or both; loss of licence for one year or more).
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when is the last time the cleveland browns made the playoffs | List of NFL franchise postseason droughts - wikipedia
This is a list of current National Football League (NFL) franchise post-season and Super Bowl droughts (multiple consecutive seasons of not winning). Listed here are both appearance droughts and winning droughts in almost every level of the NFL playoff system.
As of the 2016 NFL season, every active NFL team has qualified for, and won a game in, the playoffs at least once. Teams that have never made it beyond each successive milestone are listed under the year in which they began NFL play.
Of the 13 teams that have never won the Super Bowl, four (4) are expansion franchises younger than the Super Bowl itself (Bengals, Panthers, Jaguars, and the Texans). The Falcons were enfranchised the season the Super Bowls began. The eight (8) other clubs (Cardinals, Lions, Eagles, Oilers / Titans, Chargers, Browns, Bills, and Vikings) all won an NFL or AFL championship prior to the AFL -- NFL merger; in the case of the Vikings, however, the Super Bowl existed at the time they won their league title, leaving them and the Falcons as the only two teams to have existed for as long as or longer than the Super Bowl and to have never secured the highest championship available to them. The longest drought since a championship of any kind is that of the Cardinals, at 69 seasons.
Note that for continuity purposes, the Cleveland Browns are officially considered to have suspended operations for the 1996, 1997 and 1998 seasons, and that the Baltimore Ravens are a separate team that began play in 1996. The Ravens, as a result of the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, absorbed the Browns ' personnel upon their suspension, but not their history.
Updated through the 2016 - 17 post season.
At 17 seasons, the Bills ' playoff drought is also the longest in major North American professional sports.
Updated through the 2016 season. Sortable table, click on header arrows.
(*): Franchise earned a bye in the Wild Card round. (* *): Franchise dormant 1996 -- 1998.
This is also a list of the last time a particular club won a Divisional playoff game.
(*): Franchise first played in 2002 season (* *): Franchise dormant 1996 -- 1998.
(*): Cleveland 's drought does not include three seasons (1996 -- 1998) where the franchise was dormant. (†): Team was based in St. Louis.
This list also counts all seasons since a team last won the league championship.
Listed according to seasons waited. Current NFL cities / regions only
Listed according to seasons waited. Updated through the 2016 season.
* * Does not include the three seasons (1996 -- 1998) during which the franchise suspended operations.
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This is a sortable table of all 32 current NFL teams. Ten teams have multiple losing streaks where they lost an equal number of post season games before breaking the drought.
Updated through the 2016 regular season.
Updated through the 2016 season. Note that the NFL did not institute a permanent playoff tournament until 1967 and that the NFL Championship Game and any impromptu one - game playoffs (played only in the event of a tie atop the division standings) were the only postseason matchups in this era (the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl is considered an exhibition game for the purpose of this list).
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who is related to both lady capulet and the prince | Characters in Romeo and Juliet - wikipedia
Prince Escalus, the Prince of Verona, is the desperate resolver of the feuding families. He is based on the actual Scaligeri family which ruled Verona, possibly on Bartolomeo I. Escalus is the voice of authority in Verona. He appears only three times within the text and only to administer justice following major events in the feud between the Capulet and Montague families. He first punishes Capulet and Montague for the quarrel between Tybalt, Benvolio, and a handful of servants. He returns too late to stop the fatal brawls between Tybalt and Mercutio and, subsequently, Tybalt and Romeo. Escalus is prepared to execute Romeo for his offence -- Romeo 's killing Tybalt -- but lightens the sentence to lifetime banishment from Verona, when Benvolio insists that Tybalt started the quarrel by murdering Mercutio, a kinsman to the Prince. He yells at Lord Montague for engaging in the feud, which really is the root cause which led to Tybalt killing Mercutio. So, according to him, he lost his dear kinsman because of Lord Montague, so by exiling Romeo, Escalus gives him a ' taste of Montague 's own medicine ', to see how Montague feels when he loses a loved one. Prince Escalus returns in the final scene -- V. iii -- following the double suicide of Romeo and Juliet, and at last declares the Lords Montague and Capulet guilty of Romeo and Juliet 's death, and angrily tells them that their totally useless feud resulted in the deaths of not only their own loved ones (Lady Montague, Romeo, Juliet, and Tybalt), but also in the deaths of Escalus ' loved ones (Mercutio and Paris). He curses the feud that kills Romeo and Juliet whom he really feels sad for, just before the Lords come to peace with each other. In the end, Prince Escalus becomes very happy that the feud has finally ended, even if with a heavy price, since it ended late.
Count Paris is a kinsman of Prince Escalus and seeks to marry Juliet. He is described as handsome, somewhat self - absorbed, and very wealthy.
Paris makes his first appearance in Act I, Scene II, where he expresses his wish to make Juliet his wife and the mother of his children. Capulet demurs, citing his daughter 's young age as a reason and telling him to wait until she is more mature. (Paris disagrees, however.) Nevertheless, Capulet invites Paris to attend a family ball being held that evening and grants permission to woo and attract Juliet. Later in the play, however, Juliet refuses to become Paris ' "joyful bride '' after her cousin Tybalt dies by her new husband Romeo 's hand, proclaiming that she now wants nothing to do with Paris. Her parents threaten to disown (or cut ties with) her if she will not agree to the marriage. Then, while at Laurence 's cell at the church, Paris tries to woo her by repeatedly saying that she is his wife and that they are to be married on Thursday. He kisses her and then leaves the cell, prompting Juliet to angrily threaten to kill herself with a knife. His final appearance in the play is in the cemetery where Juliet is "laid to rest '' in the Capulet family tomb. Believing her to be dead, Count Paris has come to mourn her death in solitude and privacy and sends his manservant away. He professes his love to Juliet, saying he will nightly weep for her (Act V, Scene III). Shortly thereafter, Romeo arrives. Paris sees him and thinks he is trying to vandalise the tomb, so he tries to arrest him. They fight, and Romeo kills Paris. Romeo grants Paris ' dying wish to be placed next to Juliet in the tomb.
Mercutio is the cousin of Prince Escalus and Count Paris, and is a close friend of Romeo and his cousin Benvolio. He supports and fights on the Montague side of the feud, and just like a Montague, hates the Capulet family. The invitation to the Capulet 's party reveals that he has a brother named Valentine. Mercutio is apt to make long, drawn out speeches (the most famous of which is the Queen Mab speech), and is generally thought to be reckless, a jester, and a free spirit. Due to his reckless and flamboyant personality, Mercutio is one of Shakespeare 's most popular characters. Mercutio is the instigator of many fights with his rather mean spirited humor, and often insults Tybalt, a renowned swordsman. It is Tybalt 's temper that leads to Mercutio 's death, and Romeo 's banishment and the tragedy that follows.
After Romeo receives a death threat from Tybalt, Mercutio expects Romeo to engage Tybalt in a duel. However, Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt, as Tybalt is Juliet 's cousin and therefore his kinsman. Not knowing this, Mercutio is incensed, and decides to fight Tybalt himself. Romeo, not wanting his best friend or his relative to get hurt, intervenes, causing Mercutio to be killed by Tybalt stabbing under Romeo 's arm.
Before he dies, Mercutio casts "a plague o ' both your houses! '' He makes one final pun before he dies: "Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man ''. In revenge for the murder of his best friend, Romeo slays Tybalt, thus leading to Romeo 's banishment from Verona and the increasingly tragic turn of events that follows.
Another page accompanies Paris to the Capulet 's crypt when he goes to mourn Juliet. He stands guard as Paris enters, ordered to "whistle then to me, / As signal that thou hear'st something approach ''. When Romeo and Paris break into a brawl, the page runs away to call the Watch. He returns with the Watch too late to stop the fray and later testifies to the Prince of Paris ' intentions.
The Capulet family (in Italian, the Capuleti) in the play was named after an actual political faction of the 13th century. Notably, the Capulet family is often portrayed as the ' bad ' side, as much of the conflict is caused by them. They are also more developed, since more attention is given to their family life.
Lord Capulet is the patriarch of the Capulet family, the father of Juliet, and uncle of Tybalt. He is very wealthy. He is sometimes commanding but also convivial, as at the ball: when Tybalt tries to incite a duel with Romeo, Capulet tries to calm him and then threatens to throw him out of the family if he does not control his temper; he does the same to his daughter later in the play.
Capulet believes he knows what is best for Juliet. He says his consent to the marriage depends upon what she wants and tells Count Paris that if he wants to marry Juliet he should wait a while then ask her. Later, however, when Juliet is grieving over Romeo 's departure, Capulet thinks her sorrow is due to Tybalt 's death, and in a misguided attempt to cheer her up, he wants to surprise her by arranging a marriage between her and Count Paris. The catch is that she has to be "ruled '' by her father and to accept the proposal. When she refuses to become Paris ' "joyful bride '', saying that she can "never be proud of what she hates '', Capulet becomes furious; threatens to make her a street urchin; calls her a "hilding '', "unworthy '', "young baggage '', a "disobedient wretch '', a "green - sickness carrion '', and "tallow - face ''; and says God 's giving Juliet to them was a "curse '' and he now realises he and his wife had one child too many when Juliet was born (in the earlier poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet). In addition to threatening to turn her out, he threatens to sentence her to rot away in prison if she does not obey her parents ' orders. He then storms away, and his wife also rejects Juliet before following him. He fixes the day of the marriage for Thursday and suddenly advances it to Wednesday out of anger and impulse. His actions indicate that his daughter 's wants were irrelevant all the way up to the point when he sees her unconscious on her bed (presumably dead) and later, when she is truly dead during the play 's final scene. It is he who asks Lord Montague for his hand to end the feud between their families.
Capulet 's wife is the matriarch of the house of Capulet and Juliet 's mother. She plays a larger role than Montague 's wife, appearing in several scenes. In Act 1, Scene 3, she speaks to Juliet about the marriage of her daughter and Paris, we see this as she compares him to a book, and Juliet is the cover. However, in Scene four, she is pleased about Count Paris ' "interest '' in her daughter. When Tybalt is killed in Act 3, she expresses extreme grief and a strong desire for revenge on Romeo by wishing death upon him. In Act 3, Scene 5, she becomes very angry with Juliet for refusing to marry Paris and coldly rejects her, saying: "Talk not to me, for I 'll not speak a word; do as thou wilt, for I am done with thee ''. By the final act, she is nearly overcome by the tragic events of the play, this is where the grief - stricken mother comes out. We know Juliet 's mother bore her first child by the time she was 14, Juliet 's age, and her husband is many years older than she. Calling her "Lady Capulet '' is a modern addition; it is an echo of Juliet 's form of address in 3.5. 65: "my lady mother ''. In the first texts the stage direction and speech headings can be "mother '', "wife '', or even "old lady '', but nowhere "Lady Capulet ''.
Juliet Capulet, the female protagonist, is the only daughter of Capulet, the patriarch of the Capulet family. As a child she was cared for by a Nurse, who is now her confidante.
Juliet dies at the end of the play, and the sacred lovers are reunited on the same deathbed. Both their families realise what they had done by trying to separate the star crossed lovers with the effect that the Capulets and Montagues are reunited and their fighting ends.
Tybalt is the son of Lady Capulet 's brother and Juliet 's hot - headed first cousin. As a skilled swordsman, he serves as the story 's principal antagonist. Tybalt is angered by the insult of Romeo and Benvolio 's uninvited presence at the ball in the Capulets ' home. Tybalt shares the same name as the character Tibert / Tybalt the "Prince of Cats '' in Reynard the Fox, a point of both mockery and compliment to him in the play. While Mercutio repeatedly calls Tybalt "Prince of Cats '' (referring to Tybalt 's speed and agility with the sword), Mercutio is also insulting Tybalt -- the phrase refers not only to Reynard but to the Italian word cazzo (pr. CAT - so) meaning "penis. ''
Tybalt is first seen coming to the aid of his servants who are being attacked by the Montagues ' servants. He is also present at Capulet 's feast in act one, scene five and is the first to recognise Romeo. His last appearance is in act 3 scene 1, wherein Mercutio insults Tybalt and ends up fighting with him. Tybalt kills Mercutio and, in retaliation, Romeo rages and kills Tybalt, resulting in Romeo 's banishment.
The Nurse is a major character in the play, and like the Friar she is a neutral character. There has been speculation about her name, as Capulet refers to as "Angelica '', but the line can be addressed to either the nurse or Lady Capulet. She is the personal servant (and former nurse) of Juliet 's. As the primary person who raised Juliet, she is Juliet 's confidante and effectively more of a mother to the girl than Lady Capulet.
Peter is the personal servant of the Nurse 's. He appears to be a loyal servant, always quick to obey the Nurse. He is chastised for not fighting Mercutio for the Nurse 's honour, but insists that he "saw no man use you a pleasure; if I had, / my weapon should quickly have been out ''. He appears again in act four, scene five in a brief comic relief scene with a number of musicians.
Gregory and Sampson are the Capulet servants. Gregory is originally hesitant to start a fight. Sampson, however, bites his thumb at Abram, "Which is a disgrace to them, if they bear it ''. The Montagues then retaliate in earnest. Benvolio arrives to break up the fight but ends up fighting with Tybalt. Both Gregory and Sampson appear to be friends of their master Tybalt 's.
In the opening scene, the two engage in a dialogue full of puns on "coal '' and "eye '', each intending to outdo the other and get each other ready to fight Montagues. The rhetorical form is called stychomythia, wherein characters participate in a short, quick exchanges of one - upmanship. Their discussion and brawl in this scene set the stage for the rivalry and hatred which fills the rest of the play.
Anthony, Potpan, and two other servants to the Capulet family play out a short comic scene in act one, scene five, arguing over the preparations for Capulet 's feast. Capulet 's servants are referenced again in act four, scene one; Capulet orders them to begin preparations for another party: the wedding of Juliet and Paris.
A servant to Capulet is sent to deliver party invitations to a number of nobles and friends to Capulet. While walking, he comes upon Romeo and Benvolio and asks them to read the list for him, as he can not read. As a thank you, he invites the boys to "come and crush a cup of wine, '' not realising that they are Montagues. This character may have been intended to be the same as Peter, and is usually identified in scripts either as Peter or as a Clown.
Old Capulet is Capulet 's cousin. He appears as an elderly man sitting with Capulet in the feast.
The Montague family (in Italian, "Montecchi '') was an actual political faction of the 13th century. The Montagues are generally portrayed as the ' better ' of the two families, as they are not seen to be provoking fights and are often found trying to avoid fighting whenever they could, and occasionally found trying to dissuade the fighters to return to peace.
The father of Romeo. Presumably, he is also wealthy, and is always in feud with Capulet. Montague clearly loves his son deeply and at the beginning of the play, worries for him as he recounts to Benvolio his attempts to find out the source of his depression. He wishes Benvolio better luck. After Romeo kills Tybalt, Montague pleads with the Prince to spare him of execution as Romeo did only what the law would have done, since Tybalt killed Mercutio. He appears again at the end of the play to mourn Romeo, having already lost his wife to grief.
Montague 's wife is the matriarch of the house of Montague, and the mother of Romeo and aunt of Benvolio. She appears twice within the play: in act one, scene one she first restrains Montague from entering the quarrel himself, and later speaks with Benvolio about the same quarrel. She returns with her husband and the Prince in act three, scene one to see what the trouble is, and is there informed of Romeo 's banishment. She dies of grief offstage soon after (mentioned in act five). She is very protective of her son Romeo and is very happy when Benvolio tells her that Romeo was not involved in the brawl that happened between the Capulets and Montagues. As with Capulet 's wife, calling her "Lady Montague '' is a later invention not supported by the earliest texts.
In the beginning of the play, Romeo pines for an unrequited love, Rosaline. To cheer him up, his cousin and friend Benvolio and Mercutio take him to the Capulets ' celebration in disguise, where he meets and falls in love with the Capulets ' only daughter, Juliet. Later that night, he and Juliet meet secretly and pledge to marry, despite their families ' long - standing feud. They marry the following day, but their union is soon thrown into chaos by their families; Juliet 's cousin Tybalt duels and kills Romeo 's friend Mercutio, throwing Romeo into such a rage that he kills Tybalt, and the Prince of Verona subsequently banishes him. Meanwhile, Juliet 's father plans to marry her off to Paris, a local aristocrat, within the next few days, threatening to turn her out on the streets if she does n't follow through. Desperate, Juliet begs Romeo 's confidant, Friar Laurence, to help her to escape the forced marriage. Laurence does so by giving her a potion that puts her in a deathlike coma. The plan works, but too soon for Romeo to learn of it; he genuinely believes Juliet to be dead, and so resolves to commit suicide, by drinking the bottle of poison (illegally bought from the Apothecary upon hearing the news of Juliet 's "death ''). Romeo 's final words were "Thus with a kiss I die ''. He kills himself at Juliet 's grave, moments before she awakes; she kills herself in turn shortly thereafter.
He is Montague 's nephew and Romeo 's cousin. Benvolio and Romeo are both friends of Mercutio, a kinsman to Prince Escalus. Benvolio seems to have little sympathy with the feud, trying unsuccessfully to back down from a fight with Tybalt, and the duels that end in Mercutio and Tybalt 's death. Benvolio spends most of Act I attempting to distract his cousin from his infatuation with Rosaline, but following the first appearance of Mercutio in I. iv, he and Mercutio become more closely aligned until III. i. In that scene, he drags the fatally wounded Mercutio offstage, before returning to inform Romeo of Mercutio 's death and the Prince of the course of Mercutio 's and Tybalt 's deaths. Benvolio then disappears from the play (though, as a Montague, he may implicitly be included in the stage direction in the final scene "Enter Lord Montague and others '', and he is sometimes doubled with Balthasar). Though he ultimately disappears from the play without much notice, he is a crucial character if only in that he is the only child of the new generation from either family to survive the play (as Romeo, Juliet, Paris, Mercutio, and Tybalt are dead).
Balthasar is Romeo 's servant and trusted friend. They have a brotherly relationship, which is identified when Balthasar tells Romeo that Juliet is "dead. '' While he is not directly referenced in the first scene of the play, the directions call for two Montague servants to quarrel with Sampson and Gregory. He then comes back in Act V Scene 1 telling Romeo about Juliet 's death. Later Friar Laurence runs past Balthasar and asks him where Romeo is. Balthasar tells him that he is inside the tomb. Then the Prince calls him in and asks him questions about why was he there. He gives the Prince the letter that explains why Juliet killed herself.
Abram is a servant of the Montague household. He appears in Act 1, Scene 1, where he and another servant (presumably Balthasar) are provoked into a fight with Gregory and Sampson when the latter bites his thumb at them.
Friar Lawrence plays the part of an advisor and mentor to Romeo, along with aiding in major plot developments.
Alone, the innocent Friar gives us foreshadowing with his soliloquy about plants and their similarities to humans. When Romeo requests that the Friar marry him to Juliet, he is shocked, because only days before, Romeo had been infatuated with Rosaline, a woman who did not return his love. Nevertheless, Friar Lawrence decides to marry Romeo and Juliet in the attempt to end the civil feud between the Capulets and the Montagues.
When Romeo is banished and flees to Mantua for murdering Tybalt (who had previously murdered Mercutio), he tries to help the two lovers get back together using a death - emulating potion to fake Juliet 's death. The Friar 's letter to Romeo does not reach him because the people of Mantua suspect the messenger came from a house where the plague reigns, and the Friar is unable to arrive at the Capulet 's monument in time. Romeo kills Count Paris, whom he finds weeping near Juliet 's corpse, then commits suicide, by drinking poison that he bought from an impoverished apothecary, over what he thinks is Juliet 's dead body. Friar Lawrence arrives just as Juliet awakes from her chemically induced slumber. He urges Juliet not to be rash, and to join a society of nuns, but he hears a noise from outside and then flees from the tomb. Juliet then kills herself with Romeo 's dagger, completing the tragedy. The Friar is forced to return to the tomb, where he recounts the entire story to Prince Escalus, and all the Montagues and Capulets. As he finishes, the prince proclaims, "We have still known thee for a holy man ''.
Friar John calls at the door of Friar Laurence 's cell, "Holy Franciscan friar! brother, ho! '' (5.2. 1). Friar Laurence comes out and immediately asks about Romeo: "Welcome from Mantua! What says Romeo? / Or, if his mind be writ, give me his letter '' (5.2. 3 -- 4). Friar John explains that he sought out another friar for company and found him in a house where he was visiting the sick, whereupon the health authorities, fearing there was pestilence in the house, confined both friars in the house so they would n't infect others. The authorities would n't even allow Friar John to use a messenger to send the letter back to Friar Laurence.
A Chorus gives the opening prologue and one other speech, both in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet.
The Chorus is an omniscient character. It appears at the top of the play to fill the audience in on the ancient quarrel between the, "Two households, both alike in dignity / In fair Verona, where we lay our scene ''. It returns as a prologue to act two to foreshadow the tragic turn of events about to befall the new romance between the title characters.
The Chorus only appears in the Quarto versions, not in the First Folio.
The Apothecary is a pharmacist in Mantua who reluctantly sells Romeo 's poison, only because he 's poor and is also in desperate need of monetary support.
The Watch of Verona takes the form of three watchmen. The First Watch appears to be the constable, who orders the Second and Third to "search about the churchyard! '' Unusual for a Shakespearean watch group, they appear to be a relatively intelligent unit, managing to capture and detain Balthasar and Friar Laurence in the churchyard. They then testify to the Prince to their role in the murder and suicide scene.
Three musicians for Juliet 's wedding appear in act four, scene five in a brief comic scene, refusing to play a song called "Heart 's ease '' for Peter. They are referred to by the names of Simon Catling, Hugh Rebeck, and James Soundpost.
A number of citizens emerge during Act I, Scene I to break apart the fight between some Capulet and Montague servants. They appear again in Act III, Scene I to discover the slain body of Tybalt, at which point they place Benvolio under citizen 's arrest until the Prince 's swift entrance.
Petruchio is a guest at the Capulet feast. He is notable only in that he is the only ghost character confirmed by Shakespeare to be present. When the party ends and Juliet inquires towards Romeo 's identity, the Nurse attempts to avoid the subject by answering that Juliet is pointing at "the young Petruchio ''. Later, he is with Tybalt when he fatally wounds Mercutio, and a few scripts identify a Capulet with one line by that name. Petruchio is also the name of a major character in Shakespeare 's earlier work, The Taming of the Shrew.
Rosaline is an unseen character and niece of Capulet. Although silent, her role is important: her lover, Romeo, first spots her cousin Juliet while trying to catch a glimpse of Rosaline at a Capulet gathering.
Before Juliet, Romeo was deeply intrigued with another woman that did n't return his feelings. Scholars generally compare Romeo 's short - lived love of Rosaline with his later love of Juliet. Rosaline means "fair rose ''. The poetry he writes for Rosaline is much weaker than that for Juliet. Scholars believe his early experience with Rosaline prepares him for his relationship with Juliet. Later performances of Romeo and Juliet have painted different pictures of Romeo and Rosaline 's relationship, with filmmakers experimenting by making Rosaline a more visible character.
Valentine is Mercutio 's brother, briefly mentioned as a guest at the Capulet feast where Romeo and Juliet meet. He is a ghost character with no speaking parts, and his only possible appearance is at the Capulet feast among the guests. "Valentine '' has been taken to mean "lover '' or "brother '', and is associated with these attributes in several stories and histories. Scholars have pointed out that Valentine is more strongly connected to a major character than other ghosts, as he is given a direct connection to his brother. Although he has a very small role in Shakespeare 's play, earlier versions of the story gave him no role or mention at all. In fact, they gave even Mercutio a very minor role. Shakespeare was the first English dramatist to use the name "Valentine '' on stage, in his earlier plays, Titus Andronicus and Two Gentlemen of Verona. In Titus, Valentine plays a minor role, but in Two Gentlemen, he is one of the title characters. Incidentally, the Valentine of Two Gentlemen borrows heavily from Arthur Brooke 's Romeus in The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet, which Shakespeare later used to create Romeo and Juliet. Brooke 's version made Mercutio a rival for Juliet 's love. Shakespeare 's addition of Valentine as Mercutio 's brother diffuses this rivalry. Thus, because the first time we hear of Mercutio he is associated with Valentine, rather than Juliet, he is changed from a rival to a friend and brotherly figure of Romeo.
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when does tara tell jax she is pregnant | Tara Knowles - wikipedia
Dr. Tara Grace Knowles - Teller is a fictional character on the FX drama Sons of Anarchy, played by Maggie Siff.
Tara is a native of Charming, California. (She said her heritage was half - Irish.) Her mother died when Tara was nine, and according to ATF Agent Stahl, Tara had a "drunk daddy '', whom Tara described as a "bit of a packrat ''. Tara was Jax Teller 's high - school sweetheart, and during that era she had a crow tattooed on her lower back representing her connection to SAMCRO. Tara was arrested in Jax 's company at least three times in 1996. She left town when Jax was 19, in order to get away from small - town life and the influence of the club. According to his mother Gemma, this broke Jax 's heart.
After leaving Charming, Tara moved in with a cousin of her father 's, who lived in San Diego, studied at UC San Diego, and graduated with honors. She then attended medical school in Chicago (either Feinberg Medical School at Northwestern University, according to her file in "Fun Town '', or "Loyola Med '' according to Agent Stahl in "Better Half '') where she was at the top of her class, then she completed an internship at Chicago Presbyterian.
While in Chicago, Tara dated ATF agent Joshua Kohn, and got pregnant, and had an abortion at six weeks. Kohn became intimidating, violent, and obsessive, so she took out a restraining order against him several months before she returned to Charming, after an absence of 10 years.
Tara works as a Pediatric resident at the local hospital, St. Thomas. It is there that she tends to Jax 's gravely ill infant son Abel during Abel 's hospitalization.
Tara lives in her childhood home, which she inherited from her father when he died. She also drives a Cutlass her father had parked in the garage under "two tons of old newspapers ''.
Tara 's relationship with Jax upon her return to Charming is based primarily on their mutual concern for gravely ill Abel. Her psychotic ex-boyfriend Agent Kohn comes to Charming under the pretext of investigating SAMCRO, but is really there because he wants to resume his relationship with Tara. Afraid for her life, Tara seeks Jax 's help in driving off Kohn. Jax stabs Kohn 's car on her behalf, beats him bloody in an altercation at Floyd 's barber shop, and then escorts him out of town. When Kohn returns in the dead of night and attacks Tara in her home, she shoots him in the gut and calls Jax for help.
When Jax arrives he is furious about the attack and shoots Agent Kohn in the head. Tara and Jax then fall into each other 's arms and make love while Kohn 's iPod plays the Andy Williams song "Ca n't Get Used to Losing You '' on a continuous loop.
Following the killing of Kohn, Jax and Tara seem to settle into a largely healthy and positive romantic relationship. Tara spends more time with Jax at the clubhouse, plays nice with Gemma, and works to heal wounded club associate Cameron Hayes.
The Jax - Tara relationship soon seems to disintegrate after his ex-wife Wendy returns from rehab. In the penultimate season - one episode "The Sleep of Babies '', Tara is seen sleeping alone while Jax and Wendy make love. In the final episode of the first season, "The Revelator '', Tara tells Jax that she has arranged to return to Chicago as she does not believe she is cut out for life in Charming. This angers Jax, and he storms off. At the end of the episode Tara is seen to have changed her mind, and she turns up at Donna 's funeral, where she and Jax share a kiss.
Season two shows Tara officially becoming Jax 's "old lady '' and becoming integrated into the club 's world. After Gemma is raped, she turns to Tara for medical help. Tara encourages Gemma to seek out counseling to deal with the psychological repercussions of the attack but Gemma is reluctant. Tara 's help with Gemma combined with her efforts at raising Abel begins to heal the rift between Tara and Gemma. Tara 's connection with Jax and SAMCRO, on the other hand, causes problems for her at work. When Gemma accidentally breaks Tara 's nose after being startled, Margaret Murphy (a hospital administrator) assumes that Jax is responsible and warns Tara about the possible repercussions of being associated with SAMCRO. Later, Margaret files a "hostile work environment '' complaint against Tara after Gemma confronts the administrator about the hospital 's desire to move Chibs to another facility because of an insurance issue. Chibs later falsely complains of head pain and is able to stay at the hospital. Margaret accuses Tara of coaching Chibs with his symptoms and has Tara 's privileges suspended.
When Jax decides that he wanted to go nomad, Tara is upset that he made the decision without consulting her. However, unlike everyone else connected to the club, she feels like it might be the right decision given the tension between Jax and Clay.
Gemma lets Tara know that as Jax 's "old lady '', Tara has considerable prestige and respect in the club when other women in the club defer to her, and that she should n't "take any shit '' from anyone. Later, Tara confronts Margaret. The altercation turns violent and Tara then chokes and punches her. She tells Margaret, "I know where you live, I know where your kids go to school '' and informs her that the cops are on SAMCRO 's payroll and that the club runs Charming. Tara advises Margaret to keep her mouth shut and retract her complaint. Margaret immediately agrees.
In the season two finale, Tara attempts to convince Gemma to not get revenge on those that raped her, but is unsuccessful. She is present at Jax 's home when Cameron Hayes appears, and is tied to a chair by him before he kidnaps Abel Teller. Tara is untied by Jax and tells him what has happened to his son. Jax and the rest of the club unsuccessfully try to save Abel while Tara is later seen being consoled by Deputy David Hale.
Tara is still saddened by the loss of Abel. As time goes by, Jax continues to push her away with increasing vehemence. She feels Jax is pushing her away because he blames her for not preventing Abel 's kidnapping. She visits a fugitive Gemma and helps her kill Gemma 's father 's caretaker. Tig helps the two of them cover it up. Tara later reveals to Gemma that she is six weeks pregnant.
After Jax leaves Tara, she catches him with CaraCara porn star, Ima. Tara then starts packing her things at Jax 's house. He apologizes for what she saw earlier, but she feels he wanted her to see it, because he wants her gone and knew it was the one thing that would drive her away. She expresses that she thinks he is doing this because he hates her for what happened to Abel. Jax says that it is to protect her, but Tara does n't believe him. When Jax goes after her, she is already pulling out of the driveway. As Tara leaves Jax 's house it is shown that the recently ousted Calaveras MC leader, Hector Salazar, has been secretly stalking her and Jax.
Tara considers having an abortion, as she believes Jax is not ready for another child. Gemma tries to convince Tara to wait until Jax gets back from Belfast and look into Abel 's eyes before she does anything. Gemma wants Tara to try to mend the relationship, because Jax has n't been thinking clearly since Abel 's abduction. Tara ultimately helps Gemma escape police custody so Gemma can go with Clay and Jax to Belfast.
Lyla asks Tara if she knows of any clinics that conduct abortions. When she goes with Lyla to have the procedure, they have a conversation about why Lyla is having the abortion. It turns out Lyla is having the same problems with Opie. He wo n't open up to her in fear of what might happen. Lyla also feels the baby is an inconvenience because she wants to continue working as a porn star. After the conversation, Tara schedules an abortion for herself, as well. Later, Tara reveals to Margaret Murphy that she is going to have an abortion; Margaret agrees it is a good idea and offers to drive Tara to the clinic. On the way, Salazar stages a car accident and abducts Margaret and Tara.
While Tara and Margaret are being held by Salazar, he becomes upset when his hostage demands are n't met and threatens to kill Margaret. Tara tries to persuade him not to and when he does n't listen to her, she causes a distraction. She attacks Salazar 's girlfriend and tries to get away. Salazar kicks her hard in the stomach. He goes to kick her a second time but stops when Tara tells him that she is pregnant.
When Tara gets a chance to go to the bathroom, she breaks off a piece of a mirror to use as a weapon. When Salazar 's girlfriend breaks into the bathroom, Tara cuts her neck and almost escapes with Margaret, but Salazar stops them. After a stand off, Tara tells him his girlfriend is in the bathroom bleeding badly. She says she will keep his girlfriend alive if he lets Margaret go. When Salazar 's girlfriend dies in the car, he throws Tara against the car and puts a gun to her head.
Salazar takes Tara to Jacob Hale 's office, where he takes Hale hostage as well. When he gives his list of demands, one of them is for Jax to come to Hale 's office. Tara sees Salazar pull out a knife, and he tells her he plans to kill her while Jax watches and then kill Jax. As Jax enters the office, Salazar is about to kill Tara, but Jacob Hale stabs him instead. Jax wrestles the gun from Salazar, gives it to Tara, and tells her to kill anyone who is not a cop. When the whole ordeal is over with Jax and Tara go to the doctor for an ultrasound to make sure the baby was not harmed. The baby is healthy and Jax and Tara hear the heartbeat and see the baby on the ultrasound. Jax and Tara then go to Gemma 's house where Gemma hugs her. Tara sees Abel and happily holds him and welcomes him back home. In the season finale, Tara has become more involved with the club. She drives Jimmy O back to the garage in the trunk after SAMCRO buys him from the Russians. Jax makes sure that she wears a bulletproof vest to ensure her safety in case something goes wrong. When Stahl tells the club about the deal Jax made with her, which was actually a trap by the club to kill Stahl and Jimmy, she runs and hugs him distraught and fearing that the club will kill him in prison. In the closing minute of the season 3 finale, Tara reads letters from John Teller to his mistress Maureen Ashby implying that Gemma and Clay would be responsible for his death should it happen. The close up shot of Tara 's face transitions to Jax 's face, thus ending season 3.
Bridge between end of Season 3 and beginning of Season 4: By the end of season 3 when Jax and the other Samcro members were hauled off to prison, Tara is a little over 8 weeks pregnant. However, in a special feature "appisode '' (titled: Tara and Piney) - that took place day 85 of Jax 's incarceration; a pregnant Tara is shown about 5 months along. In this appisode, Tara goes to Piney for information on John Teller 's death but is rebuked and told not to investigate further and that the past was "dead and buried ''. In another special "appisode '' (titled: Second Son) - which bridges the gap between seasons; Tara and Gemma visit Jax in prison. Tara has just given birth to baby Thomas, and she brings the baby to meet Jax for the first time. Jax is overjoyed. He apologizes for missing the delivery and promises he would n't miss anything important ever again.
At the beginning of Season 4 Tara is waiting to greet Jax on his return home. When Jax arrives he and Tara spend a little time with Abel and Thomas before Jax has to go inside the clubhouse for a meeting. When Tara and Jax meet at their house later, they waste no more time and begin making love. Jax then proposes to Tara by putting a ring on their son Thomas 's finger. Before Tara can fully accept they have a serious talk about the future of their family. Jax explains that he is done with SAMCRO, but he has to stay until Clay steps down as president because he and Gemma wo n't let Jax walk away without conflict. He does assure her that as soon as Clay retires and once he has saved enough money to avoid living off his wife he will leave SAMCRO and they will start fresh as a normal family.
Later, at Opie and Lyla 's wedding, Jax is the best man and Tara is the maid of honor. The next day Tara and Jax are having breakfast with their sons when they see on the news a story about four dead bodies found at the construction site of Charming Heights. She asks Jax to tell her all he knows about it. He tells her it was retaliation for him getting stabbed in prison. Later on she encounters Gemma in her office who asks why Tara is not wearing her engagement ring. Tara simply tells Gemma that she and Jax are just waiting for the right time to tell everyone. Later at the clubhouse a distraught Tara is reunited with Jax after he is rescued from the Russians. There she discovers, along with Jax, that the clubhouse had been trashed by Sheriff Roosevelt. To lighten up the mood she decides to announce the engagement.
During the season (and before) Tara has become more fearful of the consequences of being involved with SAMCRO and increasingly begins to think about the effect it will have on her son. This leads Tara to make the decision of leaving town with her son until things settle down. Tara is also conflicted about the letters from Maureen Ashby. Gemma has found out she has them and tries most of the season to obtain them and destroy them. Piney also shows interest in them as a way to blackmail Clay, but Tara keeps them protected. Clay finds out about the letters and he is so fearful of them getting out, that he takes out a hit on her life from Romeo. Eventually after confronting Gemma about the letters, Tara admits that she is not capable of showing the letters to Jax, feeling that if he knew who his father truly was, Jax would get deeper into the club out of guilt, therefore getting him further from her.
Tara eventually heads to a medical conference in Oregon and takes Abel and Thomas with her, most likely for an indefinite stay. Jax accompanies her and on the way there the assassins hired by Clay try to kill her. Tara survives thanks to Jax, however during the fight her right hand gets smashed in a van door. Her hand is repaired, but the nerves are terribly damaged. Her doctor affirms it is unknown if it is permanent but she feels otherwise and believes her career to be over. Jax, extremely upset himself, tries to comfort her, but Tara has become distant and asks him to leave her alone. She feels that now their future is set and they will never get out of Charming. She 's later encouraged by Jax that everything will go as they had planned, which Tara barely believes.
During the day she 's visited by Jax 's ex-wife Wendy, who makes it clear that she wants to know Abel better, as she gave up custody but not the right to know him. This unnerves Tara who feels she is Abel 's true mother and becomes fearful that Wendy will take him away from her. Wendy leaves her number and Tara smashes the vase of flowers, screaming in anger. She 's later put under psych watch and restrained to her bed. Jax begins to feel at a loss as how to take care of and comfort her.
Later Gemma comes to see her and confesses that it was Clay who wanted her dead because of the letters, which she gives to Gemma. She reveals later to Gemma that she was fully aware of her plan to have Clay killed by Jax and hide the letters that involve her and Unser, to prompt Jax to stay as President. Tara gives Jax a blood thinner to inject into Clay, who is recuperating at St. Thomas. She then tells Jax, in front of Gemma, that he will kill Clay and come get her and the boys, so they can leave Charming forever. This plan fails as Jax is forced to stay due to the influence of Romeo Parada and Luis Torres who are undercover CIA agents. They need SAMCRO to provide weapons and transport drugs or they will crush the club. Understanding that Jax has to become President, Tara decides to remain with him. In the season finale, with Gemma watching Tara stands behind Jax at the head of the table, one arm draped around him, mirroring a photo of Gemma and John Teller.
The season begins with Tara 's hand in a cast unable to perform surgeries. Despite losing ability to operate, she supports Jax as President of SAMCRO. The couple lacks certainty of "where it all goes, '' but Jax is clear that "no matter what happens, I want you to be my wife. '' Tara mocks the romanticism of a spontaneous wedding at Diosa to which Jax jokes, "I killed a Fed for you... nothing says endless love like capital murder. '' A judge marries them in a quick ceremony with wedding rings that belonged to Gemma and JT. Tension rises between Tara and Gemma over controlling the family. Tara places Abel and Thomas in hospital daycare with Jax 's support. Tara gains power by shutting out Gemma, who is not on visitor list at first. Gemma tries to hurt Tara by using Wendy to threaten a custody suit. Tara stands firm by warning Gemma not to hurt her or her family or Jax "might kill you. '' Tara strategically plans squashing RICO case with Lowen, Bobby and Jax. She volunteers at Stockton State Prison and asks Otto to recant his RICO statement.
Tara extends an olive branch to Gemma by placing her on daycare visitor 's list and allowing her to watch the boys. Gemma is stoned when she wrecks her car with Abel and Thomas in the backseat. Tara punches Gemma when she confesses to being high while driving with the boys. Tara 's fears intensify over the increasing threats to her family; she starts to defend and protect them in Gemma - like ways. Tara cuts her out of the family, but agrees to let Gemma back in if she helps Jax with getting intel from Clay on plot to undermine his leadership. Tara receives good prognosis for her hand and gets recruited for a surgical job in Oregon. Meanwhile, Otto agrees to Tara 's plea on RICO if she will bring him Luann 's crucifix.
Tara 's career is on the line when she is investigated as an accessory to Otto 's brutal murder of a prison nurse that was killed with Luann 's crucifix. Jax assures Tara that they will get through the investigation just like they get through everything else to which she quips, "that 's what scares me. '' She becomes guarded when Jax does n't walk away after meeting his goal to save the MC with RICO shutdown. She is pressed to reply to the offer and internally struggles with moving on as it is the "last chance '' for her and Jax to get out of Charming. While meeting to prepare Tara 's defense, Lowen prompts Tara to think about legal custody of sons if anything was to happen to her. Tara agrees to Providence Health & Services job offer before telling Jax.
Wendy confronts Tara with reality of risk associated with MC and shows her the shoulder bruise from the force of Jax jamming a speedball needle into it. Tara gasps with shock realizing that Jax is losing his way. The prison nurse 's brother, Lee Toric, confronts Tara at the hospital and threatens to avenge her death. More than ever, Tara needs someone trustworthy to name as guardian of her sons in case of imprisonment or death. Tara has no permanent nerve damage and will be able to operate again. Tara requests clarity from Jax who does not come clean about intimidating Wendy.
Gemma confronts Tara about Providence Health & Services offer and threatens Tara "I 'm done with your power push. '' Gemma threatens to tell investigators that Tara planned the killing of an innocent nurse to reverse RICO. Tara enlists Wendy as guardian and is now more determined to pull her sons out of Charming 's "cesspool. '' Jax disapproves of Wendy as Guardian, but Tara insists it is her ' job as an old lady to be strong... when and where (he) ca n't be. '' She tells him she accepted a job offer in Oregon to spare them from becoming like Gemma and Clay, which will force the boys to relive their mistakes.
The season ends with Tara 's arrest for conspiracy to commit Pamela Toric 's murder.
After a season of failed attempts to get herself and her sons out of Charming (including a false pregnancy and subsequently faked miscarriage to bar Gemma Teller - Morrow from gaining custody of Abel and Thomas, should Tara go to prison), and after Tara and Jax 's relationship was tested (Tara and Jax are having problems with her being behind bars for her involvement in the death of a nurse. Jax is seen at the end of episode 1 cheating on Tara with Colette Jane, an escort handler) Tara finds herself at odds with everyone she was supposed to be able to trust and chooses to use the bullet she pulled from Bobby Munson 's shoulder as evidence necessary to grant her witness protection, in turn making her a rat and a liability to the MC and to Jax himself. In a last - minute plot twist, Jax finds Tara at a park in Lodi. They talk for several minutes and then the scene cuts to the motel room Tara had been hiding in. The two come to an understanding and Jax surrenders himself to the mercy of DA Tyne Patterson in exchange for Tara 's immunity for all the crimes she committed on behalf the MC, specifically that of the murder of Pamela Toric, for which she was accused in season 5 but did not have anything to do with. The DA agrees to what Jax offers her after a few moments of reluctance to believe that he will come through. With that, Jax has let Tara know that he truly loves her and their sons more than anything. They cry and make love. Tara and Jax agree to meet the DA at the Teller home at 6pm after he spends his last hours as a free man with his sons. He tells Chibs and Bobby he will most likely be sentenced to 25 years, with parole in 10, 7 if he 's lucky. Tara gets home earlier than expected and the house is empty, save for Eli, the sheriff, who entered the house with her so they could talk in private and he could help her bring her suitcases into the house, as she decided not to run away and do what Jax asked of her; raise their sons.
When Eli leaves, stating he 'll be outside, Tara calls for Wayne, assuming his truck outside meant he was in the house. Caught off guard, Gemma comes out of the laundry room and lunges for Tara, who can not escape in time. Gemma hits her with an iron but does n't knock her out. Tara struggles against Gemma 's beating and her head is badly smashed on the sink, where Gemma then attempts to drown her. In one of the show 's most gruesome moments, Tara struggles for several seconds before Gemma grabs a barbecue fork and stabs Tara multiple times in the back of the head and her neck. Blood gushing out of the back of her head, Tara collapses and dies.
Lt. Roosevelt walks in on the scene and discovers Gemma sitting on the floor next to Tara 's body, in obvious shock. Gemma is mumbling incoherently about how it had to be done because she was going to rat out the MC. Roosevelt tells her she did n't rat out the MC, and that Jax is giving himself up to protect her. Immediately after this, Juice walks in, sees the scene, shoots Lt. Roosevelt twice in the back and then comforts Gemma. After this he begins cleaning up the murder scene. Jax returns home later that evening. He sees Lt. Roosevelt 's legs on the kitchen floor, draws his gun, and then enters the kitchen, where he finds both Eli and Tara dead on the floor. Stunned, he drops his gun at Eli 's feet and cradles Tara in his arms.
The New York Times ' series - premiere review remarked on the "chemistry '' between Jax and Tara, and described the character as "beautiful... refined and book - smart. ''
TV Squad credited Siff with a "superior performance '' and the Chicago Tribune described her as "excellent. ''
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what is a stumbling block in the bible | Stumbling block - wikipedia
A stumbling block or scandal in the Bible, or in politics (including history), is a metaphor for a behavior or attitude that leads another to sin or to destructive behaviour.
The origin of the metaphor is the prohibition of putting a stumbling block before the blind (Leviticus 19: 14). Geoffrey W. Bromiley calls the image "especially appropriate to a rocky land like Palestine ''. In the Hebrew Bible, the term for "stumbling block '' is Biblical Hebrew miḵšōl (מִכְשׁוֹל). In the Septuagint, miḵšōl is translated into Koine Greek skandalon (σκανδαλον), a word which occurs only in Hellenistic literature, in the sense "snare for an enemy; cause of moral stumbling ''. In the Septuagint Psalms 140: 9 a stumbling block means anything that leads to sin.
The New Testament usages of skandalon, such as Matthew 13: 41, resemble Septuagint usage. It appears 15 times in the New Testament in 12 unique verses according to Strong 's Concordance. These passages are: Matthew 13: 41, Matthew 16: 23, Matthew 18: 7 (3 times), Luke 17: 1, Romans 9: 33, Romans 11: 9, Romans 14: 13, Romans 16: 17, 1 Corinthians 1: 23, Galatians 5: 11, 1 Peter 2: 8, 1 John 2: 10, and Revelation 2: 14.
The noun skandalon has a derived verb, skandalizo (formed with the - iz suffix as English "scandalize ''), meaning literally "to trip somebody up '' or, idiomatically, "to cause someone to sin. '' This verb appears 29 times in 27 New Testament verses.
Apart from skandalon the idiom of "stumbling block '' has a second synonym in the Greek term proskomma "stumbling. '' Both words are used together in 1 Peter 2: 8; this is a "stone of stumbling '' (lithos proskommatos λίθος προσκόμματος) and a "rock of offense '' (petra skandalou πέτρα σκανδάλου). The antonymous adjective aproskopos (ἀπρόσκοπος), "without causing anyone to stumble, '' also occurs three times in the New Testament.
The Leviticus warning is developed in rabbinical Judaism as lifnei iver "before the blind. ''
"Scandal '' is discussed by Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theologica. In the 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, it is discussed under the fifth commandment (Thou shalt not kill) section "Respect for the Dignity of Persons ''.
Active scandal is performed by a person; passive scandal is the reaction of a person to active scandal ("scandal given '' or in Latin scandalum datum), or to acts which, because of the viewer 's ignorance, weakness, or malice, are regarded as scandalous ("scandal received '' or in Latin scandalum acceptum).
In order to qualify as scandalous, the behavior must, in itself, be evil or give the appearance of evil. To do a good act or an indifferent act, even knowing that it will inspire others to sin -- as when a student studies diligently to do well, knowing it will cause envy -- is not scandalous. Again, to ask someone to commit perjury is scandalous, but for a judge to require witnesses to give an oath even when he knows the witness is likely to commit perjury is not scandalous. It does not require that the other person actually commit sin; to be scandalous, it suffices that the act is of a nature to lead someone to sin. Scandal is performed with the intention of inducing someone to sin. Urging someone to commit a sin is therefore active scandal. In the case where the person urging the sin is aware of its nature and the person he is urging is ignorant, the sins committed are the fault of the person who urged them. Scandal is also performed when someone performs an evil act, or an act that appears to be evil, knowing that it will lead others into sin. (In case of an apparently evil act, a sufficient reason for the act despite the faults it will cause negates the scandal.) Scandal may also be incurred when an innocent act may be an occasion of sin to the weak, but such acts should not be foregone if the goods at stake are of importance.
The term "stumbling block '' is common in Protestant writings. An early use was Martin Luther 's consideration that the common belief that the Mass was a sacrifice was a "stumbling block. ''
The Greek word skandalon was borrowed from Greek to Latin to French, and finally to English as "scandal ''. The modern English meaning of scandal is a development from the religious meaning, via the intermediate sense of "damage to reputation ''.
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where was the law written in the old testament | Old Testament - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of Christian Bibles, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God. The second part of the Christian Bible is the New Testament.
The books that comprise the Old Testament canon, as well as their order and names, differ between Christian denominations. The Catholic canon comprises 46 books, and the canons of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches comprise up to 51 books and the most common Protestant canon comprises 39 books. The 39 books in common to all the Christian canons correspond to the 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the splitting of several texts (Kings, Samuel and Chronicles, Ezra -- Nehemiah and the minor prophets) into separate books in Christian bibles. The books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as deuterocanonical. In general, Protestant Bibles do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions of Anglican and Lutheran bibles place such books in a separate section called Apocrypha.
The Old Testament consists of many distinct books by various authors produced over a period of centuries. In the most accepted hypothesis, the canon formed in stages, first the Pentateuch by around 400 BC, then the Prophets during the Hasmonean dynasty (140 - 116 BC), and finally the remaining books.
Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: (1) the first five books or Pentateuch (Torah); (2) the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; (3) the poetic and "Wisdom books '' dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and (4) the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.
The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the Pentateuch (Torah), the historical books, the "wisdom '' books and the prophets.
The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic New American Bible Revised Edition and the Protestant Revised Standard Version and English Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609 -- 10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by Bishop Challoner (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.
For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias '' (for Isaiah).
In the spirit of ecumenism more recent Catholic translations (e.g. the New American Bible, Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same "standardized '' (King James Version) spellings and names as Protestant Bibles (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1 -- 2 Samuel and 1 -- 2 Kings instead of 1 -- 4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the protocanonicals.
The Talmud (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in Bava Batra 14b gives a different order for the books in Nevi'im and Ketuvim. This order is also cited in Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah 7: 15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.
The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the Biblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern Protestant Bibles. Catholics, following the Canon of Trent (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name of anagignoskomena, meaning "that which is to be read. '' They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German Luther Bible included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version.
Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.
Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
The first five books -- Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy -- reached their present form in the Persian period (538 -- 332 BC), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so - called "Deuteronomistic history '') during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC. The two Books of Chronicles cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC. Chronicles, and Ezra -- Nehemiah, were probably finished during the 3rd century BC. Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) Books of Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets -- Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the twelve "minor prophets '' -- were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later. The "wisdom '' books -- Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, Song of Solomon -- have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332 - 198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th Century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd Century BC.
God is consistently depicted as the one who created or put into order the world and guides its history. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as the only God who exists, he is always depicted as the only God whom Israel is to worship, or the one "true God '', that only the Jehovah of Israel is Almighty, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the Bible (both the "Old '' and "New '' Testaments) as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.
The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel, but includes instructions for proselytes as well. This relationship is expressed in the biblical covenant (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as Exodus and especially Deuteronomy are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel 's special protector and supporter.
Further themes in the Old Testament include salvation, redemption, divine judgment, obedience and disobedience, faith and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on ethics and ritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands social justice above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament 's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many sexual misdemeanors. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.
The problem of evil plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the Babylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.
The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing. '' He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the Torah (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.
Hebrew texts commenced to be translated into Greek in Alexandria in about 280 and continued until about 130 BC. These early Greek translations -- supposedly commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus -- were called the Septuagint (Latin: "Seventy '') from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "LXX ''). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: 1 and 2 Esdras, Judith, Tobit, 3 and 4 Maccabees, the Book of Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch. Early modern Biblical criticism typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the Masoretes in their work.
The Septuagint was originally used by Hellenized Jews whose knowledge of Greek was better than Hebrew. But the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the lingua franca of the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus the Ebionite, and Theodotion; in his Hexapla, Origen placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside its transcription in Greek letters and four parallel translations: Aquila 's, Symmachus 's, the Septuagint 's, and Theodotion 's. The so - called "fifth '' and "sixth editions '' were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of Jericho and Nicopolis: these were added to Origen 's Octapla.
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon, however, Jerome (347 -- 420), in his Prologue to Judith, makes the claim that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures ''.
In Western Christianity or Christianity in the Western half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the Vetus Latina, which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome 's work, called the Vulgate, was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds. His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the Sixto - Clementine Vulgate, while the Churches in the East continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.
Jerome, however, in the Vulgate 's prologues describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha); for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon ''. The Synod of Hippo (in 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.
Rome then officially adopted a canon, the Canon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine 's Carthaginian Councils or the Council of Rome, and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezra and 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded); the Anglicans after the English Civil War adopted a compromise position, restoring the 39 Articles and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the Westminster Confession of Faith, but only for private study and for reading in churches, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as Biblical Apocrypha.
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the language of Jesus: these are called the Aramaic Targums, from a word meaning "translation '', and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.
For Aramaic Christians there was a Syriac translation of the Hebrew Bible called the Peshitta, as well as versions in Coptic (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), Ethiopic (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), Armenian (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and Arabic.
The Old Testament is considered one of the most important and influential works of literature in world literature, and has provided inspiration for writers (both religious and secular) throughout subsequent history. In 1886, Friedrich Nietzsche wrote: "In the Jewish Old Testament, there are men, things and speeches in so grand a style that Greek and Indian literature have nothing to compare to it. One stands with awe and reverence before these tremendous remnants of what man once was... The taste for the Old Testament is a touchstone of ' greatness ' and ' smallness '. To have glued this New Testament, a kind of rococo of taste in every respect, to the Old Testament to form one book... that is perhaps the greatest audacity and sin against the spirit that Europe has on its conscience. ''
Christianity is based on the belief that the historical Jesus is also the Christ, as in the Confession of Peter. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term messiah, which, like the Greek "Christ '', means "anointed ''. In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The LORD 's anointed '' or Yahweh 's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "Son of David '') would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the Roman province.
Others stressed the Son of Man, a distinctly other - worldly figure who would appear as a judge at the end of time; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this - worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other - worldly age or World to Come. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel 's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore - runner, probably Elijah (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes Mark 's account of John the Baptist). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people. The story of Jesus ' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.
The name "Old Testament '' reflects Christianity 's understanding of itself as the fulfillment of Jeremiah 's prophecy of a New Covenant (which is similar to "testament '' and often conflated) to replace the existing covenant between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31: 31). The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism 's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally - based contract between God and Jews to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ ''.
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where does kamisama hajimemashita anime end in the manga | Kamisama Kiss - wikipedia
Kamisama Kiss (Japanese: 神様 はじめ まし た, Hepburn: Kamisama Hajimemashita, lit. "I Became a God '' or "God Began '') is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Julietta Suzuki and serialized by Hakusensha in the shōjo manga magazine Hana to Yume. The series is licensed for regional release in North America by Viz Media as part of their Shojo Beat imprint. An anime adaptation has been produced by TMS Entertainment and directed by Akitaro Daichi and began airing in October 2012. It has been streamed by Funimation Entertainment in North America. A second season was announced and premiered during January 2015.
Nanami Momozono dreams of living an average school life just like any other high school girl does. Instead, she must cope up with the fact that her father, who is a constant gambler, has accumulated a bunch of gambling debts on her. As she ca n't afford to pay the rent, she gets kicked out of her apartment by the debt collectors and is now homeless. Despite this unfortunate turn of events, she still maintains a kind heart.
While sitting on a park bench collecting her thoughts, Nanami meets a strange man hanging from a tree because he is being chased by a dog. After saving him from the dog, she learns that the man 's name is Mikage. Upon learning about Nanami 's current situation, in a perfect example of how good deeds are rewarded, he gives her his home as a token of his gratitude. She accepts the offer because she is homeless. When Nanami arrives at Mikage 's home, she is shocked to see that it is not a normal home but a shrine for worship. After being greeted by both Onikiri and Kotetsu who are the keepers of the shrine, she meets Tomoe, Mikage 's familiar, and she learns that Mikage used to be the Earth Deity of the shrine and has bestowed upon her his mark so that she may be the new deity. At first, Nanami is reluctant, but as she lives with Tomoe, Onikiri, and Kotetsu she begins to understand and works hard in her new position as the Earth Deity. As the story progresses Nanami finds herself falling in love with Tomoe, but he rejects her because the love between a human and a yokai is taboo. Despite saying that, Tomoe finds himself falling in love with her too.
Takehaya Ikuzagami
The War god who is reluctant to acknowledge Nanami, a human to be a Land God.
Written and illustrated by Julietta Suzuki, Kamisama Kiss has been serialized in the semi-monthly shōjo manga magazine Hana to Yume since February 20, 2008. The collected chapters were later republished in tankōbon volumes by Hakusensha with the first volume released on September 19, 2008. North American publisher Viz Media licensed the English language distributions rights at the 2009 New York Anime Festival. The series concluded on May 20, 2016.
An anime television series adaptation of Kamisama Kiss was produced by TMS Entertainment and directed by Akitaro Daichi. It began airing on October 1, 2012. The anime has been licensed for streaming by Funimation Entertainment. The series ended at around the 30th chapter of the manga volume. The opening theme is "Kamisama Hajimemashita '' (神様 はじめ まし た, lit. "Nice to Meet You, God '') and the ending theme "Kamisama Onegai '' (神様 お 願, lit. "Please, God ''), both performed by Hanae. There are two OVA episodes, which first aired on August 26, 2013, bundled with the 16th volume of the manga. One of the included episodes is based on the story from the 15th volume, while the other contains an all - new original story. The 17th issue of Hakusensha 's Hana to Yume magazine announced on August 2014 that the manga series inspired a second anime season, which began airing on January 5, 2015. The opening theme is "Kamisama no Kamisama '' (神様 の 神様, lit. "God of God '') and the ending theme "Ototoi Oide '' (おととい おいで, lit. "Come Another Day ''), both once again performed by Hanae. A four - part original animation DVD (OAD) known as "Kako - hen '' (過去 篇, lit. "Past Arc '') began airing on August 20, 2015, and is based on the "past arc '' of the series, spanning from the 14th through 17th volumes of the manga series. The story follows Nanami as she goes back in time to find a cure for Tomoe 's curse which he had placed on himself so he could become human and live out his life with Yukiji. A new OAD, titled Kamisama, Kekkon Zenya, was bundled with the Kamisama Hajimemashita 25.5 official fanbook, released on December 20, 2016.
In a flashback, Mikage brings Tomoe to his shrine and learns that Tomoe is depressed about Yukiji 's death. After Tomoe becomes Mikage 's familiar, Mikage lectures Tomoe for letting a demon get away because he was rescuing a human girl in the process. Even so, Tomoe pledges to serve Mikage as his familiar for several hundred years. Having been abandoned by Mikage, Tomoe becomes depressed and lonely until Nanami arrives. Back in the present, Nanami agrees to go a mixer with Ami and Kei, who wants to hook up with a guy since she was recently dumped by her boyfriend. During the mixer, Nanami finds Mizuki in his white snake form inside Ami 's purse, grabbing him and taking him straight to the restroom. Tomoe comes in the restroom to retrieve Mizuki and leaves. A boy she meets in the mixer brings her outside for some fresh air and starts flirting with her, but Tomoe arrives and kicks the boy to the curb. Tomoe grabs her hand firmly and tells her that they are going home, and Nanami realizes that Tomoe may have feelings for her.
Jacob Chapman of Anime News Network, describes the anime as a 50 / 50 cross between Inuyasha and Fruits Basket. The manga had 5 million copies in print as of March 2016.
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if a professional title is listed after the first and last name of an individual it becomes | List of post-nominal letters - wikipedia
Post-nominal letters are letters placed after the name of a person to indicate that the individual holds a position, office, or honour.
An individual may use several different sets of post-nominal letters. Honours are listed first in descending order of precedence, followed by degrees and memberships of learned societies in ascending order.
Some obsolete positions are not listed unless recipients who continue to use the post-nominals even after the order becomes obsolete are still living.
Post-nominal letters of the Federal Authority and Federal Territories:
Post-nominal letters of sultanates:
Post-nominal letters of non-sultanal states:
The Order of Saint Lucia comprises seven classes:
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where does great wall of china start and finish | History of the Great Wall of China - Wikipedia
The history of the Great Wall of China began when fortifications built by various states during the Spring and Autumn (771 -- 476 BC) and Warring States periods (475 -- 221 BC) were connected by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, to protect his newly founded Qin dynasty (221 -- 206 BC) against incursions by nomads from Inner Asia. The walls were built of rammed earth, constructed using forced labour, and by 212 BC ran from Gansu to the coast of southern Manchuria.
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense. The Han (202 BC -- 220 AD), the Northern Qi (550 -- 574), the Sui (589 -- 618), and particularly the Ming (1369 -- 1644) were among those that rebuilt, re-manned, and expanded the Walls, although they rarely followed Qin 's routes. The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west, the Qi built about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of new walls, while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall - building efforts. Conversely, the Tang (618 -- 907), the Song (960 -- 1279), the Yuan (1271 -- 1368), and the Qing (1644 -- 1911) mostly did not build frontier walls, instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy.
Although a useful deterrent against raids, at several points throughout its history the Great Wall failed to stop enemies, including in 1644 when the Manchu Qing marched through the gates of Shanhai Pass and replaced the most ardent of the wall - building dynasties, the Ming, as rulers of China.
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty, as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick, often extending its line through challenging terrain. Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated, while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons, deconstructed for their building materials, or lost due to the ravages of time. For long an object of fascination for foreigners, the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination.
The conflict between the Chinese and the nomads, from which the need for the Great Wall arose, stemmed from differences in geography. The 15 '' isohyet marks the extent of settled agriculture, dividing the fertile fields of China to the south and the semi-arid grasslands of Inner Asia to the north. The climates and the topography of the two regions led to distinct modes of societal development.
According to the model by sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, the loess soils of Shaanxi made it possible for the Chinese to develop irrigated agriculture early on. Although this allowed them to expand into the lower reaches of the Yellow River valley, such extensive waterworks on an ever - increasing scale required collective labour, something that could only be managed by some form of bureaucracy. Thus the scholar - bureaucrats came to the fore to keep track of the income and expenses of the granaries. Walled cities grew up around the granaries for reasons of defence along with ease of administration; they kept invaders out and ensured that citizens remained within. These cities combined to become feudal states, which eventually united to become an empire. Likewise, according to this model, walls not only enveloped cities as time went by, but also lined the borders of the feudal states and eventually the whole Chinese empire to provide protection against raids from the agrarian northern steppes.
The steppe societies of Inner Asia, whose climate favoured a pastoral economy, stood in stark contrast to the Chinese mode of development. As animal herds are migratory by nature, communities could not afford to be stationary and therefore evolved as nomads. According to the influential Mongolist Owen Lattimore this lifestyle proved to be incompatible with the Chinese economic model. As the steppe population grew, pastoral agriculture alone could not support the population, and tribal alliances needed to be maintained by material rewards. For these needs, the nomads had to turn to the settled societies to get grains, metal tools, and luxury goods, which they could not produce by themselves. If denied trade by the settled peoples, the nomads would resort to raiding or even conquest.
Potential nomadic incursion from three main areas of Inner Asia caused concern to northern China: Mongolia to the north, Manchuria to the northeast, and Xinjiang to the northwest. Of the three, China 's chief concern since the earliest times had been Mongolia -- the home of many of the country 's fiercest enemies including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Khitans, and the Mongols. The Gobi Desert, which accounts for two - thirds of Mongolia 's area, divided the main northern and southern grazing lands and pushed the pastoral nomads to the fringes of the steppe. On the southern side (Inner Mongolia), this pressure brought the nomads into contact with China.
For the most part, barring intermittent passes and valleys (the major one being the corridor through Zhangjiakou and the Juyong Pass), the North China Plain remained shielded from the Mongolian steppe by the Yin Mountains. However, if this defence were breached, China 's flat terrain offered no protection to the cities on the plain, including the imperial capitals of Beijing, Kaifeng, and Luoyang. Heading west along the Yin Mountains, the range ends where the Yellow River circles northwards upstream in the area known as the Ordos Loop -- technically part of the steppe, but capable of irrigated agriculture. Although the Yellow River formed a theoretical natural boundary with the north, such a border so far into the steppe was difficult to maintain. The lands south of the Yellow River -- the Hetao, the Ordos Desert, and the Loess Plateau -- provided no natural barriers on the approach to the Wei River valley, the oft - called cradle of Chinese civilization where the ancient capital Xi'an lay. As such, control of the Ordos remained extremely important for the rulers of China: not only for potential influence over the steppe, but also for the security of China proper. The region 's strategic importance combined with its untenability led many dynasties to place their first walls here.
Although Manchuria is home to the agricultural lands of the Liao River valley, its location beyond the northern mountains relegated it to the relative periphery of Chinese concern. When Chinese state control became weak, at various points in history Manchuria fell under the control of the forest peoples of the area, including the Jurchens and the Manchus. The most crucial route that links Manchuria and the North China Plain is a narrow coastal strip of land, wedged between the Bohai Sea and the Yan Mountains, called the Shanhai Pass (literally the "mountain and sea pass ''). The pass gained much importance during the later dynasties, when the capital was set in Beijing, a mere 300 kilometres (190 miles) away. In addition to the Shanhai Pass, a handful of mountain passes also provide access from Manchuria into China through the Yan Mountains, chief among them the Gubeikou and Xifengkou (Chinese: 喜 峰 口).
Xinjiang, considered part of the Turkestan region, consists of an amalgamation of deserts, oases, and dry steppe barely suitable for agriculture. When influence from the steppe powers of Mongolia waned, the various Central Asian oasis kingdoms and nomadic clans like the Göktürks and Uyghurs were able to form their own states and confederations that threatened China at times. China proper is connected to this area by the Hexi Corridor, a narrow string of oases bounded by the Gobi Desert to the north and the high Tibetan Plateau to the south. In addition to considerations of frontier defence, the Hexi Corridor also formed an important part of the Silk Road trade route. Thus it was also in China 's economic interest to control this stretch of land, and hence the Great Wall 's western terminus is in this corridor -- the Yumen Pass during Han times and the Jiayu Pass during the Ming dynasty and thereafter.
One of the first mentions of a wall built against northern invaders is found in a poem, dated from the seventh century BC, recorded in the Classic of Poetry. The poem tells of a king, now identified as King Xuan (r. 827 -- 782 BC) of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 771 BC), who commanded General Nan Zhong (南仲) to build a wall in the northern regions to fend off the Xianyun. The Xianyun, whose base of power was in the Ordos region, were regarded as part of the charioteering Rong tribes, and their attacks aimed at the early Zhou capital region of Haojing were probably the reason for King Xuan 's response. Nan Zhong 's campaign was recorded as a great victory. However, only a few years later in 771 BC another branch of the Rong people, the Quanrong, responded to a summons by the renegade Marquess of Shen by over-running the Zhou defences and laying waste to the capital. The cataclysmic event killed King Xuan 's successor King You (795 -- 771 BC), forced the court to move the capital east to Chengzhou (成 周, later known as Luoyang) a year later, and thus ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 -- 256 BC). Most importantly, the fall of Western Zhou redistributed power to the states that had acknowledged Zhou 's nominal rulership. The rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was marked by bloody interstate anarchy. With smaller states being annexed and larger states waging constant war upon one another, many rulers came to feel the need to erect walls to protect their borders. Of the earliest textual reference to such a wall was the State of Chu 's wall of 656 BC, 1,400 metres (4,600 feet) of which were excavated in southern Henan province in the modern era. However the Chu border fortifications consisted of many individual mountain fortresses; they do not constitute to a lengthy, single wall. The State of Qi also had fortified borders up by the 7th century BC, and the extant portions in Shandong province had been christened the Great Wall of Qi. The State of Wei built two walls, the western one completed in 361 BC and the eastern in 356 BC, with the extant western wall found in Hancheng, Shaanxi. Even non-Chinese peoples built walls, such as the Di state of Zhongshan and the Yiqu Rong, whose walls were intended to defend against the State of Qin.
Of these walls, those of the northern states Yan, Zhao, and Qin were connected by Qin Shi Huang when he united the Chinese states in 221 BC.
The State of Yan, the easternmost of the three northern states, began to erect walls after the general Qin Kai drove the Donghu people back "a thousand li '' during the reign of King Zhao (燕 昭王; r. 311 -- 279 BC). The Yan wall stretched from the Liaodong peninsula, through Chifeng, and into northern Hebei, possibly bringing its western terminus near the Zhao walls. Another Yan wall was erected to the south to defend against the Zhao; it was southwest of present - day Beijing and ran parallel to the Juma River for several dozen miles.
The Zhao walls to the north were built under King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325 -- 299 BC), whose groundbreaking introduction of nomadic cavalry into his army reshaped Chinese warfare and gave Zhao an initial advantage over his opponents. He attacked the Xiongnu tribes of Linhu (林 胡) and Loufan (樓 煩) to the north, then waged war on the state of Zhongshan until it was annexed in 296 BC. In the process, he constructed the northernmost fortified frontier deep in nomadic territory. The Zhao walls were dated in the 1960s to be from King Wuling 's reign: a southern long wall in northern Henan encompassing the Yanmen Pass; a second line of barricades encircling the Ordos Loop, extending from Zhangjiakou in the east to the ancient fortress of Gaoque (高 闕) in the Urad Front Banner; and a third, northernmost line along the southern slopes of the Yin Mountains, extending from Qinghe in the east, passing north of Hohhot, and into Baotou.
Qin was originally a state on the western fringe of the Chinese political sphere, but it grew into a formidable power in the later parts of the Warring States period when it aggressively expanded in all directions. In the north, the state of Wei and the Yiqu built walls to protect themselves from Qin aggression, but were still unable to stop Qin from eating into their territories. The Qin reformist Shang Yang forced the Wei out of their walled area west of the Yellow River in 340 BC, and King Huiwen of Qin (r. 338 -- 311 BC) took 25 Yiqu forts in a northern offensive. When King Huiwen died, his widow the Queen Dowager Xuan acted as regent because the succeeding sons were deemed too young to govern. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang (r. 306 -- 251 BC), the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the Yiqu king and gave birth to two of his sons, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager 's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the Ordos region. At this point the Qin built a wall around their new territories to defend against the true nomads even further north, incorporating the Wei walls. As a result, an estimated total of 1,775 kilometres (1,103 mi) of Qin walls (including spurts) extended from southern Gansu to the bank of the Yellow River in the Jungar Banner, close to the border with Zhao at the time.
The walls, known as Changcheng (長城) -- literally "long walls '', but often translated as "Great Wall '' -- were mostly constructed of tamped earth, with some parts built with stones. Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence, the walls were erected sparingly, but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist. Often in addition to the wall, the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall, and watchtowers outside at regular intervals. In terms of defence, the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics, but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature. Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands, and so rather than being defensive, the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions. This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls, suggesting the presence of pre-existing or conquered barbarian societies. It is entirely possible, as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest, that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period.
In 221 BC, the state of Qin completed its conquest over the other Warring States and united China under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. These conquests, combined with the Legalist reforms started by Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, transformed China from a loose confederation of feudal states to an authoritarian empire. With the transformation, Qin became able to command a far greater assembly of labourers to be used in public works than the prior feudal kingdoms. Also, once unification was achieved, Qin found itself in possession of a large professional army with no more internal enemies to fight and thus had to find a new use for them. Soon after the conquests, in the year 215 BC, the emperor sent the famed general Meng Tian to the Ordos region to drive out the Xiongnu nomads settled there, who had risen from beyond the fallen marginal states along the northern frontier. Qin 's campaign against the Xiongnu was preemptive in nature, since there was no pressing nomadic menace to be faced at the time; its aim was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders. Once the Xiongnu were chased away, Meng Tian introduced 30,000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories.
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin. General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River, effectively linking the border walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another -- contrary to the outer walls, which were built to stabilize the newly united China, the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire. In the following year, 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north. This work was completed probably by 212 BC, signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road (直道) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos. The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria.
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories, but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi-desert that the Great Wall traversed, the sparse populations of these areas, and the frigid winter climate. Although the walls were rammed earth, so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ, transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above. The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that "for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction, dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies. '' This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC:
... the land was brackish and arid, crops could not be grown on them... At the time, the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong (about 176 kilograms (388 lb)) of food supply, by the time they arrived at the destination, they merely delivered one dan (about 29 kilograms (64 lb)) of supply... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond. The orphans, the frail, the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home. People started to revolt.
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC, upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy. Before killing himself, Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls: "Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong, I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way? This then was my offense. ''
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned, and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent. Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding, resulting in "the anti-historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously '' that was doomed to fail.
In 202 BC, the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu -- Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty, becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 202 -- 195 BC) to posterity. Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means, Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu. In exchange for peace, the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs. These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin, and the terms specified that the Great Wall (determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture. In 162 BC, Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement, suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it. Sima Qian, the author of the Records of the Grand Historian, describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship: "from the chanyu downwards, all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han, coming and going along the Long Wall ''. However, Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement, as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100,000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage.
To Chinese minds, the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like "a person hanging upside down '', as the statesman Jia Yi (d. 169 BC) puts it. These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro-war faction, who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement. By the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141 -- 87 BC), the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu. After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC, the era of heqin - style appeasement was broken and the Han -- Xiongnu War went into full swing.
As the Han -- Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han, the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines. In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded the much - contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian. In this way, Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe. In addition to rebuilding the walls, archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign. The fortifications here include embankments, beacon stations, and forts, all constructed with a combination of tamped - earth cores and stone frontages. From the Ordos Loop, the sporadic and non-continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei, Zhangye, and Jiuquan, leading into the Juyan Lake Basin, and terminating in two places: the Yumen Pass in the north, or the Yang Pass to the south, both in the vicinity of Dunhuang. Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications -- further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass, about 460 kilometres (290 mi) to the east. The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian. Behind this line of fortifications, the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia, generally secure from attacks from the north.
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury, and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors. The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD, beginning a brief 15 - year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty (9 -- 23). Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300,000 men on the Great Wall, no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids. Instead, popular discontent led to banditry and, ultimately, full - scale rebellion. The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again, beginning the Eastern Han dynasty (25 -- 220).
The restorer Emperor Guangwu (r. 25 -- 57 AD) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions. Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass, with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County (present - day Datong) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County, Shanxi. By 38 AD, as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley, orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River, the southward course of the Yellow River, and the region of the former imperial capital, Chang'an. These constructions were defensive in nature, which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States. By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change: the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern (Ming dynasty) Great Wall. The Ordos region, northern Shanxi, and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu. The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty, with the Dunhuang manuscripts (discovered in 1900) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period.
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220, China disintegrated into warlord states, which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty (265 -- 316). There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall, but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising, when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China. What followed was a succession of short - lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei - led Northern Wei dynasty (386 -- 535).
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture, the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs, including passive methods of frontier defence. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) long was built to resist the Rouran; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls formed the basis of the double - layered Xuanfu -- Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi (550 -- 575) and Northern Zhou (557 -- 580). Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north, from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3,000 li (about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi)) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass. Over the course of the year 555 alone, 1.8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres (280 mi) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River. In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one. These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers. Two stretches of the stone - and - earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today, measuring 3.3 metres (11 ft) wide at their bases and 3.5 metres (11 ft) high on average. In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls. The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou, which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou. In more recent times, the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname "Red Wall ''.
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589. Sui 's founding emperor, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581 -- 604), carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks. The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400,000 archers. Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains (between Suide and Lingwu) and Inner Mongolia. In 586 as many as 150,000 men are recorded as involved in the construction. Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang (r. 604 -- 618) continued to build walls. In 607 -- 608 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang. Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) high with towers rising to double that. The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500,000 people died building the wall, adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang, the Grand Canal, and two ill - fated campaigns against Goguryeo. With the economy strained and the populace resentful, the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618.
-- Wang Changling (698 -- 755)
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall - building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC, and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years.
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626 -- 649), the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall. Taizong scoffed at the suggestion, alluding to the Sui walls built in vain: "The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks, but in the end this was of no use. '' Instead of building walls, Taizong claimed he "need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle. '' Accordingly, Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier, while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons, such as the euphemistically - named "cities for accepting surrender '' (受降 城, shòuxiáng chéng) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks. As a result of this military strategy, the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires, destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan.
Nevertheless, records show that in the Kaiyuan era (713 -- 742) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign, the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li (48 kilometres (30 mi)) to the north of Huairong (懷 戎; present - day Huailai County, Hebei), although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls.
The Great Wall, or the ruins of it, features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi (邊塞 詩, "frontier verse '') written by scholar - officials assigned along the frontier. Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts, these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes, including the ruins of the now - neglected Great Wall -- a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy.
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post-Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971. Turning to the north after this victory, in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han, ultimate successors to the Later Jin, but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty. As a result of Song 's military aggression, relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile. One of the battlegrounds in the Song -- Liao War was the Great Wall Gap (長城 口), so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory. The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979, 988 -- 989, and 1004, and a Song fortress was built there in 980. Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005, when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan. This agreement, among other things, required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao, recognized the Song and Liao as equals, and demarcated the Song -- Liao border, the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements. Several stretches of the old Great Walls, including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range, became the border between the Song and the Liao.
In the northwest, the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia, since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty. The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period, making it the Song -- Western Xia border, but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song -- Liao defences to the east. The border general Cao Wei (曹 瑋; 973 -- 1030) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack, and had a deep trench dug alongside. This trench, between 15 and 20 metres (49 and 66 feet) in width and depth, proved an effective defence, but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall. Later, in 1042, the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it, thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin (葛懷敏) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress (定 川 寨).
Despite the war with the Western Xia, the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements, as with the Liao. However, soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin -- Song wars, causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River. For the next two and a half centuries, the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics.
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907, the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. During this period, non-Han "conquest dynasties '' ruled the north: the Khitan Liao dynasty (907 -- 1125) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115 -- 1234) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia (1038 -- 1227) in the west, all of which had built walls against the north.
In 907, the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north, laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty. In 936, the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang, which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923. The Khitan leader, Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang, convinced Shi to found a new dynasty (the Later Jin, 936 -- 946), and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return. With the Sixteen Prefectures, the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China, including the main Great Wall line.
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe, the Khitans became semi-sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei, and started to use Chinese methods of defence. In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong'an County to the banks of the Songhua River.
When the Jurchens, once Liao vassals, rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty, they continued Liao 's wall - building activities with extensive work begun before 1138. Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong, and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong.
This long period of wall - building burdened the populace and provoked controversy. Sometime between 1190 and 1196, during Zhangzong 's reign, the high official Zhang Wangong (張萬公) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought, noting: "What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms, and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them. '' However, Chancellor Wanyan Xiang (完 顏 襄) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate -- "Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash, when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it, which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash... The benefits will be everlasting '' -- and so construction continued unabated. All this work created an extensive systems of walls, which consisted of a 700 kilometres (430 mi) "outer wall '' from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) network of "inner walls '' north and northeast of Beijing. Together, they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length and 440 kilometres (270 mi) in diameter. Some of these walls had inner moats (from 10 to 60 metres (33 to 197 feet) in width), beacon towers, battlements, parapets, and outward - facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall -- features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors.
In the west, the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region, where they established the Western Xia dynasty. Although the Tanguts were not traditionally known for building walls, in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres (62 mi) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory. Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160. The walls were as tall as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) at places when they were discovered, and may have been around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) taller originally. They were built with mud and saxaul (a desert shrub) in one section, and dark basalt blocks in another, suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site. Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall, which suggests that the Western Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use.
In the 13th century, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, once a vassal of the Jurchens, rose up against the Jin dynasty. In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications. Instead, when they could, the Mongols simply rode around the walls; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211, when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling. The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls, such as those in Gubeikou, often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them. The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass: instead of laying siege, the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates. In 1215, Genghis Khan besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (modern - day Beijing). The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234. Western Xia had already fallen in 1227, and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279.
With that, the Yuan dynasty, established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan, became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China. Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire, Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads. The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north. Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions. Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east, Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall (except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass). When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan, he did not mention a Great Wall.
In 1368, the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang, r. 1368 -- 98) ousted the Mongol - led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty. The Mongols fled back to Mongolia, but even after numerous campaigns, the Mongol problem remained.
During his early reign, Hongwu set up the "eight outer garrisons '' close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence. The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall. In 1373, as Ming forces encountered setbacks, Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's (華 雲龍) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area. More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398, and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes. These positions, however, were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily, and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time. In 1421, the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north, partly to better manage the Mongol situation. Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing, where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes. A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442. In 1467 -- 68, expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast.
Meanwhile, the outer defenses were gradually moved inward, thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone. Despite the withdrawal from the steppe, the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449, which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system. Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict, while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor. This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty, and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever after.
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory, including the crucial Ordos region, on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding. After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy, the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s.
Yu Zijun (余子 俊; 1429 -- 1489) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471, but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan. The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake (紅 鹽池) by Wang Yue (王 越) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474. This wall, a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue, stretched from present day Hengcheng (橫 城) in Lingwu (northwestern Ningxia province) to Huamachi town (花 馬 池 鎮) in Yanchi County, and from there to Qingshuiying (清水 營) in northeastern Shaanxi, a total of more than 2000 li (about 1,100 kilometres (680 mi)) long. Along its length were 800 strong points, sentry posts, beacon - fire towers, and assorted defences. 40,000 men were enlisted for this effort, which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels. This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482, when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals. This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall - building by the people of the border areas. By the mid-16th century, Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system. It contained two defence lines: Yu 's wall, called the "great border '' (大 邊, dàbiān), and a "secondary border '' (二 邊, èrbiān) built by Yang Yiqing (楊一清; 1454 -- 1530) behind it.
Following the success of the Ordos walls, Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass (四海 冶 口; in present - day Yanqing County) near the capital Beijing, running a distance of more than 1300 li (about 700 kilometres (430 mi)). The project received approval in 1485, but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year. For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation, political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project.
However, wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time. The Ordos walls underwent extension, elaboration, and repair well into the 16th century. Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material, because they offered better protection and durability. This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics, and inevitably a drastic increase in costs. Instead of being able to draw on local resources, building projects now required brick - kilns, quarries, and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site. Also, masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required. Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone.
With the Ordos now adequately fortified, the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu (宣 府; present - day Xuanhua, Hebei Province), which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built. The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong (abbreviated as "Xuan -- Da '') left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point, and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence.
From 1544 to 1549, Weng Wanda (翁 萬達; 1498 -- 1552) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history. Troops were re-deployed along the outer line, new walls and beacon towers were constructed, and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines. Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time, for both defence and signalling purposes. The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548. At its height, the Xuan -- Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres (530 miles) of wall, with some sections being doubled - up with two lines of wall, some tripled or even quadrupled. The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the "outer border '' (外邊, wàibiān) that extended 380 kilometres (240 mi) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass (偏 頭 關) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province; the "inner border '' wall (內 邊, nèibiān) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres (250 mi), ending at the Pingxing Pass; a "river wall '' (河 邊, hébiān) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres (43 mi).
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos, the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan -- Da sector to less well - protected areas. In the west, Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop. The westernmost fortress of Ming China, the Jiayu Pass, saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539, and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei, where the low earthen wall split into two. The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan, where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls, while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian. The origins and the exact route of this so - called "Tibetan loop '' are still not clear.
In 1550, having once more been refused a request for trade, the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan -- Da region. However, despite several attempts, he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there. Instead of continuing to operate in the area, he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou, northeast of Beijing. From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing. According to one contemporary source, the raid took more than 60,000 lives and an additional 40,000 people became prisoners. As a response to this raid, the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan -- Da region to the Jizhou (薊 州 鎮) and Changping Defence Commands (昌平 鎮) where the breach took place. Later in the same year, the dry - stone walls of the Jizhou -- Changping area (abbreviated as "Ji -- Chang '') were replaced by stone and mortar. These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper, more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts, crenelations, and peepholes. The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554, where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance.
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun, successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates, were reassigned to manage the Ji -- Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region. Under their ambitious and energetic management, 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571. These included the first large - scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall: up until this point, most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid, with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows; the Ji -- Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures, allowing soldiers interior space to live, store food and water, stockpile weapons, and take shelter from Mongol arrows.
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571, alleviating the Mongol need to raid. This, coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier, brought a period of relative peace along the border. However, minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade, prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing. Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off, leading to the well - known vistas of a stone - faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today.
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644. In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions. In addition to their conquest of Liaodong, the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629, and again in 1634, 1638, and 1642. Meanwhile, the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength. In the early months of 1644, Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi. His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall, in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons. The crucial defences of Datong, Xuanfu, and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight, and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing. At this point, the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass, where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea. Its defender Wu Sangui, wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without, decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them. The Manchus, having thus entered through the Great Wall, defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5. They eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty.
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed. Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall - building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II. However, independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall, being only part of a complex foreign policy, received "disproportionate blame '' because it was the most obvious relic of that policy.
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty, since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall: China proper, Manchuria, and Mongolia were all under Qing control. So instead, the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes. In the case of Manchuria, considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites, some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade.
Culturally, the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing, who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming. As a result, no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid-Qing dynasty, when Westerners started to show interest in the structure.
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea. The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330? -- 395?) mentioned "summits of lofty walls '' enclosing the land of Seres, the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road. In legend, the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel. Later Arab writers and travellers, such as Rashid - al - Din Hamadani (1248 -- 1318) and Ibn Battuta (1304 -- 1377), would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances. Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century. The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520 -- 70) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted, "a Wall of an hundred leagues in length. And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues. '' Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza (1550 -- 1620) reported a wall five hundred leagues long, but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man - made, with the rest natural rock formations. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552 -- 1610) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary, noting the existence of "a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long '' that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire.
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy mission offers an early account based on a first - hand encounter with the Great Wall, and mentions that in the course of the journey his embassy travelled alongside the Great Wall for ten days.
Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall. However, when the Ming Great Wall began to take on a shape recognizable today, foreign accounts of the Wall slid into hyperbole. In the Atlas Sinensis published in 1665, the Jesuit Martino Martini described elaborate but atypical stretches of the Great Wall and generalized such fortifications across the whole northern frontier. Furthermore, Martini erroneously identified the Ming Wall as the same wall built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC, thereby exaggerating both the Wall 's antiquity and its size. This misconception was compounded by the China Illustrata of Father Athanasius Kircher (1602 -- 80), which provided pictures of the Great Wall as imagined by a European illustrator. All these and other accounts from missionaries in China contributed to the Orientalism of the eighteenth century, in which a mythical China and its exaggerated Great Wall feature prominently. The French philosopher Voltaire (1694 -- 1774), for example, frequently wrote about the Great Wall, although his feelings towards it oscillate between unreserved admiration and condemnation of it as a "monument to fear ''. The Macartney Embassy of 1793 passed through the Great Wall at Gubeikou on the way to see the Qianlong Emperor in Chengde, who was there for the annual imperial hunt. One of the embassy 's members, John Barrow, later founder of the Royal Geographical Society, spuriously calculated that the amount of stone in the Wall was equivalent to "all the dwelling houses of England and Scotland '' and would suffice to encircle the Earth at the equator twice. The illustrations of the Great Wall by Lieutenant Henry William Parish during this mission would be reproduced in influential works such as Thomas Allom 's 1845 China, in a series of views.
Exposure to such works brought many foreign visitors to the Great Wall after China opened its borders as a result of the nation 's defeat in the Opium Wars of the mid-19th century at the hands of Britain and the other Western powers. The Juyong Pass near Beijing and the "Old Dragon Head, '' where the Great Wall meets the sea at the Shanhai Pass, proved popular destinations for these wall watchers.
The travelogues of the later 19th century in turn further contributed to the elaboration and propagation of the Great Wall myth. Examples of this myth 's growth are the false but widespread belief that the Great Wall of China is visible from the Moon or Mars.
The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 forced the abdication of the last Qing Emperor Puyi and ended China 's last imperial dynasty. The revolutionaries, headed by Sun Yat - sen, were concerned with creating a modern sense of national identity in the chaotic post-imperial era. In contrast to Chinese academics such as Liang Qichao, who tried to counter the West 's fantastic version of the Great Wall, Sun Yat - sen held the view that Qin Shi Huang 's wall preserved the Chinese race, and without it Chinese culture would not have developed enough to expand to the south and assimilate foreign conquerors. Such an endorsement from the "Father of Modern China '' started to transform the Great Wall into a national symbol in the Chinese consciousness, though this transformation was hampered by conflicting views of nationalism with regard to the nascent "new China. ''
The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China 's future trajectory from its past. Naturally, the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past. For example, an influential writer of this period, Lu Xun, harshly criticized the "mighty and accursed Great Wall '' in a short essay: "In reality, it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain... (It) surrounds everyone. ''
"The March of the Volunteers ''
The Sino - Japanese conflict (1931 -- 45) gave the Great Wall a new lease of life in the eyes of the Chinese. During the 1933 defence of the Great Wall, inadequately - equipped Chinese soldiers held off double their number of Japanese troops for several months. Using the cover of the Great Wall, the Chinese -- who were at times only armed with broadswords -- were able to beat off a Japanese advance that had the support of aerial bombardment. With the Chinese forces eventually overrun, the subsequent Tanggu Truce stipulated that the Great Wall was to become a demilitarized zone separating China and the newly created Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Even so, the determined defence of the Great Wall made it a symbol of Chinese patriotism and the resoluteness of the Chinese people. The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong picked up this symbol in his poetry during his "Long March '' escaping from Kuomintang prosecution. Near the end of the trek in 1935, Mao wrote the poem "Mount Liupan '' that contains the well - known line that would be carved in stone along the Great Wall in the present day: "Those who fail to reach the Great Wall are not true men '' (不 到 长城 非 好汉). Another noteworthy reference to the Great Wall is in the song "The March of the Volunteers '', whose words came from a stanza in Tian Han 's 1934 poem entitled "The Great Wall ''. The song, originally from the anti-Japanese movie Children of Troubled Times, enjoyed continued popularity in China and was selected as the provisional national anthem of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) at its establishment in 1949.
In 1952, the scholar - turned - bureaucrat Guo Moruo laid out the first modern proposal to repair the Great Wall. Five years later, the renovated Badaling became the first section to be opened to the public since the establishment of the PRC. The Badaling Great Wall has since become a staple stop for foreign dignitaries who come to China, beginning with Nepali prime minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala in 1960, and most notably the American president Richard Nixon in his historic 1972 visit to China. To date, Badaling is still the most visited stretch of the Great Wall.
Other stretches did not fare so well. During the Cultural Revolution (1966 -- 76), hundreds of kilometres of the Great Wall -- already damaged in the wars of the last century and eroded by wind and rain -- were deliberately destroyed by fervent Red Guards who regarded it as part of the "Four Olds '' to be eradicated in the new China. Quarrying machines and even dynamite were used to dismantle the Wall, and the pilfered materials were used for construction.
As China opened up in the 1980s, reformist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the "Love our China and restore our Great Wall '' campaign (爱 我 中华, 修 我 长城) to repair and preserve the Great Wall. The Great Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. However, while tourism boomed over the years, slipshod restoration methods have left sections of the Great Wall near Beijing "looking like a Hollywood set '' in the words of the National Geographic News. The less prominent stretches of the Great Wall did not get as much attention. In 2002 the New York - based World Monuments Fund put the Great Wall on its list of the World 's 100 Most Endangered Sites. In 2003 the Chinese government began to enact laws to protect the Great Wall.
In China, one of the first individuals to attempt a multi-dynastic history of the Great Wall was the 17th - century scholar Gu Yanwu. More recently, in the 1930s and 1940s, Wang Guoliang (王國良) and Shou Pengfei (壽 鵬 飛) produced exhaustive studies that culled extant literary records to date and mapped the courses of early border walls. However, these efforts were based solely on written records that contain obscure place names and elusive literary references.
The rise of modern archeology has contributed much to the study of the Great Wall, either in corroborating existing research or in refuting it. However these efforts do not yet give a full picture of the Great Wall 's history, as many wall sites dating to the Period of Disunity (220 -- 589) had been overlaid by the extant Ming Great Wall.
Western scholarship of the Great Wall was, until recently, affected by misconceptions derived from traditional accounts of the Wall. When the Jesuits brought back the first reports of the Wall to the West, European scholars were puzzled that Marco Polo had not mentioned the presumably perennial "Great Wall '' in his Travels. Some 17th - century scholars reasoned that the Wall must have been built in the Ming dynasty, after Marco Polo 's departure. This view was soon replaced by another that argued, against Polo 's own account, that the Venetian merchant had come to China from the south and so did not come into contact with the Wall. Thus, Father Martino Martini 's mistaken claim that the Wall had "lasted right up to the present time without injury or destruction '' since the time of Qin was accepted as fact by the 18th - century philosophes.
Since then, many scholars have operated under the belief that the Great Wall continually defended China 's border against the steppe nomads for two thousand years. For example, the 18th - century sinologist Joseph de Guignes assigned macrohistorical importance to such walls when he advanced the theory that the Qin construction forced the Xiongnu to migrate west to Europe and, becoming known as the Huns, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. Some have attempted to make general statements regarding Chinese society and foreign policy based on the conception of a perennial Great Wall: Karl Marx took the Wall to represent the stagnation of the Chinese society and economy, Owen Lattimore supposed that the Great Wall demonstrated a need to divide the nomadic way of life from the agricultural communities of China, and John K. Fairbank posited that the Wall played a part in upholding the Sinocentric world order.
Despite the significance that the Great Wall seemed to have, scholarly treatment of the Wall itself remained scant during the 20th century. Joseph Needham bemoaned this dearth when he was compiling the section on walls for his Science and Civilisation in China: "There is no lack of travelers ' description of the Great Wall, but studies based on modern scholarship are few and far between, whether in Chinese or Western languages. '' In 1990, Arthur Waldron published the influential The Great Wall: From History to Myth, where he challenged the notion of a unitary Great Wall maintained since antiquity, dismissing it as a modern myth. Waldron 's approach prompted a re-examination of the Wall in Western scholarship. Still, as of 2008, there is not yet a full authoritative text in any language that is devoted to the Great Wall. The reason for this, according to The New Yorker journalist Peter Hessler, is that the Great Wall fits into neither the study of political institutions (favoured by Chinese historians) nor the excavation of tombs (favoured by Chinese archeologists). Some of the void left by academia is being filled by independent research from Great Wall enthusiasts such as ex-Xinhua reporter Cheng Dalin (成 大林) and self - funded scholar David Spindler.
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Star Wars is an American epic space opera media franchise, centered on a film series created by George Lucas. It depicts the adventures of various characters "a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away ''.
The franchise began in 1977 with the release of the film Star Wars (later subtitled Episode IV: A New Hope in 1981), which became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon. It was followed by the successful sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983); these three films constitute the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy was released between 1999 and 2005, which received mixed reactions from both critics and fans. A sequel trilogy began in 2015 with the release of Star Wars: The Force Awakens and continued in 2017 with the release of Star Wars: The Last Jedi. The first eight films were nominated for Academy Awards (with wins going to the first two films released) and have been commercial successes, with a combined box office revenue of over US $8.5 billion, making Star Wars the second highest - grossing film series. Spin - off films include the animated Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) and Rogue One (2016), the latter of which is the first in a planned series of anthology films.
The series has spawned an extensive media franchise including books, television series, computer and video games, theme park attractions and lands, and comic books, resulting in significant development of the series ' fictional universe. Star Wars holds a Guinness World Records title for the "Most successful film merchandising franchise ''. In 2015, the total value of the Star Wars franchise was estimated at US $42 billion, making Star Wars the second - highest - grossing media franchise of all time.
In 2012, The Walt Disney Company bought Lucasfilm for US $4.06 billion and earned the distribution rights to all subsequent Star Wars films, beginning with the release of The Force Awakens in 2015. The former distributor, 20th Century Fox, was to retain the physical distribution rights for the first two Star Wars trilogies, was to own permanent rights for the original 1977 film and was to continue to hold the rights for the prequel trilogy and the first two sequels to A New Hope until May 2020. Walt Disney Studios currently owns digital distribution rights to all the Star Wars films, excluding A New Hope. On December 14, 2017, the Walt Disney Company announced its pending acquisition of 21st Century Fox, including the film studio and all distribution rights to A New Hope.
The Star Wars franchise takes place in a distant unnamed fictional galaxy at an undetermined point in the ancient past, where many species of aliens (often humanoid) co-exist. People own robotic droids, who assist them in their daily routines, and space travel is common.
The spiritual and mystical element of the Star Wars galaxy is known as "the Force ''. It is described in the original film as "an energy field created by all living things (that) surrounds us, penetrates us, (and) binds the galaxy together ''. The people who are born deeply connected to the Force have better reflexes; through training and meditation, they are able to achieve various supernatural feats (such as telekinesis, clairvoyance, precognition, and mind control). The Force is wielded by two major factions at conflict: the Jedi, who harness the light side of the Force, and the Sith, who use the dark side of the Force through hate and aggression.
In 1971, Universal Studios made a contract for George Lucas to direct two films. In 1973, American Graffiti was completed, and released to critical acclaim including Academy Award nominations for Best Director and Original Screenplay for George Lucas. Months later, Lucas started work on his second film 's script draft, The Journal of the Whills, telling the tale of the training of apprentice CJ Thorpe as a "Jedi - Bendu '' space commando by the legendary Mace Windy. After Universal rejected the film, 20th Century Fox decided to invest on it. On April 17, 1973, Lucas felt frustrated about his story being too difficult to understand, so he began writing a 13 - page script with thematic parallels to Akira Kurosawa 's The Hidden Fortress, this draft was renamed The Star Wars. By 1974, he had expanded the script into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a protagonist named Annikin Starkiller. Numerous subsequent drafts would go through numerous drastic changes, before evolving into the script of the original film.
Lucas insisted that the movie would be part of a 9 - part series and negotiated to retain the sequel rights, to ensure all the movies would be made. Tom Pollock, then Lucas ' lawyer writes: "So in the negotiations that were going on, we drew up a contract with Fox 's head of business affairs Bill Immerman, and me. We came to an agreement that George would retain the sequel rights. Not all the (merchandising rights) that came later, mind you; just the sequel rights. And Fox would get a first opportunity and last refusal right to make the movie. '' Lucas was offered $50,000 to write, another $50,000 to produce, and $50,000 to direct the film. Later the offer was increased.
Star Wars was released on May 25, 1977. It was followed by The Empire Strikes Back, released on May 21, 1980; the opening crawl of the sequel disclosed it numbered as "Episode V ''. Though the first film in the series was simply titled Star Wars, with its 1981 re-release it had the subtitle Episode IV: A New Hope added to remain consistent with its sequel, and to establish it as the middle chapter of a continuing saga. Return of the Jedi, the final film in the original trilogy, was numbered as "Episode VI '', and released on May 25, 1983. The sequels were all self - financed by Lucasfilm, and generally advertised solely under their subtitles. The plot of the original trilogy centers on the Galactic Civil War of the Rebel Alliance trying to free the galaxy from the clutches of the Galactic Empire, as well as on Luke Skywalker 's quest to become a Jedi.
Near the orbit of the desert planet Tatooine, a Rebel spaceship is intercepted by the Empire. Aboard, the deadliest Imperial agent Darth Vader and his stormtroopers capture Princess Leia Organa, a secret member of the rebellion. Before her capture, Leia makes sure the astromech R2 - D2, along with the protocol droid C - 3PO, escapes with stolen Imperial blueprints stored inside and a holographic message for the retired Jedi Knight Obi - Wan Kenobi, who has been living in exile on Tatooine. The droids fall under the ownership of Luke Skywalker, an orphan farm boy raised by his step - uncle and aunt. Luke helps the droids locate Obi - Wan, now a solitary old hermit known as Ben Kenobi, who reveals himself as a friend of Luke 's absent father, the Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker. Obi - Wan confides to Luke that Anakin was "betrayed and murdered '' by Vader (who was Obi - Wan 's former Jedi apprentice) years ago, and he gives Luke his father 's former lightsaber to keep. After viewing Leia 's message, they both hire the smuggler Han Solo and his Wookiee co-pilot Chewbacca to, aboard their space freighter the Millennium Falcon, help them deliver the stolen blueprints inside R2 - D2 to the Rebel Alliance with the hope of finding a weakness to the Empire 's planet - destroying space station: the Death Star.
For The Star Wars second draft, Lucas made heavy simplifications. It added a mystical energy field known as "The Force '' and introduced the young hero on a farm as Luke Starkiller. Annikin became Luke 's father, a wise Jedi knight. The third draft killed the father Annikin, replacing him with mentor figure Ben Kenobi. Later, Lucas felt the film would not in fact be the first in the sequence, but a film in the second trilogy in the saga. The draft contained a sub-plot leading to a sequel about "The Princess of Ondos '', and by that time some months later Lucas had negotiated a contract that gave him rights to make two sequels. Not long after, Lucas hired author Alan Dean Foster, to write two sequels as novels. In 1976, a fourth draft had been prepared for principal photography. The film was titled Adventures of Luke Starkiller, as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. During production, Lucas changed Luke 's name to Skywalker and altered the title to simply The Star Wars and finally Star Wars. At that point, Lucas was not expecting the film to have sequels. The fourth draft of the script underwent subtle changes it discarded "the Princess of Ondos '' sub-plot, to become a self - contained film, that ended with the destruction of the Galactic Empire itself by way of destroying the Death Star. However, Lucas previously conceived of the film as the first of a series. The intention was that if Star Wars was successful, Lucas could adapt Dean Foster 's novels into low - budget sequels. By that point, Lucas had developed an elaborate backstory to aid his writing process.
Before its release, Lucas considered walking away from Star Wars sequels, thinking the film would be a flop. However the film exceeded all expectations. The success of the film, as well as its merchandise sales, and Lucas desire to create an independent film - making center. Both led Lucas to make Star Wars the basis of an elaborate film serial, and use the profits to finance his film - making center, Skywalker Ranch. Alan Dean Foster was already writing the first sequel - novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye, released in 1978. But Lucas decided not to adapt Foster 's work, knowing a sequel would be allowed more budget. At first, Lucas envisioned a series of films with no set number of entries, like the James Bond series. In an interview with Rolling Stone in August 1977, he said that he wanted his friends to each take a turn at directing the films and giving unique interpretations on the series. He added that the backstory in which Darth Vader turns to the dark side, kills Luke 's father and fights Obi - Wan Kenobi on a volcano as the Galactic Republic falls would make an excellent sequel.
Three years after the destruction of the Death Star, the Rebels are forced to evacuate their secret base on Hoth as they are hunted by the Empire. At the request of the late Obi - Wan 's spirit, Luke travels to the swamp - infested world of Dagobah to find the exiled Jedi Master Yoda and begin his Jedi training. However, Luke 's training is interrupted by Vader, who lures him into a trap by capturing Han and Leia at Cloud City, governed by Han 's old friend Lando Calrissian. During a fierce lightsaber duel with the Sith Lord, Luke learns that Vader is his father.
After the success of the original film, Lucas hired science fiction author Leigh Brackett to write Star Wars II with him. They held story conferences and, by late November 1977, Lucas had produced a handwritten treatment called The Empire Strikes Back. It was similar to the final film, except that Darth Vader does not reveal he is Luke 's father.
Brackett finished her first draft in early 1978; in it, Luke 's father appeared as a ghost to instruct Luke. Lucas has said he was disappointed with it, but before he could discuss it with her, she died of cancer. With no writer available, Lucas had to write his next draft himself. It was this draft in which Lucas first made use of the "Episode '' numbering for the films; Empire Strikes Back was listed as Episode II. As Michael Kaminski argues in The Secret History of Star Wars, the disappointment with the first draft probably made Lucas consider different directions in which to take the story. He made use of a new plot twist: Darth Vader claims to be Luke 's father. According to Lucas, he found this draft enjoyable to write, as opposed to the yearlong struggles writing the first film, and quickly wrote two more drafts, both in April 1978. This new story point of Darth Vader being Luke 's father had drastic effects on the series. After writing these two drafts, Lucas revised the backstory between Anakin Skywalker, Kenobi, and the Emperor.
With this new backstory in place, Lucas decided that the series would be a trilogy, changing Empire Strikes Back from Episode II to Episode V in the next draft. Lawrence Kasdan, who had just completed writing Raiders of the Lost Ark, was then hired to write the next drafts, and was given additional input from director Irvin Kershner. Kasdan, Kershner, and producer Gary Kurtz saw the film as a more serious and adult film, which was helped by the new, darker storyline, and developed the series from the light adventure roots of the first film.
A year after Vader 's shocking revelation, Luke leads a rescue attempt to save Han from the gangster Jabba the Hutt. Afterward, Luke returns to Dagobah to complete his Jedi training, only to find the 900 - year - old Yoda on his deathbed. In his last words Yoda confirms that Vader is Luke 's father, Anakin Skywalker, and that Luke must confront his father again in order to complete his training. Moments later, the spirit of Obi - Wan reveals to Luke that Leia is his twin sister, but Obi - Wan insists that Luke must face Vader again. As the Rebels lead an attack on the Death Star II, Luke engages Vader in another lightsaber duel as Emperor Palpatine watches; both Sith Lords intend to turn Luke to the dark side of the Force and take him as their apprentice.
By the time Lucas began writing Episode VI in 1981 (then titled Revenge of the Jedi), much had changed. Making Empire Strikes Back was stressful and costly, and Lucas ' personal life was disintegrating. Burned out and not wanting to make any more Star Wars films, he vowed that he was done with the series in a May 1983 interview with Time magazine. Lucas ' 1981 rough drafts had Darth Vader competing with the Emperor for possession of Luke -- and in the second script, the "revised rough draft '', Vader became a sympathetic character. Lawrence Kasdan was hired to take over once again and, in these final drafts, Vader was explicitly redeemed and finally unmasked. This change in character would provide a springboard to the "Tragedy of Darth Vader '' storyline that underlies the prequels.
After losing much of his fortune in a divorce settlement in 1987, George Lucas had no desire to return to Star Wars, and had unofficially canceled the sequel trilogy by the time of Return of the Jedi. At that point, the prequels were only still a series of basic ideas partially pulled from his original drafts of "The Star Wars ''. Nevertheless, technical advances in the late 1980s and 1990s continued to fascinate Lucas, and he considered that they might make it possible to revisit his 20 - year - old material. The popularity of the franchise was reinvigorated by the Star Wars expanded universe storylines set after the original trilogy films, such as the Thrawn trilogy of novels written by Timothy Zahn and the Dark Empire comic book series published by Dark Horse Comics. Due to the renewed popularity of Star Wars, Lucas saw that there was still a large audience. His children were older, and with the explosion of CGI technology he was now considering returning to directing.
The prequel trilogy consists of Episode I: The Phantom Menace, released on May 19, 1999; Episode II: Attack of the Clones, released on May 16, 2002; and Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, released on May 19, 2005. The plot focuses on the fall of the Galactic Republic, as well as the tragedy of Anakin Skywalker 's turn to the dark side.
About 32 years before the start of the Galactic Civil War, the corrupt Trade Federation sets a blockade around the planet Naboo. The Sith Lord Darth Sidious had secretly planned the blockade to give his alter ego, Senator Palpatine, a pretense to overthrow and replace the Supreme Chancellor of the Republic. At the Chancellor 's request, the Jedi Knight Qui - Gon Jinn and his apprentice, a younger Obi - Wan Kenobi, are sent to Naboo to negotiate with the Federation. However, the two Jedi are forced to instead help the Queen of Naboo, Padmé Amidala, escape from the blockade and plead her planet 's crisis before the Republic Senate on Coruscant. When their starship is damaged during the escape, they land on Tatooine for repairs. Palpatine dispatches his first Sith apprentice, Darth Maul, to hunt down the Queen and her Jedi protectors. While on Tatooine, Qui - Gon discovers a nine - year - old slave named Anakin Skywalker. Qui - Gon helps liberate the boy from slavery, believing Anakin to be the "Chosen One '' foretold by a Jedi prophecy to bring balance to the Force. However, the Jedi Council (led by Yoda) suspects the boy possesses too much fear and anger within him.
In 1993, it was announced, in Variety among other sources, that Lucas would be making the prequels. He began penning more to the story, now indicating the series would be a tragic one examining Anakin Skywalker 's fall to the dark side. Lucas began to reevaluate how the prequels would exist relative to the originals; at first they were supposed to be a "filling - in '' of history tangential to the originals, but he later realized that they could form the beginning of one long story that started with Anakin 's childhood and ended with his death. This was the final step towards turning the film series into a "Saga ''. In 1994, Lucas began writing the screenplay to the first prequel, initially titled Episode I: The Beginning. Following the release of that film, Lucas announced that he would be directing the next two, and began work on Episode II.
Ten years after the Battle of Naboo, Anakin is reunited with Padmé, now serving as the Senator of Naboo, and they fall in love despite Anakin 's obligations to the Jedi Order. At the same time, the entire galaxy gets swept up in the Clone Wars between the armies of the Republic, led by the Jedi Order, and the Confederacy of Independent Systems, led by the fallen Jedi Count Dooku.
The first draft of Episode II was completed just weeks before principal photography, and Lucas hired Jonathan Hales, a writer from The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, to polish it. Unsure of a title, Lucas had jokingly called the film "Jar Jar 's Great Adventure ''. In writing The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas initially decided that Lando Calrissian was a clone and came from a planet of clones which caused the "Clone Wars '' mentioned by both Luke Skywalker and Princess Leia in A New Hope; he later came up with an alternate concept of an army of clone shocktroopers from a remote planet which attacked the Republic and were repelled by the Jedi. The basic elements of that backstory became the plot basis for Episode II, with the new wrinkle added that Palpatine secretly orchestrated the crisis.
Three years after the start of the Clone Wars, Anakin and Obi - Wan lead a rescue mission to save the kidnapped Chancellor Palpatine from Count Dooku and the droid commander General Grievous. Later, Anakin begins to have prophetic visions of his secret wife Padmé dying in childbirth. Palpatine, who had been secretly engineering the Clone Wars to destroy the Jedi Order, convinces Anakin that the dark side of the Force holds the power to save Padmé 's life. Desperate, Anakin submits to Palpatine 's Sith teachings and is renamed Darth Vader. While Palpatine re-organizes the Republic into the tyrannical Empire, Vader participates in the extermination of the Jedi Order; culminating in a lightsaber duel between himself and his former master Obi - Wan on the volcanic planet Mustafar.
Lucas began working on Episode III before Attack of the Clones was released, offering concept artists that the film would open with a montage of seven Clone War battles. As he reviewed the storyline that summer, however, he says he radically re-organized the plot. Michael Kaminski, in The Secret History of Star Wars, offers evidence that issues in Anakin 's fall to the dark side prompted Lucas to make massive story changes, first revising the opening sequence to have Palpatine kidnapped and his apprentice, Count Dooku, murdered by Anakin as the first act in the latter 's turn towards the dark side. After principal photography was complete in 2003, Lucas made even more massive changes in Anakin 's character, re-writing his entire turn to the dark side; he would now turn primarily in a quest to save Padmé 's life, rather than the previous version in which that reason was one of several, including that he genuinely believed that the Jedi were evil and plotting to take over the Republic. This fundamental re-write was accomplished both through editing the principal footage, and new and revised scenes filmed during pick - ups in 2004.
On August 15, 2008, the standalone animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars was released theatrically as a lead - in to the animated TV series with the same name. This series includes 6 seasons, which were broadcast on Cartoon Network, with the exception of the last one. The final season was cut short following Disney 's purchase of the franchise. There were also two more seasons in the works, but these were also cancelled.
Over the years, Lucas often exaggerated the amount of material he wrote for the series; much of the exaggerations stemmed from the post ‐ 1978 period when the series grew into a phenomenon. Michael Kaminski explained that the exaggerations were both a publicity and security measure, further rationalizing that since the series ' story radically changed throughout the years, it was always Lucas ' intention to change the original story retroactively because audiences would only view the material from his perspective. The exaggerations created rumors of Lucas having plot outlines a sequel trilogy of (Episodes VII, VIII and IX), which would continue the story after 1983 's Episode VI: Return of the Jedi Lucasfilm and George Lucas had denied plans for a sequel trilogy for many years, insisting that Star Wars was meant to be a six - part series, and that no further films would be released after the conclusion of the prequel trilogy in 2005. Although Lucas made an exception by releasing the animated Star Wars: The Clone Wars film in 2008, while promoting it, Lucas maintained his status on the sequel trilogy: "I get asked all the time, ' What happens after Return of the Jedi?, ' and there really is no answer for that. The movies were the story of Anakin Skywalker and Luke Skywalker, and when Luke saves the galaxy and redeems his father, that 's where that story ends. ''
In January 2012, Lucas announced that he would step away from blockbuster films and instead produce smaller arthouse films. Asked whether the criticism he received following the prequel trilogy and the alterations to the re-releases of the original trilogy had influenced his decision to retire, Lucas said: "Why would I make any more when everybody yells at you all the time and says what a terrible person you are? '' Despite insisting that a sequel trilogy would never happen, Lucas began working on story treatments for three new Star Wars films in 2011. In October 2012, The Walt Disney Company agreed to buy Lucasfilm and announced that Star Wars Episode VII would be released in 2015. Later, it was revealed that the three new upcoming films (Episodes VII -- IX) would be based on story treatments that had been written by George Lucas prior to the sale of Lucasfilm. The co-chairman of Lucasfilm, Kathleen Kennedy, became president of the company, reporting to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn. In addition, Kennedy will serve as executive producer on new Star Wars feature films, with franchise creator and Lucasfilm founder Lucas serving as creative consultant.
The sequel trilogy began with Episode VII: The Force Awakens, released on December 18, 2015. It was followed by Episode VIII: The Last Jedi, released on December 15, 2017.
About 30 years after the destruction of the Death Star II, Luke Skywalker has vanished following the demise of the new Jedi Order he was attempting to build. The remnants of the Empire have become the First Order, and seek to destroy Luke and the New Republic, while the Resistance opposes, led by princess - turned - general Leia Organa and backed by the Republic. On Jakku, Resistance pilot Poe Dameron obtains a map to Luke 's location. Stormtroopers under the command of Kylo Ren, the son of Leia and Han Solo, capture Poe. Poe 's droid BB - 8 escapes with the map, and encounters a scavenger Rey. Kylo tortures Poe and learns of BB - 8. Stormtrooper FN - 2187 defects from the First Order, and frees Poe who dubs him "Finn '', while both escape in a TIE fighter that crashes on Jakku, seemingly killing Poe. Finn finds Rey and BB - 8, but the First Order does too; both escape Jakku in a stolen Millennium Falcon. The Falcon is recaptured by Han and Chewbacca, smugglers again since abandoning the Resistance. They agree to help deliver the map inside BB - 8 to the Resistance.
The screenplay for Episode VII was originally set to be written by Michael Arndt, but in October 2013 it was announced that writing duties would be taken over by Lawrence Kasdan and J.J. Abrams. On January 25, 2013, The Walt Disney Studios and Lucasfilm officially announced J.J. Abrams as Star Wars Episode VII 's director and producer, along with Bryan Burk and Bad Robot Productions.
Right after the destruction of Starkiller Base, Rey finds Luke Skywalker on the planet Ahch - To and convinces him to teach her the ways of the Jedi and seeks answers of her past with the help from Luke and Kylo Ren. Meanwhile, Finn, Leia, Poe, BB - 8, Rose Tico, and the rest of the Resistance make an escape to the planet Crait from the First Order. Kylo Ren assassinates Supreme Leader Snoke and takes control of the First Order. which culminates in a battle on Crait with the Resistance.
On November 20, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lawrence Kasdan and Simon Kinberg would write and produce Episodes VIII and IX. Kasdan and Kinberg were later confirmed as creative consultants on those films, in addition to writing standalone films. In addition, John Williams, who wrote the music for the previous six episodes, was hired to compose the music for Episodes VII, VIII and IX.
On March 12, 2015, Lucasfilm announced that Looper director Rian Johnson would direct Episode VIII with Ram Bergman as producer for Ram Bergman Productions. Reports initially claimed Johnson would also direct Episode IX, but it was later confirmed he would write only a story treatment. Johnson later wrote on his Twitter that the information about him writing a treatment for Episode IX is old, and he 's not involved with the writing of that film. When asked about Episode VIII in an August 2014 interview, Johnson said "it 's boring to talk about, because the only thing I can really say is, I 'm just happy. I do n't have the terror I kind of expected I would, at least not yet. I 'm sure I will at some point. ''
Principal photography on The Last Jedi began in February 2016. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik from March 9 to March 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May 2016. Principal photography wrapped in July 2016. On December 27, 2016, Carrie Fisher died after going into cardiac arrest a few days earlier. Before her death, Fisher had completed filming her role as General Leia Organa in The Last Jedi. The film was released on December 15, 2017.
Production on Episode IX was scheduled to begin sometime in 2017. Variety and Reuters reported that Carrie Fisher was slated for a key role in Episode IX. Now, Lucasfilm, Disney and others involved with the film have been forced to find a way to address her death in the upcoming film and alter her character 's role. In January 2017, Lucasfilm stated they would not digitally generate Fisher 's performance for the film. In April 2017, Fisher 's brother Todd and daughter Billie Lourd gave Disney permission to use recent footage of Fisher for the film, but later that month, Kennedy stated that Fisher will not appear in the film. Principal photography of Star Wars: Episode IX is set to begin in July 2018.
On February 5, 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed the development of two standalone films, each individually written by Lawrence Kasdan and Simon Kinberg. On February 6, Entertainment Weekly reported one film would focus on Han Solo, while the other on Boba Fett. Disney CFO Jay Rasulo has described the standalone films as origin stories. Kathleen Kennedy explained that the standalone films will not crossover with the films of the sequel trilogy, stating, "George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spin - off movies, or we may come up with some other way to call those films, they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes. Consequently, from the creative standpoint, it 's a roadmap that George made pretty clear. ''
In April 2015, Lucasfilm and Kennedy announced that the standalone films would be referred to as the Star Wars Anthology films. Rogue One: A Star Wars Story was released on December 16, 2016 as the first in an anthology series of films separate from the main episodic saga.
The story about the group of rebels who stole the Death Star plans, ending directly before Episode IV: A New Hope.
The idea for the film was conceived by John Knoll who worked as a visual effects supervisor of the prequel trilogy films. In May 2014, Lucasfilm announced Gareth Edwards as the director of the first anthology film, with Gary Whitta writing the first draft, for a release on December 16, 2016. On March 12, 2015, the film 's title was revealed to be Rogue One, with Chris Weitz rewriting the script, and starring Felicity Jones, Ben Mendelsohn, and Diego Luna. In April 2015, a teaser trailer was shown during the closing of the Star Wars Celebration. Lucasfilm announced filming would begin in the summer of 2015 and released the plot synopsis. Director Edwards stated, "It comes down to a group of individuals who do n't have magical powers that have to somehow bring hope to the galaxy. ''; and describing the style of the film as similar to that of a war film: "It 's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It 's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie. '' After its debut, Rogue One received generally positive reviews, with its performances, action sequences, soundtrack, visual effects and darker tone being praised. The film grossed over US $500 million worldwide within a week of its release. Characters from the animated series appear, Saw Gerrera (from The Clone Wars) in a pivotal role in the plot and Chopper (from Star Wars: Rebels) in a cameo.
A film focusing on Han Solo before the events of Episode IV: A New Hope.
Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney, George Lucas started develpment on a film about a young Han Solo. Lucas hired Star Wars original trilogy veteran script writer Lawrence Kasdan, along his son Jon Kasdan to write the script. The film stars Alden Ehrenreich as a young Han Solo, Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca (after serving as a double for the character in The Force Awakens and The Last Jedi), Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian, and Emilia Clarke and Woody Harrelson. Directors Phil Lord and Christopher Miller began principal photography on the film, but due to creative differences, the pair left the project in June 2017 with three and a half weeks remaining in principal photography. Academy Award - winning director Ron Howard was announced as their replacement. While his first Star Wars film, Howard had previously collaborated with producing company Lucasfilm as an actor in the George Lucas - directed film American Graffiti (1973) and as director of Willow (1988). Howard was one of the three directors George Lucas asked to direct Episode I: The Phantom Menace, though Howard declined, saying, "George, you should do it! ''. The film is distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures and will be released on May 25, 2018.
A third Anthology film will be released in 2020. A writer for the film has been hired as of September 2016.
In February 2013, Entertainment Weekly reported that Lucasfilm hired Josh Trank to direct a Star Wars standalone film, with the news being confirmed soon after. However, in November 2016 Disney announced that their contract with Trank was terminated due to the overwhelmingly negative reviews of Fantastic Four. By 2017, it was reported that the film was still in early development at Lucasfilm, and with reports stating that the film would focus on bounty hunter, Boba Fett. Lucasfilm never confirmed what the plot was about, but revealed that the film Josh Trank left was a different film from Solo: A Star Wars Story.
In August 2016, Ewan McGregor stated he would be open to return to the role of Obi - Wan Kenobi, albeit for a spin - off film on the character, should he be approached, wanting to tell a story between Episode III and IV. Fans showed interest in the idea; a fan - trailer for an Obi - Wan film, with footage from the film Last Days in the Desert (which starred McGregor) became viral and widely praised by fans. The film was voted as the most wanted anthology film in a poll by The Hollywood Reporter despite there being only rumors of the film 's production. Lucasfilm and McGregor for years denied the development of such film, despite fans ' continued interest and rumors. In March 2017, McGregor again stated his interest in starring in a solo film, if Lucasfilm wanted him to. By August 2017, it was reported that a movie centered around Obi - Wan Kenobi is in early developments, with Stephen Daldry in early negotiations to co-write and direct the project. Liam Neeson expressed his interest in returning to the franchise, reprising his role as Qui - Gon Jinn. Joel Edgerton, who played Luke Skywalker 's step - uncle Owen in the prequel trilogy, said he would like to reprise his role in an Obi - Wan standalone film, if it were to be made.
Additional reports stated Lucasfilm was considering various films about different characters including movies focusing on Boba Fett, as well as Jedi Master Yoda. Temuera Morrison has expressed interest in portraying Boba, or Captain Rex, both clones of his previous character Jango Fett. Daniel Logan, who played Boba Fett as a child in Attack of the Clones, has also expressed interest in reprising his role in the rumored Boba Fett film. In 2015, director Guillermo Del Toro pitched an idea to Lucasfilm for a film about Jabba the Hutt, and in 2017, it was reported that it is among the projects being considered by the studio.
Samuel L. Jackson has expressed interest in returning as Mace Windu, insisting that his character survived his apparent death. Ian McDiarmid has also expressed interest in returning as Emperor Palpatine. Fans have also expressed interest towards the possibility of Ahsoka Tano appearing in a live - action film, with Rosario Dawson expressing interest in the role.
In November 2017, Lucasfilm announced that Rian Johnson, the writer / director of The Last Jedi, would be working on a new trilogy. The films will reportedly differ from the Skywalker - focused films in favor of focusing on new characters. Johnson is confirmed to write and direct the first film. On the same day, Disney announced that a live - action Star Wars television series was in development exclusively for their upcoming streaming service.
In February 2018, it was announced that David Benioff and D.B. Weiss would write and produce a series of Star Wars films that are not Skywalker - focused films, similar to but separate from Rian Johnson 's upcoming installments in the franchise.
In March 2018, it was revealed by Deadline that Simon Kinberg is writing the script to an as - of - yet undisclosed film within the franchise. Previously, the filmmaker had been attached to producing the Boba Fett - centered film and is known for co-creating the Star Wars Rebels animated television series.
From 1977 to 2014, the term Expanded Universe (abbreviated as EU), was an umbrella term for all officially licensed Star Wars storytelling materials set outside the events depicted within the theatrical films, including television series, novels, comics, and video games. Lucasfilm maintained internal continuity between the films and television content and the EU material until April 25, 2014, when the company announced all of the EU works would cease production. Existing works would no longer be considered canon to the franchise and subsequent reprints would be rebranded under the Star Wars Legends label, with downloadable content for the massively multiplayer online game Star Wars: The Old Republic being the only Legends material to still be produced. The Star Wars canon was subsequently restructured to only include the existing six feature films, the animated film Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008), and its companion animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars. All future projects and creative developments across all types of media would be overseen and coordinated by the Story Group, announced as a division of Lucasfilm created to maintain continuity and a cohesive vision on the storytelling of the franchise. Lucasfilm announced that the change was made "to give maximum creative freedom to the filmmakers and also preserve an element of surprise and discovery for the audience ''., The animated series Star Wars Rebels was the first project produced after the announcement, followed by multiple comics series from Marvel, novels published by Del Rey, and the sequel film The Force Awakens (2015).
In the two - hour Star Wars Holiday Special produced for CBS in 1978, Chewbacca returns to his home planet of Kashyyyk to celebrate "Life Day '' with his family. Along with the stars of the original 1977 film, celebrities Bea Arthur, Art Carney, Diahann Carroll, and Jefferson Starship appear in plot - related skits and musical numbers. Lucas loathed the special and forbade it to ever be aired again after its original broadcast, or reproduced on home video. An 11 - minute animated sequence in the Holiday Special featuring the first appearance of bounty hunter Boba Fett, is considered to be the sole silver lining of the production, with Lucas even including it as a special feature on a 2011 Blu - ray release (making it the only part of the Holiday Special to ever receive an official home media release). The segment is the first Star Wars animation ever produced.
The television film Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure aired on ABC on Thanksgiving weekend in 1984. With a story by Lucas and a screenplay by Bob Carrau, it features the Ewok Wicket from Return of the Jedi as he helps two children rescue their parents from a giant known as Gorax. The 1985 sequel, Ewoks: The Battle for Endor, finds Wicket and his friends protecting their village from invaders.
Nelvana, the animation studio that had animated the animated segment of the Holiday Special was hired to create two animated series. Star Wars: Droids (1985 -- 1986), which aired for one season on ABC, follows the adventures of the droids C - 3PO and R2 - D2, 15 years before the events of the 1977 film Star Wars. Its sister series Star Wars: Ewoks (1985 -- 1987) features the adventures of the Ewoks before Return of the Jedi and the Ewok movies.
After the release of Attack of the Clones, Cartoon Network animated and aired Star Wars: Clone Wars from 2003 to weeks before the 2005 release of Revenge of the Sith, as the series featured event set between those films. It won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program in 2004 and 2005.
Lucas decided to invest in creating his own animation company, Lucasfilm Animation, and used it to create his first in - house Star Wars CGI - animated series. Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 -- 2014) was introduced through a 2008 animated film of the same name, and set in the same time period as the previous Clone Wars series (albeit ignoring it). While all previous television works were reassigned to the Legends brand in 2014, Lucasfilm accepted The Clone Wars and its originating film, as part of the canon. All series released after would also be part of the canon. In 2014, Disney XD began airing Star Wars Rebels, the next CGI - animated series. Set between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope, it followed a band of rebels as they fight the Galactic Empire and helped close some of the arcs in The Clone Wars. Another animated series debuted in 2017, Star Wars Forces of Destiny focused on the female characters of the franchise.
Since 2005, when Lucas announced plans for a television series set between the prequel and original trilogies, the television project has been in varying stages of development at Lucasfilm Producer Rick McCallum revealed the working title, Star Wars: Underworld, in 2012, and said in 2013 that 50 scripts had been written. He called the project "The most provocative, the most bold and daring material that we 've ever done. '' The proposed series explores criminal and political power struggles in the decades prior to A New Hope, and as of December 2015 was still in development at Lucasfilm. In November 2017, Bob Iger discussed the development of a Star Wars series for Disney 's upcoming digital streaming service, due to launch in 2019. It is unknown if the series would be based on the Star Wars Underworld scripts or if it would follow an entirely new idea.
In February 2018, it was reported that there are multiple live action Star Wars TV series currently in development, with "rather significant '' talent involved in the productions. Jon Favreau, who had previously voiced Pre Vizsla in The Clone Wars animated series, will produce and write the television series.
Star Wars - based fiction predates the release of the first film, with the December 1976 novelization of Star Wars, subtitled From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker. Credited to Lucas, it was ghost - written by Alan Dean Foster. The first Expanded Universe story appeared in Marvel Comics ' Star Wars # 7 in January 1978 (the first six issues of the series having been an adaptation of the film), followed quickly by Foster 's novel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye the following month.
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker is a 1976 novelization of the original film by Alan Dean Foster, who followed it with the sequel Splinter of the Mind 's Eye (1978), which Lucas decided not to film. The film novelizations for The Empire Strikes Back (1980) by Donald F. Glut and Return of the Jedi (1983) by James Kahn followed, as well as The Han Solo Adventures trilogy (1979 -- 1980) by Brian Daley, and The Adventures of Lando Calrissian (1983) trilogy by L. Neil Smith.
Timothy Zahn 's bestselling Thrawn trilogy (1991 -- 1993) reignited interest in the franchise and introduced the popular characters Grand Admiral Thrawn, Mara Jade, Talon Karrde, and Gilad Pellaeon. The first novel, Heir to the Empire, reached # 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list, and the series finds Luke, Leia, and Han facing off against tactical genius Thrawn, who is plotting to retake the galaxy for the Empire. In The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994) by Dave Wolverton, set immediately before the Thrawn trilogy, Leia considers an advantageous political marriage to Prince Isolder of the planet Hapes, but she and Han ultimately marry. Steve Perry 's Shadows of the Empire (1996), set in the as - yet - unexplored time period between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi, was part of a multimedia campaign that included a comic book series and video game. The novel introduced the crime lord Prince Xizor, another popular character who would appear in multiple other works. Other notable series from Bantam include the Jedi Academy trilogy (1994) by Kevin J. Anderson, the 14 - book Young Jedi Knights series (1995 -- 1998) by Anderson and Rebecca Moesta, and the X-wing series (1996 -- 2012) by Michael A. Stackpole and Aaron Allston.
Del Rey took over Star Wars book publishing in 1999, releasing what would become a 19 - installment novel series called The New Jedi Order (1999 -- 2003). Written by multiple authors, the series was set 25 to 30 years after the original films and introduced the Yuuzhan Vong, a powerful alien race attempting to invade and conquer the entire galaxy. The bestselling multi-author series Legacy of the Force (2006 -- 2008) chronicles the crossover of Han and Leia 's son Jacen Solo to the dark side of the Force; among his evil deeds, he kills Luke 's wife Mara Jade as a sacrifice to join the Sith. The story parallels the fallen son of Han and Leia, Ben Solo / Kylo Ren, in the 2015 film The Force Awakens. Three series were introduced for younger audiences: the 18 - book Jedi Apprentice (1999 -- 2002) chronicles the adventures of Obi - Wan Kenobi and his master Qui - Gon Jinn in the years before The Phantom Menace; the 11 - book Jedi Quest (2001 -- 2004) follows Obi - Wan and his own apprentice, Anakin Skywalker in between The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones; and the 10 - book The Last of the Jedi (2005 -- 2008), set almost immediately after Revenge of the Sith, features Obi - Wan and the last few surviving Jedi. Maul: Lockdown by Joe Schreiber, released in January 2014, was the last Star Wars novel published before Lucasfilm announced the creation of the Star Wars Legends brand.
Though Thrawn had been designated a Legends character in 2014, he was reintroduced into the canon in the 2016 third season of Star Wars Rebels, with Zahn returning to write more novels based in the character, and set in the reworked canon.
Marvel Comics published a Star Wars comic book series from 1977 to 1986. Original Star Wars comics were serialized in the Marvel magazine Pizzazz between 1977 and 1979. The 1977 installments were the first original Star Wars stories not directly adapted from the films to appear in print form, as they preceded those of the Star Wars comic series. From 1985 -- 1987, the animated children 's series Ewoks and Droids inspired comic series from Marvel 's Star Comics line.
In the late 1980s, Marvel dropped a new Star Wars comic it had in development, which was picked up by Dark Horse Comics and published as the popular Dark Empire sequence (1991 -- 1995). Dark Horse subsequently launched dozens of series set after the original film trilogy, including Tales of the Jedi (1993 -- 1998), X-wing Rogue Squadron (1995 -- 1998), Star Wars: Republic (1998 -- 2006), Star Wars Tales (1999 -- 2005), Star Wars: Empire (2002 -- 2006), and Knights of the Old Republic (2006 -- 2010).
After Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm, it was announced in January 2014 that in 2015 the Star Wars comics license would return to Marvel Comics, whose parent company, Marvel Entertainment, Disney had purchased in 2009. Launched in 2015, the first three publications in were titled Star Wars, Star Wars: Darth Vader, and the limited series Star Wars: Princess Leia.
Radio adaptations of the films were also produced. Lucas, a fan of the NPR - affiliated campus radio station of his alma mater the University of Southern California, licensed the Star Wars radio rights to KUSC - FM for US $1. The production used John Williams ' original film score, along with Ben Burtt 's sound effects.
The first was written by science fiction author Brian Daley and directed by John Madden. It was broadcast on National Public Radio in 1981, adapting the original 1977 film into 13 - episodes. Mark Hamill and Anthony Daniels reprised their film roles.
The overwhelming success, led to a 10 - episode adaptation of The Empire Strikes Back in 1982. Billy Dee Williams joined the other two stars, reprising his role as Lando Calrissian.
In 1983, Buena Vista Records released an original, 30 - minute Star Wars audio drama titled Rebel Mission to Ord Mantell, written by Daley. In the 1990s, Time Warner Audio Publishing adapted several Star Wars series from Dark Horse Comics into audio dramas: the three - part Dark Empire saga, Tales of the Jedi, Dark Lords of the Sith, the Dark Forces trilogy, and Crimson Empire (1998). Return of the Jedi was adapted into 6 - episodes in 1996, featuring Daniels.
The first officially licensed Star Wars electronic game was Kenner 's 1979 table - top Star Wars Electronic Battle Command. In 1982, Parker Brothers published the first licensed Star Wars video game, Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back, for the Atari 2600. It was followed in 1983 by Atari 's rail shooter arcade game Star Wars, which used vector graphics and was based on the "Death Star trench run '' scene from the 1977 film. The next game, Return of the Jedi (1984), used more traditional raster graphics, with the following game The Empire Strikes Back (1985) returning to the 1983 's arcade game vector graphics, but recreating the "Battle of Hoth '' scene instead.
Lucasfilm had started its own video game company in the early 1980s, which became known for adventure games and World War II flight combat games. In 1993, LucasArts released Star Wars: X-Wing, the first self - published Star Wars video game and the first space flight simulation based on the franchise. X-Wing was one of the best - selling games of 1993, and established its own series of games. Released in 1995, Dark Forces was the first Star Wars first - person shooter video game. A hybrid adventure game incorporating puzzles and strategy, it featured new gameplay features and graphical elements not then common in other games, made possible by LucasArts ' custom - designed game engine, called the Jedi. The game was well received and well reviewed, and was followed by four sequels. Dark Forces introduced the popular character Kyle Katarn, who would later appear in multiple games, novels, and comics. Katarn is a former Imperial stormtrooper who joins the Rebellion and ultimately becomes a Jedi, a plot arc similar to that of Finn in the 2015 film The Force Awakens.
Disney has partnered with Lenovo to create the Augmented Reality game ' Star Wars: Jedi Challenges ' that works with a Lenovo Mirage AR headset, a tracking sensor and a Lightsaber controller that will launch in December 2017.
Aside from its well - known science fictional technology, Star Wars features elements such as knighthood, chivalry, and princesses that are related to archetypes of the fantasy genre. The Star Wars world, unlike fantasy and science - fiction films that featured sleek and futuristic settings, was portrayed as dirty and grimy. Lucas ' vision of a "used future '' was further popularized in the science fiction - horror films Alien, which was set on a dirty space freighter; Mad Max 2, which is set in a post-apocalyptic desert; and Blade Runner, which is set in a crumbling, dirty city of the future. Lucas made a conscious effort to parallel scenes and dialogue between films, and especially to parallel the journeys of Luke Skywalker with that of his father Anakin when making the prequels.
Star Wars contains many themes of political science that mainly favor democracy over dictatorship. Political science has been an important element of Star Wars since the franchise first launched in 1977. The plot climax of Revenge of the Sith is modeled after the fall of the democratic Roman Republic and the formation of an empire.
The stormtroopers from the movies share a name with the Nazi stormtroopers (see also Sturmabteilung). Imperial officers ' uniforms resemble some historical German uniforms of World War II and the political and security officers of the Empire resemble the black - clad SS down to the imitation silver death 's head insignia on their officer 's caps. World War II terms were used for names in Star Wars; examples include the planets Kessel (a term that refers to a group of encircled forces) and Hoth (Hermann Hoth was a German general who served on the snow - laden Eastern Front). Palpatine being Chancellor before becoming Emperor mirrors Adolf Hitler 's role as Chancellor before appointing himself Dictator. The Great Jedi Purge alludes to the events of The Holocaust, the Great Purge, the Cultural Revolution, and the Night of the Long Knives. In addition, Lucas himself has drawn parallels between Palpatine and his rise to power to historical dictators such as Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Adolf Hitler. The final medal awarding scene in A New Hope, however, references Leni Riefenstahl 's Triumph of the Will. The space battles in A New Hope were based on filmed World War I and World War II dogfights.
Continuing the use of Nazi inspiration for the Empire, J.J. Abrams, the director of Star Wars: The Force Awakens, has said that the First Order, an Imperial offshoot which serves as the main antagonist of the sequel trilogy, is inspired by another aspect of the Nazi regime. Abrams spoke of how several Nazis fled to Argentina after the war and he claims that the concept for the First Order came from conversations between the scriptwriters about what would have happened if they had started working together again.
The Star Wars saga has had a significant impact on modern popular culture. Star Wars references are deeply embedded in popular culture; Phrases like "evil empire '' and "May the Force be with you '' have become part of the popular lexicon. The first Star Wars film in 1977 was a cultural unifier, enjoyed by a wide spectrum of people. The film can be said to have helped launch the science fiction boom of the late 1970s and early 1980s, making science fiction films a blockbuster genre or mainstream. This very impact made it a prime target for parody works and homages, with popular examples including Spaceballs, Family Guy 's Laugh It Up, Fuzzball, Robot Chicken 's "Star Wars Episode I '', "Star Wars Episode II '' and "Star Wars Episode III '', and Hardware Wars by Ernie Fosselius.
In 1989, the Library of Congress selected the original Star Wars film for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry, as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' Its sequel, The Empire Strikes Back, was selected in 2010. Despite these callings for archival, it is unclear whether copies of the 1977 and 1980 theatrical sequences of Star Wars and Empire -- or copies of the 1997 Special Edition versions -- have been archived by the NFR, or indeed if any copy has been provided by Lucasfilm and accepted by the Registry.
The original Star Wars film was a huge success for 20th Century Fox, and was credited for reinvigorating the company. Within three weeks of the film 's release, the studio 's stock price doubled to a record high. Prior to 1977, 20th Century Fox 's greatest annual profits were $37 million, while in 1977, the company broke that record by posting a profit of $79 million. The franchise helped Fox to change from an almost bankrupt production company to a thriving media conglomerate.
Star Wars fundamentally changed the aesthetics and narratives of Hollywood films, switching the focus of Hollywood - made films from deep, meaningful stories based on dramatic conflict, themes and irony to sprawling special - effects - laden blockbusters, as well as changing the Hollywood film industry in fundamental ways. Before Star Wars, special effects in films had not appreciably advanced since the 1950s. The commercial success of Star Wars created a boom in state - of - the - art special effects in the late 1970s. Along with Jaws, Star Wars started the tradition of the summer blockbuster film in the entertainment industry, where films open on many screens at the same time and profitable franchises are important. It created the model for the major film trilogy and showed that merchandising rights on a film could generate more money than the film itself did.
The Star Wars saga has inspired many fans to create their own non-canon material set in the Star Wars galaxy. In recent years, this has ranged from writing fan fiction to creating fan films. In 2002, Lucasfilm sponsored the first annual Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards, officially recognizing filmmakers and the genre. Because of concerns over potential copyright and trademark issues, however, the contest was initially open only to parodies, mockumentaries, and documentaries. Fan fiction films set in the Star Wars universe were originally ineligible, but in 2007, Lucasfilm changed the submission standards to allow in - universe fiction entries. Lucasfilm, for the most part, has allowed but not endorsed the creation of these derivative fan fiction works, so long as no such work attempts to make a profit from or tarnish the Star Wars franchise in any way. While many fan films have used elements from the licensed Expanded Universe to tell their story, they are not considered an official part of the Star Wars canon.
As the characters and the story line of the original trilogy are so well known, educationalists have advocated the use of the films in the classroom as a learning resource. For example, a project in Western Australia honed elementary school students story - telling skills by role playing action scenes from the movies and later creating props and audio / visual scenery to enhance their performance. Others have used the films to encourage second - level students to integrate technology in the science classroom by making prototype light sabers. Similarly, psychiatrists in New Zealand and the US have advocated their use in the university classroom to explain different types of psychopathology.
The success of the Star Wars films led the franchise to become one of the most merchandised franchises in the world. In 1977, while filming the original film, George Lucas decided to take a 500,000 - dollar pay - cut to his own salary as director, in exchange for fully owning the merchandising rights of the franchise to himself. Over the franchise 's lifetime, such exchange cost 20th Century Fox, more than US $20 billion in merchandising revenue profits. Disney acquired the merchandising rights when part of purchasing Lucasfilm.
Kenner made the first Star Wars action figures to coincide with the release of the film, and today the remaining 80 's figures sell at extremely high prices in auctions. Since the 90 's Hasbro holds the rights to create action figures based on the saga. Pez dispensers have been produced. Star Wars was the first intellectual property to be licensed in Lego Group history, which has produced a Star Wars Lego theme. Lego has produced animated parody short films to promote their sets, among them Revenge of the Brick (2005) and The Quest for R2 - D2 (2009), the former parodies Revenge of the Sith, while the later The Clone Wars film. Due to their success, LEGO created animated comedy mini-series among them The Yoda Chronicles (2013 - 2014) and Droid Tales (2015) originally airing on Cartoon Network, but since 2014 moved into Disney XD. The Lego Star Wars video games are critically acclaimed best sellers.
In 1977 with the board game Star Wars: Escape from the Death Star (not to be confused with another board game with the same title, published in 1990). The board game Risk has been adapted to the series in two editions by Hasbro: and Star Wars Risk: The Clone Wars Edition (2005) and Risk: Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition (2006).
Three different official tabletop role - playing games have been developed for the Star Wars universe: a version by West End Games in the 1980s and 1990s, one by Wizards of the Coast in the 2000s, and one by Fantasy Flight Games in the 2010s.
Star Wars trading cards have been published since the first "blue '' series, by Topps, in 1977. Dozens of series have been produced, with Topps being the licensed creator in the United States. Some of the card series are of film stills, while others are original art. Many of the cards have become highly collectible with some very rare "promos '', such as the 1993 Galaxy Series II "floating Yoda '' P3 card often commanding US $1,000 or more. While most "base '' or "common card '' sets are plentiful, many "insert '' or "chase cards '' are very rare. From 1995 until 2001, Decipher, Inc. had the license for, created and produced a collectible card game based on Star Wars; the Star Wars Collectible Card Game (also known as SWCCG).
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who has been chairman of the federal reserve | Chair of the Federal Reserve - wikipedia
The Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is the head of the central banking system of the United States. The position is known colloquially as "Chair of the Fed '' or "Fed Chair ''. The chair is the "active executive officer '' of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
The chair is chosen by the President of the United States from among the members of the Board of Governors; and serves for four - year - terms after appointment. A chair may be appointed for several consecutive terms. William Martin was the longest serving chair, holding the position from 1951 to 1970.
The current chair is Janet Yellen, the first woman to hold the position. She began her term on February 3, 2014, and previously served as the Vice-Chair from 2010 to 2014. The current term will end on or about February 3, 2018. On November 2, 2017, President Donald Trump nominated Jerome Powell to serve as the next Chairman beginning February 5, 2018.
Section 203 of the Banking Act of 1935 changed the name of the "Federal Reserve Board '' to the "Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. '' The directors ' salaries were significantly lower (at $12,000 when first appointed in 1914) and their terms of office were much shorter prior to 1935. In effect, the Federal Reserve Board members in Washington, D.C., were significantly less powerful than the presidents of the regional Federal Reserve Banks prior to 1935.
In the 1935 Act, the district heads had their titles changed to "President '' (e.g., "President of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis '').
Thus, Marriner Eccles was the first actual "Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve Board ''. The others prior to 1935 were "Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Federal Reserve System '', with much more circumscribed power.
As stipulated by the Banking Act of 1935, the President of the United States appoints the seven members of the Board of Governors; they must then be confirmed by the Senate and serve four year terms.
The nominees for chair and vice-chair may be chosen by the President from among the sitting Governors for four - year terms; these appointments are also subject to Senate confirmation. By law, the chair reports twice a year to Congress on the Federal Reserve 's monetary policy objectives. He or she also testifies before Congress on numerous other issues and meets periodically with the Treasury Secretary.
The law applicable to the Chair and all other members of the Board provides (in part):
No member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System shall be an officer or director of any bank, banking institution, trust company, or Federal Reserve bank or hold stock in any bank, banking institution, or trust company; and before entering upon his duties as a member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System he shall certify under oath that he has complied with this requirement, and such certification shall be filed with the secretary of the Board.
The following is a list of past and present Chairs of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. A chair serves for a four - year term after appointment, but may be reappointed for several consecutive four - year terms. As of 2014, there have been a total of fifteen Fed Chairs.
(1953 --)
(2017 --)
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where is night at the museum 2 filmed | Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian - wikipedia
Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian is a 2009 American adventure fantasy comedy film written by Robert Ben Garant and Thomas Lennon, produced (with Chris Columbus and Michael Barnathan) and directed by Shawn Levy, and starring Ben Stiller, Amy Adams, Owen Wilson, Hank Azaria, Christopher Guest, Alain Chabat, and Robin Williams. It is the second installment in the Night at the Museum trilogy, and a sequel to the 2006 film Night at the Museum. It is also the last Night at the Museum film to feature Jake Cherry as Nick Daley. The film was released theatrically on May 22, 2009 by 20th Century Fox, being the film in the trilogy not to be released theatrically in December. Like its predecessor, it received mixed critical reception and a box office success by grossing over $413 million on a $150 million budget.
Larry Daley, former night guard at the American Museum of Natural History, now runs his own direct response television company that sells inventions based on his experiences. He returns to the museum, discovering most of the exhibits will be moved to the Federal Archives at the Smithsonian Institution and replaced with holographic information providers. The Tablet of Akmenrah is to remain in the museum, leaving most of the exhibits without the ability to come to life at night. After the exhibits are moved, Larry receives a phone call from the cowboy Jedediah that Dexter the monkey stole the Tablet and took it to the Smithsonian, bringing every exhibit in it to life. Larry travels to Washington, DC, navigating his way to the archives with help from his son Nick while posing as a night guard.
Larry finds his friends trapped in their shipping container under attack from Akmenrah 's evil older brother Kahmunrah, accidentally activating the tablet and bringing the exhibits in the Smithsonian to life again. Kahmunrah reveals his plans to use the tablet 's powers to conquer the world. Larry escapes, aided by a gigantic octopus and General George A. Custer, who is captured, and then the adventurous Amelia Earhart, who becomes his travelling companion around the museum. The two evade Kahmunrah 's men, trapping them in the portrait of V-J Day in Times Square. Kahmunrah enlists fellow evil historical leaders, Ivan the Terrible, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Al Capone to help capture Larry and retrieve the tablet. Jedediah tries to help but is placed in an hourglass. Kahmunrah is unable to open the Gate of the Underworld with the tablet, sending Larry and Amelia off to translate it or Jedediah dies.
While searching for someone in the museum who can help, Larry and Amelia end up falling in love. They travel to the National Air and Space Museum, briefly encountering the statue of Abraham Lincoln at the Lincoln Memorial. Inside the museum, Larry grounds all of the aircraft and rockets from taking off, before a group of Albert Einstein bobbleheads inform him that the combination is the value of pi. Napoleon, Ivan, and Capone 's troops arrive, prompting Larry and Amelia to escape using the Wright Flyer. They crash the plane into the Smithsonian, where Kahmunrah uses the acquired combination to summon an army of bird - headed warriors. Lincoln crashes in through the window, frightening the warriors back into the Underworld.
Amelia gathers an army of allies including Larry 's friends and Custer, leading to a climactic battle. Larry obtains the tablet, banishing Kahmunrah back to the Underworld. Amelia flies Larry and the New York exhibits back home, giving Larry a final kiss before taking off in her plane, knowing she will become dust before reaching the Smithsonian. Larry sells his company, donating the money to the museum to renovate it, and the exhibits remain, capable of moving about at night under the pretense of being animatronics. Larry is rehired as night guard and aids a woman who resembles Amelia.
Writers Robert Ben Garant and Thomas Lennon confirmed to Dark Horizons that they were writing a sequel to Night at the Museum, originally with the tentative title Another Night at the Museum. The writers said that "there 'll be existing characters and plenty of new ones. ''
20th Century Fox announced that the sequel, Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian, would be released during Memorial Day weekend in 2009. Ben Stiller, Owen Wilson, Steve Coogan, Ricky Gervais, Patrick Gallagher, Jake Cherry, Rami Malek, Mizuo Peck, Brad Garrett and Robin Williams would return for the sequel, with Shawn Levy returning as director.
The film was mostly filmed in Vancouver and Montreal with some scenes filmed in the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C.. A scene was shot at the Lincoln Memorial on the night of May 21, 2008. Scenes were also shot at the American Museum of Natural History in New York on August 18 and 20, 2008.
The trailer was released with Bedtime Stories, Yes Man and Marley & Me in December 2008. The trailer accompanied the film Bride Wars in January, The Pink Panther 2 in February, and Dragonball Evolution in April 2009. The film was also promoted as an opening skit on American Idol, where a replica of the Idol judge seats are being held at the real Smithsonian Institution.
An alternate ending included on the DVD and Blu - ray releases featured the return of Dick Van Dyke as Cecil Fredericks, Bill Cobbs as Reginald, and Mickey Rooney as Gus.
Filmmakers loaned the Smithsonian Institution props used in the movie which were displayed in the Smithsonian Castle including the pile of artifacts featured in the film. The Smithsonian also made a brochure available online and at museum visitor service desks outlining where to find artifacts.
As of 2009, numerous artifacts which inspired the movie were on display at Smithsonian Museums along the National Mall. Many of the artifacts are labeled with "Night at the Museum '' logos.
Gift shops at the Smithsonian also sell a replica of the Einstein Bobble - head, created specifically as a tie - in to the movie.
Alan Silvestri returned to score the sequel.
Varese Sarabande issued the score on May 19, 2009.
All tracks written by Alan Silvestri.
A trailer of Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian was released on December 19, 2008. The film premiered on May 14, 2009 in Washington, D.C.. The film released in UK on May 20, 2009, on May 22, 2009 in United States, and in Japan on August 12, 2009.
At the end of its box office run, Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian earned a gross of $177,243,721 in North America and $235,862,449 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $413,106,170 against a budget of $150 million.
On Friday, May 22, 2009, its opening day, the film 's estimated gross was $15,568,708, for second day the film grossed $20,086,972 and for third day the gross was $18,517,606 coming in ahead of Terminator Salvation (which released on Thursday) in 4,096 theaters at # 1, reaching up to $54.1 million, with a $13,226 per - theater average over the Memorial Day weekend. By comparison, Night at the Museum reached up to $30 million on its opening weekend in December 2006. For its second weekend, the film grossed $24.35 million, for third weekend $14.6 million.
For the opening weekend of May 22, 2009 the film grossed $49,036,322 while playing in theaters of 56 territories; the film debuted in UK ($6.6 million), Russia ($5.23 million) and France ($5.05 million). The largest market in other territories being UK, Japan, Germany, Australia and France where the film grossed $32.8 million, $21.49 million, $18.78 million, $14.03 million and $13.3 million.
Like its predecessor, the sequel has received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 44 % "rotten '' approval rating, based on 163 reviews, with an average score of 5.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Night at the Museum: Battle at the Smithsonian is busy enough to keep the kids interested but the slapstick goes overboard and the special effects (however well executed) throw the production into mania ''. Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, gave the film an average score of 42 % based on 31 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Despite mixed reviews from critics, most critics praised Amy Adams ' and Hank Azaria 's performances. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune awarded the film 3 stars stating that "(Adams) 's terrific -- a sparkling screen presence. '' Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+ stating "Battle of the Smithsonian has plenty of life. But it 's Adams who gives it zing. '' Also, many reviews noted the costume worn by Amy Adams during the movie. Perry Seibert of TV Guide gave the film 2 stars despite honoring that "thanks to Azaria, a master of comic timing. His grandiose, yet slightly fey bad guy is equally funny when he 's chewing out minions as he is when deliberating if Oscar the Grouch and Darth Vader are evil enough to join his team. Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter and A.O. Scott of The New York Times enjoyed both performances.
One critic panned the movie on its excessive use of special effects as noted by Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club when he described the film as "a baffling master plot and a crowded pileup of special effects in search of something to do. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times awarded the film 11⁄2 stars out of 4 claiming "its premise is lame, its plot relentlessly predictable, its characters with personalities that would distinguish picture books. ''
In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian was made available December 1, 2009 on DVD and Blu - ray as a two - disc Special Edition and a three - disc Digital Copy Edition.
As of 12 February 2015, the film has sold 4,083,829 DVDs and 585,023 Blu - ray discs grossing $51,481,903 and $11,674,546 totalling $63,156,449 in North America.
The video game based on the film was released on May 5, 2009. It was fairly well received in comparison to the majority of film - based video - games, netting a 7.5 out of 10 from IGN.com.
Ben Stiller admitted that a sequel was "a possibility '' and on January 22, 2010, co-writer Thomas Lennon said to Access Hollywood, "That after the success of two Night at the Museum films, it 's no surprise that 20th Century Fox is looking to develop a third and that those suspicions are indeed true and how could you not? I think it 's a really outstanding idea to do Night at the Museum 3, in fact, '' he said. "I wonder if someone 's not even already working on a script for that, '' he added with a raised eyebrow. "I can not confirm that for a fact, but I can not deny it for a fact either... It might be in the works. '' In an interview, Stiller confirmed the sequel, however, he said that it was only in the "ideas stage ''.
It was announced in February 2013 that the film, directed by Shawn Levy, would be released on December 25, 2014. On September 10, 2013, it was announced that shooting would start in February 2014. On November 8, 2013, English actor Dan Stevens was cast as Sir Lancelot. On November 15, 2013, it was announced Skyler Gisondo would be replacing Jake Cherry for the role of Nicky Daley. On December 18, 2013 it was announced that Robin Williams, Stiller, and Ricky Gervais would be returning for the sequel. On January 9, 2014, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would play a security guard in the British Museum. On January 14, 2014, the film 's release date was moved up from December 25, 2014, to December 19, 2014. On January 23, 2014, it was announced Ben Kingsley would play an Egyptian Pharaoh at the British Museum. Principal photography and production began on January 27, 2014. In May 2014, principal photography ended.
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who failed the boards in grey's anatomy | April Kepner - wikipedia
April Kepner M.D., is a fictional character from the ABC ' s hit medical drama Grey 's Anatomy. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes and is portrayed by actress Sarah Drew. She was introduced in the episode "Invasion '' as a surgical resident from Mercy West Hospital who joins the staff at Seattle Grace Mercy West after the two hospitals merge to compensate for the absence of some of the central cast members, and was created to be disliked by her colleagues. The character was originally set to appear in two episodes but Drew 's contract was extended to the remainder of the sixth season, with her becoming a series regular in the seventh season. The character 's main storylines involved her professional struggles, her religious beliefs, and her relationship with her best friend and now ex-husband Jackson Avery. The character 's story concludes with the fourteenth season.
Although initially focusing on neurosurgery during her residency due to her crush on Derek Shepherd, Kepner finally settles on trauma surgery as a specialty. After failing her boards, Kepner departs but returns as a surgical attending when Chief Owen Hunt offers her job back. ABC noted her determination, thoroughness, and intelligence as her main traits, while her insecurity, over-eagerness and vulnerability were highlighted as her main weakness. The character received mixed reviews from critics initially, but later praise was affirmed from her character growth.
April Kepner was born in Columbus, Ohio on April 23, 1982. Her mother Karen is a teacher and her father Joe is a farmer. She is the second of four daughters; her sisters are Libby, Kimmie, and Alice. Kepner is initially a surgical resident at Mercy West Hospital. She joins the staff at Seattle Grace Mercy West after the merger of the two hospitals, alongside Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams), Reed Adamson (Nora Zehetner), and Charles Percy (Robert Baker). Kepner is first shown to possess a red diary, in which she writes all her feelings and thoughts which is stolen by Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh). Grey uses the personal information written in the notebook to unnerve and blackmail Kepner but later apologizes. After she made a mistake that led to a patient 's death, she is fired. However, Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) rehires her when he becomes the new Chief of Surgery. As she is not confident anymore, she spends her time doing errands for Shepherd and develops a crush on him, earning her the nickname "Shepherd 's flunky ''. In the season six finale, she discovers the body of her best friend Reed Adamson, who has been shot. She later runs into the shooter, Gary Clark, who lets her go after she tells him about her life after remembering a technique she says she learned from Oprah. Following the shooting, Kepner and Avery move into Meredith Grey 's (Ellen Pompeo) house.
Kepner reveals that she is a virgin because she is a Christian and made a promise to God to stay a virgin until she was married, she also states that she thinks men find her annoying after yelling at Alex, Meredith, Lexie and Jackson about secrets, she claims that the fact that she is a 28 year old virgin is not a drinks conversation. She shows potential as a trauma surgeon during a trauma drill. She develops feelings for Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) who almost makes her lose her virginity. When Avery, now her best friend finds out about this, he assaults Karev. Later, Kepner agrees to go on a date with Robert Stark, believing him to have a good side. Her fellow residents make fun of her which prompts her to break up with him. April also impresses Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) and she is ultimately granted the position of Chief Resident in the season seven finale. Kepner initially struggles with her new status as her fellow doctors do not listen to her and do not take her seriously.
As the end of the fifth year of residency is near, the surgical residents, including Kepner, prepare for their boards exams for the different fellowships they plan on joining. The night before taking the exam, April loses her virginity to Avery. This causes her to re-evaluate her faith during her Boards Exams, making the examiners feel uncomfortable. It is revealed that she is the only one out of the residents to have failed her Boards Exams. She receives phone calls from other hospital retracting their offers of fellowships and is laid off from Seattle Grace. Although Avery has true feelings for her, she pushes him away because she believes that he feels guilty for having sex with her. As a celebration of the conclusion of their residencies, the former chief of surgery Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) organizes his annual dinner for them. The eighth season ends with Kepner, Avery, Karev and Webber waiting for Meredith and Yang, who are victims of an aviation accident.
Months later, Hunt goes to visit April, who had moved back to her parents ' farm in Moline, Ohio. In the wake of the tragic aviation accident, he offers her an attending position at the hospital. When she gets back to Seattle Grace, she resumes her sexual relationship with Avery, despite claiming she wants to re-virginise. April has a pregnancy scare and Jackson promises that he will be there every step of the way, even marry her, if she tests positive. When April finds out that she is not pregnant, she is overjoyed, but inadvertently hurts Jackson 's feelings by saying that they dodged a bullet, seemingly thrilled that they do n't have to get married anymore. Jackson breaks up with April.
April suggests to Jackson that they each take a date to Bailey 's wedding in an attempt to move on. Jackson takes intern Stephanie; the two bond and eventually have sex. When Jackson tells April that he is sleeping with somebody else, she is visibly crushed and tells him that they ca n't be friends again until she has gotten over him. In the next episode, a very attractive paramedic named Matthew (Justin Bruening) asks April out for coffee and they start seeing each other. Shortly afterwards she turns to Jackson for dating advice and it is hinted that Jackson is still in love with her when he shows signs of jealousy but Jackson overcomes his jealousy and they then re-establish their friendship. She confesses to Matthew that she is not a virgin anymore as she led him to believe and he breaks up with her because she lied to him. However, in the next episode, Matthew forgives April and they get back together. He asks her to marry him through a flash mob and she says yes. In the season 9 finale, April thinks she lost Jackson when a bus blew up and tells him she loves him, but he only has a few injuries. She remains engaged to Matthew while Jackson dates Stephanie. At the wedding, Jackson realizes he still loves April and stands up professing his love. Jackson and April are seen driving off together at the start of the following episode and later it is revealed that they have secretly eloped.
At first April and Jackson do not tell their friends about their marriage, but later they do because of a new rule at the hospital. Catherine Avery is not at all happy about her son 's elopement with April, and the fact that there was n't a prenuptial agreement. They soon make up after April signs a postnuptial agreement. Jackson and April soon hit a rough patch when they realize that they have different views in the way their children should be raised religious. Not long after their fight, April realizes she is pregnant. April and Jackson 's baby is diagnosed during pregnancy with Osteogenesis Imperfecta type 2, and learn that the baby will not survive long after birth. Jackson believes that termination is the best option, however April would rather give birth to the baby knowing it will not live very long. They scheduled an induction for the next day, at the beginning of the appointment they are asked to sign their baby 's death certificate, which is too hard for the couple to bear. April does n't sign the papers and returns to work the same day praying for a miracle, while at work she has a heart to heart with a lady who lost her fiancé the night before. They decide to give birth to the baby via induction at 24 weeks gestation having it baptized right then. She gave birth to Samuel Norbert Avery, and he died a few hours after birth. In the following weeks after Samuel 's death, April and Jackson find it hard to be around each other and be intimate with one another. After April tries to seduce Jackson in a supply closet, Jackson asks if she is sure she wants this so soon after the death of their son, leaving April to storm out in anger. In the series 11 finale April decides to join Owen Hunt for 3 months as a trauma surgeon with the army; this not being well received by Jackson. But after April states she needs this in order to grieve Samuel - Jackson lets her leave. Over the following months April lengthens her stay in the army, this having a strain on her and Jackson 's marriage as Jackson can rarely get a hold of her or talk to her over the phone. On Christmas Day after already being away for some time, April announces to Jackson while on video chat that she is staying for a longer service period, Jackson becomes angry with April but the conversation is cut short by sounds of gunfire and explosions from April 's base camp, leaving her to terminate the call; meanwhile Jackson is unsure whether his wife is hurt or if she is ever coming home. On Valentine 's Day April returns to the hospital surprising Jackson, and they embrace in the foyer.
In Season 12, April and Jackson go through divorce proceedings started by Jackson. The morning before they sign the divorce papers, April discovers that she is expecting a second baby. She does not inform Jackson, and he is told by Arizona Robbins, which leads to additional tension. After Catherine Avery convinces Jackson to fight for full custody of his unborn child, April takes out a restraining order against him. The Averys ' lawyer asks for all documentation of their marriage, when reading through their wedding vows, Jackson realizes that they should fix the situation for their child. He and April decide to raise their son or daughter together as friends. Complications arise when April needs a c - section and Ben Warren has to do it without anesthesia or other medications.
In Seasons 13 and 14, April faces a crisis of faith as she begins to believe that good people get punished and bad people get good things. As a result, she goes into a dark place and uses partying and sex to mask her deep - rooted pain. However, mid-Season 14, she encounters a terminal patient who helps April reaffirm her faith.
In Season 14, April starts seeing Matthew again, in spite of their broken engagement. near the end of season 14, April and Matthew ended up in a car accident, where April almost dies. She had a bad case of hypothermia, and ended up surviving. In the season 14 finale April and Matthew get married.
Drew on her role in Grey 's Anatomy.
Drew was cast in late September 2009 and first appeared on the show in the fifth episode of the sixth season as one of the residents from the Mercy West Hospital after its merger with Seattle Grace. Drew was brought aboard Grey 's Anatomy after former collaborations with the Series ' producer and creator Shonda Rhimes; she was formally featured as a guest in two episodes of Private Practice in 2008 and was one of the main cast in Rhimes television pilot Inside the Box (2009) which was eventually not picked up by ABC. Her casting came after the absence of some of the central cast members, notably Katherine Heigl departure after her maternity leave and Ellen Pompeo 's absence due to pregnancy.
Drew was originally contracted to guest star in a multi-episodes story arc where her character would be eventually fired from the series after two episodes. She explained: "I came on to the show and I was told from day one that I was only going to be there for two episodes. I did not expect anything beyond that. The morning my firing episode aired, my agent got a call that they were talking about a contract and I was just completely floored. '' However she was promoted to a series regular on June 9, 2010 for the seventh season of the show. Rhimes said in the wake of the news: "Kepner has really been folded into the group '' of Grey 's Anatomy adding "It 'll depend on what the studio and the network decide to do with those actors, but I fully advocate to have (the characters) ''. Drew received the call for her promotion the morning after the sixth episode of season six was telecast on October 29, 2009. She described the call as a "totally happy surprise ''.
Drew 's character has been called intelligent, hardworking, thorough and determined by Grey 's Anatomy executives. But she is also considered vulnerable, insecure, sensitive and overly eager by her colleagues. Of the character, Drew said: "April is a very, very good doctor. She really knows what she 's doing, she 's worked really hard, and she certainly wants to do her best and stick around. '' but also described her as "annoying '', "neurotic '' and "really insecure ''. In the eighth season, April 's position as chief resident and her struggle to get a handle on her fellow residents formed the central arc of her storyline. Rhimes explained: "Watching April try to be in charge of Cristina and Alex and Jackson is a pretty impossible task, and it 's made for comedy, it 's one of the funniest things we 're working on this season. '' One of Kepner 's central characteristics is her religious belief, notably her chastity and her instance on saving herself for someone she truly loves. In an interview, Drew assessed that: There certainly has never been a 28 - year - old virgin on Grey 's. I do n't even think there 's been a 28 - year - old virgin on television. Unless it 's someone who is sort of a recluse. A normal, smart, doctor.... pretty, healthy... that in and of itself is really fascinating, and really interesting, and totally different. It 's neat to see someone who is just totally clueless in that area. Everyone else (On Grey ' Anatomy) seems like they know exactly what they 're doing. April is totally, totally clueless. Shonda told one of the directors, there are virgins that have sort of done everything else. But not April. April 's really pretty much done nothing. She 's completely untouched. ''
Kepner entertained several relationships throughout her time on Grey 's Anatomy. In her early appearances, she is introduced as the best friend and roommate of her fellow Mercy West resident, Reed Adamson. In the season six finale, when Reed is tragically murdered by Gary Clark during the shooting, April is the first to find her when she trips over her dead body. In season seven April forms a friendship with Meredith Grey and she eventually moves into her house. Ellen Pompeo offered regarding their bond: "Meredith will accept April in order to get the audience to accept her, '' and Drew further explained: "She 's being plugged into the community. Meredith has really taken her under her wing, is really looking out for her. Having Meredith come around to April helps the audience come around to April. ''
She first develops a crush on Derek Shepherd in season six. Carina MacKenzie from The Los Angeles Times called it "ridiculous '' and added: "April is drooling all over Chief McDreamy. Vomit. (...) She 's been reduced to a 12 - year - old with hearts in her eyes and a painful inability to be subtle. '' Drew herself was skeptical about it, saying: "The biggest thing that people did not like about my character was they thought I was a threat for the Mer / Der relationship, which I kind of found was super ridiculous (...) I never saw it as anything that would ever transpire into something that might threaten them. I only saw it as a really pathetic little crush. '' She briefly has feelings for Alex Karev who almost makes her lose her virginity when he tries to sleep with her in Something 's Gotta Give. Wetpaint commented that he made her feel "worthless and unwanted when she was at her most vulnerable. '' Kepner also briefly dates Dr. Robert Stark, a senior pediatric surgical attending. After her fellow residents make fun of her, she breaks up with him, creating a coldness between them. However, it is Stark who recommends her as chief resident to Dr. Hunt. Drew stated: "She sees a side to Dr. Stark that he does n't show to anyone else at the hospital, and she finds that part endearing... I think they enjoy the companionship. ''
In the end of season eight, Kepner embarks on a relationship with her best friend turned lover Jackson Avery (Williams), who she loses her virginity to and that eventually leads her to reflect on her faith and fail her boards. Critics praised the chemistry between April and Jackon. Rhimes commented on the dynamic between the two in season nine and said: "I think it 's going to be funny, sexy, and good. ''
Initially, Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times highly praised the characterization of Kepner. writing: "One of my favorite Mercy Westers is intern April (Sarah Drew). Her saccharine - sweet attitude and wide - eyed insincerity were hilarious, as was her super-mysterious hot pink notebook full of morale - boosting platitudes. '' However, she criticized the later development of her story, especially her crush on Derek Shepherd calling it "vomit '' PopSugar noted similarities between Kepner and Lexie Grey, stating: "Am I the only one who thinks the new doctor is kind of like Lexie 2.0? Their dynamic reminded me of when Lexie first started and tries really hard to make nice with Mere, but gets the cold shoulder in return. '' Mariella Mosthof from Wetpaint stated: "Despite her obnoxious yet well - meaning tendencies, we briefly flirted with the idea of liking April 's character last season, and it looks like there 's plenty of opportunity for her to come back and charm us again yet again this time around. '' Reviewing the first part of the eight season, Courtney Morrison of TV Fanatic wrote: "Although the girl has grown in terms of likeability, her downfalls still outweigh the positives. She does n't really bring too much to the table. She was n't the best choice for Chief Resident; she does n't seem to be on the same level surgical wise and she has n't carried a story on her own that makes us care about her. ''
Kepner was included in TV Guide 's list of The Most Loathed TV Characters, adding: "The extremely neurotic April (she makes Liz Lemon look laid back) has slowly made strides with fans thanks to her personal setbacks -- she lost her treasured virginity to her best friend and failed her boards -- but she still has a long way to go. '' Entertainment Weekly also named her one of the "21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever '', commenting: "April 's lightened up a little this season (season 9), but a few episodes of sympathetic behavior ca n't erase the painful memories of Seattle Grace - Mercy West 's most irritating doctor being. '' TV Fanatic included her in their list of Worst Character on TV. Christina Tran commented: "Could she be any more annoying?!? '' Drew stated that it was initially "hard '' for her as an actress to play an unpopular character but deemed her "interesting '' and when she was informed by the writers that her character would get Dr. Shepherd (Dempsey) shot in the season six finale, her reaction was: "Oh, come on, guys, really? They already hate my character, now they 're going to hate her even more! ''
Critics reception gradually changed positively. Entertainment Weekly noted: "April was chirpy, irritating, and immature, and her crush on Derek did n't endear her to us either. But these days, we say hooray for April; since Meredith declared that the two of them are pals, April 's become a lot more tolerable, instead of being Lexie 2.0. '' Courtney Morrison of TVFanatic wrote: "April has grown since her character was introduced. She 's no longer much less annoying than she used to be, and she 's honest. A girl with principles is a girl you want to do well. '' and described her and Avery as "a couple for whom viewers can root ''. The Hollywood Reporter also remarked: "It 's nice to see April with a bit of a backbone and putting Alex in his place as the newfound confidence suits her well. ''
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who is broadcasting the super bowl on sunday | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2017 season. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the American Football Conference (AFC) and defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, to win their first Super Bowl and their first NFL title since 1960. The game was played on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was the second time that a Super Bowl was played in Minneapolis, the northernmost city to ever host the event, after Super Bowl XXVI at the Metrodome during the 1991 season, and the sixth Super Bowl held in a cold - weather city.
New England finished the regular season with an AFC - best 13 -- 3 record, then extended their record Super Bowl appearances to ten, their third in four years, and their eighth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. Philadelphia also finished the regular season with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 record, a year after Dallas did it in 2016, but became underdogs entering the playoffs after starting quarterback Carson Wentz suffered a season - ending injury late in the regular season and was replaced by journeyman backup Nick Foles. Still, the Eagles advanced to their third Super Bowl appearance, having previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
Several records were set during Super Bowl LII, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined (1,151), the fewest punts from both teams in a Super Bowl (one), and the most points scored by a Super Bowl losing team (33). The game was settled after the Eagles converted a fumble recovery deep within Patriots territory to a field goal with 1: 05 remaining to extend their lead to eight points, and Brady 's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete as time expired. Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP. Foles ' touchdown catch later became known as The Philly Special and joined NFL lore.
The broadcast of the game on NBC had the smallest Super Bowl audience in nine years, with an average of 103.4 million viewers. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Justin Timberlake, was 106.6 million American television viewers, 9 percent less than the previous year.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles lost a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. The previous season 's top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. The defense came together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one - game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards, 32 touchdowns and just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change that helped make up for the loss of Edelman was the acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first - round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola was the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game, in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV (who, coincidentally, had also worn green jerseys).
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities, while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 that included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available. NBC employed 73 cameras within the stadium, and introduced "volumetric - AR '' graphics featuring 3D body scanning of players.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
As NBC Sports Regional Networks operates regional sports networks in the markets of both teams which participated, the NBC Sports Boston and NBC Sports Philadelphia channels were used to provide additional coverage of the game from a local perspective. Both networks aired coverage from Minneapolis, including pre-game specials focusing on their respective team, followed by a joint broadcast immediately prior to the game.
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. As they began five days after the Super Bowl, NBC offered advertising packages that covered both Super Bowl LII and the 2018 Winter Olympics (which marked the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network had aired both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year); the network estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company reduced the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
Fiat Chrysler subsidiary Ram Trucks was met with swift and harsh criticism for its use of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr 's sermon "The Drum Major Instinct ''. Major news outlets and social media erupted in the controversy. Particularly disturbing to many viewers was the selective exploitation of King 's anti-consumerist, anti-advertising speech in an attempt to sell trucks.
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, titled "Super Bowl Sunday '', alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''. Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance. No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2016 and 2017 seasons.
Fifteen Medal of Honor recipients participated in the coin toss ceremony. World War II hero Hershel W. Williams was the honorary captain and had the honors of flipping the coin.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked off to the Eagles, who opened the game with a 14 - play, 67 - yard drive that took 7: 05 off the clock and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who completed 6 of 9 passes to five different receivers for 61 yards, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi mixed in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later found Torrey Smith for a 15 - yard completion on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady completed 6 of 8 passes for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard strike to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, which tied the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point attempt from Elliott was missed wide right, which made the score 9 -- 3 in favor of the Eagles. The Patriots responded by advancing the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line on their next drive, which was set up by a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game with a concussion. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed and brought the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6. The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown, when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch, and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run. Gostkowski missed the ensuing extra point, but the score was now 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later, on third down - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Clement then ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line on the next play. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 -- 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he threw a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail as time expired. The Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960, ending what was the third - longest championship drought in the NFL at 57 years.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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where did the new england patriots play before foxborough | History of the New England Patriots - wikipedia
The history of the New England Patriots began when Boston business executive William "Billy '' Sullivan and Sullivan Brother Printers, owned by Joseph Sullivan, were awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL) on November 16, 1959. The following winter, locals submitted thousands of ideas for the Boston football team 's official name. On February 20, 1960, Sullivan chose "Boston Patriots '', with "Patriots '' referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. "Patriots '' as a nickname had been suggested by 74 fans, among them Larry Kepnes. Immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell developed the "Pat Patriot '' logo.
The Patriots ' time in the AFL saw them without a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium, all in or near Boston, served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. Early Patriots stars included defensive tackles Jim Lee "Earthquake '' Hunt and Houston Antwine; quarterback Vito "Babe '' Parilli; and flanker - placekicker Gino "The Duke '' Cappelletti. Hunt, Parilli and Cappelletti played every year of the existence of the AFL, with Hunt and Cappelletti spending all ten years with the Patriots. Cappelletti was the all - time leading scorer in the AFL. Later the Patriots were joined by such stars as defensive end Larry Eisenhauer, fullback Jim Nance, and middle linebacker and future Hall of Famer Nick Buoniconti. Cappelletti and Nance were AFL Most Valuable Players, Cappelletti in 1964 and Nance in 1966. Buoniconti and Antwine were later named to the American Football League All - Time Team.
The Boston Patriots defeated the Buffalo Bills in an AFL Eastern Division playoff game in 1963, and played in the 1963 AFL championship game, losing to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. Although they would not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years, in the AFL, the Patriots often challenged the dominant Bills for the Eastern Division title.
When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the AFC East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, a suburb of Boston, which would serve as their home for 30 years; the team also changed their name to the New England Patriots to reflect the location change, as well as its following throughout the region as its only NFL team (though both New York City teams have substantial followings in parts of Connecticut as well). During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976 -- as a wild card - berth -- and in 1978 -- as AFC East champions. They would lose both games. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost against the Chicago Bears 46 -- 10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. They changed ownership several times in that period, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri, but sold the team two years later to current owner, local businessman Robert Kraft in 1994.
Though Orthwein 's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team. Former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells was hired in 1993, and the drastic changes were made the same year to the Patriots uniforms, changing their primary colors from their traditional red and white to blue and silver, and introducing a new logo. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35 -- 21. Pete Carroll, Parcells ' successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice.
Bill Belichick, current head coach, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team has won five Super Bowls, including three in four years (2001 - 2004), and finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16 -- 0 record, becoming only the fourth team in league history to go undefeated, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games; however, they ended that season with an 18 - 1 record after their loss to the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII. The Patriots have made the playoffs in 14 of the 17 seasons that Belichick has been coach, missing them only in 2000 (his first season), 2002, and 2008. They later faced the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015, and won by a score of 28 - 24. The Patriots defeated the Atlanta Falcons 34 - 28 in Super Bowl LI at NRG Stadium.
Boston had previously been home to several NFL teams. The first was the Boston Bulldogs, which lasted only one season (1929). They were followed by the Boston Braves / Redskins, from 1932 to 1936. They had played first at Braves Field and then at Fenway Park. The team did not draw well, even in their final season when they reached the NFL Championship Game, and moved to Washington following the 1936 season. The Boston Yanks played from 1944 to 1948 before moving to New York to become the New York Yanks.
On July 30, 1960, the Boston Patriots defeated the Buffalo Bills in the first AFL pre-season game. The Boston Patriots played in the first - ever game in the American Football League, against the Denver Broncos on September 9, 1960, a game which they lost by a score of 10 - 13. Although the team made only one AFL playoff appearance (in 1963), it had numerous stars. In 1963, eleven Patriots made the AFL All - star team, including Gino Cappelletti, Jim Colclough, Nick Buoniconti, and Babe Parilli. That year the Patriots made it to the AFL Championship for the first time ever, but lost to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. Linebacker Tom Addison, an original Patriot and the first Patriot all - star, founded and was selected President of the AFL Players Association in the mid-1960s. In the late - 1960s, fullback Jim Nance became an offensive weapon for the Patriots, gaining 1,458 yards in 1966 and 1,216 in 1967, when he was the AFL MVP.
Mandates set in the wake of the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970 required that all teams reside in stadiums with at least 50,000 seats. None of the four stadiums the Patriots had used up to that point qualified, and because Boston is one of the oldest and most densely built cities in North America, there was little room in Boston for a new stadium. Rumors began to spread about a possible relocation to Tampa, Florida; these rumors ultimately never came to fruition (Tampa eventually got the Buccaneers instead). In 1971 the Patriots moved into a hastily and inexpensively constructed stadium in suburban Foxborough (also known as Foxboro), on land granted by the Bay State Raceway. The team was renamed the New England Patriots in March 1971, to reflect its new location roughly halfway between Providence and Boston as well as a desire to better position itself as New England 's regional NFL team (this would influence the name of the New England Whalers hockey team when they began play in 1972, like the Patriots, labeling themselves a New England team). The original choice, Bay State Patriots, was rejected by the NFL. The stadium, to be known as Schaefer Stadium, was built at a cost of about $7.1 million in only 325 days. The stadium was one of the first stadiums in the country to be named after a corporate sponsor, as the Schaefer Brewing Company paid $150,000 for naming rights. Additionally, the town of Foxborough was one of the first in the country to assess a surtax on every ticket sold.
The first event held at the new Schaefer Stadium was a preseason game against the New York Giants on August 15, 1971. A massive traffic jam on Route 1 prevented half of the fans from getting in until halftime. Once the stadium was fully occupied, the water pressure proved inadequate. The Massachusetts Board of Health threatened to close the stadium unless the problem was fixed. The team then built water tanks to boost pressure. As a test, a "flush - off '' was conducted, where every toilet in the stadium was flushed at the same time. They worked, but the Patriots had to supplement the facilities with port - a-potties.
On the field in 1971 was a new quarterback, Heisman Trophy winner Jim Plunkett. Plunkett, from Stanford University, was the first overall selection in the 1971 NFL Draft, which the Patriots received for having finished with the NFL 's worst record in 1970. The Patriots also signed free agent Randy Vataha, who had been one of Plunkett 's favorite wide receivers at Stanford.
The Patriots continued to have difficulties even after moving to Schaefer Stadium, and went through three coaches in their first four post-merger seasons. One bright spot was the arrival of offensive guard John Hannah in the 1973 NFL Draft. Hannah would anchor the Patriots ' offensive line for the next 13 seasons and eventually become the first career Patriot to make the Pro Football Hall of Fame. This draft also brought running back Sam Cunningham, the team 's all - time leading rusher, and wide receiver Darryl Stingley to New England.
In 1973, the team hired Chuck Fairbanks, who had enjoyed success as head coach at the University of Oklahoma, as head coach. The Patriots showed marked improvement in Fairbanks 's second season, 1974, finishing 7 -- 7, but with injuries to Plunkett in 1975, regressed to 3 -- 11 that season. Following the 1975 season, Plunkett was traded to the San Francisco 49ers, and eventually would win two Super Bowls with the Oakland Raiders.
The draft picks acquired in the Plunkett trade were used to select defensive backs Mike Haynes and Tim Fox and set the stage for the team 's first winning seasons in the NFL. Second - year player Steve Grogan -- who had played much of the 1975 season with Plunkett injured -- became New England 's top quarterback in 1976. The Patriots finished 11 - 3, their best record in team history to that point, and advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 1963.
Their opponent in the first round would be the Oakland Raiders, whose only regular season loss had come at the hands of New England, 48 - 17. By late in the game, the Patriots were leading the Raiders, 21 -- 17. On a critical 3rd - down play late in the 4th quarter, Patriots defensive tackle Ray "Sugar Bear '' Hamilton appeared to get a critical sack on Oakland quarterback Ken Stabler, which would have forced the Raiders into a 4th - down situation and the possible end to their season. However, referee Ben Dreith called a roughing the passer penalty on Hamilton, nullifying the sack and giving the Raiders an automatic 1st down deep in New England territory. Replays would show that there was no illegal contact -- a point that Stabler himself would all but concede in interviews years later. The call would ultimately prove fatal to the Patriots, as Stabler would score on a short touchdown run with less than a minute left, and the Raiders held on for a 24 -- 21 win. Partially because of the controversy, the league never assigned Dreith to officiate Patriots games again.
The 1977 season was a disappointing one for the Patriots, aided by contract holdouts by offensive linemen John Hannah and Leon Gray. The Patriots finished 9 -- 5, one game out of first place in the AFC East, and out of the playoffs.
In a 1978 preseason game against the Raiders, wide receiver Darryl Stingley was paralyzed from the neck down from a tackle by Oakland 's Jack Tatum. Tatum, who would write a book called "They Call Me Assassin '', never apologized for the hit. Despite this devastating loss, the Patriots would rally and finish 11 -- 5 for their first post-merger division title. However, hours before the final game of the regular season, coach Chuck Fairbanks surprised many by announcing he would be leaving the team to become head coach at the University of Colorado. Owner Billy Sullivan immediately suspended Fairbanks, and offensive coordinator Ron Erhardt and defensive coordinator Hank Bullough were left to coach the final game without a head coach. Fairbanks was reinstated for the playoffs, but the team lost its divisional playoff game 31 - 14 to the Houston Oilers, which also was the first Patriots post-season game at Schaefer Stadium.
For the next two years, the Patriots would suffer late - season collapses that would deny them return trips to the playoffs. In 1979, after starting 7 -- 3, the team lost four out of their last six games, including three in a row to divisional rivals in December, to finish 9 -- 7 and out of the playoffs. In 1980, with star running back Sam Cunningham holding out all season, the Patriots started 6 -- 1 but finished 10 -- 6, again out of the playoffs. With these performances in mind, a local sportswriter intimated that the team suffered from the "Bozo Syndrome '', meaning that they played "like clowns in the clutch. '' The Patriots continued to slide in 1981, finishing 2 -- 14, including two losses to the Baltimore Colts which were the only two games the Colts won that year. The Patriots would be outscored by only 48 points throughout the season, while the Colts allowed an NFL - record 533 points and finished with a minus - 274 point differential, the second - worst since the AFL -- NFL merger.
Following the 1981 season, Erhardt was fired and replaced by Ron Meyer, who had been the head coach at Southern Methodist University. The Patriots had the top draft pick overall in the 1982 NFL Draft and selected Kenneth Sims, a defensive end from the University of Texas at Austin, who would largely prove to be a disappointment in his seven seasons with the team.
In the strike - shortened 1982 season, the highlight of the Patriots ' campaign was the so - called "Snow Plow Game '', a controversial 3 -- 0 late - season win over the Miami Dolphins. The controversy came in the 4th quarter when the Patriots were preparing for a field goal attempt. Mark Henderson, a convict on work release, used a John Deere tractor with a rotating sweeper to clear a swath of field to aid the Patriots. Kicker John Smith 's 33 - yard attempt was good, and the points would prove to be the only points scored by either team that afternoon. The win would help put the Patriots in the playoffs, but the first - round rematch in Miami was easily won by the Dolphins.
In 1983, quarterback Tony Eason was drafted in the first round, the fourth of six quarterbacks taken in the first round. Eason would play sparingly in 1983, but would become the Patriots ' starting quarterback in 1984. Meanwhile, the team 's pattern of not being able to finish seasons strong became apparent again. The team again lost some key games late, and finished out of the playoffs at 8 -- 8. Also that year, the naming - rights deal with Schaefer expired, and Sullivan renamed the stadium Sullivan Stadium after himself.
The Patriots, with the top overall pick in the 1984 NFL Draft, selected Irving Fryar, a wide receiver from the University of Nebraska. With Tony Eason starting at quarterback, the Patriots got off to a strong 5 -- 2 start. However, after a pair of losses, the Patriots fired head coach Ron Meyer and replaced him with former Baltimore Colts wide receiver Raymond Berry. The players initially responded well to Berry, winning three of their first four games under him. However, showing once again a failure to finish strong, the Patriots again lost three straight games in December, and again missed the playoffs at 9 -- 7.
After struggling to start the 1985 season, new coach Raymond Berry replaced Eason with Grogan. But Grogan broke his leg late in the season, and Eason got the starting job again. New England won six straight games and finished 11 -- 5, with a wild card playoff berth. During the season, wide receivers Stanley Morgan and Irving Fryar, tight end Lin Dawson, and running back Craig James all led the Patriots in touchdowns. In the wild card round of the playoffs, the Patriots beat the New York Jets 26 - 14 for their first playoff win since 1963. In that game, Morgan caught a touchdown pass from Eason, and defensive back Ronnie Lippett returned a fumble for a TD to seal the victory. In the divisional playoff against the Los Angeles Raiders, the Patriots forced six turnovers and won 27 - 20, gaining a measure of revenge for their crushing 1976 defeat. Dawson started the game with a touchdown, then when the Patriots were kicking off in the 4th quarter, a fumble by the Raiders resulted in a touchdown for Jim Bowman. After winning two playoff games, this set up an AFC Championship showdown against the rival Miami Dolphins. The Patriots had lost 20 straight games in Miami at the time, but won this one, dominating the Dolphins defensively again en route to a 31 - 14 win. Eason threw touchdowns to running back Tony Collins and tight end Derrick Ramsey to get the game started. Later, a Mosi Tatupu touchdown put the game away with the Patriots as the AFC Champions of 1985. Thus the Patriots completed an improbable run to Super Bowl XX, where they faced the Chicago Bears.
Unfortunately for the Patriots, they would be caught in the middle of a bizarre Super Bowl week subplot. Prior to the AFC Championship game, Irving Fryar had cut two fingers with a kitchen knife, requiring them to be put in a cast. At first it was dismissed as a freak accident, but after the conference championship, the truth came out: Fryar 's wife, Jacqueline, had slashed him in a domestic incident after Fryar had knocked her down. It was a distraction that, many thought, epitomized the history of these Patriots -- coming as it did in what was otherwise to that point the franchise 's finest hour.
In the Super Bowl, though the Bears had not allowed a point in the playoffs, the Patriots took an early 3 - 0 lead after a Walter Payton fumble in the 1st quarter. This resulted a field goal by Tony Franklin.
The opening drive would be marked by an injury to Dawson, who would be forced to leave the contest with a broken leg. The Bears would go on to score the next 44 points, including a touchdown by rookie defensive lineman William "The Refrigerator '' Perry. The Patriots would add a meaningless touchdown (an 8 - yard touchdown pass to Fryar from Grogan) at the end to make the final score 46 -- 10, the most lopsided defeat in Super Bowl history at the time.
John Hannah, generally considered one of the best guards to play pro football, retired after the Patriots ' Super Bowl experience. Also, the day after the game, Boston Globe sportswriter Ron Borges wrote a story alleging that six Patriots players, including Fryar, cornerback Raymond Clayborn, safety Roland James, and running back Tony Collins were marijuana users. Furthermore, allegations surfaced that Fryar was involved in gambling of NFL games.
In 1986, the Patriots ' strength was their passing game, led by Eason and star receiver Stanley Morgan, who gained nearly 1,500 yards receiving. Despite having statistically the worst rushing offense in the league, New England led the AFC East with an 11 -- 5 record, and traveled to Denver to take on the Broncos in the divisional playoffs. A late 4th - quarter touchdown pass from John Elway to Vance Johnson won the game for Denver, who would eventually succeed the Patriots as AFC Champions. This would be the team 's last playoff appearance for eight years.
Local product Doug Flutie (from Natick, Massachusetts), who won the Heisman Trophy for Boston College in 1984, was acquired by the Patriots during the 1987 players ' strike and crossed the picket line to play his first game for the Patriots, which was also the last of three games played by replacement players in the 1987 season. Many defensive players for New England also crossed the picket line. However, late - season injuries put the Patriots out of playoff contention at 8 -- 7. In 1988, Flutie played five games before he was replaced by Eason, after which they would alternate as the Patriots ' starting quarterback. Though the Patriots had some success with this atypical arrangement, finishing the season 9 -- 7, the Patriots narrowly missed the playoffs.
During this time, the Sullivan family -- who had owned the Patriots since their inception -- lost millions of dollars on poor investments, most notably their involvement in producing The Jackson 5 1984 Victory Tour, headed by family scion Chuck Sullivan. They were never among the NFL 's wealthiest owners, and the investments, and specifically the losses suffered from the Victory Tour, had a considerable negative impact on the family fortune and compromised, in many ways, the operation of the Patriots. For instance, since most of their money was tied up in the Patriots, they were forced to pledge Sullivan Stadium as collateral to finance the Victory Tour. By at least one estimate, the losses from the tour nearly equaled the Sullivans ' net worth. Even with the Patriots making the Super Bowl, the revenue from the team was not nearly enough to service the debt.
The massive losses from the Victory Tour forced the Sullivans to quietly put the Patriots and Sullivan Stadium on the market in 1985. Prospective buyers balked at the $100 million asking price, but it made more sense after the Patriots made the Super Bowl. By the start of 1988, the Sullivans seemed to be on an irreversible slide toward bankruptcy. At one point, they had to get a $4 million advance from the league just to make payroll. Billy Sullivan asked the NFL for permission to sell 50 percent of the team 's stock to the public, but the league turned him down.
After a last - ditch effort to persuade Reebok CEO Paul Fireman to take a minority stake came undone, the Sullivans were forced to sell the team to Remington Products magnate Victor Kiam in 1988 for $84 million, though Billy Sullivan remained as team president until 1992. Sullivan Stadium, however, lapsed into bankruptcy, and was bought out of bankruptcy court by Boston paper magnate Robert Kraft -- a development whose importance would n't be fully realized until long after the Sullivans had left the scene.
Although the Patriots were respectable in 1988, missing the playoffs by only a game, the 1989 season was a disaster for the team. Three of the team 's biggest players on defense (Andre Tippett, Garin Veris and Ronnie Lippett) were injured in the same preseason game. Neither Eason, Flutie, nor Grogan emerged as the starting quarterback, and each rotated the starting quarterback job throughout the season. Eason was later traded during the season, leaving Flutie and Grogan to battle for the job. The Patriots finished the season 5 -- 11.
Following the season, Flutie left for the Canadian Football League, and long time general manager Dick Steinberg also left to take a similar job with the New York Jets. Berry was fired and replaced by Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Rod Rust for 1990.
Under Rust, the Patriots finished with the worst season in franchise history in 1990 -- a 1 -- 15 record. On the day after what turned out to be the team 's only win that year (against the Colts), the Patriots were thrown into the middle of a sexual harassment scandal when Boston Herald reporter Lisa Olson was sexually and verbally assaulted by several Patriots players in the team 's locker room and was later labeled a "classic bitch '' by Kiam. Following an investigation into the scandal, NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue fined the team $50,000, and players Zeke Mowatt, Michael Timpson and Robert Perryman $12,500, $5,000, and $5,000 respectively. As a final indignity, their season finale against the New York Giants would be one of their few sellouts of the year; however, most of the fans at the game that day were Giants fans. The team lost that game, missing a game - tying field goal in the closing seconds.
Shortly thereafter, the Patriots revamped their front office. Rust was fired and replaced by Dick MacPherson, a New England native who had been the coach at Syracuse University. Additionally, Sam Jankovich, who had been athletic director at the University of Miami and oversaw the national resurgence of their athletic program (and specifically their football team), was brought on as CEO of the Patriots.
The Patriots showed marked improvement in 1991. Hugh Millen took over at quarterback partway through the season, and the Patriots responded to MacPherson 's upbeat, positive style. The Patriots improved to 6 -- 10 with several upsets over playoff teams, including wins against the Minnesota Vikings and eventual AFC Champion Buffalo Bills, and were competitive in many of their losses. Attendance and fan interest improved.
Although optimism was high entering the 1992 season, the team was disappointing and finished 2 -- 14, which eventually led to the departures of both MacPherson and Jankovich. Rumors of a possible move to St. Louis, Missouri intensified when Kiam sold the team to St. Louis businessman James Orthwein, a scion of the Busch family. Orthwein wanted to return the NFL to his hometown of St. Louis and saw the Patriots as a vehicle to make that happen.
The Patriots went about the business of giving the team a brand new look for 1993, in every way. The most dramatic change was the hiring of Bill Parcells, a two - time Super Bowl winner, as head coach. One of the most respected coaches in the history of the game, Parcells brought instant credibility and respectability for the franchise. He was also largely given a free hand with respect to personnel. Changes to the uniforms and logo were rolled out as well. The old "Pat Patriot '' logo was retired and replaced with a stylized Patriot head, designed in tandem with NFL Properties that many fans would eventually call "Flying Elvis ''. The team 's primary color changed from red to blue, and the helmets from white to silver.
With the first pick in the 1993 NFL Draft, the Patriots selected quarterback Drew Bledsoe from Washington State. This was only part of a major season of change in New England. Other draft picks such as linebacker Chris Slade helped the team immediately. Bledsoe started the season as the starting quarterback, but after losing the first four games, he was injured and replaced with former Dolphins backup Scott Secules, who won one of his two games.
The 1993 season began with an 1 -- 11 record. Of their 11 losses, eight were by 7 points or less, and only two of their 11 defeats were by more than 14 points, both coming before Week 4. Finally, at the end of the season, the Patriots ' luck began to turn. They ended their season by winning their last four games in a row, over Cincinnati, Cleveland, Indianapolis, and, most dramatically, over Miami in overtime in the finale -- a game that eliminated the Dolphins from the playoffs.
Interest in the Patriots grew both during and after the 1993 season, despite their lackluster on - field showing. By many measures, the Patriots were as popular as they had ever been -- even more popular than they had been during their 1985 Super Bowl year. Despite this interest, however, rumors abounded that the team was going to move to St. Louis as soon as James Orthwein could clear all the hurdles. Finally, in the 1993 off - season, the issue reached its climax. Orthwein offered Robert Kraft, the team 's landlord since 1988, $75 million to break the operating covenant of the lease, which would then free him to move the Patriots to St. Louis. Kraft refused, which continued to bind the Patriots to playing at Foxboro. When it became apparent that Kraft would not allow Orthwein to buy out the lease, Orthwein put the team up for sale. Kraft bought the team for a then - NFL record $175 million in 1994, beating out an investor group which included Paul Newman and Walter Payton as investors (the latter of which was on the Chicago Bears team that beat the Patriots in Super Bowl XX). On February 26, 1994, Kraft 's first full day as owner of the Patriots, the team sold 5,958 season tickets, shattering by over sixfold the team 's prior single - day record of 979. Moreover, soon after Kraft took full ownership, the Patriots sold out the entire 1994 season -- the first time in team history that had happened. Every Patriots home game -- preseason, regular season, and playoffs -- has been sold out ever since.
Halfway through the 1994 season, the Patriots looked flat. They were 3 -- 6 and had lost 4 straight games when they faced the Minnesota Vikings at home for Week 10. With the season on the line, Drew Bledsoe sparked a second - half comeback by switching to a no - huddle offense. Bledsoe set single - game records for pass attempts and completions, and the Patriots won the game 26 -- 20 in overtime. This led to the Patriots winning their last seven games of the regular season, finishing 10 -- 6 and making the playoffs as a wild card. In their first playoff game in nine years, the Patriots were beaten in the first round by the Cleveland Browns 20 -- 13. The Browns, coached by one - time Parcells assistant (and future Patriots head coach) Bill Belichick, were the last team to beat New England in the regular season.
The Patriots drafted Curtis Martin in the third round of the 1995 NFL Draft, giving the team its best running back in decades. Despite a dramatic opening day win against Belichick 's Browns to start the 1995 season, and a sensational rookie campaign by the young Martin, Bledsoe struggled with injuries, the team struggled with inconsistency, and the Patriots finished a lackluster 6 -- 10.
1995 was also marked by the Patriots ' first home appearance on Monday Night Football since 1981. During the Patriots ' last appearance on the program, a number of fans in attendance proved to be rowdy and uncontrollable, and there was an abnormally high number of arrests. As a result of this behavior, the Town of Foxborough and the NFL refused to schedule Monday night home games in New England. (This behavior, which occurred during day games as well, led the Patriots to only sell reduced - alcohol beer for several seasons in the 1980s.)
After the Patriots ' successful season, however, Robert Kraft successfully lobbied the Town of Foxborough and the NFL to schedule the Patriots on a Monday night. The NFL granted Kraft 's request, scheduling the Patriots on Monday, October 23, in a game against the Buffalo Bills. The Patriots won the game, 27 -- 14, and the crowd was peaceful and orderly, with only a handful of isolated disturbances and arrests. In appreciation, Kraft took out a full - page ad in the Boston Globe thanking fans for their excellent behavior, and the Patriots have since hosted many more night games without incident.
Another major change was the primary home station for most Patriots regular season games. Since 1965, they had aired on WBZ - TV, Boston 's longtime NBC affiliate. After owner Westinghouse Broadcasting switched the station 's affiliation to CBS, WHDH - TV took on airing the NFL on NBC package locally.
In the 1996 NFL Draft, despite Bill Parcells ' objections, the Patriots selected wide receiver Terry Glenn with their 1st - round draft pick. Despite Parcells referring to Glenn as "she '' during a preseason press conference, Glenn provided much the same spark to the receiving corps that Martin had provided to the running game. On defense, rookie safety Lawyer Milloy made an impact, as did Willie Clay (signed from the Detroit Lions) and second - year cornerback Ty Law. Linebackers Tedy Bruschi and Ted Johnson arrived on the scene to help veterans such as Willie McGinest and Slade. Despite all these additions, the Patriots once again started out lackluster in 1996. After an early - season loss to the Redskins at home dropped the Patriots down to 3 -- 3, the Patriots proceeded to win their next four games in a row, and eight out of their last 10, only losing to the Denver Broncos (who would finish with the AFC 's best record) and the defending Super Bowl champion Dallas Cowboys to finish 11 -- 5, winning the AFC East and earning a first - round bye in the playoffs as a # 2 seed. The Patriots defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 28 -- 3 in a divisional playoff game -- only the second home playoff game in franchise history. The game was played mostly under thick fog. They then held off the Jacksonville Jaguars 20 -- 6 in the first AFC Championship game played in Foxboro (a game marked by a sudden power "brownout '' just as rookie kicker Adam Vinatieri was to attempt a field goal in the 2nd quarter). The team advanced to Super Bowl XXXI against the Green Bay Packers.
In the months and years after Kraft 's purchase of the Patriots, relations between Kraft and Parcells were increasingly strained. This was primarily due to a struggle over Parcells ' authority over football operations. Kraft wanted Parcells to yield some of his authority over personnel moves to a separate general manager. Parcells had effectively been the Patriots ' general manager as well since his arrival, and was not interested in yielding authority that he had been granted over personnel when he was hired. He famously complained that "if they 're gon na let you cook the dinner, they at least ought to let you shop for some of the groceries. '' The conflict climaxed in the days leading up to the Super Bowl, with rampant rumors that Parcells would leave the Patriots after the season to take the vacant head coaching job with the New York Jets. Despite these distractions, the Patriots played the Packers close for much of the game, and actually took the lead briefly in the 2nd quarter. However, two long Brett Favre touchdown passes and a Super Bowl record 99 - yard kickoff return for a touchdown by MVP Desmond Howard sealed New England 's fate, with the Packers winning their 12th title, and third of the Super Bowl era, 35 -- 21.
After the Super Bowl, Parcells resigned from the Patriots, prompting Kraft to believe the Jets had been tampering with Parcells in an attempt for him to resign and take the Jets ' vacant head coaching position and have say in the Jets ' first overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft. The Jets decided that since Parcells could n't be their head coach in 1997 because of an earlier contract renegotiation which eliminated the 1997 season from his contract, they would hire Parcells as a consultant and have Bill Belichick, the assistant head coach who followed Parcells from the Patriots, hold the title of head coach. Kraft, who was requesting a 1st - round draft pick in return for allowing Parcells to coach elsewhere, called the Jets ' agreement "a transparent farce '' that "demonstrated it was the Jets ' intention all along for Bill Parcells to become head coach of the Jets for the ' 97 season. '' Despite Parcells claiming the Jets had been given league permission for the consulting agreement, the NFL denied any permission was given, instead having commissioner Paul Tagliabue arrange an agreement between the two sides. The Patriots received 3rd - and 4th - round picks in the 1997 NFL Draft, a 2nd - round pick in the 1998 Draft, and a 1st - round pick in the 1999 Draft in compensation for allowing Parcells to become the Jets ' head coach.
After being rebuffed by former San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert, Kraft hired Pete Carroll as the new head coach of the Patriots. The new regime, led by personnel man Bobby Grier, was immediately derided for botching draft picks, and the Patriots slipped back further in the standings during each of Carroll 's years. In 1997, the Patriots still won the AFC East with a 10 - 6 record, but some key losses (including a loss to Parcells ' Jets and a 4th - quarter collapse against the Pittsburgh Steelers) meant the team had to play in the wild card round in the playoffs. After having an easy time with the Miami Dolphins 17 - 3 in Foxboro, the injury - plagued Patriots met the Steelers in Pittsburgh for a rematch of the previous year 's divisional playoff. A late fumble (recovered by future Patriot linebacker Mike Vrabel) won the game for Pittsburgh, 7 - 6.
In the 1998 offseason, the Patriots tendered restricted free agent running back Curtis Martin with the highest possible tender, which would return the Patriots ' 1st - and 3rd - round draft picks if any team were to sign him and the Patriots were to decide not to match the offer. Fueling the rivalry between the two teams, the Jets and Parcells, who had resigned from the Patriots two years earlier, signed Martin, and per restricted free agency rules, ceded their 1st - and 3rd - round picks in the 1998 NFL Draft to the Patriots. With the 1st - round pick, the Patriots selected another running back, Robert Edwards, who rushed for over 1,000 yards in his rookie campaign. After stumbling through the first half of the 1998 season (5 - 6 after the first 11 games), Drew Bledsoe, playing with a broken finger, engineered late 4th - quarter comebacks against the Miami Dolphins and Buffalo Bills to save the season. The Bills game was especially controversial, as the game was prolonged due to a series of questionable calls. With under a minute to go and down by four points, the Patriots engineered a long drive. However, the Buffalo defense appeared to stop the Patriots on 4th down with a juggled catch out of bounds. The referee needed to determine whether receiver Shawn Jefferson was inbounds, caught the ball, and achieved first down yardage. The referee on the sideline signaled first down after a conference with other officials. Several Bills claimed one said "just give it to them '' (referring to 1st - down yardage) in the huddle. Television instant replays showed that he was short of first down yardage, but the NFL had discontinued use of instant replay after the 1991 season. This was followed by a questionable pass interference call made in the end zone on what would have been the game 's final play. Bledsoe hit tight end Ben Coates for a touchdown on the final untimed play of the game. In protest, the Bills left the field and let Patriots kicker Adam Vinateri walk in for a meaningless two - point conversion. Doug Flutie, then the Bills ' quarterback, later quipped, "They gave them the game, we figured we might as well give them the extra point. '' Drew Bledsoe and Terry Glenn were later both knocked out for the season, and the Patriots backed into the last playoff spot with a 9 -- 7 record. Backup quarterback Scott Zolak proved to be no match for the Jacksonville Jaguars in the first playoff game, as the Patriots lost 25 - 10.
Although Robert Edwards had a promising rookie season, his career was permanently derailed after he suffered a dislocated knee in Hawaii while playing a game of flag football on the beach -- a game that was an officially sponsored activity that took place during Pro Bowl weekend. Edwards would miss the next three seasons and would not play for the Patriots again (although he did play for the Miami Dolphins as a reserve in 2002).
Also during 1998, most Patriots games moved back to WBZ - TV after a three - year absence. This came because the AFC package moved to CBS.
Taking Edwards ' place in 1999 were veteran Terry Allen and rookie Kevin Faulk, but neither player was able to eclipse 1,000 yards rushing, and the Patriots ' rushing offense was 23rd in the NFL. The Patriots opened with an emotional 30 -- 28 victory over the New York Jets, then followed by hosting the Indianapolis Colts and second - year quarterback Peyton Manning; Manning raced the Colts to a 28 -- 7 halftime lead but was limited to just 13 second - half passing yards as Drew Bledsoe threw three touchdowns, two of them to Ben Coates, which turned out to be his final touchdown catches with New England; after an Edgerrin James fumble, Adam Vinatieri kicked the winning field goal in a 31 -- 28 final. The Patriots began the season with a 6 -- 2 record, but after a 27 -- 3 win over the Arizona Cardinals, Coates went to the media to protest that he was not being thrown to enough; it soured Coates ' relationship with Bledsoe and Carroll, and the team stumbled down the stretch, finishing 8 -- 8 and out of the playoffs for the first time since 1995. Further demoralizing the team was a late - season fight between Lawyer Milloy and receiver Vincent Brisby that began at a charity event hosted by linebacker Willie McGinest and continued the next day at a team meeting. Following the season finale, Carroll was fired, while Vice President of Player Personnel Bobby Grier was retained only until the 2000 NFL Draft.
Following the firing of three - year head coach Pete Carroll in January 2000, Patriots owner Robert Kraft pursued Jets assistant head coach Bill Belichick for the Patriots ' head coaching vacancy. Belichick, who had been an assistant coach under Parcells with the Patriots in 1996, followed Parcells to the Jets after that season and was contractually named Parcells ' successor. A day after the 1999 season, Parcells resigned as head coach of the Jets and made his second retirement from NFL coaching, and Belichick automatically succeeded him as head coach. The following day, at a press conference for his hiring, Belichick wrote a resignation note on a napkin ("I resign as HC of the NYJ. ''), and proceeded to give a half - hour resignation speech to the press. Despite rumors that he had been offered the Patriots ' vacant head coaching position, Belichick cited the Jets ' uncertain ownership situation following the death of owner Leon Hess earlier that year as the reason for his resignation. The Jets denied Belichick permission to speak with other teams, and as had happened in 1997 with Parcells, the NFL upheld Belichick 's contractual obligations to the Jets. Belichick then filed an antritrust lawsuit against the NFL in federal court. After Parcells and Kraft, talking for the first time since Parcells ' resignation from the Patriots, agreed to settle their differences, the Patriots and Jets agreed to a compensation package to allow Belichick to become the Patriots ' head coach. With the deal, the Patriots sent their 1st - round pick in the 2000 NFL Draft and 4th - and 7th - round picks in the 2001 Draft to the Jets, while also receiving the Jets ' 5th - round selection in 2001 and 7th - round pick in 2002. Soon after hiring Belichick, Kraft gave him near - complete control over football matters -- effectively making him the team 's general manager as well. Ironically, Parcells had left New England in part because Kraft was not willing to let him have the final say in football operations.
Belichick restructured the team 's personnel department in the offseason, and later proclaimed that the team "could not win with 40 good players while the other team has 53, '' after a number of players showed up out of shape for the start of training camp. The Patriots went on to finish the 2000 season 5 -- 11, finishing last in the AFC East and missing the playoffs for the second straight season. To date, this is the last losing season for the Patriots.
The Patriots also ushered in the Belichick era by updating their logos and uniforms. Noticeable changes included a darker shade of blue (dubbed "Nautical blue ''), and modern fonts and striping on the uniforms.
Coming off a fifth - place finish in head coach Bill Belichick 's first season in 2000, the Patriots were not expected to fare much better in 2001. While Drew Bledsoe was signed to a 10 - year contract extension in March, offensive tackle Bruce Armstrong retired, and wide receiver Terry Glenn had a preseason contract holdout and was also hit with a drug suspension by the NFL for the first four games of the season. Despite these high - profile losses, the Patriots were able to find adequate replacements at very low cost. Receivers Troy Brown and David Patten had career seasons, 1st - round draft pick Richard Seymour anchored the defensive line, and Antowain Smith (a free agent signed from Buffalo) ran for over 1,000 yards.
The season would not begin without tragedy, however. In training camp, quarterbacks coach Dick Rehbein died of cardiac arrest on August 6 at the age of 45. The Patriots lost their opener to the Cincinnati Bengals, and in the first post-9 / 11 game against the Jets, Bledsoe was severely injured, shearing a blood vessel in his chest after being tackled out of bounds by Jets linebacker Mo Lewis.
In Bledsoe 's absence, Tom Brady, a 6th - round pick in the 2000 NFL Draft, took the helm and won three out of his first four starts, setting an NFL record by not throwing an interception in his first 162 career passes. As a result, Brady earned the confidence of Belichick and his teammates, and when Bledsoe was cleared to play, Belichick announced that Brady would remain the team 's starting quarterback. Despite Bledsoe 's unhappiness about his new role -- he was quoted as saying that he "looked forward to competing to get (his) job back '' -- he caused no distractions and was supportive of Brady and the Patriots. Led by Brady, who immediately became a fan favorite, the Patriots continued to play good football, winning their final six games to capture the AFC East with an 11 -- 5 record. The Patriots additionally won a first - round bye as the # 2 seed in the playoffs for the second time in their history.
In the final game ever played at Foxboro Stadium, the Patriots hosted the Oakland Raiders in a snowstorm which endured through the entire game. This game became known as the "Tuck Rule Game '', when a play originally ruled to be a Brady fumble was reversed by referee Walt Coleman as an incomplete pass based upon the obscure "tuck rule. '' After review, Coleman ruled that, because Brady 's arm was moving forward when he lost the football, he was deemed to have been in the act of throwing when he lost control of the ball. Had the original ruling stood, the Raiders would have essentially clinched the win; instead, the Patriots continued to drive into the frigid wind and heavy snow, and kicker Adam Vinatieri tied the game with a 45 - yard field goal in the final 30 seconds. The Raiders did not attempt to run a play at the end of regulation, and after losing the coin toss to start overtime, would not see the ball again, as the Patriots drove downfield on their opening possession and won the game, 16 -- 13.
The Patriots then went to Pittsburgh to face the favored Steelers in the AFC Championship Game. After Brady injured his ankle in the second quarter, Bledsoe (in his last appearance as a Patriot) came off the sideline and immediately led the team to their only offensive touchdown of the game, with the drive culminating in a touchdown pass to David Patten. In the second half, thanks to help from two special teams touchdowns and two 4th - quarter interceptions of passes thrown by Pittsburgh 's Kordell Stewart, the Patriots upset the Steelers 24 -- 17 to advance to Super Bowl XXXVI. It would be the Patriots ' third Super Bowl in team history, all of which to that point had been played in New Orleans.
In the Super Bowl, the Patriots faced the heavily favored St. Louis Rams, led by league MVP Kurt Warner and known as "The Greatest Show on Turf '', who had beaten the Patriots in the regular season in Foxboro. The Patriots were introduced second, and rather than coming out player - by - player, which was customary at the time, they were introduced collectively as a team. The team introduction was met with great praise and admiration, and has since been used by each team at the Super Bowl. In contrast to the regular season game, Bill Belichick devised a defensive game plan that used the blitz very sparingly, but called for chipping the Rams receivers and running back Marshall Faulk as they went into their patterns, a game plan very similar to the one he employed against the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXV. This disrupted the Rams ' precise passing routes and the entire rhythm of the offense and caused the usually cool - under - pressure Warner to look shaky in the pocket, being sacked several times. The Patriots forced three turnovers, all of which led to scores (including an interception returned by Ty Law for a touchdown in the 2nd quarter).
Belichick 's defense held the Rams ' high - powered offense in check until the 4th quarter, but after trailing 17 -- 3 early in the quarter, St. Louis scored two touchdowns to tie the game at 17 -- 17. With 1: 30 to go and no timeouts, and with John Madden on the Fox Sports telecast opining that the Patriots should play for overtime, Brady calmly led New England 's offense downfield, missing on only one pass. The Patriots drove to the Rams ' 30 - yard line, setting up Adam Vinatieri, who won the game with a 48 - yard field goal as time expired, giving the Patriots their first Super Bowl win in the team 's 42nd season.
The Patriots ' victory parade in Boston was attended by 1.5 million fans. The team was invited to Fenway Park for opening day of the Boston Red Sox season. The Patriots also became the last major sports team in Boston to win its first championship. Brady was selected Super Bowl MVP and signed a long - term contract with the team in the offseason. Bledsoe was traded to the Buffalo Bills in the offseason for a 1st - round pick in the 2003 NFL Draft.
Throughout his tenure as owner of the Patriots, Robert Kraft attempted to get a new stadium built somewhere in New England. After failing to reach an accord with either the City of Boston or the State of Rhode Island, in 1998 Kraft came close to reaching a deal with the Massachusetts Legislature for Kraft to build a new, self - financed stadium adjacent to the old stadium with the state providing $75 million in infrastructure improvements. However, Massachusetts House Speaker Tom Finneran refused to support the bill, saying that he did not want public money benefiting private interests. Unable to overcome Finneran 's objections, Kraft reached a deal with Connecticut Governor John G. Rowland to build a new stadium in Hartford, Connecticut, originally scheduled to open in 2001. However, after the stadium plan was approved by the Connecticut General Assembly, there were a number of problems discovered with the proposed stadium site that would result in considerable delay of the stadium construction. At the same time, the NFL announced loan incentives where teams in the six largest markets (which included Boston) could be eligible to borrow up to $150 million from the league at advantageous interest rates and terms in order to build new stadiums. Furthermore, the Massachusetts Legislature, and Finneran, also indicated that they would be amenable to further discussions with Kraft.
With this in mind, mindful of the mounting issues in Hartford and growing opposition to the deal, in the spring of 1999, Kraft announced that he was abandoning the Hartford stadium project. Kraft, preferring to keep the team where it was, eventually reached a mutually acceptable deal with the Massachusetts legislature for the necessary infrastructure improvements. The final hurdle the stadium needed to clear was approval by the citizens of Foxborough on six separate measures. Despite some initial hesitation regarding a proposed dedicated access road for premium ticket holders, the Patriots won approval on each measure by an over 90 % majority. This cleared the way for what was originally known as CMGi Field to be built adjacent to the old stadium in Foxboro. The naming rights to the stadium were originally purchased by CMGi, an e-commerce company based in nearby Waltham, Massachusetts, which, at the time, was parent company to internet auction site uBid.
The stadium would open in the spring of 2002 with a "soft opening '', including games of the New England Revolution and concerts. In the months leading up to the grand opening of the stadium in September 2002, CMGi Corporation fell upon difficult financial times and sold the naming rights to the Gillette Company prior to the grand opening. The stadium was renamed Gillette Stadium, and is sometimes referred to by fans as "The Razor ''.
Following their victory in Super Bowl XXXVI seven months earlier, the Patriots played their first game in the new Gillette Stadium in the NFL 's prime - time Monday Night Football opener against the Pittsburgh Steelers, a win for the Patriots. After an additional two wins to begin the season, including a 44 -- 7 road win against the division rival New York Jets, the team lost five of its next seven games, allowing an average of 137 rushing yards a game during that span. In the final week of the season, the Patriots defeated the Miami Dolphins on an overtime Adam Vinatieri field goal to give both teams a 9 -- 7 record. A few hours later, the Jets, who defeated the Patriots the week prior, also finished with a 9 -- 7 record with a win over the Green Bay Packers. Due to their record against common opponents, the Jets won the tiebreaker for the division title, which eliminated the Patriots and Dolphins from the playoffs.
Two seasons after winning Super Bowl XXXVI, the Patriots went into 2003 after missing the playoffs in 2002. In a salary cap - related move, captain and Pro Bowl safety Lawyer Milloy was released days before the start of the regular season, prompting second - guessing of head coach Bill Belichick among fans and a report by ESPN analyst Tom Jackson that Patriots players "hated their coach '', an accusation later denied by players. Milloy signed with the Buffalo Bills, who defeated the Patriots 31 -- 0 in the season opener. The Patriots would rebound, though, not losing another game after starting with a 2 -- 2 record. Due to multiple injuries, the Patriots started 42 different players during the season, an NFL record for a division winner until the Patriots started 45 different players in 2005. Undefeated at home, nose tackle Ted Washington coined the phrase "Homeland Defense '' for a Patriots ' defense, boosted by the acquisitions of Washington and San Diego Chargers castoff safety Rodney Harrison in the offseason, that gave up a league - low 14.9 points per game en route to a 14 -- 2 regular season record. The regular season was bookmarked with a 31 -- 0 victory over the Bills at home in Week 17, a score that reversed the Patriots ' shutout loss to the Bills in Week 1.
The Patriots had the NFL 's best record at 14 -- 2 and, for the first time in their history, earned the top seed in the AFC 2003 - 04 playoffs, ensuring home - field advantage throughout. Their opponent in the divisional playoffs was the Tennessee Titans. Played in a temperature of 4 ° F (- 16 ° C) (making it the second - coldest game in NFL history), the Patriots and Titans played close until Adam Vinatieri kicked the go - ahead field goal with 4 minutes left. An incomplete Steve McNair pass on 4th down with 1: 40 left won the game 17 -- 14 for New England. The Patriots then faced the Indianapolis Colts for the AFC Championship. The New England defense frustrated Colts quarterback Peyton Manning all day, forcing him to throw four interceptions (three to Ty Law) and sacking him three times. Despite only one offensive touchdown by the Patriots, the team was dominant. Still, the Colts remained in the game until the very end, when a late Vinatieri field goal with 10 seconds left gave the Patriots their final margin of victory, 24 -- 14. The Patriots were back in the Super Bowl, this time to face the Carolina Panthers.
Super Bowl XXXVIII was one of the closest and most exciting championship games ever played. After a defensive battle for most of the first half, the teams traded touchdowns late in the 2nd quarter, then more quick strikes by both teams made the score 14 -- 10 Patriots at halftime. The 3rd quarter was scoreless, but running back Antowain Smith scored on the first play of the 4th quarter to make it 21 -- 10. Carolina scored two more touchdowns (but failed to convert the two - point conversion on both) to take a 22 -- 21 lead. The Patriots answered with a long drive that culminated in a trick pass to linebacker Mike Vrabel, followed by Kevin Faulk 's run for a two - point conversion that put the Patriots up 29 -- 22 with 2: 51 left to play. Undaunted, the Panthers drove quickly downfield and, as he had done two years previous with the Rams, Ricky Proehl 's late touchdown catch tied the game, 29 - 29 with 1: 08 to play. As he had two years prior, Brady led the Patriots on a dramatic, game - ending drive, which culminated with a Vinatieri 41 - yard field goal with four seconds left. The Patriots won their second Super Bowl in three years, 32 -- 29, and Brady was once again named MVP. The victory also made the 2003 Patriots the first team ever to win -- or for that matter, even reach -- the Super Bowl after having been shut out on opening day.
Following a Super Bowl win in 2003, the Patriots looked to improve their running game in the 2004 offseason. Replacing Antowain Smith was longtime but disgruntled Cincinnati Bengals running back Corey Dillon, who was acquired in a trade days before the 2004 NFL Draft; Dillon would rush for a career - high 1,635 yards in 2004. Winning their first six games of the season, the Patriots set the NFL record for consecutive regular season victories (18), which was later broken in the 2006 -- 2008 seasons (21), and consecutive regular season and playoff victories (21) before losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 31. In that game, Pro Bowl cornerback Ty Law was lost for the season with a foot injury. Combined with the loss of other starting cornerback Tyrone Poole two weeks earlier, the Patriots were forced to complete the regular season and playoffs by using second - year cornerback Asante Samuel, undrafted free agent Randall Gay, and longtime Patriots wide receiver Troy Brown at cornerback, among others.
With a 14 -- 2 record and the second seed in the AFC playoffs, the Patriots defeated the Colts at home in the playoffs for the second straight year, holding the Colts ' top offense to three points. The Patriots then defeated the top - seeded Steelers on the road, 41 -- 27, in the AFC Championship Game.
Prior to the Patriots ' matchup with the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl XXXIX, Eagles wide receiver Freddie Mitchell said he did not know the names of the Patriots ' defensive backs, which was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Patriots ' "replacement '' secondary. The Patriots would go on to defeat the Eagles 24 -- 21 in their second straight Super Bowl victory and third championship in four seasons, leading to some labeling the Patriots of the era a dynasty. To date, the 2003 -- 2004 New England Patriots are the most recent team to win back - to - back Super Bowls.
Two weeks after earning a victory in Super Bowl XXXIX, linebacker Tedy Bruschi suffered a stroke and initially planned on missing the entire 2005 season; Bruschi returned to the field against the Buffalo Bills on October 31. Cornerback Ty Law was released in the offseason, and injuries at cornerback, as well as a season - ending injury to safety Rodney Harrison in Week 3, forced the Patriots to start a number of players in the secondary early in the season. Overall, injuries caused the Patriots to start 45 different players at one point or another during the season, an NFL record for a division champion (breaking the record of 42 set by the Patriots in 2003). Beginning the season with a 4 -- 4 record, the Patriots lost their first game at home since 2002 against the San Diego Chargers in Week 4. The team ended the season on a 5 -- 1 run to finish 10 -- 6, earning their third straight AFC East title. With the # 4 seed in the AFC playoffs, the Patriots defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 28 - 3 in the Wild Card round, marking the last time a reigning Super Bowl champion won a playoff game the following season until the 2014 Seattle Seahawks defeated the Carolina Panthers 31 - 17 in the divisional round of the playoffs a season after the team won Super Bowl XLVIII. The Patriots ultimately fell to the Denver Broncos 27 - 13 on the road in the Divisional Playoffs, committing five turnovers in the game.
The Patriots entered the 2006 season without their two starting wide receivers from 2005; David Givens left in free agency, while Deion Branch held out for a new contract before being traded to Seattle in early September. Eventually replacing them were Reche Caldwell and Jabar Gaffney, who was signed as a street free agent in October. Back - to - back losses in November ended the team 's streak of 57 games without consecutive losses, three games shy of the NFL record. With a 12 -- 4 record and their fourth straight division title, the Patriots entered the playoffs as the # 4 seed, defeating the New York Jets 37 - 16 in the Wild Card Playoffs. A close 24 - 21 win over the top - seeded San Diego Chargers on the road set the Patriots up to face their rival, the Indianapolis Colts, in the AFC Championship. Despite opening up a 21 -- 3 lead in the 2nd quarter, the Patriots stumbled down the stretch at the RCA Dome, and the Colts emerged with a 38 -- 34 victory.
After having lost their two starting wide receivers in the previous offseason, the Patriots added Donte ' Stallworth in free agency and traded for Wes Welker and Randy Moss in the spring of 2007; Welker would lead the NFL in receptions in 2007, while Moss would set an NFL record with 23 touchdown catches. The season began with controversy, when in Week 2, head coach Bill Belichick and the Patriots were penalized by the NFL for their involvement in the videotaping of opponents ' defensive signals from an unauthorized location in their Week 1 game against the New York Jets, referred to in the press as Spygate. The scandal was uncovered by Jets head coach and former Patriots assistant Eric Mangini. Belichick was fined $500,000, the maximum allowed under league rules, and the Patriots were fined $250,000 and were forced to forfeit their first round pick in the 2008 draft. Despite the fines, the Patriots continued to gain momentum, winning mid-season games by scores such as 52 -- 7 and 56 -- 10, as quarterback Tom Brady iterated the team 's desire to blow out and "kill teams. ''
The Patriots clinched the AFC East before their eleventh game (in Week 12), the fourth time since the NFL introduced the 16 - game schedule in 1978 that a team had clinched a division title by its eleventh game. In the season finale, the Patriots looked to finish the regular season with the first 16 -- 0 record in NFL history, and did so successfully. In that game, Brady and Moss connected on two touchdown passes, with Moss setting his 23 - touchdown record and Brady setting an NFL record with 50 touchdown passes on the season. It was the first undefeated regular season in the NFL since the 1972 Miami Dolphins finished 14 -- 0 and the fourth and most recent time that an NFL team has had an undefeated regular season (the Chicago Bears recorded undefeated regular seasons in both 1934 and 1942). Tom Brady earned his first NFL MVP award, while the Patriots ' offense broke numerous records, including those for points scored and point differential. They also broke the record for most games won in a single regular season (15) that had previously been held by the 1984 San Francisco 49ers, 1985 Chicago Bears, 1998 Minnesota Vikings, and 2004 Pittsburgh Steelers, although four years later, the 2011 Green Bay Packers would also record a 15 - 1 regular season.
With the # 1 seed in the AFC playoffs, the Patriots defeated both the Jacksonville Jaguars 31 - 20 and San Diego Chargers 21 - 12 in order to advance to Super Bowl XLII; according to the Elias Sports Bureau, this made them the first professional team since 1884 in any of the four major American sports (football, basketball, baseball, hockey) to win the first 18 games of their season. Facing the prospect of a perfect 19 -- 0 season with a victory over the underdog New York Giants, analysts saw the 2007 Patriots as being the greatest team in NFL history.
Despite being the overwhelming favorites in the game, the Patriots failed to protect a four - point lead on a Giants drive late in the fourth quarter. A dramatic pass from Eli Manning to David Tyree put the Giants deep in Patriots territory, and a Manning touchdown pass to Plaxico Buress gave the Giants a 17 - 14 lead with 35 seconds left. The loss left the 1972 Dolphins as the only undefeated champions in NFL history. The Patriots ended the season at 18 -- 1, becoming one of only three teams to go 18 -- 1 overall, including playoff games, along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears, both of whom won their respective Super Bowls (the 1984 49ers won Super Bowl XIX and the 1985 Bears won Super Bowl XX).
In the 2008 season opener, quarterback Tom Brady, the NFL 's MVP in 2007, suffered a serious knee injury and missed the remainder of the season. Backup quarterback Matt Cassel replaced Brady. Cassel 's start in Week 2 was his first start in a game since high school, and he led the Patriots to a win, which extended the team 's regular - season winning streak record to 21 games before a loss the next week ended the streak. This record was broken by the Indianapolis Colts in 2009.
Despite entering the last week of the season with a three - game winning streak, the Patriots found themselves not controlling their own destiny. In addition to a Week 17 win, they also needed either a Miami Dolphins loss to win the AFC East, or a Baltimore Ravens loss to earn a wild card playoff berth. However, both Baltimore and Miami won, and the Dolphins, Ravens and Patriots all finished the season with identical 11 -- 5 records. Miami qualified for the playoffs by winning the AFC East division over the Patriots on the fourth divisional tiebreaker (better conference record: 8 -- 4 to 7 -- 5). Baltimore qualified for the playoffs as a wild card team, defeating the Patriots on the second wild card tiebreaker (better conference record: 8 -- 4 to 7 -- 5). The Patriots thus became the first team since the 1985 Denver Broncos to finish with an 11 -- 5 record and not make the playoffs.
After missing the playoffs in 2008, the Patriots ' offseason was marked by a number of front office, coaching, and personnel changes. Vice President of Player Personnel Scott Pioli, who had been head coach Bill Belichick 's personnel director since 2000, departed to become the general manager of the Kansas City Chiefs, while offensive coordinator Josh McDaniels was named head coach of the Denver Broncos. Quarterback Matt Cassel, who led the team to 11 wins in 2008 after starter Tom Brady was injured, was traded to the Chiefs along with veteran linebacker Mike Vrabel in March. Defensive starters Tedy Bruschi and Rodney Harrison both retired, while All - Pro defensive end Richard Seymour was traded to the Oakland Raiders for a 1st - round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft days before the start of the regular season.
In the 2009 season opener on Monday Night Football, the Patriots celebrated their 50th season with an American Football League "legacy game '' against the Buffalo Bills. Down 11 points late in the 4th quarter, the Patriots scored two touchdowns to secure a victory in Brady 's first game back from injury. In November, the 6 -- 2 Patriots traveled to face the undefeated Indianapolis Colts; with a six - point lead late in the 4th quarter, the Patriots tried to convert a 4th and 2 situation inside their own 30 - yard line but failed, setting up a Colts touchdown and the Patriots ' third loss of the season. After losing two of their next three games, the Patriots went on to win three in a row to secure a division title; the team also finished with their fourth perfect regular season record at home in seven years. With the # 3 seed in the AFC playoffs, the Patriots faced the Baltimore Ravens at home in the Wild Card Playoffs. The Ravens opened up a 24 -- 0 lead in the 1st quarter, and the Patriots did not recover, ending their season with a 33 - 14 loss.
The Patriots went into 2010 without either a named offensive or defensive coordinator following the departure of defensive coordinator Dean Pees. After beating Cincinnati in the season opener, they lost 28 -- 14 to the Jets at the new Meadowlands Stadium. In Week 3, the Patriots hosted the Buffalo Bills, winning 38 -- 30. In Week 4, they beat Miami 41 -- 14, but following the game, wide receiver Randy Moss was traded to his original team, the Minnesota Vikings, while regaining Deion Branch from the Seahawks. After beating the Chargers in San Diego, the Patriots won 28 -- 18 against a struggling Vikings team before losing to the Cleveland Browns. Then came a primetime matchup with the Steelers, which the Patriots won 39 -- 26. Week 11 brought about the much - anticipated annual battle with Peyton Manning and the Colts, and New England avenged the 2009 loss, winning 31 -- 28. On Thanksgiving, they beat the Detroit Lions 45 -- 24 before a hotly anticipated battle with the Jets in Week 13. However, that game turned into a rout, and the Patriots won 45 -- 3, after which they beat the Chicago Bears in a snowstorm at Soldier Field. The Week 15 game with the Green Bay Packers proved a surprise, as Packers backup quarterback Matt Flynn nearly brought his team to a victory in Gillette Stadium. By routing the Bills in Week 16, New England swept that team for the sixth consecutive season, along with locking up another AFC East title and the # 1 seed. Week 17 saw a meaningless win over the Dolphins. Tom Brady finished the regular season with an NFL - record 335 consecutive pass attempts without an interception, while the Patriots committed an NFL - record low 10 turnovers on the season.
The Patriots were heavily favored to go to Super Bowl XLV, but faced a Jets team that was now prepared for their revamped post-Randy Moss trade offense. New York 's pass defense effectively shut the Patriots down, as Brady found it all - but impossible to make throws. The Jets won 28 -- 21, sending New England to a second straight home playoff exit.
Prior to the 2011 season, the Patriots drafted Arkansas quarterback Ryan Mallett. The team also made two high - profile trade acquisitions in defensive lineman Albert Haynesworth and wide receiver Chad Ochocinco.
Opening the 2011 campaign in Miami on Monday Night Football, New England breezed to victory 38 -- 24; Brady set a personal single - game record with 517 passing yards, highlighted by an NFL record - tying 99 - yard touchdown reception by Wes Welker. They easily beat San Diego in Week 2 in their home opener, but in Week 3 their 15 - game win streak against the Buffalo Bills finally ended when Tom Brady threw four interceptions, and the Patriots lost 34 -- 31 on a last - second field goal. Determined to not lose two in a row, the team smashed Oakland 31 -- 19 in Week 4, then got a measure of revenge for the 2010 playoff loss by beating the Jets 30 -- 21. In Week 6, the Dallas Cowboys made their first trip to Foxboro since 2003; they ground to a 16 -- 13 lead late in the fourth quarter, but Brady led a drive ending in a game - winning touchdown to tight end Aaron Hernandez and a 20 -- 16 Patriots win. During the Patriots ' subsequent bye week, a minor incident occurred where tight end Rob Gronkowski was seen in a photo with an adult film actress wearing his game shirt. Following a 25 -- 17 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers, wide receiver Julian Edelman was arrested for indecent assault following an incident in a Back Bay nightclub on Halloween night. In what was a Super Bowl preview, the Giants beat the Patriots 24 -- 20 on a last - second drive. The Patriots would win their last eight games to take the top seed in the AFC playoffs.
After routing the Denver Broncos 45 -- 10 in the Divisional Game, the Patriots won the AFC Championship Game, defeating the Baltimore Ravens 23 -- 20, after Ravens receiver Lee Evans dropped a potential go - ahead touchdown and kicker Billy Cundiff missed a game - tying 31 - yard field goal attempt in the closing seconds. Seeking revenge from their defeat in the regular season, the Patriots came up short against the NFC champion New York Giants 21 -- 17 in Super Bowl XLVI, a rematch of the team 's previous Super Bowl loss.
In their 2012 season opener, the Patriots easily defeated Tennessee before losing at home to Arizona. In Week 3, New England faced a very tough Baltimore Ravens team in Baltimore. The Patriots remained competitive through the first half, but the Ravens came back to win 30 - 28 on a last - second field goal. The first three games of the season had been officiated by replacement referees, as the regular referees were locked out during a contract dispute with the owners. The replacement referees were widely criticized, and at the end of the Ravens game, Bill Belichick made contact with a referee as he was leaving the field to argue a call; the league fined him for it. The Patriots rebounded in Week 4, easily defeating the Buffalo Bills 52 - 28. After that, the Patriots went on the defeat the Denver Broncos 31 - 21, but lost to the Seattle Seahawks 24 - 23 the following week. The Patriots then defeated the New York Jets in overtime, 29 - 26, which brought on a seven - game win streak. During this streak, they defeated very good teams like the Indianapolis Colts, 59 - 24, and the Houston Texans, 42 - 14. After losing to the San Francisco 49ers 41 - 34 in Week 15, they defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars and the Miami Dolphins to end the season.
The Patriots came out with the # 2 seed in the AFC. The Patriots were given the bye week before they had to face the Houston Texans in a rematch of the previous Week 14 matchup. The Patriots were the highly favored team in that game, and ultimately won again, 41 - 28. But now they had to face the Baltimore Ravens in a rematch of last year 's AFC Championship. Despite the Patriots leading 13 - 7 at halftime, the Ravens scored 21 unanswered points in the second half to win 28 - 13. The Ravens would go on to win Super Bowl XLVII against the 49ers.
The 2013 season was more of the same. Even though injuries and a lack of experience wrecked the team 's depth for much of the season, New England still finished as the AFC East champions and the No. 2 seed. They opened the season 4 -- 0 before losing to the Cincinnati Bengals 13 -- 6 in Week 5. After a home win against the New Orleans Saints on Week 6, the Patriots fell to the rival Jets 30 -- 27 on a converted Nick Folk field goal following an unsportsmanlike penalty to rookie Chris Jones. They rebounded with a pair of home wins against the Dolphins and the Pittsburgh Steelers, but lost 24 -- 20 on Monday Night Football to the Carolina Panthers following the bye week on a controversial end - game interception by Luke Kuechly. They went on to finish with five wins in their last six games to clinch another division title and first round bye.
Facing Andrew Luck and the Colts in the Divisional Round, New England routed Indianapolis 43 -- 22 to set up a clash against Peyton Manning and the Broncos. But for the second straight time, the Patriots ' season ended in the AFC Championship, as the Patriots fell 26 -- 16 to the Broncos on the road.
The Patriots finished 12 -- 4 for the third straight year, winning their sixth straight AFC East title, as well as the top - overall seed and home field advantage for the AFC playoffs. With their seeding, New England was awarded a first - round bye in the playoffs for the fifth season in a row, the first such occurrence for any team since the league switched to a 12 - team playoff format in 1990 (surpassing the 1992 -- 95 Dallas Cowboys).
The Patriots defeated the Baltimore Ravens 35 -- 31 in the Divisional Round of the playoffs, advancing to their fourth consecutive AFC Championship game. There, they defeated the Indianapolis Colts 45 -- 7 to advance to their eight Super Bowl appearance, only making them the third team to reach the Super Bowl eight times, with the other teams being the Pittsburgh Steelers and Dallas Cowboys. On February 1, 2015, the Patriots played the defending Super Bowl champions Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLIX. After a scoreless first quarter, both teams exchanged two touchdowns to make it 14 - 14 at halftime. Seattle then scored a field goal and a touchdown to take a 10 - point lead going into the final quarter. The Patriots rallied, scoring two touchdowns to take a 28 - 24 lead with 2: 02 remaining, and then rookie cornerback Malcolm Butler caught a critical interception on Seattle 's final offensive play that helped to seal the victory. Brady won his third Super Bowl MVP award.
The Patriots started the year 11 - 0, before losing on Sunday Night Football to the Denver Broncos, 24 - 30 in overtime. Injuries soon mounted up, with nineteen players placed on injured reserve. Despite the high number of injuries, the Patriots easily advanced to the playoffs, winning the AFC East for the seventh straight year, while also securing a first round bye and the # 2 seed overall.
In the Divisional Round of the playoffs, the Patriots defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, 27 - 20. Advancing to their fifth straight AFC Championship game, the Patriots were matched up against the # 1 seeded Broncos, a rematch from earlier in the year, set once again in Denver. The final game in the Tom Brady - Peyton Manning rivalry turned out to be a defensive struggle, with the Broncos outlasting the Patriots 20 - 18 and advancing to Super Bowl 50.
After losing Tom Brady for the first four games of the season due to the punishment imposed by Commissioner Roger Goodell stemming from Deflategate, the Patriots turned to back - up quarterback Jimmy Garoppolo. Garoppolo led the Patriots to a win opening night against the Arizona Cardinals. After a shoulder injury to Garoppolo in the second game of the season against the Miami Dolphins, rookie, third - string back - up quarterback Jacoby Brissett entered the game and led the Patriots to victory. Four days later on Thursday Night Football, Brissett led the Patriots to a 27 - 0 shutout victory against the Houston Texans. A thumb injury to Brissett 's throwing hand derailed the Patriots offense the following week, leading to a shutout home loss to the Buffalo Bills. Brady returned the following week and led the Patriots to four straight victories. A loss mid-season in Week 10 to the Seattle Seahawks proved to be the final defeat of the year, as the Patriots closed the regular season winning seven straight games, along with their eighth consecutive division title and securing the # 1 seed overall in the AFC.
In the playoffs, the Patriots hosted the Texans in the Divisonal Round, in a rematch from the regular season. A tight first half turned to blowout in the second, as the Patriots pulled away from Houston, winning 34 - 16. In the AFC Championship game, the Patriots were matched up against the Pittsburgh Steelers for the third time in the Brady / Belichick era. The winner of the game would be the first team in NFL history to make nine appearances in the Super Bowl. The Patriots won in comfortable fashion, 36 - 17, and advanced to the Super Bowl.
On February 5, 2017, the Patriots faced newly crowned NFL MVP Matt Ryan and the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl LI. A poor three quarters of play found the Patriots down 28 - 3, in what looked like an insurmountable lead for Atlanta. The Patriots stormed back in the greatest comeback in Super Bowl history, as Tom Brady went 43 - for - 62 with 466 yards, two touchdowns and one interception to lead the Patriots to tie the score 28 - 28 in the closing minutes of the game. In the first overtime in Super Bowl history, the Patriots won the coin toss and elected to receive the ball. Brady led the Patriots down the field, to the 1 - yard line of the Falcons. Running back James White ran a toss into the end zone, giving the Patriots a 34 - 28 victory and their second league title in three seasons. Brady was named Super Bowl MVP for a record fourth time and surpassed Joe Montana and Terry Bradshaw with his fifth Super Bowl victory as a quarterback, the most all - time.
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saint and greavsie it's a funny old game | Saint and Greavsie - wikipedia
Saint and Greavsie was a British television show in which former footballers Ian St John and Jimmy Greaves discussed current football themes such as the day 's matches. It ran on ITV from 1985 to 1992.
Englishman Jimmy Greaves and Scotsman Ian St John were successful football players in the 1960s, but they did not play for the same club; Greaves spent the bulk of his career with Chelsea and Tottenham Hotspur, while St John played mainly for Liverpool. Their collaboration as television football pundits started with On the Ball in World of Sport. Usually St John would host from the London studio and would cross over to Greaves, who was elsewhere, to get his views, but they would eventually be based in the same studio. The segment was highly popular, leading to the commissioning of Saint and Greavsie as a programme in its own right immediately after the demise of World of Sport in September 1985. A key characteristic of the show was comedy, with St John prompting Greaves to jokes and jibes.
The show was usually about 30 minutes long and was initially broadcast shortly after noon on Saturdays, to coincide with the build - up to that afternoon 's football matches. In later years it usually went on air shortly after 1pm and in its final season was increased in length to a 45 - minute slot. At various points in the show the goals of previous matches would be shown. The show included features on clubs in both English and Scottish leagues and discussion of that weekend 's major games, emphasising matches that ITV planned to broadcast.
The series initially had a simple opening sequence showing a rotating rudimentary CGI - image of a football pitch revolving several times, before a still of the two presenters popped up at the end; the theme tune was initially identical to that used for the "On the Ball '' segment of ' World of Sport. In later years, the introduction to the show began with St John and Greaves as cigarette cards from their playing days on the opening credits, and the theme tune was changed to a piece named "Aztec Gold '', composed by Silsoe, which, at the time, was being used as the theme tune for ITV 's The Big Match, after being the theme tune for the station 's coverage of the 1986 World Cup.
Although the show predominantly dealt with football, it also covered sports such as cricket and boxing, with interviewees including Mike Tyson and Chris Eubank. When Greaves was ill at Christmas 1990, he was replaced by commentator Peter Brackley voicing a puppet modelled on him from Spitting Image, a show he had often featured on.
In the 1991 -- 92 season, the duo visited the United States to see how the country was preparing for the 1994 FIFA World Cup and found themselves in Trump Tower where Greaves did the Rumbelows Cup draw for the quarter - finals of the competition with future US President Donald Trump.
After ITV secured the rights to show league football, the network had their own Goal of the Season award (the BBC had the rights to FA Cup matches, so their award always went to the winning goal in the FA Cup final). Every First Division club were eligible, with the best goal from each respective season chosen by the club 's manager. The next week, the list was cut down to six, with the general public able to send their top three goals in order. The goal with the most votes was the winner.
In the final series, the twenty nominations were chosen by the Saint and Greavsie team, as more than one goal scored by Manchester United and Arsenal players were chosen. Goals from Second Division clubs were also included.
In the summer of 1992, ITV lost the rights to broadcast top - tier English football matches as the newly formed Premier League contracted to Sky Sports. ITV then discontinued Saint and Greavsie. The final programmes were broadcast from Sweden during Euro 92, with the pair singing "The Last Time '' in the final credits and making jokes at Sky 's expense.
The pair did not present under this name again but continued to link up together and remained in touch. They occasionally presented Champions League preview shows together and both remained employed by ITV for several years. Together, they hosted the discussion show Sport in Question. St John continued to be used as a co-commentator for the ITV network until the arrival of Jim Beglin, while Greaves continued to appear as a pundit and co-commentator in the Central region until the mid-1990s, when he was gradually phased out in favour of Ron Atkinson. Away from their work, Greaves and St John rarely met due to living in Essex and on the Wirral respectively, but Greaves said they had a "lovely relationship ''.
In 2004, Saint and Greavsie were studio guests in an episode of Fantasy Football League, when they were described as the "godfathers '' of football comedy by Frank Skinner and David Baddiel. In earlier years they had been parodied in sketches on the show. St John criticised Baddiel and Skinner in his autobiography and interviews, following their appearance on the show.
In 1989, Grandslam Entertainment released Saint and Greavsie, a football trivia quiz game, on a variety of computer platforms. It was developed by Core Design. In 2006, Saint and Greavsie released a DVD quiz, featuring retro football action, with a book, Saint and Greavsie 's Funny Old Games, having also since been published.
On 22 May 2009, Setanta Sports announced that Saint and Greavsie were reforming their double act to star in a FA Cup Special on 30 May, the day of the Cup Final. The Saint and Greavsie FA Cup Special was broken up into three separate mini-programmes appearing throughout the build up to the Everton v Chelsea final.
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in 2018 where is the world cup going to be | 2018 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was the 21st FIFA World Cup, an international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA once every four years. It took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018.
This was the first World Cup to be held in Eastern Europe, and the 11th time that it had been held in Europe. At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it is the most expensive World Cup ever. It was also the first World Cup to use the video assistant referee (VAR) system.
The finals involved 32 teams, of which 31 came through qualifying competitions, while the host nation qualified automatically. Of the 32 teams, 20 had also appeared in the last tournament in 2014, while both Iceland and Panama made their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities. The final took place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, with France and Croatia competing for the World Cup. France won the match 4 -- 2 to claim their second World Cup title, and this result marked the fourth consecutive title won by a European team, after Italy in 2006, Spain in 2010 and Germany in 2014.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournaments began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The 22 - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round.
The voting results were as follows:
The English Football Association and others raised concerns of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members. They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. The 2014 Garcia Report, an internal investigation led by Michael J. Garcia, was withheld from public release by Hans - Joachim Eckert, FIFA 's head of adjudication on ethical matters. Eckert instead released a shorter revised summary, and his (and therefore FIFA 's) reluctance to publish the full report caused Garcia to resign in protest. Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert 's absolving of Russia from blame, with Greg Dyke calling for a re-examination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- applied to enter the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game, between Timor - Leste and Mongolia, began in Dili on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015.
Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after 1982; and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958), three - time runners - up and third placed in 2014 the Netherlands (for the first time since 2002), and four reigning continental champions: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winners Cameroon, two - time Copa América champions and 2017 Confederations Cup runners - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winners New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champions United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in the FIFA World Rankings at the time of the tournament.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18: 00 MSK at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into 8 groups of 4, by selecting one team from each of the 4 ranked pots.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams, pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, when only pot 1 was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players but, in February 2018, this was increased to 35. From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad may be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match and such replacements do not need to have been named in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 35 - player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
On 29 March 2018, FIFA released the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches. On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who solely acted in this capacity in the tournament.
Referee Fahad Al - Mirdasi of Saudi Arabia was removed in 30 May 2018 over a match - fixing attempt, along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al - Abakry and Abdulah Al - Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of the United Arab Emirates and Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list. Assistant referee Marwa Range of Kenya also withdrew after the BBC released an investigation conducted by a Ghanaian journalist which implicated Marwa in a bribery scandal.
Shortly after the International Football Association Board 's decision to incorporate video assistant referees (VARs) into the Laws of the Game, on 16 March 2018, the FIFA Council took the much - anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
VAR operations for all games are operating from a single headquarters in Moscow, which receives live video of the games and are in radio contact with the on - field referees. Systems are in place for communicating VAR - related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums ' large screens are used for the fans in attendance.
VAR had a significant impact in several games. On 15 June 2018, Diego Costa 's goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision; the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal by Antoine Griezmann. A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, with this phenomenon being partially attributed to VAR. Overall, the new technology has been both praised and criticised by commentators. FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. Most cities are in European Russia, while Sochi and Yekaterinburg are very close to the Europe - Asia border, to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, 3 (Luzhniki, Yekaterinburg and Sochi) have been extensively renovated and the other 9 stadiums to be used are brand new; $11.8 billion has been spent on hosting the tournament.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the twelve venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium -- the two largest stadiums in Russia -- were used most, both hosting seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara all hosted six matches, including one quarter - final match each, while the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don hosted five matches, including one round - of - 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk all hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games.
A total of twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities have been built and renovated for the FIFA World Cup.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018, it is the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the cost of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.
The Russian government had originally earmarked a budget of around $20 billion which was later slashed to $10 billion for the preparations of the World Cup, of which half is spent on transport infrastructure. As part of the program for preparation to the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program "Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure '' was implemented with a total budget of 352.5 billion rubles, with 170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, 35.1 billion from regional budgets, and 147.1 billion from investors. The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure (117.8 billion rubles). Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in the World Cup host cities. Costs continued to balloon as preparations were underway.
Platov International Airport in Rostov - on - Don was upgraded with automated air traffic control systems, modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, and meteorological support systems. Koltsovo Airport in Yekaterinburg was upgraded with radio - engineering tools for flight operation and received its second runway strip. Saransk Airport received a new navigation system; the city also got two new hotels, Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) and Four Points by Sheraton Saransk (Starwood Hotels) as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities. In Samara, new tram lines were laid. Khrabrovo Airport in Kaliningrad was upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment. Renovation and upgrade of radio - engineering tools for flight operation was completed in the airports of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Volgograd, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Sochi. On 27 March, the Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sector of Russia reported that all communications within its area of responsibility have been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches are hosted, hosting costs increased to over 7.4 billion rubles, over-running the 5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from the state and regional budget.
Volunteer applications to the Russia 2018 Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications, and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers. They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the Local Organising Committee based in 15 universities, and in Volunteer Centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in the key areas, was given to those with knowledge of foreign languages and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals.
Free public transport services were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking between host cities, as well as services such as bus service within them.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA.
Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding the opening match of the tournament between hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia.
Former Brazilian World Cup - winning striker Ronaldo walked out with a child wearing a Russia 2018 shirt. English pop singer Robbie Williams then performed two songs before he and Russian soprano Aida Garifullina performed a duet while other performers emerged, dressed in the flags of all 32 teams and carrying a sign bearing the name of each nation. Dancers were also present. Ronaldo returned with the official match ball of the 2018 World Cup which was sent into space with the International Space Station crew in March and came back to Earth in early June.
Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in a round - robin basis, with the top two teams of each group advancing to the knockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico.
For the first time since 1938, Germany (reigning champions) did not advance past the first round. For the first time since 1982, no African team progressed to the second round. For the first time, the fair play criteria came into use, when Japan qualified over Senegal due to having received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France v Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.
All times listed below are local time.
The ranking of teams in the group stage is determined as follows:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match.
Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in 1998.
6 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
Source: FIFA
A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences:
The following suspensions were served during the tournament:
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot, Golden Ball and Golden Glove awards were all sponsored by Adidas.
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, a typeface called Dusha (from душа, Russian for soul) was created by Portuguese design agency Brandia Central in 2014.
The official mascot for the tournament was unveiled 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select from three finalists -- a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53 % of approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka -- an anthropomorphic wolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka 's name is derived from the Russian word забивать, "to score '', and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is "charming, confident and social ''.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017.
The general visa policy of Russia did not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship. Spectators are nonetheless required to register for a "Fan - ID '', a special photo identification pass. A Fan - ID is required to enter the country visa - free, while a ticket, Fan - ID and a valid passport are required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan - IDs also grant World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, and train service between host cities. Fan - ID is administered by the Ministry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, who may revoke these accreditations at any time to "ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order ''.
The official match ball of the 2018 World Cup group stage was "Telstar 18 '', based on the name and design of the first Adidas World Cup ball from 1970. It was introduced on 9 November 2017.
Since the group stage, "Telstar Mechta '' has been used for the knockout stage. The word mechta (Russian: мечта) means dream or ambition. The difference between Telstar 18 and Mechta is the red details on the design.
On 30 April 2018, EA announced a free expansion for FIFA 18 based on the 2018 FIFA World Cup, featuring all 32 participating teams and all 12 stadiums used at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The official song of the tournament is "Live It Up '', with vocals from Will Smith, Nicky Jam and Era Istrefi, released on 25 May. The FIFA World Cup Official Music Video was released on 8 June.
Thirty - three footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report. On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football. On 22 May 2018 FIFA confirmed that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to assert an anti-doping rule violation. FIFA 's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament; the action was taken to reassure teams that the samples would remain untampered.
The choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. In 2014, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that "the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and former British Prime Minister David Cameron attended a meeting with FIFA vice-president Chung Mong - joon in which a vote - trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup in England was discussed.
In response to the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans. Iceland diplomatically boycotted the World Cup. Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that "the west are trying to deny Russia the World Cup ''. The Russian Foreign Ministry denounced Boris Johnson 's statements that compared the event to the 1936 Olympics held in Nazi Germany as "poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness '' and "unacceptable and unworthy '' parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism ''.
The British Foreign Office and MPs had repeatedly warned English football fans and "people of Asian or Afro - Caribbean descent '' travelling to Russia of "racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility ''. English football fans who have travelled have said they have received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men 's World Cup whose English rights were held by Fox Sports, and Spanish rights held by Telemundo. The elimination of the US national team in qualifying led to concerns that US interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (especially among "casual '' viewers interested in the US team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that US games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity among US viewers (factoring Hispanic and Latino Americans). Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament.
In February 2018, Ukrainian rightsholder UA: PBC stated that it would not broadcast the World Cup. This came in the wake of growing boycotts of the tournament among the Football Federation of Ukraine and sports minister Ihor Zhdanov. However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match. Additionally, the Football Federation of Ukraine refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets.
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what is the origin of the word eureka | Eureka (word) - wikipedia
Eureka (Greek: Εύρηκα) is an interjection used to celebrate a discovery or invention. It is a transliteration of an exclamation attributed to Ancient Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes.
"Eureka '' comes from the Ancient Greek word εὕρηκα heúrēka, meaning "I have found (it) '', which is the first person singular perfect indicative active of the verb εὑρίσκω heuriskō "I find ''. It is closely related to heuristic, which refers to experience - based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery.
The accent of the English word is on the second syllable, following Latin rules of accent, which require that a penult (next - to - last syllable) must be accented if it contains a long vowel. In the Greek pronunciation, the first syllable has a high pitch accent, because the Ancient Greek rules of accent do not force accent to the penult unless the ultima (last syllable) has a long vowel. The long vowels in the first two syllables would sound like a double stress to English ears (as in the phrase Maltese cat).
The initial / h / is dropped in some European languages, including Spanish, Dutch, and English, but preserved in others, such as Finnish, Danish, and German.
The exclamation ' Eureka! ' is famously attributed to the ancient Greek scholar Archimedes. He reportedly proclaimed "Eureka! Eureka! '' (i.e. twice) after he had stepped into a bath and noticed that the water level rose, whereupon he suddenly understood that the volume of water displaced must be equal to the volume of the part of his body he had submerged. (This relation is not what is known as Archimedes ' principle -- that deals with the upthrust experienced by a body immersed in a fluid.) He then realized that the volume of irregular objects could be measured with precision, a previously intractable problem. He is said to have been so eager to share his discovery that he leapt out of his bathtub and ran through the streets of Syracuse naked.
Archimedes ' insight led to the solution of a problem posed by Hiero of Syracuse, on how to assess the purity of an irregular golden votive crown; he had given his goldsmith the pure gold to be used, and correctly suspected he had been cheated by the goldsmith removing gold and adding the same weight of silver. Equipment for weighing objects with a fair amount of precision already existed, and now that Archimedes could also measure volume, their ratio would give the object 's density, an important indicator of purity (as gold is nearly twice as dense as silver and has significantly greater weight for the same volume of matter at standard temperatures and pressure).
This story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius 's books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time. Galileo Galilei himself weighed in on the controversy, suggesting a design for a hydrostatic balance that could be used to compare the dry weight of an object with the weight of the same object submerged in water. For the problem posed to Archimedes, though, there is a simple method which requires no precision equipment: balance the crown against pure gold in air, and then submerge the crown and the gold in water, separately, to determine their volumes from their respective displacements. If the volumes were identical, their densities were the same and therefore the crown must be pure gold. But if the crown 's volume were greater, its density would be less than that of the gold, and therefore the crown could not be pure gold.
The expression is also the state motto of California, referring to the momentous discovery of gold near Sutter 's Mill in 1848. The California State Seal has included the word "eureka '' since its original design by Robert S. Garnett in 1850; the official text from that time describing the seal states that this word 's meaning applies "either to the principle involved in the admission of the State or the success of the miner at work ''. In 1957 the state legislature attempted to make "In God We Trust '' the state motto as part of the same post WWII anti-Communist movement that successfully added the term "under God '' to the American Pledge of Allegiance in 1954, but this attempt did not succeed and "Eureka '' was made the official motto in 1963.
The city of Eureka, California, founded in 1850, uses the California State Seal as its official seal. Eureka is a considerable distance from Sutter 's Mill, but was the jumping off point of a smaller gold rush in nearby Trinity County, California in 1850. It is the largest of at least eleven remaining US cities and towns named for the exclamation, "eureka! ''. As a result of the extensive use of the exclamation dating from 1849, there were nearly 40 locales so named by the 1880s in a nation that had none in the 1840s. Many places, works of culture, and other objects have since been named "Eureka ''; see Eureka (disambiguation) for a list.
"Eureka '' was also associated with a gold rush in Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. The Eureka Stockade was a revolt in 1854 by gold miners against unjust mining license fees and a brutal administration supervising the miners. The rebellion demonstrated the refusal of the workers to be dominated by unfair government and laws. The Eureka Stockade has often been referred to as the "birth of democracy '' in Australia.
Another mathematician, Carl Friedrich Gauss, echoed Archimedes when in 1796 he wrote in his diary, "ΕΥΡΗΚΑ! num = Δ + Δ + Δ '', referring to his discovery that any positive integer could be expressed as the sum of at most three triangular numbers. This result is now known as Gauss ' Eureka theorem and is a special case of what later became known as the Fermat polygonal number theorem.
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most popular classical music songs of all time | The 50 Greatest Pieces of Classical Music - wikipedia
The 50 Greatest Pieces of Classical Music is a selection of classical works recorded by the London Philharmonic Orchestra with conductor David Parry. Recorded at Abbey Road Studios, Royal Festival Hall and Henry Wood Hall in London, the album was released in digital formats in November, 2009 and as a 4 - CD set in 2011. The 50 Greatest Pieces of Classical Music has sold over 200,000 copies and spent over three years as one of the top 10 classical albums on iTunes.
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kimono geisha sumo samurai are parts of chinese traditions | Kimono - wikipedia
The kimono (着物, きもの) is a traditional Japanese garment. Kimono was also known as Gofuku (吳 服, ご ふく or Wúfú) before the Taishō period (大正 時代, Taishō jidai) since it was basically derived from the local Chinese Hanfu (漢服) in the Wú (吳), which refers to a region in China whose core area is around Lake Tai in Jiangnan (the south of the Yangtze River). Kimono (ki: wear + mono: object = "worn object '', "object that is worn '') means garment and has come to denote these full - length, usually robes. The standard English plural is kimonos, but the unmarked Japanese plural kimono is also used. Kimonos are often worn for important festivals or formal occasions as formal clothing.
Kimono have T - shaped, Dambi - straight - lined robes worn so that the hem falls to the ankle, with attached collars and long, wide sleeves. Kimono are wrapped around the body, always with the left side over the right (except when dressing the dead for burial) and are secured by a sash called an obi, which is tied at the back. Kimono are generally worn with traditional footwear (especially zōri or geta) and split - toe socks (tabi).
Today, kimono are most often worn by women, particularly on special occasions. Traditionally, unmarried women wore a style of kimono called furisode, with almost floor - length sleeves, on special occasions. A few older women and even fewer men still wear the kimono on a daily basis. Men wear the kimono most often at weddings, tea ceremonies, and other very special or very formal occasions. Professional sumo wrestlers are often seen in the kimono because they are required to wear traditional Japanese dress whenever appearing in public.
Chinese fashion had a huge influence on Japan from the Kofun period to the early Heian period as a result of mass immigration from the continent and a Japanese envoy to the Tang Dynasty. During Japan 's Heian period (794 -- 1192 AD), the kimono became increasingly stylized, though one still wore a half - apron, called a mo, over it. During the Muromachi age (1392 -- 1573 AD), the Kosode, a single kimono formerly considered underwear, began to be worn without the hakama (trousers, divided skirt) over it, and thus began to be held closed by an obi "belt ''. During the Edo period (1603 -- 1867 AD), the sleeves began to grow in length, especially among unmarried women, and the Obi became wider, with various styles of tying coming into fashion. Since then, the basic shape of both the men 's and women 's kimono has remained essentially unchanged. Kimonos made with exceptional skill from fine materials have been regarded as great works of art.
The formal kimono was replaced by the more convenient Western clothes and yukata as everyday wear. After an edict by Emperor Meiji, police, railroad men and teachers moved to Western clothes. The Western clothes became the army and school uniform for boys. After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, kimono wearers often became victims of robbery because they could not run very fast due to the restricting nature of the kimono on the body and geta clogs. The Tokyo Women 's & Children 's Wear Manufacturers ' Association (東京 婦人 子供 服 組合) promoted Western clothes. Between 1920 and 1930 the sailor outfit replaced the undivided hakama in school uniforms for girls. The national uniform, Kokumin - fuku, a type of Western clothes, was mandated for males in 1940. Today most people wear Western clothes and wear the breezier and more comfortable yukata for special occasions.
In the Western world, kimono - styled women 's jackets, similar to a casual cardigan, gained public attention as a popular fashion item in 2014.
Kimonos for men should fall approximately to the ankle without tucking. A woman 's kimono has additional length to allow for the ohashori, the tuck that can be seen under the obi, which is used to adjust the kimono to the wearer. An ideally tailored kimono has sleeves that fall to the wrist when the arms are lowered.
Kimonos are traditionally made from a single bolt of fabric called a tan. Tan come in standard dimensions -- about 36 centimetres wide and 11.5 metres long -- and the entire bolt is used to make one kimono. The finished kimono consists of four main strips of fabric -- two panels covering the body and two panels forming the sleeves -- with additional smaller strips forming the narrow front panels and collar. Historically, kimonos were often taken apart for washing as separate panels and resewn by hand. Because the entire bolt remains in the finished garment without cutting, the kimono can be retailored easily to fit another person.
The maximum width of the sleeve is dictated by the width of the fabric. The distance from the center of the spine to the end of the sleeve could not exceed twice the width of the fabric. Traditional kimono fabric was typically no more than 36 centimeters (14 inches) wide. Thus the distance from spine to wrist could not exceed a maximum of roughly 68 centimeters (27 inches). Modern kimono fabric is woven as wide as 42 centimeters (17 inches) to accommodate modern Japanese body sizes. Very tall or heavy people, such as sumo wrestlers, must have kimonos custom - made by either joining multiple bolts, weaving custom - width fabric, or using non-standard size fabric.
Traditionally, kimonos are sewn by hand; even machine - made kimonos require substantial hand - stitching. Kimono fabrics are frequently hand - made and - decorated. Techniques such as yūzen dye resist are used for applying decoration and patterns to the base cloth. Repeating patterns that cover a large area of a kimono are traditionally done with the yūzen resist technique and a stencil. Over time there have been many variations in color, fabric and style, as well as accessories such as the obi.
The kimono and obi are traditionally made of hemp, linen, silk, silk brocade, silk crepes (such as chirimen) and satin weaves (such as rinzu). Modern kimonos are widely available in less - expensive easy - care fabrics such as rayon, cotton sateen, cotton, polyester and other synthetic fibers. Silk is still considered the ideal fabric.
Customarily, woven patterns and dyed repeat patterns are considered informal. Formal kimonos have free - style designs dyed over the whole surface or along the hem. During the Heian period, kimonos were worn with up to a dozen or more colorful contrasting layers, with each combination of colors being a named pattern. Today, the kimono is normally worn with a single layer on top of one or more undergarments.
The pattern of the kimono can determine in which season it should be worn. For example, a pattern with butterflies or cherry blossoms would be worn in spring. Watery designs are common during the summer. A popular autumn motif is the russet leaf of the Japanese maple; for winter, designs may include bamboo, pine trees and plum blossoms.
A popular form of textile art in Japan is shibori (intricate tie dye), found on some of the more expensive kimonos and haori kimono jackets. Patterns are created by minutely binding the fabric and masking off areas, then dying it, usually by hand. When the bindings are removed, an undyed pattern is revealed. Shibori work can be further enhanced with yuzen (hand applied) drawing or painting with textile dyes or with embroidery; it is then known as tsujigahana. Shibori textiles are very time - consuming to produce and require great skill, so the textiles and garments created from them are very expensive and highly prized.
Old kimonos are often recycled in: altered to make haori, hiyoku, or kimonos for children; used to patch similar kimono; used for making handbags and similar kimono accessories; and used to make covers, bags or cases for implements, especially for sweet - picks used in tea ceremonies. Damaged kimonos can be disassembled and resewn to hide the soiled areas, and those with damage below the waistline can be worn under a hakama. Historically, skilled craftsmen laboriously picked the silk thread from old kimono and rewove it into a new textile in the width of a heko obi for men 's kimono, using a recycling weaving method called saki - ori.
These terms refer to parts of a kimono:
A woman 's kimono may easily exceed US $10,000; a complete kimono outfit, with kimono, undergarments, obi, ties, socks, sandals, and accessories, can exceed US $20,000. A single obi may cost several thousand dollars. However, most kimonos owned by kimono hobbyists or by practitioners of traditional arts are far less expensive. Enterprising people make their own kimono and undergarments by following a standard pattern, or by recycling older kimonos. Cheaper and machine - made fabrics can substitute for the traditional hand - dyed silk. There is also a thriving business in Japan for second - hand kimonos, which can cost as little as ¥ 100 (about $1.25) at thrift stores in the Tokyo area. Women 's obi, however, mostly remain an expensive item. Although simple patterned or plain colored ones can cost as little as ¥ 500 (about $6), even a used obi can cost hundreds and even thousands of dollars, and experienced craftsmanship is required to make them. Men 's obi, even those made from silk, tend to be much less expensive, because they are narrower, shorter and less decorative than those worn by women.
Kimonos range from extremely formal to casual. The level of formality of women 's kimono is determined mostly by the pattern of the fabric, and color. Young women 's kimonos have longer sleeves, signifying that they are not married, and tend to be more elaborate than similarly formal older women 's kimono. Men 's kimonos are usually one basic shape and are mainly worn in subdued colors. Formality is also determined by the type and color of accessories, the fabric, and the number or absence of kamon (family crests), with five crests signifying extreme formality. Silk is the most desirable, and most formal, fabric. Kimonos made of fabrics such as cotton and polyester generally reflect a more casual style.
Many modern Japanese women lack the skill to put on a kimono unaided: the typical woman 's kimono outfit consists of twelve or more separate pieces that are worn, matched, and secured in prescribed ways, and the assistance of licensed professional kimono dressers may be required. Called upon mostly for special occasions, kimono dressers both work out of hair salons and make house calls.
Choosing an appropriate type of kimono requires knowledge of the garment 's symbolism and subtle social messages, reflecting the woman 's age, marital status, and the level of formality of the occasion.
Furisode (振袖) literally translates as swinging sleeves -- the sleeves of furisode average between 39 and 42 inches (110 cm) in length. Furisode are the most formal kimono for unmarried women, with colorful patterns that cover the entire garment. They are usually worn at coming - of - age ceremonies (seijin shiki) and by unmarried female relatives of the bride at weddings and wedding receptions.
Hōmongi (訪問 着) literally translates as visiting wear. Characterized by patterns that flow over the shoulders, seams and sleeves, hōmongi rank slightly higher than their close relative, the tsukesage. Hōmongi may be worn by both married and unmarried women; often friends of the bride will wear hōmongi at weddings (except relatives) and receptions. They may also be worn to formal parties.
Pongee Hōmongi were made to promote kimono after WWII. Since Pongee Hōmongi are made from Pongee, they are considered casual wear.
Iromuji (色 無地) are colored kimono that may be worn by married and unmarried women. They are mainly worn to tea ceremonies. The dyed silk may be figured (rinzu, similar to jacquard), but has no differently colored patterns. It comes from the word "muji '' which means plain or solid and "iro '' which means color.
Komon (小紋) means "fine pattern ''. The term refers to kimono with a small, repeated pattern throughout the garment. This style is more casual and may be worn around town, or dressed up with a formal obi for a restaurant. Both married and unmarried women may wear komon.
Edo komon (江戸 小紋) is a type of komon characterized by tiny dots arranged in dense patterns that form larger designs. The Edo komon dyeing technique originated with the samurai class during the Edo period. A kimono with this type of pattern is of the same formality as an iromuji, and when decorated with kamon, may be worn as visiting wear (equivalent to a tsukesage or hōmongi).
Mofuku is formal mourning dress for men or women. Both men and women wear kimono of plain black silk with five kamon over white undergarments and white tabi. For women, the obi and all accessories are also black. Men wear a subdued obi and black and white or black and gray striped hakama with black or white zori.
The completely black mourning ensemble is usually reserved for family and others who are close to the deceased.
Irotomesode (色 留袖) are single - color kimono, patterned only below the waistline. Irotomesode with five family crests are the same as formal as kurotomesode, and are worn by married and unmarried women, usually close relatives of the bride and groom at weddings and a medal ceremony at the royal court. An irotomesode may have three or one kamon. Those use as a semi-formal kimono at a party and conferment.
Kurotomesode (黒 留袖) is a black kimono patterned only below the waistline. They are the most formal kimono for married women. They are often worn by the mothers of the bride and groom at weddings. Kurotomesode usually have five kamon printed on the sleeves, chest and back of the kimono.
Tsukesage (付け 下げ) has more modest patterns that cover a smaller area -- mainly below the waist -- than the more formal hōmongi. They may also be worn by married women. The differences from homongi is the size of the pattern, seam connection, and not same clothes at inside and outside at hakke As demitoilet, not used in important occasion, but light patterned homongi is more highly rated than classic patterned tsukesage. General tsukesage is often used for parties, not ceremonies.
Uchikake (打 掛) is a highly formal kimono worn only by a bride or at a stage performance. The uchikake is often heavily brocaded and is supposed to be worn outside the actual kimono and obi, as a sort of coat. One therefore never ties the obi around the uchikake. It is supposed to trail along the floor, this is also why it is heavily padded along the hem. The uchikake of the bridal costume is either white or very colorful often with red as the base colour.
The susohiki is usually worn by geisha or by stage performers of the traditional Japanese dance. It is quite long, compared to regular kimono, because the skirt is supposed to trail along the floor. Susohiki literally means "trail the skirt ''. Where a normal kimono for women is normally 1.5 -- 1.6 m (4.9 -- 5.2 ft) long, a susohiki can be up to 2 m (6.6 ft) long. This is also why geisha and maiko lift their kimono skirt when walking outside, also to show their beautiful underkimono or "nagajuban '' (see below).
Jūnihitoe (十二単) is an extremely elegant and highly complex kimono that was only worn by Japanese court - ladies. The jūnihitoe consist of various layers which are silk garments, with the innermost garment being made of white silk. The total weight of the jūnihitoe could add up to 20 kilograms. An important accessory was an elaborate fan, which could be tied together by a rope when folded. Today, the jūnihitoe can only be seen in museums, movies, costume demonstrations, tourist attractions or at certain festivals. These robes are one of the most expensive items of Japanese clothing. Only the Imperial Household still officially uses them at some important functions.
In contrast to women 's kimono, men 's kimono outfits are far simpler, typically consisting of five pieces, not including footwear.
Men 's kimono sleeves are attached to the body of the kimono with no more than a few inches unattached at the bottom, unlike the women 's style of very deep sleeves mostly unattached from the body of the kimono. Men 's sleeves are less deep than women 's kimono sleeves to accommodate the obi around the waist beneath them, whereas on a woman 's kimono, the long, unattached bottom of the sleeve can hang over the obi without getting in the way.
In the modern era, the principal distinctions between men 's kimono are in the fabric. The typical men 's kimono is a subdued, dark color; black, dark blues, greens, and browns are common. Fabrics are usually matte. Some have a subtle pattern, and textured fabrics are common in more casual kimono. More casual kimono may be made in slightly brighter colors, such as lighter purples, greens and blues. Sumo wrestlers have occasionally been known to wear quite bright colors such as fuchsia.
The most formal style of kimono is plain black silk with five kamon on the chest, shoulders and back. Slightly less formal is the three - kamon kimono.
In modern - day Japan the meanings of the layering of kimono and hiyoku are usually forgotten. Only maiko and geisha now use this layering technique for dances and subtle erotic suggestion, usually emphasising the back of the neck. Modern Japanese brides may also wear a traditional Shinto bridal kimono which is worn with a hiyoku.
Traditionally kimonos were worn with hiyoku or floating linings. Hiyoku can be a second kimono worn beneath the first and give the traditional layered look to the kimono. Often in modern kimonos the hiyoku is simply the name for the double - sided lower half of the kimono which may be exposed to other eyes depending on how the kimono is worn.
Old - fashioned kimono styles meant that hiyoku were entire under - kimono, however modern day layers are usually only partial, to give the impression of layering.
In the past, a kimono would often be entirely taken apart for washing, and then re-sewn for wearing. This traditional washing method is called arai hari. Because the stitches must be taken out for washing, traditional kimono need to be hand sewn. Arai hari is very expensive and difficult and is one of the causes of the declining popularity of kimono. Modern fabrics and cleaning methods have been developed that eliminate this need, although the traditional washing of kimono is still practiced, especially for high - end garments.
New, custom - made kimono are generally delivered to a customer with long, loose basting stitches placed around the outside edges. These stitches are called shitsuke ito. They are sometimes replaced for storage. They help to prevent bunching, folding and wrinkling, and keep the kimono 's layers in alignment.
Like many other traditional Japanese garments, there are specific ways to fold kimono. These methods help to preserve the garment and to keep it from creasing when stored. Kimonos are often stored wrapped in paper called tatōshi.
Kimono need to be aired out at least seasonally and before and after each time they are worn. Many people prefer to have their kimono dry cleaned. Although this can be extremely expensive, it is generally less expensive than arai hari but may be impossible for certain fabrics or dyes.
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what is the longitude and latitude of north pole | North Pole - wikipedia
Coordinates: 90 ° N 0 ° W / 90 ° N - 0 ° E / 90; - 0
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is (subject to the caveats explained below) defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface.
The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90 ° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value. Along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere.
While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also annually established a base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for a few weeks during early spring. Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice - free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later.
The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m (13,980 ft) by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,410 ft) by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km (430 mi) away, though some perhaps semi-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, which is located 817 km (508 mi) from the Pole.
The Earth 's axis of rotation -- and hence the position of the North Pole -- was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might "wobble '' slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent "variation of latitude, '' as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth 's surface, by a range of a few metres. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight - month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the Earth 's axis and the Earth 's surface, at any given moment, is called the "instantaneous pole '', but because of the "wobble '' this can not be used as a definition of a fixed North Pole (or South Pole) when metre - scale precision is required.
It is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevations or orography) to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System.
As early as the 16th century, many prominent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea, which in the 19th century was called the Polynya or Open Polar Sea. It was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, already commonly used in the cold northern latitudes.
One of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82 ° 45 ′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, ended in disaster. Another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then - record 83 ° 20'26 '' North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879 -- 1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, the USS Jeanette, was crushed by ice. Over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost.
In April 1895 the Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen struck out for the Pole on skis after leaving Nansen 's icebound ship Fram. The pair reached latitude 86 ° 14 ′ North before they abandoned the attempt and turned southwards, eventually reaching Franz Josef Land.
In 1897 Swedish engineer Salomon August Andrée and two companions tried to reach the North Pole in the hydrogen balloon Örnen ("Eagle ''), but came down 300 km (190 mi) north of Kvitøya, the northeasternmost part of the Svalbard archipelago. They trekked to Kvitøya but died there three months later. In 1930 the remains of this expedition were found by the Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition.
The Italian explorer Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi and Captain Umberto Cagni of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) sailed the converted whaler Stella Polare ("Pole Star '') from Norway in 1899. On 11 March 1900 Cagni led a party over the ice and reached latitude 86 ° 34 ' on 25 April, setting a new record by beating Nansen 's result of 1895 by 35 to 40 km (22 to 25 mi). Cagni barely managed to return to the camp, remaining there until 23 June. On 16 August the Stella Polare left Rudolf Island heading south and the expedition returned to Norway.
The US explorer Frederick Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole on 21 April 1908 with two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim is not widely accepted.
The conquest of the North Pole was for many years credited to US Navy engineer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached the Pole on 6 April 1909, accompanied by Matthew Henson and four Inuit men, Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah, and Ooqueah. However, Peary 's claim remains highly disputed and controversial. Those who accompanied Peary on the final stage of the journey were not trained in (Western) navigation, and thus could not independently confirm his navigational work, which some claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the Pole.
The distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support party turned back seem incredible to many people, almost three times that which he had accomplished up to that point. Peary 's account of a journey to the Pole and back while traveling along the direct line -- the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints that he was facing -- is contradicted by Henson 's account of tortuous detours to avoid pressure ridges and open leads.
The British explorer Wally Herbert, initially a supporter of Peary, researched Peary 's records in 1989 and found that there were significant discrepancies in the explorer 's navigational records. He concluded that Peary had not reached the Pole. Support for Peary came again in 2005, however, when British explorer Tom Avery and four companions recreated the outward portion of Peary 's journey with replica wooden sleds and Canadian Eskimo Dog teams, reaching the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours -- nearly five hours faster than Peary. However, Avery 's fastest 5 - day march was 90 nautical miles, significantly short of the 135 claimed by Peary. Avery writes on his web site that "The admiration and respect which I hold for Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and the four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has grown enormously since we set out from Cape Columbia. Having now seen for myself how he travelled across the pack ice, I am more convinced than ever that Peary did indeed discover the North Pole. ''
Another rejection of Peary 's claim arrived in 2009, when E. Myles Standish of the California Institute of Technology, an experienced referee of scientific claims, reported numerous alleged lacunae and inconsistencies.
The first claimed flight over the Pole was made on 9 May 1926 by US naval officer Richard E. Byrd and pilot Floyd Bennett in a Fokker tri-motor aircraft. Although verified at the time by a committee of the National Geographic Society, this claim has since been undermined by the 1996 revelation that Byrd 's long - hidden diary 's solar sextant data (which the NGS never checked) consistently contradict his June 1926 report 's parallel data by over 100 mi (160 km). The secret report 's alleged en - route solar sextant data were inadvertently so impossibly overprecise that he excised all these alleged raw solar observations out of the version of the report finally sent to geographical societies five months later (while the original version was hidden for 70 years), a realization first published in 2000 by the University of Cambridge after scrupulous refereeing.
According to Standish, "Anyone who is acquainted with the facts and has any amount of logical reasoning can not avoid the conclusion that neither Cook, nor Peary, nor Byrd reached the North Pole; and they all knew it. ''
The first consistent, verified, and scientifically convincing attainment of the Pole was on 12 May 1926, by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his US sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth from the airship Norge. Norge, though Norwegian - owned, was designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard in Norway, and crossed the Arctic Ocean to Alaska. Nobile, with several scientists and crew from the Norge, overflew the Pole a second time on 24 May 1928, in the airship Italia. The Italia crashed on its return from the Pole, with the loss of half the crew.
In May 1937 the world 's first North Pole ice station, North Pole - 1, was established by Soviet scientists by air 20 kilometres (13 mi) from the North Pole. The expedition members: oceanographer Pyotr Shirshov, meteorologist Yevgeny Fyodorov, radio operator Ernst Krenkel, and the leader Ivan Papanin conducted scientific research at the station for the next nine months. By 19 February 1938, when the group was picked up by the ice breakers Taimyr and Murman, their station had drifted 2850 km to the eastern coast of Greenland.
In May 1945 an RAF Lancaster of the Aries expedition became the first Commonwealth aircraft to overfly the North Geographic and North Magnetic Poles. The plane was piloted by David Cecil McKinley of the Royal Air Force. It carried an 11 - man crew, with Kenneth C. Maclure of the Royal Canadian Air Force in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honoured with a spot in Canada 's Aviation Hall of Fame.
Discounting Peary 's disputed claim, the first men to set foot at the North Pole were a Soviet party including geophysicists Mikhail Ostrekin and Pavel Senko, oceanographers Mikhail Somov and Pavel Gordienko, and other scientists and flight crew (24 people in total) of Aleksandr Kuznetsov 's Sever - 2 expedition (March -- May 1948). It was organized by the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route. The party flew on three planes (pilots Ivan Cherevichnyy, Vitaly Maslennikov and Ilya Kotov) from Kotelny Island to the North Pole and landed there at 4: 44pm (Moscow Time, UTC + 04: 00) on 23 April 1948. They established a temporary camp and for the next two days conducted scientific observations. On 26 April the expedition flew back to the continent.
Next year, on 9 May 1949 two other Soviet scientists (Vitali Volovich and Andrei Medvedev) became the first people to parachute onto the North Pole. They jumped from a Douglas C - 47 Skytrain, registered CCCP H - 369.
On 3 May 1952 U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William Pershing Benedict, along with scientist Albert P. Crary, landed a modified Douglas C - 47 Skytrain at the North Pole. Some Western sources considered this to be the first landing at the Pole until the Soviet landings became widely known.
The United States Navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN - 571) crossed the North Pole on 3 August 1958. On 17 March 1959 USS Skate (SSN - 578) surfaced at the Pole, breaking through the ice above it, becoming the first naval vessel to do so.
Setting aside Peary 's claim, the first confirmed surface conquest of the North Pole was that of Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean Luc Bombardier, who traveled over the ice by snowmobile and arrived on 19 April 1968. The United States Air Force independently confirmed their position.
On 6 April 1969 Wally Herbert and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the British Trans - Arctic Expedition became the first men to reach the North Pole on foot (albeit with the aid of dog teams and airdrops). They continued on to complete the first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean -- and by its longest axis, Barrow, Alaska to Svalbard -- a feat that has never been repeated. Because of suggestions (later proven false) of Plaisted 's use of air transport, some sources classify Herbert 's expedition as the first confirmed to reach the North Pole over the ice surface by any means. In the 1980s Plaisted 's pilots Weldy Phipps and Ken Lee signed affidavits asserting that no such airlift was provided. It is also said that Herbert was the first person to reach the pole of inaccessibility.
On 17 August 1977 the Soviet nuclear - powered icebreaker Arktika completed the first surface vessel journey to the North Pole.
In 1982 Ranulph Fiennes and Charles R. Burton became the first people to cross the Arctic Ocean in a single season. They departed from Cape Crozier, Ellesmere Island, on 17 February 1982 and arrived at the geographic North Pole on 10 April 1982. They travelled on foot and snowmobile. From the Pole, they travelled towards Svalbard but, due to the unstable nature of the ice, ended their crossing at the ice edge after drifting south on an ice floe for 99 days. They were eventually able to walk to their expedition ship MV Benjamin Bowring and boarded it on 4 August 1982 at position 80: 31N 00: 59W. As a result of this journey, which formed a section of the three - year Transglobe Expedition 1979 -- 1982, Fiennes and Burton became the first people to complete a circumnavigation of the world via both North and South Poles, by surface travel alone. This achievement remains unchallenged to this day.
In 1985 Sir Edmund Hillary (the first man to stand on the summit of Mount Everest) and Neil Armstrong (the first man to stand on the moon) landed at the North Pole in a small twin - engined ski plane. Hillary thus became the first man to stand at both poles and on the summit of Everest.
In 1986 Will Steger, with seven teammates, became the first to be confirmed as reaching the Pole by dogsled and without resupply.
USS Gurnard (SSN - 662) operated in the Arctic Ocean under the polar ice cap from September to November 1984 in company with one of her sister ships, the attack submarine USS Pintado (SSN - 672). On 12 November 1984 Gurnard and Pintado became the third pair of submarines to surface together at the North Pole. In March 1990, Gurnard deployed to the Arctic region during exercise Ice Ex ' 90 and completed only the fourth winter submerged transit of the Bering and Seas. Gurnard surfaced at the North Pole on April 18, in the company of the USS Seahorse (SSN - 669).
On 6 May 1986 USS Archerfish (SSN 678), USS Ray (SSN 653) and USS Hawkbill (SSN - 666) surfaced at the North Pole, the first tri-submarine surfacing at the North Pole.
On 21 April 1987 Shinji Kazama of Japan became the first person to reach the North Pole on a motorcycle.
On 18 May 1987 USS Billfish (SSN 676), USS Sea Devil (SSN 664) and HMS Superb (S 109) surfaced at the North Pole, the first international surfacing at the North Pole.
In 1988 a 13 - man strong team (9 Soviets, 4 Canadians) skied across the arctic from Siberia to northern Canada. One of the Canadians, Richard Weber became the first person to reach the Pole from both sides of the Arctic Ocean.
On 4 May 1990 Børge Ousland and Erling Kagge became the first explorers ever to reach the North Pole unsupported, after a 58 - day ski trek from Ellesmere Island in Canada, a distance of 800 km.
On 7 September 1991 the German research vessel Polarstern and the Swedish icebreaker Oden reached the North Pole as the first conventional powered vessels. Both scientific parties and crew took oceanographic and geological samples and had a common tug of war and a football game on an ice floe. Polarstern again reached the pole exactly 10 years later with the Healy.
In 1998, 1999, and 2000 Lada Niva Marshs (special very large wheeled versions made by BRONTO, Lada / Vaz 's experimental product division) were driven to the North Pole. The 1998 expedition was dropped by parachute and completed the track to the North Pole. The 2000 expedition departed from a Russian research base around 114 km from the Pole and claimed an average speed of 20 -- 15 km / h in an average temperature of − 30 ° C.
Commercial airliner flights on the Polar routes may pass within viewing distance of the North Pole. For example, the flight from Chicago to Beijing may come close as latitude 89 ° N, though because of prevailing winds return journeys go over the Bering Strait. In recent years journeys to the North Pole by air (landing by helicopter or on a runway prepared on the ice) or by icebreaker have become relatively routine, and are even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies. Parachute jumps have frequently been made onto the North Pole in recent years. The temporary seasonal Russian camp of Barneo has been established by air a short distance from the Pole annually since 2002, and caters for scientific researchers as well as tourist parties. Trips from the camp to the Pole itself may be arranged overland or by helicopter.
The first attempt at underwater exploration of the North Pole was made on 22 April 1998 by Russian firefighter and diver Andrei Rozhkov with the support of the Diving Club of Moscow State University, but ended in fatality. The next attempted dive at the North Pole was organized the next year by the same diving club, and ended in success on 24 April 1999. The divers were Michael Wolff (Austria), Brett Cormick (UK), and Bob Wass (USA).
In 2005 the United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN - 766) surfaced through 155 cm (61 in) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there.
In July 2007 British endurance swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh completed a 1 km (0.62 mi) swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the effects of global warming, took place in clear water that had opened up between the ice floes. His later attempt to paddle a kayak to the North Pole in late 2008, following the erroneous prediction of clear water to the Pole, was stymied when his expedition found itself stuck in thick ice after only three days. The expedition was then abandoned.
By September 2007 the North Pole had been visited 66 times by different surface ships: 54 times by Soviet and Russian icebreakers, 4 times by Swedish Oden, 3 times by German Polarstern, 3 times by USCGC Healy and USCGC Polar Sea, and once by CCGS Louis S. St - Laurent and by Swedish Vidar Viking.
On 2 August 2007 a Russian scientific expedition Arktika 2007 made the first ever manned descent to the ocean floor at the North Pole, to a depth of 4.3 km (2.7 mi), as part of the research programme in support of Russia 's 2001 extended continental shelf claim to a large swathe of the Arctic Ocean floor. The descent took place in two MIR submersibles and was led by Soviet and Russian polar explorer Artur Chilingarov. In a symbolic act of visitation, the Russian flag was placed on the ocean floor exactly at the Pole.
The expedition was the latest in a series of efforts intended to give Russia a dominant influence in the Arctic according to The New York Times. The warming Arctic climate and summer shrinkage of the iced area has attracted the attention of many countries, such as China and the United States, toward the top of the world, where resources and shipping routes may soon be exploitable.
In 2009 the Russian Marine Live - Ice Automobile Expedition (MLAE - 2009) with Vasily Elagin as a leader and a team of Afanasy Makovnev, Vladimir Obikhod, Alexey Shkrabkin, Sergey Larin, Alexey Ushakov and Nikolay Nikulshin reached the North Pole on two custom - built 6 x 6 low - pressure - tire ATVs -- Yemelya - 1 and Yemelya - 2, designed by Vasily Elagin, a known Russian mountain climber, explorer and engineer. The vehicles reached the North Pole on 26 April 2009, 17: 30 (Moscow time). The expedition was partly supported by Russian State Aviation. The Russian Book of Records recognized it as the first successful vehicle trip from land to the Geographical North Pole.
On 1 March 2013 the Russian Marine Live - Ice Automobile Expedition (MLAE 2013) with Vasily Elagin as a leader, and a team of Afanasy Makovnev, Vladimir Obikhod, Alexey Shkrabkin, Andrey Vankov, Sergey Isayev and Nikolay Kozlov on two custom - built 6 x 6 low - pressure - tire ATVs -- Yemelya - 3 and Yemelya - 4, -- started from Golomyanny Island (the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago) to the North Pole across drifting ice of the Arctic Ocean. The vehicles reached the Pole on 6 April and then continued to the Canadian coast. The coast was reached on 30 April 2013 (83 ° 08N, 075 ° 59W Ward Hant Island), and on 5 May 2013 the expedition finished in Resolute Bay, NU. The way between the Russian borderland (Machtovyi Island of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, 80 ° 15N, 097 ° 27E) and the Canadian coast (Ward Hant Island, 83 ° 08N, 075 ° 59W) took 55 days; it was ~ 2300 km across drifting ice and about 4000 km in total. The expedition was totally self - dependent and used no external supplies. The expedition was supported by the Russian Geographical Society.
The sun at the North Pole is continuously above the horizon during the summer and continuously below the horizon during the winter. Sunrise is just before the March equinox (around 20 March); the sun then takes three months to reach its highest point of near 231⁄2 ° elevation at the summer solstice (around 21 June), after which time it begins to sink, reaching sunset just after the September equinox (around 23 September). When the sun is visible in the polar sky, it appears to move in a horizontal circle above the horizon. This circle gradually rises from near the horizon just after the vernal equinox to its maximum elevation (in degrees) above the horizon at summer solstice and then sinks back toward the horizon before sinking below it at the autumnal equinox. Hence the North and South Poles experience the slowest rates of sunrise and sunset on Earth.
A civil twilight period of about two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, a nautical twilight period of about five weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset and an astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset.
These effects are caused by a combination of the Earth 's axial tilt and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the Earth 's axial tilt, as well as its angle relative to the plane of the Earth 's orbit around the sun, remains very nearly constant over the course of a year (both change very slowly over long time periods). At northern midsummer the North Pole is facing towards the sun to its maximum extent. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the sun, the North Pole gradually turns away from the sun until at midwinter it is facing away from the Sun to its maximum extent. A similar sequence is observed at the South Pole, with a six - month time difference.
In most places on Earth, local time is determined by longitude, such that the time of day is more - or-less synchronised to the position of the sun in the sky (for example, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest). This line of reasoning fails at the North Pole, where the sun rises and sets only once per year, and all lines of longitude, and hence all time zones, converge. There is no permanent human presence at the North Pole and no particular time zone has been assigned. Polar expeditions may use any time zone that is convenient, such as Greenwich Mean Time, or the time zone of the country from which they departed.
The North Pole is substantially warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude on a continental land mass. Despite being an ice cap, it shares some characteristics with a tundra climate (ETf) due to the July and August temperatures peaking just above freezing.
Winter temperatures at the northernmost weather station in Greenland can range from about − 50 to − 13 ° C (− 58 to 9 ° F), averaging around − 31 ° C (− 24 ° F), with the North Pole being slightly colder. However, a freak storm caused the temperature to reach 0.7 ° C (33 ° F) for a time at a World Meteorological Organization buoy, located at 87.45 ° N, on December 30, 2015. It was estimated that the temperature at the North Pole was between 30 and 35 ° F (− 1 and 2 ° C) during the storm. Summer temperatures (June, July, and August) average around the freezing point (0 ° C (32 ° F)). The highest temperature yet recorded is 13 ° C (55 ° F), much warmer than the South Pole 's record high of only − 12.3 ° C (9.9 ° F). A similar spike in temperatures occurred on November 15, 2016 when temperatures hit freezing. Yet again, February 2018 featured a storm so powerful that temperatures at Cape Morris Jesup, the world 's northernmost weather station in Greenland, reached 6.1 ° C (43 ° F) and spent 24 straight hours above freezing. Meanwhile, the pole itself was estimated to reach a high temperature of 1.6 ° C (35 ° F). This same temperature of 1.6 ° C (35 ° F) was also recorded at the Hollywood Burbank Airport in Los Angeles at the very same time.
The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer. This may have significant commercial implications; see "Territorial Claims, '' below.
The retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone generation.
Polar bears are believed to travel rarely beyond about 82 ° North owing to the scarcity of food, though tracks have been seen in the vicinity of the North Pole, and a 2006 expedition reported sighting a polar bear just 1 mi (1.6 km) from the Pole. The ringed seal has also been seen at the Pole, and Arctic foxes have been observed less than 60 km (37 mi) away at 89 ° 40 ′ N.
Birds seen at or very near the Pole include the snow bunting, northern fulmar and black - legged kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the tendency of birds to follow ships and expeditions.
Fish have been seen in the waters at the North Pole, but these are probably few in number. A member of the Russian team that descended to the North Pole seabed in August 2007 reported seeing no sea creatures living there. However, it was later reported that a sea anemone had been scooped up from the seabed mud by the Russian team and that video footage from the dive showed unidentified shrimps and amphipods.
Currently, under international law, no country owns the North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The five surrounding Arctic countries, Russian Federation, Canada, Norway, Denmark (via Greenland), and the United States, are limited to a 200 - nautical - mile (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone off their coasts, and the area beyond that is administered by the International Seabed Authority.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has 10 years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 - mile exclusive economic zone. If validated, such a claim gives the claimant state rights to what may be on or beneath the sea bottom within the claimed zone. Norway (ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) have all launched projects to base claims that certain areas of Arctic continental shelves should be subject to their sole sovereign exploitation.
In 1907 Canada invoked a "sector principle '' to claim sovereignty over a sector stretching from its coasts to the North Pole. This claim has not been relinquished, but was not consistently pressed until 2013.
In some children 's Western cultures, the geographic North Pole is described as the location of Santa Claus ' workshop and residence, although the depictions have been inconsistent between the geographic and magnetic North Pole. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 to the North Pole (referring to Santa 's traditional exclamation of "Ho ho ho! '').
This association reflects an age - old esoteric mythology of Hyperborea that posits the North Pole, the otherworldly world - axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings. The popular figure of the pole - dwelling Santa Claus thus functions as an archetype of spiritual purity and transcendence.
As Henry Corbin has documented, the North Pole plays a key part in the cultural worldview of Sufism and Iranian mysticism. "The Orient sought by the mystic, the Orient that can not be located on our maps, is in the direction of the north, beyond the north. ''
Owing to its remoteness, the Pole is sometimes identified with a mysterious mountain of ancient Iranian tradition called Mount Qaf (Jabal Qaf), the "farthest point of the earth ''. According to certain authors, the Jabal Qaf of Muslim cosmology is a version of Rupes Nigra, a mountain whose ascent, like Dante 's climbing of the Mountain of Purgatory, represents the pilgrim 's progress through spiritual states. In Iranian theosophy, the heavenly Pole, the focal point of the spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to draw beings to its "palaces ablaze with immaterial matter. ''
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where does the larkspur ferry land in san francisco | Golden Gate Ferry - wikipedia
Golden Gate Ferry is one of three transportation systems owned and operated by the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District in the Bay Area of Northern California. The other two are the Golden Gate Bridge and Golden Gate Transit bus service. Golden Gate Ferry connects the City and County of San Francisco to Marin County. Funding for the ferry service is composed primarily of passenger fares and bridge toll subsidies.
Golden Gate Ferry serves Larkspur, Sausalito, and Tiburon in Marin County and San Francisco.
Golden Gate Ferry operates regular passenger ferry service on three routes, each taking approximately 30 minutes one way to complete:
It also operates limited service from Larkspur to AT&T Park for all San Francisco Giants baseball home games. The route takes approximately 30 - 40 minutes one way with a high speed craft or 60 minutes one way with other crafts. Supplemental service is provided for special events.
Service to Sausalito began in 1970, and service to Larkspur started in 1976. Service to AT&T Park started in 2000. Most recently, service to Tiburon began on 6 March 2017.
Note: Schedule information listed below is current as of 6 March 2017. The Larkspur and Sausalito routes provide expanded service during the summer.
On weekday mornings, one trip on Golden Gate Transit Route 24X provides supplemental service before the first ferry departure from the Larkspur Ferry Terminal to the San Francisco Financial District.
Holidays include Presidents ' Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, and Labor Day. No service operates on Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year 's Day. A reduced schedule operates on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, the Day after Thanksgiving, and on the days around Christmas and New Year 's Day.
The Larkspur Ferry Terminal is served by Golden Gate Transit Routes 25, 31, and 41. The Larkspur Ferry Shuttle is timed to meet ferry crossings during weekday commute hours. Additional service is provided by Marin Transit Routes 17, 29, and 228, which stop on East Sir Francis Drake Boulevard in front of the terminal.
The Sausalito Ferry Landing is served by Golden Gate Transit Routes 2, 30, and 92, which pick up on Bridgeway. Additional service is provided by Marin Transit Routes 17, 61, 66F, and 71X, which pick up on Bay Street.
The Tiburon Ferry Landing is served by Golden Gate Transit Route 8, which picks up on Tiburon Boulevard. Additional service is provided by Marin Transit Routes 219 and 219F.
The San Francisco Ferry Building is served by numerous Muni bus and streetcar lines and several San Francisco Bay Ferry lines.
Golden Gate Ferry fares differ by route, passenger type, and method of payment. Fares are effective 1 July 2017.
Youths are ages 5 through 17. Seniors are ages 65 and over. Up to 2 children ages 4 and under ride free when accompanied by an adult.
Transfers from Golden Gate Ferry to Golden Gate Transit are available only with the use of a Clipper card. Transfers from Golden Gate Transit to Golden Gate Ferry are available with cash or use of a Clipper card. Transfers are valid for 4 hours for inter-county travel. Transfers may be used up to 3 times to complete a one - way journey.
Until the line is extended to the nearby station, shuttle bus service will connect the Larkspur Terminal with San Rafael Transit Center to facilitate transfers between the systems.
Free transfers to and from San Francisco Muni were discontinued in 2010. Instead, passengers must use a Clipper card to take advantage of the following transfer opportunities:
From ferry to Muni: Adult Clipper customers receive a $0.50 credit on their Muni Clipper fare (e-cash only); youth, senior, and disabled Clipper customers are not covered by the transfer credit.
From Muni to ferry: Clipper customers receive a $0.50 credit ($0.25 credit for youth / senior / disabled) on their GGF Clipper fare.
The first vessel to provide ferry service was the M.S. Golden Gate. Before she was retired in 2004, she made 42,108 round trips between Sausalito and San Francisco, carried 21 million passengers and steamed nearly 1.3 million nautical miles (2,400,000 km; 1,500,000 mi), the equivalent of about 45 times around the world.
Golden Gate Ferry has four catamarans and three Spaulding monohull vessels in service today.
The Spaulding vessels are named M.S. Marin, M.S. San Francisco, and M.S. Sonoma. The Marin can carry 750 passengers, and the San Francisco and Sonoma can carry 630 passengers each. They were purchased from Philip F. Spaulding & Associates in San Diego in 1976 -- 1977. They were originally powered by gas turbine water jets but were converted to diesel engine propeller drives in 1983 -- 1985. More efficient diesel engines were installed in 2001 and 2002.
The catamarans are M.V. Del Norte (purchased 1998, 400 passengers), M.V. Golden Gate (purchased 2009, 450 passengers), M.V. Mendocino (purchased 2001, 450 passengers), and M.V. Napa (purchased 2009, 450 passengers).
All ferries are wheelchair accessible () and can carry bicycles; the catamarans can carry 15 bicycles, the Marin can carry 100 bicycles, and the San Francisco and Sonoma can carry 25 bicycles. All ferries have on - board refreshments, including a full bar with mixed drinks.
The M.S. Marin underwent a full refurbishment in November 2006, including all new seating, paint, deck covering and carpeting, ceilings and wall paneling, lighting, PA system, restrooms, refreshment stand, security cameras, windows, bicycle racks, generator and electrical systems, and modern wheelchair lift. It re-entered service in July 2007.
Golden Gate Ferry purchased two catamarans from Washington State Ferries in January 2009. The M.V. Snohomish was renamed M.V. Napa and entered service in May 2009. The M.V. Chinook was renamed M.V. Golden Gate, underwent refurbishing, and entered service in May 2011. The M.V. Napa underwent refurbishment starting in late 2009.
Golden Gate Ferry connects with the following transit agencies in San Francisco and Marin County:
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teams playing in fifa under 17 world cup 2017 | 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup - wikipedia
The 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup was the 17th FIFA U-17 World Cup, a biennial international football tournament contested by men 's under - 17 national teams. Organized by FIFA, the tournament took place in India between 6 and 28 October 2017, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 5 December 2013. The tournament marked the first time India have hosted a FIFA tournament and the first Asian hosted U-17 World Cup since 2013. The attendance for this World Cup was a record 1,347,133 surpassing China 's 1985 edition where it was 1,230,976.
The matches were played in six stadiums in six host cities around the country, with the final taking place at the Salt Lake Stadium in Kolkata, West Bengal. Twenty - three teams, besides the host India, managed to qualify for the tournament via participating in their various continental under - 17 tournaments. In the first round of the tournament finals, the teams competed in round - robin groups of four for points, where the top two teams in each group along with the top four third placed teams would advance to the next round. These 16 teams will advance to the knockout stage, where three rounds of play will decide which teams would participate in the final.
The reigning FIFA U-17 World Cup champions, Nigeria, did not have the opportunity to defend their title after failing to qualify for this edition. In failing to qualify, Nigeria became the first incumbent title holder since Switzerland in 2009 to fail to qualify for the subsequent edition.
England won the U-17 World Cup for the first time after coming back from a two - goal deficit and beating Spain 5 -- 2 in the final. This meant England became the second nation, after Brazil in 2003, to win both of FIFA 's under - age (U-20 and U-17) World Cup tournaments in the same calendar year. England has also become the third country, after Brazil and North Korea, to win both U-17 and U-20 World Cup in their respective gender tournaments on the same year, as North Korea had also won both U-17 and U-20 Women 's World Cup last year. The Official Match Ball of the Tournament is Adidas Krasava.
The bids for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup had to be submitted by 15 November 2013. On 28 May 2013 it was announced by FIFA that Azerbaijan, India, Republic of Ireland, and Uzbekistan would bid for the hosting rights.
Finally, on 5 December 2013, FIFA announced that India had won the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup hosting rights. goal
As host, India made their first ever appearance at the FIFA U-17 World Cup and their first appearance in the World Cup at any age level. As well as India, New Caledonia and Niger also made their first appearance in the FIFA U-17 World Cup.
The previous U-17 World Cup title holders, Nigeria, failed to qualify for this edition. In failing to qualify, Nigeria became the first nation since Switzerland in 2009 to fail to qualify for the next edition of the FIFA U-17 World Cup after winning the previous edition.
A total of 24 teams qualified for the final tournament. In addition to India, the other 23 teams qualified from six separate continental competitions. Starting from 2017, the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) will receive an additional spot (in total two spots), while UEFA will have five instead of six spots.
The six venues selected for the tournament were given major renovations prior to the FIFA U-17 World Cup. All the stadiums were given new bucket seats, new dressing rooms, new evacuation exits for fans, and new training grounds. Javier Ceppi, the Local Organising Committee director, stated that despite work starting slowly, things eventually became quicker. "It has been a long process in the last two and half years. In India, it takes time to start things but once things start it kind of picks its own pace and in terms of implementation I always say that India is a very good country when it comes to implementation. ''
The official emblem for the tournament was launched on 27 September 2016 at a hotel in Goa during the 2016 AFC U-16 Championship. According to the press release from FIFA the emblem was designed "as a celebration of the country 's richness and diversity of cultures, with the main elements of the Indian Ocean, the banyan tree, the kite and the starburst, which is an interpretation of the Ashoka Chakra, an integral part of the national identity. ''
Sales of tickets for the FIFA U-17 World Cup began on 16 May 2017 during a function in Delhi. Carles Puyol was present during the ticket sales launch as special guest. General ticket sales officially began on 17 May 2017 at 19: 11. The time was selected as a tribute to when Mohun Bagan defeated East Yorkshire Regiment in the IFA Shield in 1911, marking the first time an Indian football club defeated a British side in British India. Tickets for the tournament were sold in four phases: Phase one only sold tickets for categories 1 to 3 at each venue with a 60 % discount while phase two allowed people to buy tickets for all categories, but only if you are a Visa card holder, at a 50 % discount. Phase three allowed anyone to buy tickets with a 25 % discount while phase four had tickets at full price. The attendance for matches breached the million mark in the final match of the Round of 16, which made India only the third nation after China and Mexico to register an attendance of over a million for the event. On 28 October 2017, in the 3rd place match - up between Brazil and Mali, India finally beat the existing record of 1,230,976 set in the 1985 FIFA U-16 World Championship edition in China on October 28, 2017. The final attendance figures were 1,347,133.
Attendance for each game is listed below.
After being awarded the hosting rights for the FIFA U-17 World Cup, eight locations were shortlisted: Bangalore, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Kochi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Pune. On 29 May 2015, Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, and Pune were provisionally selected as host locations. On 27 October 2016, FIFA officially announced Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Kochi, Kolkata, and New Mumbai as the official host cities for the FIFA U-17 World Cup.
The draw for the FIFA U-17 World Cup was held on 7 July 2017 in Mumbai. The draw was attended by former U-17 World Cup champions Nwankwo Kanu (Nigeria) and Esteban Cambiasso (Argentina), as well as India senior international Sunil Chhetri and badminton player P.V. Sindhu.
The 24 teams were drawn into six groups of four teams, with hosts India being allocated to position A1. The rest of the teams were allocated into their respective pots based on a ranking which was built according to past performances during the last five FIFA U-17 World Cups. Importance was given to the most recent U-17 World Cups.
FIFA 's Referees ' Committee selected 21 referees, representing all six confederations, to officiate at the U-17 World Cup: Seven from UEFA, four from CONMEBOL, three each from the AFC, CAF, and CONCACAF, and one from the OFC. No referee from host country India were selected to officiate.
Each team 's squad for the FIFA U-17 World Cup will consist of 21 players. Each participating national association had to confirm their final 21 - player squad by 21 September 2017. A total of 504 players will be participating in the tournament. The squads were announced by FIFA on 26 September 2017.
The top two teams of each group and the four best third - placed teams advance to the round of 16. The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 17.7):
If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:
All times are local, IST (UTC + 5: 30).
Colombia v Ghana
India v United States
Ghana v United States
India v Colombia
Ghana v India
United States v Colombia
New Zealand v Turkey
Paraguay v Mali
Turkey v Mali
Paraguay v New Zealand
Turkey v Paraguay
Mali v New Zealand
Germany v Costa Rica
Iran v Guinea
Costa Rica v Guinea
Iran v Germany
Costa Rica v Iran
Guinea v Germany
Brazil v Spain
North Korea v Niger
Spain v Niger
North Korea v Brazil
Spain v North Korea
Niger v Brazil
New Caledonia v France
Honduras v Japan
France v Japan
Honduras v New Caledonia
France v Honduras
Japan v New Caledonia
Chile v England
Iraq v Mexico
England v Mexico
Iraq v Chile
England v Iraq
Mexico v Chile
The four best teams among those ranked third are determined as follows (regulations Article 17.7):
The specific match - ups involving the third - placed teams depend on which four third - placed teams qualified for the round of 16:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, no extra time shall be played and the winner shall be determined by a penalty shoot - out.
Colombia v Germany
Paraguay v United States
Iran v Mexico
France v Spain
England v Japan
Mali v Iraq
Ghana v Niger
Brazil v Honduras
Mali v Ghana
United States v England
Spain v Iran
Germany v Brazil
Brazil v England
Mali v Spain
Brazil v Mali
England v Spain
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament.
Source: FIFA
FIFA released the media licensing rights for the U-17 World Cup on 21 September 2017. In India, the official broadcaster is Sony TEN and Sony ESPN. In the United States, the tournament is being broadcast on Fox Sports 2 while the United Kingdom has the tournament broadcast on Eurosport.
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what song did kid rock and sheryl crow sing together | Picture (song) - wikipedia
"Picture '' is a duet written by American music artists Kid Rock and Sheryl Crow, released on November 12, 2002 as the fourth single and ninth track from Kid Rock 's 2001 album Cocky. The original recording on the album is performed by Kid Rock and Sheryl Crow. Rock re-recorded the song for the radio with alternative country singer Allison Moorer because Atlantic was initially unable to get the rights from Crow 's label to release the album version as a single. When the Moorer version was released, some radio stations began playing the Crow version instead, leading Billboard to credit the song variously to Kid Rock featuring Sheryl Crow or Allison Moorer. The song was a commercial and critical success and was nominated for Vocal Event of The Year at the 2003 Country Music Association awards.
Kid Rock 's label, Atlantic Records, was unable to obtain permission from Crow 's label, A&M Records, to release the original version as a single. Therefore, Atlantic Records decided to rework the song with country singer Allison Moorer (coincidentally signed to A&M 's sister label Universal South Records) instead. Moorer re-recorded Crow 's vocals for the commercial release.
Even though Atlantic Records was unable to obtain rights to release Crow 's version as a single, mainstream, rock / alternative, and some country radio stations disregarded this and played the original version featuring Crow, while other country music radio stations played the radio edit featuring Allison Moorer instead. Because of this, Billboard credited the song on the charts as Kid Rock featuring Sheryl Crow or Allison Moorer. Each version of the song features a different guitar solo.
The song is performed in the key of G major in common time with a tempo of 98 beats per minute. The verses of the song follow a chord progression of G -- C -- D -- C. The vocals span from G to B.
Being the third Kid Rock single that entered Billboard 's Hot 100 chart, "Picture '' remains his highest - charting single in the United States, peaking at number 4 in April 2003. The song also charted on the Hot Country Songs chart, peaking at number 21. Until 2008 's "All Summer Long '', it also marked his only Top 40 country hit. The song is also Sheryl Crow 's second-most successful single in the United States, after her 1994 hit "All I Wanna Do '' which reached number 2.
On the Hot Country Songs chart, the song was credited only to Kid Rock and Crow for 22 weeks. By then, the single had reached # 33 on the charts. The following week, however, the song began to be credited to Kid Rock featuring Sheryl Crow or Allison Moorer. The song spent a total of 33 weeks on the country chart, reaching # 21 in 2003.
As of September 2017, "Picture '' sold 836,300 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan.
Even though Crow 's label did not release licensing permissions for the original version, Crow was featured in the music video singing instead of Moorer. The video takes place in a studio showing Rock and Crow recording the song, accompanied by clips of the duo hanging out in the winter time. During the guitar solo, Rock is seen wearing a cowboy hat and winter jacket while walking alone in a field covered in snow. The video also features a few uses of the monochrome effect, while most of the video is in color.
Kid Rock performed "Picture '' with LeAnn Rimes on his 2003 Christmas TV special, A Kid Rock Christmas.
A live performance he had of the song with Gretchen Wilson was released as a track on his 2006 album Live Trucker.
He performed the song at a concert with Martina McBride for the 2009 TV special CMA Music Festival: Country 's Night To Rock.
Kid Rock has also sung the song live with female country singers Kellie Pickler, Miranda Lambert and Jessie James.
When the song is performed live, the music pauses while Rock holds out the lyric "I was off to drink you away '', following the lyric "I was headed to church ''.
US CD Single
Fleet Foxes frontman Robin Pecknold covered the song with Joanna Newsom in 2010 when the former opened for the latter.
Rascal Flatts have covered the song with Sheryl Crow on their joint 2014 tour together. Unlike Kid Rock 's concerts, the Rascal Flatts do not hold out "I was off to drink you away ''.
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countries that drive on right side of road | Left - and right - hand traffic - wikipedia
The terms right - hand traffic (RHT) and left - hand traffic (LHT) refer to the practice, in bidirectional traffic situations, to keep to the right side or to the left side of the road, respectively. This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road.
RHT is used in 163 countries and territories, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the world 's area and a quarter of its roads. In 1919, 104 of the world 's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.
Many of the countries with LHT were formerly part of the British Empire. In addition, Japan, Indonesia and other countries have retained the LHT tradition. Conversely, many of the countries with RHT were formerly part of the French colonial empire or, in Europe, were subject to French rule during the Napoleonic conquests.
For rail traffic, LHT predominates in Western Europe (except Spain), Latin America, in countries formerly in the British and French Empires, whereas North American and central and eastern European train services operate RHT.
According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations suggest RHT principles, both in the air and on water.
In healthy populations, traffic safety is thought to be the same regardless of handedness, although some researchers have speculated that LHT may be safer for ageing populations since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant.
Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching. In 1998, archaeologists found a well - preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.
The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.
Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left. In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.
In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters ' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver 's seat, so the (typically right - handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.
In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.
Meanwhile, LHT was introduced by the British in parts of Canada (Atlantic Canada and British Columbia), Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate (now Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), British India, Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, Portuguese Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Portuguese Angola.
The first keep - right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.
In the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, mostly to conform with regional custom. Currently nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory. Most exceptions are due to historical considerations and / or involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong and Macau. The United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar and British Indian Ocean Territory are RHT.
Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right - hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left - hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro - Hungarian Empire. However, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938 - 39.
Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967, despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left - hand drive (LHD) vehicles. A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change, but soon rose back to near its original level. The day was known as Dagen H ("H - Day ''), the ' H ' being for Högertrafik ("right traffic ''). When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H - dagurinn, again meaning "H - Day ''.
In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built - up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.
Nationalist China adopted RHT in 1946. This convention was preserved when the CCP took the mainland and the KMT retreated to Taiwan. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.
Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated and surrendered by the Allies.
Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.
Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009, being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right hand drive (RHD) vehicles -- which are better suited for left hand traffic -- imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People 's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge, and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa 's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05: 50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6: 00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat - belt laws. That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three - day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.
The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.
A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.
Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54 % of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents. In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.
In one study, researchers concluded that left - hand traffic may be safer for elderly drivers, since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant. Comparing accident statistics between countries operating either LHT or RHT, Leeming concluded that LHT is superior. However, Watson has criticised the small sample size and dismisses the notion.
Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 74 countries that have ratified it.
LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.
There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one - way streets with a main road.
The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.
Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year, by rail, between the UK and France.
In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver 's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.
Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car '' and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger. '' By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford 's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.
In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or kerbside. Examples include:
Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle 's offside.
Most low - beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical light suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps in LHT jurisdictions throw most of their light forward - leftward; those for RHT throw most of their light forward - rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs while minimising glare for oncoming traffic.
In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,. This may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some varieties of the projector - type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LHT or RHT beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car 's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LHT to RHT and vice versa.
Because blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, most countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic - handedness.
Without sidecars attached, motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and bicycles are almost symmetric with their handlebars in the centre. However, motorcycles are often equipped with automotive - type asymmetrical - beam headlamps that likewise require adjustments or replacement when brought into a country with opposite traffic - handedness.
In the European Union, vehicles must be equipped with one or two red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle 's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver 's side of the vehicle.
An Australian news source reports that some RHD cars imported to that country perform less well on crash tests than the LHD versions, although the cause is unknown, and may be due to differences in testing methodology.
Of the 193 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.
10 June
3 September
Several states in Europe have RHT for roads but LHT for trains. France has mainly LHT for trains, except in Alsace - Lorraine, an eastern French territory which belonged to Germany for much of its history.
Gibraltar has been RHT (since 1929)
A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia
Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.
Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland
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where is my big fat greek wedding set | My Big Fat Greek Wedding - wikipedia
My Big Fat Greek Wedding is a 2002 romantic comedy film directed by Joel Zwick and written by Nia Vardalos, who also stars in the film as Fotoula "Toula '' Portokalos, a middle class Greek American woman who falls in love with non-Greek upper middle class White Anglo - Saxon Protestant Ian Miller. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and, at the 75th Academy Awards, it was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.
A sleeper hit, the film became the highest - grossing romantic comedy of all time, and grossed $241.4 million in North America, despite never reaching number one at the box office during its release. It was the highest - grossing film to accomplish this feat for 14 years until the animated film Sing grossed $268 million in 2016.
The film spawned a franchise, which inspired the short - lived 2003 TV series My Big Fat Greek Life and a film sequel titled My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2, was released on March 25, 2016.
Being 30 - years - old and single, Fotoula "Toula '' Portokalos is her family 's black sheep. The daughter of staunchly proud Greek immigrants, she was raised to follow her cultural tradition of marriage and motherhood. Her golden - child sister Athena met her family 's expectations by marrying young to another Greek and becoming, in Toula 's words, "a Greek baby - breeding machine ''. Toula still lives with her parents and works at Dancing Zorba 's, her family 's restaurant in Chicago. Toula longs for her own life away from the restaurant and her intrusive family. Frumpy and cynical, she fears her life will never change. One day at the restaurant, Toula notices a handsome young customer -- Ian Miller, a school teacher. She tries to speak to him, only to embarrass herself with her social awkwardness. Ian is bewildered by her behavior, and Toula figures she 's lost her chance to get to know him.
Toula 's idea for independence is taking computer classes at a community college. When Toula approaches her father Gus about the classes, he forbids it, thinking she wants to leave her family. He insists she 's "smart enough for a girl '' and it is too dangerous for her to be out in the city alone. After some crafty persuasion by his wife, Maria, Gus reluctantly permits Toula to attend classes. As her classes progress, Toula gains self - confidence. She trades her thick glasses for contact lenses and her baggy, drab clothes for flattering, colorful outfits. She updates her hairstyle and learns to apply makeup. With her new computer skills and polished image, Toula asks her mother and her Aunt Voula to convince Gus that Toula should work at Voula 's travel agency instead of the restaurant.
Toula thrives in her new job, and one day she sees Ian walking by the travel agency. He notices Toula, not recognizing that she is the same woman who tried to talk to him at Dancing Zorba 's. Despite Toula 's lingering shyness, they introduce themselves and begin dating. When Ian realizes Toula was the woman at the restaurant, Toula is sure Ian will lose interest. Instead, he loves her even more for who she is, and they become a couple.
Because Ian is not Greek, Toula keeps the relationship secret from her family, but her parents find out when a family friend sees them kissing in a parking lot. As she feared, Gus is angry because Ian is not an ethnic Greek -- referring to Ian as a "Xeno '' -- and both Gus and Maria tell Toula to end the relationship. Toula insists she loves Ian. Her parents try to dissuade her by bringing various Greek bachelors home to meet her, all to no avail.
When Ian proposes to Toula, she happily accepts, but Gus is upset that Ian did not ask him for permission to date Toula, let alone marry her. Ian tries to adapt to the family 's Greek customs and mannerisms. Ian and Toula can not marry in the Greek Orthodox Church unless Ian converts, and Toula is already worried the wedding will be a fiasco. She suggests to Ian that they elope instead. He refuses, saying if it 's that important to her family to marry in their religion, then he will be baptized Greek Orthodox. Ian 's willingness to do this encourages Gus and Maria to gradually accept Ian into the family.
As Toula feared, her numerous well - meaning female relatives take over much of the wedding plans, while the men keep testing Ian. Her cousin Nikki selects tacky bridesmaids dresses without Toula 's permission; her brother Nick semi-jokingly threatens Ian that he 'll kill him if he ever hurts Toula. Other cousins trick Ian into saying inappropriate things in Greek. When Toula invites Ian 's quiet, reserved parents to meet her parents at their home, she insists that it be a simple dinner with just the six of them. Toula and Ian arrive to find all of Toula 's extended family at the dinner, where they dance and drink for hours. Ian 's parents are unaware of Greek culture and are shocked by the family 's rambunctiousness.
On the wedding day, Toula is nervous and surrounded by relatives, but the traditional Greek wedding goes perfectly. At the reception, Gus gives a speech accepting Ian and his parents as family. He then presents the newlyweds with a deed to a house. Both Ian and Toula are deeply touched by Gus 's generosity. Following the reception, Toula and Ian leave for a honeymoon in Greece, both appreciating the craziness of their Greek family.
An epilogue shows the couple 's life six years later. Toula got pregnant "a minute later '' after their honeymoon with their daughter Paris. As Ian and Toula are walking Paris from their house to Greek school, Paris asks why she has to go to Greek school. Toula replies that she had to go to Greek school as a child, so Paris will too. But she assures her that when the time comes, she can marry whomever she wants. As they walk, it is revealed that their home is next door to Toula 's parents.
My Big Fat Greek Wedding started as a one - woman play written by and starring Vardalos, performed for six weeks at the Hudson Backstage Theatre in Los Angeles in the summer of 1997. Vardalos later jokingly stated that she only wrote the play "to get a better agent. '' The play was based on Vardalos 's own family in Winnipeg in Canada and on her experience marrying a non-Greek man (actor Ian Gomez). The play was popular, and was sold out for much of its run, in part due to Vardalos 's marketing it across Greek Orthodox churches in the area. A number of Hollywood executives and celebrities saw it, including actress Rita Wilson, who is herself of Greek origin; Wilson convinced her husband, actor Tom Hanks, to see it as well.
Vardalos began meeting various executives about making a film version of the play and began writing a screenplay as well. However, the meetings proved fruitless because the executives insisted on making changes that they felt would make the film more marketable, which Vardalos objected to: these included changing the plot, getting a known actress in the lead role (Marisa Tomei was one name mentioned), and changing the family 's ethnicity to Hispanic. Two months after the play 's initial run ended, Hanks 's production company, Playtone, contacted Vardalos about producing a film based on her vision for it; they also agreed to remount the play in early 1998, this time at LA 's Globe Theatre. Hanks later said that casting Vardalos in the lead role "brings a huge amount of integrity to the piece, because it 's Nia 's version of her own life and her own experience. I think that shows through on the screen and people recognize it. ''
In 2000, while in Toronto doing pre-production for the film, Vardalos and Playtone producer Gary Goetzman overheard actor John Corbett (who was in town shooting the film Serendipity) at a bar, telling a friend of his about having read the script for My Big Fat Greek Wedding, and being upset that he could n't make the auditions. Vardalos and Goetzman approached Corbett and offered him the part of Ian Miller on the spot, which he accepted.
Despite being based on life in the Greek community of Winnipeg, the film was set in Chicago and shot in both Toronto and Chicago. Toronto 's Ryerson University and Greektown neighborhood feature prominently in the film. The home used to depict Gus and Maria Portokalos 's residence (as well as the home bought next door at the end of the film for Toula and Ian) is located on Glenwood Crescent just off O'Connor Drive in East York. The real home representing the Portokalos ' residence actually has most of the external ornamentation that was shown in the film. Also, some minor parts of the movie were shot at Jarvis Collegiate Institute in Toronto.
After a February 2002 premiere, it was initially released in the United States via a limited release on April 19, 2002 before receiving a wider release worldwide over the summer, including a wide release in the United States on August 2.
My Big Fat Greek Wedding became a sleeper hit and grew steadily from its limited release. Despite never hitting the number one spot and being an independent film with a $5 million budget, it ultimately grossed over $368.7 million worldwide, becoming one of the top romantic films of the 21st century according to Echo Bridge Entertainment. It was the fifth highest - grossing film of 2002 in the United States and Canada, with USD $241,438,208, and the highest - grossing romantic comedy in history. Domestically, it also held the record for the highest - grossing film never having been number one on the weekly North American box office charts, until the release of the 2016 animated film, Sing, 14 years later. The film is among the most profitable of all time, with a 6150 % return on a (inflation adjusted) cost of $6 million to produce.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating 76 % based on 121 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Though it sometimes feels like a television sitcom, My Big Fat Greek Wedding is good - hearted, lovable, and delightfully eccentric, with a sharp script and lead performance from Nia Vardalos. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a rating based on reviews, the film has an average score of 62 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In 2012, a 10th anniversary edition of the film was released via DVD and Blu - ray. The edition contains a digital copy of the film and features deleted scenes as well as a 30 - minute retrospective with Vardalos and Corbett.
The cast (with the exception of Vardalos, who had a separate deal), as well as Hanks 's production company, Playtone, later sued the studio for their part of the profits, charging that Gold Circle Films was engaging in so - called "Hollywood accounting '' practices.
The film inspired the brief 2003 TV series My Big Fat Greek Life, with most of the major characters played by the same actors, with the exception of Steven Eckholdt replacing Corbett as the husband. Corbett had already signed on to the TV series Lucky. He was scheduled to appear as the best friend of his replacement 's character, but the show was cancelled before he appeared. The show received poor reviews from critics noting the random character entrances and serious plot "adjustments '' that did not match the film.
The seven episodes from the series are available on DVD from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, whose TV studio division produced the show.
In a 2009 interview for her film My Life in Ruins, asked about a possible sequel for My Big Fat Greek Wedding, Vardalos stated that she had an idea for a sequel and had started writing it, hinting that, like Ruins, the film would be set in Greece.
Asked about a sequel again in a November 2012 interview, she stated:
On May 27, 2014, various news and media outlets reported that a sequel was in the works. Nia Vardalos later confirmed this via Twitter, and she also has written a script for the film. The first trailer for My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 was aired on NBC 's The Today Show on November 11, 2015 and it was released on March 25, 2016, to mixed reviews from critics and modest box office success.
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sound of music where did they escape to | The Sound of Music (film) - wikipedia
The Sound of Music is a 1965 American musical drama film produced and directed by Robert Wise, and starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer, with Richard Haydn and Eleanor Parker. The film is an adaptation of the 1959 Broadway musical of the same name, composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II. The film 's screenplay was written by Ernest Lehman, adapted from the stage musical 's book by Lindsay and Crouse. Based on the memoir The Story of the Trapp Family Singers by Maria von Trapp, the film is about a young Austrian woman studying to become a nun in Salzburg in 1938 who is sent to the villa of a retired naval officer and widower to be governess to his seven children. After bringing and teaching love and music into the lives of the family through kindness and patience, she marries the officer and together with the children they find a way to survive the loss of their homeland through courage and faith.
The film was released on March 2, 1965 in the United States, initially as a limited roadshow theatrical release. Although critical response to the film was widely mixed, the film was a major commercial success, becoming the number one box office movie after four weeks, and the highest - grossing film of 1965. By November 1966, The Sound of Music had become the highest - grossing film of all - time -- surpassing Gone with the Wind -- and held that distinction for five years. The film was just as popular throughout the world, breaking previous box - office records in twenty - nine countries. Following an initial theatrical release that lasted four and a half years, and two successful re-releases, the film sold 283 million admissions worldwide and earned a total worldwide gross of $286,000,000.
The Sound of Music received five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. The film also received two Golden Globe Awards, for Best Motion Picture and Best Actress, the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement, and the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical. In 1998, the American Film Institute (AFI) listed The Sound of Music as the fifty - fifth greatest American movie of all time, and the fourth greatest movie musical. In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Maria is a free - spirited young Austrian woman studying to become a nun at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg in 1938. Her love of music and the mountains, her youthful enthusiasm and imagination, and her lack of discipline cause some concern among the nuns. The Mother Abbess, believing Maria would be happier outside the abbey, sends her to the villa of retired naval officer Captain Georg von Trapp to be governess to his seven children -- Liesl, Friedrich, Louisa, Kurt, Brigitta, Marta, and Gretl. The Captain has been raising his children alone using strict military discipline following the death of his first wife. Although the children misbehave at first, Maria responds with kindness and patience, and soon the children come to trust and respect her.
While the Captain is away in Vienna, Maria makes play clothes for the children and takes them around Salzburg and the surrounding mountains, and she teaches them how to sing. When the Captain returns to the villa with Baroness Elsa Schraeder, a wealthy socialite, and their mutual friend, Max Detweiler, they are greeted by Maria and the children returning from a boat ride on the lake that concludes when their boat overturns. Displeased by his children 's clothes and activities, and Maria 's impassioned appeal that he get closer to his children, the Captain orders her to return to the abbey. Just then he hears singing coming from inside the house and is astonished to see his children singing for the Baroness. Filled with emotion, the Captain joins his children, singing for the first time in years. Afterwards, he apologizes to Maria and asks her to stay.
Impressed by the children 's singing, Max proposes he enter them in the upcoming Salzburg Festival but the suggestion is immediately rejected by the Captain as he does not allow his children to sing in public. He does agree, however, to organize a grand party at the villa. The night of the party, while guests in formal attire waltz in the ballroom, Maria and the children look on from the garden terrace. When the Captain notices Maria teaching Kurt the traditional Ländler folk dance, he cuts in and partners with Maria in a graceful performance, culminating in a close embrace. Confused about her feelings, Maria blushes and breaks away. Later, the Baroness, who noticed the Captain 's attraction to Maria, hides her jealousy while convincing Maria that she must return to the abbey. Back at the abbey, when Mother Abbess learns that Maria has stayed in seclusion to avoid her feelings for the Captain, she encourages her to return to the villa to look for her life. After Maria returns to the villa, she learns about the Captain 's engagement to the Baroness and agrees to stay until they find a replacement governess. The Captain 's feelings for Maria, however, have not changed, and after breaking off his engagement the Captain marries Maria.
While they are on their honeymoon, Max enters the children in the Salzburg Festival against their father 's wishes. When they learn that Austria has been annexed by the Third Reich in the Anschluss, the couple return to their home, where a telegram awaits informing the Captain that he must report to the German Naval base at Bremerhaven to accept a commission in the German Navy. Strongly opposed to the Nazis and the Anschluss, the Captain tells his family they must leave Austria immediately. That night, as the von Trapp family attempt to leave, they are stopped by a group of Brownshirts waiting outside the villa. When questioned by Gauleiter Hans Zeller, the Captain maintains they are headed to the Salzburg Festival to perform. Zeller insists on escorting them to the festival, after which his men will accompany the Captain to Bremerhaven.
Later that night at the festival, during their final number, the von Trapp family slip away and seek shelter at the nearby abbey, where Mother Abbess hides them in the cemetery crypt. Brownshirts soon arrive and search the abbey, but the family is able to escape using the caretaker 's car. When the soldiers attempt to pursue, they discover their cars will not start as two nuns have removed parts of the engines. The next morning, after driving to the Swiss border, the von Trapp family make their way on foot across the frontier into Switzerland to safety and freedom.
The Sound of Music story is based on Maria von Trapp 's memoir, The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949 to help promote her family 's singing group following the death of her husband Georg in 1947. Hollywood producers expressed interest in purchasing the title only, but Maria refused, wanting her entire story to be told. In 1956, German producer Wolfgang Liebeneiner purchased the film rights for $9,000 (equivalent to $79,000 in 2016), hired George Hurdalek and Herbert Reinecker to write the screenplay, and Franz Grothe to supervise the soundtrack, which consisted of traditional Austrian folk songs. The Trapp Family was released in West Germany on October 9, 1956 and became a major success. Two years later, Liebeneiner directed a sequel, The Trapp Family in America, and the two pictures became the most successful films in West Germany during the post-war years. Their popularity extended throughout Europe and South America.
In 1956, Paramount Pictures purchased the United States film rights, intending to produce an English - language version with Audrey Hepburn as Maria. The studio eventually dropped its option, but one of its directors, Vincent J. Donehue, proposed the story as a stage musical for Mary Martin. Producers Richard Halliday and Leland Heyward secured the rights and hired playwrights Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse, who had won the Pulitzer Prize for State of the Union. They approached Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II to compose one song for the musical, but the composers felt the two styles -- traditional Austrian folk songs and their composition -- would not work together. They offered to write a complete new score for the entire production if the producers were willing to wait while they completed work on Flower Drum Song. The producers quickly responded that they would wait as long as necessary. The Sound of Music stage musical opened on November 16, 1959 at the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre in New York City and ran on Broadway for 1,443 performances, winning six Tony Awards, including Best Musical. In June 1960, Twentieth Century Fox purchased the film adaptation rights to the stage musical for $1.25 million (equivalent to $10,100,000 in 2016) against ten percent of the gross.
For the film, Richard Rodgers added two new songs, "I Have Confidence '' and "Something Good '', for which he wrote the lyrics as well as the music (Hammerstein having died in August 1960), while three of the original stage songs were omitted, "How Can Love Survive '', "No Way To Stop It '' and "An Ordinary Couple ''. Arranger and conductor Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage prior to the start of filming, and later adapted instrumental underscore passages based on the songs. Choreographers Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood, who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins, worked out all new choreography sequences that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings. The Sound of Music was filmed from March 26 through September 1, 1964, with external scenes shot on location in Salzburg, Austria, and the surrounding region, and interior scenes filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in California. The movie was photographed in 70 mm Todd - AO by Ted McCord and produced with DeLuxe Color processing and six - track sound recording.
In December 1962, 20th Century Fox president Richard D. Zanuck hired Ernest Lehman to write the screenplay for the film adaptation of the stage musical. Lehman reviewed the original script for the stage musical, rearranged the sequence of songs, and began transforming a work designed for the stage into a film that could use the camera to emphasize action and mood, and open the story up to the beautiful locations of Salzburg and the Austrian Alps. The "Do - Re-Mi '' sequence in the play, for example, was originally a stagnant number; Lehman transformed it into a lively montage showing some of the beautiful sites of Salzburg, as well as showing Maria and the children growing closer over time. Lehman also eliminated two songs, "How Can Love Survive? '' and "No Way to Stop It '', sung by the characters of Elsa and Max. In January 1963, he saw the Fox English - dubbed version of the two German films, was not especially impressed, and decided to use the stage musical and Maria 's memoir for most of his source material. While Lehman was developing the screenplay, he and Zanuck began looking for a director. Their first choice was Robert Wise, with whom Lehman had worked on the film adaptation of West Side Story, but Wise was busy preparing work for another film, The Sand Pebbles. Other directors were approached and turned down the offer, including Stanley Donen, Vincent J. Donehue, George Roy Hill, and Gene Kelly.
In January 1963, Lehman invited one of his favorite directors, William Wyler, to travel to New York City with him to see the Broadway musical. After seeing the show, Wyler said he hated it, but after two weeks of Lehman 's persuasion, Wyler reluctantly agreed to direct and produce the film. After hiring musical supervisor Roger Edens, Wyler, Lehman, and Edens traveled to Salzburg to scout filming locations. In two weeks they managed to see approximately seventy - five locations -- an experience that helped Lehman conceptualize several important sequences. During that trip, Lehman began to have reservations about Wyler 's commitment to the project, and communicated this to Zanuck, who instructed the writer to finalize the first draft of the screenplay as quickly as possible. Lehman completed the first draft on September 10, 1963 and sent it to Wyler, who had no suggestions or changes. At that time, Lehman also secretly gave a copy of the script to the agent of Robert Wise, whom Lehman still wanted as the director. Later that month, Wyler 's agent approached Zanuck asking that production on the film be delayed so Wyler could direct The Collector. Zanuck told him to tell Wyler to make the other film, and that they would move ahead on schedule with another director, ending Wyler 's participation.
Meanwhile, Wise, whose film The Sand Pebbles had been postponed, read Lehman 's first draft, was impressed by what he read, and agreed to direct the film. Wise joined the picture in October 1963, and flew to Salzburg with associate producer Saul Chaplin and members of his production team to scout filming locations, including many that Wyler had identified. When he returned, Wise began working on the script. Wise shared Lehman 's vision of the film being centered on the music, and the changes he made were consistent with the writer 's approach -- mainly reducing the amount of sweetness and sentimentality found in the stage musical. He had reservations about Lehman 's opening aerial sequence because they 'd used a similar opening in West Side Story, but decided to keep it. Other changes included replacing "An Ordinary Couple '' with a more romantic number, and a new song for Maria 's departure from the abbey -- Rodgers provided "Something Good '' and "I Have Confidence '' especially for the film. Lehman completed the second draft on December 20, 1963, but additional changes would be made based on input from Maria von Trapp and Christopher Plummer about the character of the Captain. Plummer especially helped transform a character lacking substance into a stronger, more forceful complex figure with a wry sense of humor and a darker edge. Lehman completed his final draft on March 20, 1964.
Lehman 's first and only choice for Maria was Julie Andrews. When Wise joined the project, he made a list of his choices for the role, which included Andrews as his first choice, Grace Kelly, and Shirley Jones. Wise and Lehman went to Disney Studios to view footage from Mary Poppins, which was not yet released. A few minutes into the film, Wise told Lehman, "Let 's go sign this girl before somebody else sees this film and grabs her! '' Andrews had some reservations -- mainly about the amount of sweetness in the theatrical version -- but when she learned that her concerns were shared by Wise and Lehman and what their vision was, she signed a contract with Fox to star in The Sound of Music and one other film for $225,000 (equivalent to $1,740,000 in 2016). Wise had a more difficult time casting the role of the Captain. A number of actors were considered for the part, including Bing Crosby, Yul Brynner, Sean Connery, and Richard Burton. Wise had seen Christopher Plummer on Broadway and wanted him for the role, but the stage actor turned down the offer several times. Wise flew to London to meet with Plummer and explained his concept of the film; the actor accepted after being assured that he could work with Lehman to improve the character; Plummer later described himself as having become quite arrogant at the time, "spoiled by too many great theater roles ''.
Wise also spent considerable time and effort on casting the secondary characters. For the role of Max Detweiler, Wise initially considered Victor Borge, Noël Coward, and Hal Holbrook among others before deciding on Richard Haydn. For the character of Baroness Elsa Schraeder, Wise looked for a "name '' actress -- Andrews and Plummer were not yet widely known to film audiences -- and decided on Eleanor Parker. The casting of the children characters began in November 1963 and involved over two hundred interviews and auditions throughout the United States and England. Some of the child - actors interviewed or tested, who were not selected, included Mia Farrow, Patty Duke, Lesley Ann Warren, Geraldine Chaplin, Shelley Fabares, Teri Garr, Kurt Russell, and The Osmonds. Most of the actors selected had some acting, singing, or dancing experience. Charmian Carr, however, was a model who worked part - time in a doctor 's office and had no ambition to pursue a career as an actress. After a friend sent her photo to Wise 's office, she was asked to interview. Wise later recalled, "She was so pretty and had such poise and charm that we liked her immediately. '' The last person to be cast was Daniel Truhitte in the role of Rolfe.
Rehearsals for the singing and dance sequences began on February 10, 1964. The husband - and - wife team of Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood, who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins, worked out the choreography with Saul Chaplin on piano -- the arrangements could not be altered under Rodgers and Hammerstein 's contract. The stage choreography was not used because it was too restrictive. Breaux and Wood worked out all new choreography better suited for film that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings. They even choreographed the newly added puppet dance sequence for "The Lonely Goatherd ''. The choreography for the Ländler strictly followed the traditional Austrian folk dance. The musical arranger Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage prior to the start of filming. Kostal used seven children and five adults to record the children 's voices; the only scene where the child - actors actually sing is when they sing "The Sound of Music '' on their own after Maria leaves. The voices of some of the adult actors also had voice doubles, including Peggy Wood and Christopher Plummer.
Principal photography began on March 26, 1964 at 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, where scenes from Maria 's bedroom and the abbey cloister and graveyard were filmed. The company then flew to Salzburg where filming resumed on April 23 at Mondsee Abbey for the wedding scenes. From April 25 through May 22, scenes were filmed at the Felsenreitschule, Nonnberg Abbey, Mirabell Palace Gardens, Residence Fountain, and various street locations throughout the Altstadt (Old Town) area of the city. Wise faced opposition from city leaders who opposed him staging scenes with swastika banners. They relented after he threatened instead to include actual newsreel footage of crowds cheering Hitler during a visit to the town. On days when it rained -- a constant challenge for the company -- Wise arranged for scenes to be shot at St. Margarethen Chapel and Dürer Studios (Reverend Mother 's office). From May 23 to June 7, the company worked at Schloss Leopoldskron and an adjacent property called Bertelsmann for scenes representing the lakeside terrace and gardens of the von Trapp villa. From June 9 to 19, scenes were shot at Frohnburg Palace which represented the front and back façades of the villa. The "Do - Re-Mi '' picnic scene in the mountains was filmed above the town of Werfen in the Salzach River valley on June 25 and 27. The opening sequence of Maria on her mountain was filmed from June 28 to July 2 at Mehlweg mountain near the town of Marktschellenberg in Bavaria. The final scene of the von Trapp family escaping over the mountains was filmed on the Obersalzberg in the Bavarian Alps.
The cast and crew flew back to Los Angeles and resumed filming at Fox studios on July 6 for all remaining scenes, including those in the villa dining room, ballroom, terrace, living room, and gazebo. Following the last two scenes shot in the gazebo -- for the songs "Something Good '' and "You Are Sixteen '' -- principal photography concluded on September 1, 1964. A total of eighty - three scenes were filmed in just over five months. Post-production work began on August 25 with three weeks of dialogue dubbing to correct lines that were ruined by various street noises and rain. In October, Christopher Plummer 's singing voice was dubbed by veteran Disney playback singer Bill Lee. The film was then edited by Wise and film editor William Reynolds. Once the film was edited, Irwin Kostal, who orchestrated the musical numbers, underscored the film with background music consisting of variations on Rodgers and Hammerstein 's original songs to amplify or add nuances to the visual images. When dubbing, editing, and scoring were complete, Wise arranged for two sneak - preview showings -- the first one held in Minneapolis on Friday January 15, 1965 at the Mann Theater, and the second one held the following night in Tulsa. Despite the "sensational '' responses from the preview audiences, Wise made a few final editing changes before completing the film. According to the original print information for the film, the running time for the theatrical release version was 174 minutes. The film was eventually given a G rating by the Motion Picture Association of America.
The Sound of Music was filmed in 70 mm Todd - AO by Ted McCord and produced with DeLuxe Color processing. Aerial footage was photographed with an MCS - 70 camera. The sound was recorded on 70 mm six - track using a Westrex recording system. The sets used for the film were based on the storyboards of sketch artist Maurice Zuberano, who accompanied Wise to Austria to scout filming locations in November 1963. Wise met with the artist over a ten - week period and explained his objective for each scene -- the feeling he wanted to convey and the visual images he wanted to use. When Zuberano was finished, he provided Wise with a complete set of storyboards that illustrated each scene and set -- storyboards the director used as guidance during filming. Zuberano 's storyboards and location photos were also used by art director Boris Leven to design and construct all of the original interior sets at Fox studios, as well as some external sets in Salzburg. The von Trapp villa, for example, was actually filmed in several locations: the front and back façades of the villa were filmed at Frohnburg Palace, the lakeside terrace and gardens were a set constructed on a property adjacent to Schloss Leopoldskron called Bertelsmann, and the interior was a constructed set at Fox studios. The gazebo scenes for "Something Good '' and "Sixteen Going on Seventeen '' were filmed on a larger reconstructed set at Fox studios, while some shots of the original gazebo were filmed on the grounds at Schloss Leopoldskron in Salzburg.
Robert Wise hired Mike Kaplan to direct the publicity campaign for the film. After reading the script, Kaplan decided on the ad line "The Happiest Sound in All the World '', which would appear on promotional material and artwork. Kaplan also brought in outside agencies to work with the studio 's advertising department to develop the promotional artwork, eventually selecting a painting by Howard Terpning of Andrews on an alpine meadow with her carpetbag and guitar case in hand with the children and Plummer in the background. In February 1964, Kaplan began placing ads in the trade papers Daily Variety, Weekly Variety, and The Hollywood Reporter to attract future exhibitor interest in the project. The studio intended the film to have an initial roadshow theatrical release in select large cities in theaters that could accommodate the 70 - mm screenings and six - track stereophonic sound. The roadshow concept involved two showings a day with reserved seating and an intermission similar to Broadway musicals. Kaplan identified forty key cities that would likely be included in the roadshow release and developed a promotional strategy targeting the major newspapers of those cities. During the Salzburg production phase, 20th Century Fox organized press junkets for America journalists to interview Wise and his team and the cast members.
The film had its opening premiere on March 2, 1965 at the Rivoli Theater in New York City. Initial reviews were mixed. Bosley Crowther, in The New York Times, criticized the film 's "romantic nonsense and sentiment '', the children 's "artificial roles '', and Robert Wise 's "cosy - cum - corny '' direction. Judith Crist, in a biting review in the New York Herald Tribune, dismissed the movie as "icky sticky '' and designed for "the five to seven set and their mommies ''. In her review for McCall 's magazine, Pauline Kael called the film "the sugar - coated lie people seem to want to eat '', and that audiences have "turned into emotional and aesthetic imbeciles when we hear ourselves humming the sickly, goody - goody songs ''. Wise later recalled, "The East Coast, intellectual papers and magazines destroyed us, but the local papers and the trades gave us great reviews. '' Indeed, reviewers such as Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times described the film as "three hours of visual and vocal brilliance '', and Daily Variety called it "a warmly - pulsating, captivating drama set to the most imaginative use of the lilting R-H tunes, magnificently mounted and with a brilliant cast ''. The "wildly mixed film reviews '' reflected the critical response to the stage musical, according to The Oxford Companion to the American Musical. After its Los Angeles premiere on March 10, The Sound of Music opened in 131 theaters in the United States, including a limited number of roadshow events. After four weeks, the film became the number one box office movie in the country, and held that position for thirty out of the next forty - three weeks in 1965. The original theatrical release of the film in America lasted four and a half years.
A few months after its United States release, The Sound of Music opened in 261 theaters overseas -- the first American movie to be completely dubbed in a foreign language, both dialogue and music. The German, French, Italian, and Spanish versions were completely dubbed, the Japanese version had Japanese dialogue with English songs, and other versions were released with foreign subtitles. The film was a popular success in every country it opened, except the two countries where the story originated, Austria and Germany. In these countries, the film had to compete with the much - loved Die Trapp - Familie (1956), which provided the original inspiration for the Broadway musical, and its sequel Die Trapp - Familie in Amerika (1958) -- both films still widely popular in German - speaking Europe and considered the authoritative von Trapp story. Austrians took exception to the liberties taken by the filmmakers with regard to the costumes, which did not reflect traditional style, and the replacement of traditional Austrian folk songs with Broadway show tunes. The film 's Nazi theme was especially unpopular in Germany, where the Munich branch manager for 20th Century Fox approved the unauthorized cutting of the entire third act of the film following the wedding sequence -- the scenes showing Salzburg following the Anschluss. Robert Wise and the studio intervened, the original film was restored, and the branch manager was fired. The Sound of Music has never been popular in Austria and Germany.
The Sound of Music is one of the most commercially successful films of all time. Four weeks after its theatrical release, it became the number one box office movie in the United States, from revenue generated by twenty - five theaters, each screening only ten roadshow performances per week. It held the number one position for thirty of the next forty - three weeks, and ended up the highest - grossing film of 1965. One contributing factor in the film 's early commercial success was the repeat business of many filmgoers. In some cities in the United States, the number of tickets sold exceeded the total population. By January 1966, the film had earned $20 million in distributor rentals from just 140 roadshow engagements in the United States and Canada. Overseas, The Sound of Music broke previous box - office records in twenty - nine countries, including the United Kingdom, where the film earned £ 4 million in rentals and grossed £ 6 million -- more than twice as much as any other film had ever taken in. By November 1966, The Sound of Music had become the highest - grossing film of all - time, surpassing Gone with the Wind, which held that distinction for twenty - four years.
In November 1969, The Sound of Music completed its initial four - and - a-half year theatrical release run in the United States, having earned $68,313,000 in North American (United States and Canada) rentals and $44,168,000 in foreign rentals, for a worldwide total of $112,481,000 in gross returns. It was the first film to gross over $100 million. The film was re-released in 1973, and increased its North American rentals to $78.4 million. By the end of the 1970s, it was ranked seventh in all time North American rentals, having earned $79 million. The film 's re-release in 1990 increased the total North American admissions to 142,415,400 -- the third highest number of tickets sold behind Gone with the Wind and Star Wars -- and about 283.3 million admissions worldwide. The Sound of Music eventually earned a total domestic gross of $163,214,076, and a total worldwide gross of $286,214,076. Adjusted for inflation, the film earned about $2.366 billion at 2014 prices -- the fifth highest - grossing film of all time.
The Sound of Music film, like the stage musical, presents a history of the von Trapp family that is not completely accurate. The filmmakers used artistic license to convey the essence and meaning of their story. Georg Ludwig von Trapp was indeed an anti-Nazi opposed to the Anschluss, and lived with his family in a villa in a district of Salzburg called Aigen. Their lifestyle depicted in the film, however, greatly exaggerated their standard of living. The actual family villa, located at Traunstraße 34, Aigen 5026, was large and comfortable but not nearly as grand as the mansion depicted in the film. The house was also not their ancestral home, as depicted in the film. The family had previously lived in homes in Zell Am See and Klosterneuburg after being forced to abandon their actual ancestral home in Pola following World War I. Georg moved the family to the Salzburg villa shortly after the death of his first wife in 1922. In the film, Georg is referred to as "Baron '', but his actual family title was "Ritter '' (German for "knight ''), a hereditary knighthood the equivalent of which in the United Kingdom is a baronetcy. Austrian nobility, moreover, was legally abolished in 1919 and the nobiliary particle von was proscribed after World War I, so he was legally "Georg Trapp ''. Both the title and the prepositional nobiliary particle von, however, continued to be widely used unofficially as a matter of courtesy.
Georg was offered a position in the Kriegsmarine, but this occurred before the Anschluss. He was heavily recruited by the Nazis because he had extensive experience with submarines, and Germany was looking to expand its fleet of U-boats. With his family in desperate financial straits, and having no other marketable skills other than his training as a naval officer, he seriously considered the offer before deciding he could not serve a Nazi regime. Rather than threaten arrest, the Nazis actually continued to woo him. In the film, Georg is depicted initially as a humorless, emotionally distant father. In reality, third child Maria von Trapp (called "Louisa '' in the film) described her father as a doting parent who made handmade gifts for the children in his woodshop and who would often lead family musicales on his violin. She has a different recollection of her stepmother, whom she described as moody and prone to outbursts of rage. In a 2003 interview, Maria remembered, "(She) had a terrible temper... and from one moment to the next, you did n't know what hit her. We were not used to this. But we took it like a thunderstorm that would pass, because the next minute she could be very nice. ''
Maria Augusta Kutschera had indeed been a novice at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg and had been hired by the von Trapp family. However, she was hired only to be a tutor to young Maria Franziska ("Louisa '' in the movie), who had come down with scarlet fever and needed her lessons at home, not to be a governess for all of the children. Maria and Georg married for practical reasons, rather than love and affection for each other. Georg needed a mother for his children, and Maria needed the security of a husband and family once she decided to leave the abbey. "I really and truly was not in love, '' Maria wrote in her memoir, "I liked him but did n't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. '' They were married in 1927, not in 1938 as depicted in the film, and the couple had been married for over a decade by the time of the Anschluss and had two of their three children together by that time. Maria later acknowledged that she grew to love Georg over time and enjoyed a happy marriage.
The von Trapp family lost most of its wealth during the worldwide depression of the early 1930s, when the Austrian national bank folded. In order to survive, the family dismissed the servants and began taking in boarders. They also started singing onstage to earn money -- a fact that caused the proud Georg much embarrassment. In the film, the von Trapp family hike over the Alps from Austria to Switzerland to escape the Nazis, which would not have been possible; Salzburg is over two hundred miles from Switzerland. The von Trapp villa, however, was only a few kilometers from the Austria -- Germany border, and the final scene shows the family hiking on the Obersalzberg near the German town of Berchtesgaden, within sight of Adolf Hitler 's Kehlsteinhaus Eagle 's Nest retreat. In reality, the family simply walked to the local train station and boarded a train to Italy. Although Georg was an ethnic German - Austrian, he was also an Italian citizen, having been born in the Dalmatian city of Zadar, which at that time was part of the Austro - Hungarian Empire, and later fell into Italian territory after World War I. From Italy, they traveled to London and ultimately the United States.
The character Max Detweiler, the scheming family music director, is fictional. The von Trapps ' family priest, the Reverend Franz Wasner, was their musical director for over twenty years and accompanied them when they left Austria. The character of Friedrich (the second oldest child in the film version) was based on Rupert, the oldest of the real von Trapp children. Liesl (the oldest child in the film) was based on Agathe von Trapp, the second oldest in the real family. The names and ages of the children were changed, in part because the third child (who would be portrayed as "Louisa '') was also named Maria, and producers thought that it would be confusing to have two characters called Maria in the film. The von Trapp family had no control over how they were depicted in the film and stage musical, having given up the rights to their story to a German producer in the 1950s who then sold the rights to American producers. Robert Wise met with Maria von Trapp and made it clear, according to a memo to Richard Zanuck, that he was not making a "documentary or realistic movie '' about her family, and that he would make the film with "complete dramatic freedom '' in order to produce a "fine and moving film '' -- one they could all be proud of.
The soundtrack to The Sound of Music was written by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, and arranged and conducted by Irwin Kostal, who also adapted the instrumental underscore passages. The soundtrack album was released on the RCA Victor label in 1965, and reached the number one position on the Billboard 200 that year in the United States. It remained in the top ten from May 1, 1965 to July 16, 1966. The album has been reissued several times, including a 30th Anniversary Edition in 1995, a 35th Anniversary Edition in 2000, a 40th Anniversary Edition in 2005, and a 45th Anniversary Edition, which reached the number one position on the Billboard 200 in 2010 and again in 2013. A 50th Anniversary Edition was released in 2015, which reached the number five position on the Top Soundtracks chart. The Sound of Music soundtrack album was the biggest - selling album in the United Kingdom in 1965, 1966, and 1968 and the second biggest - selling of the entire decade, spending a total of 70 weeks at number one on the UK Album Charts. The Sound of Music also stayed 73 weeks on the Norwegian charts, becoming the seventh best - charting album of all time in that country.
The Sound of Music has been included in numerous top film lists from the American Film Institute.
In 1966, American Express created the first Sound of Music guided tour in Salzburg. Since 1972, Panorama Tours has been the leading Sound of Music bus tour company in the city, taking approximately 50,000 tourists a year to various film locations in Salzburg and the surrounding region. Sing - a-long Sound of Music revival screenings began in London in 1999, leading to a successful run at the Prince Charles Cinema which is ongoing as of 2016. During the screenings, audience members are often dressed as nuns and von Trapp children and are encouraged to sing along to lyrics superimposed on the screen. In July 2000, Sing - a-long Sound of Music shows opened in Boston and Austin, Texas. Some audience members dressed up as cast members and interacted with the action shown on the screen. The film began a successful run at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City in September 2000, with the opening attended by cast members Charmian Carr (Liesl), Daniel Truhitte (Rolfe), and Kym Karath (Gretl). Sing - a-long Sound of Music screenings have since become an international phenomenon.
In 2001, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. The Academy Film Archive preserved The Sound of Music in 2003.
The first American television transmission of The Sound of Music was on February 29, 1976 on ABC, which paid $15 million for a one - time only broadcast that became one of the top - rated films ever shown on television to that point. The movie was not shown again until NBC acquired the broadcast rights and telecast the film on February 11, 1979. NBC continued to air the film annually for twenty years. During most of its run on NBC, the film was heavily edited to fit a three - hour time slot -- approximately 140 minutes without commercials. The thirty minutes edited out of the original film included portions of the "Morning Hymn and Alleluia '' sung by the nuns, part of the dialogue between Mother Abbess and Maria in the abbey, part of Liesl and Rolfe 's dialogue preceding "Sixteen Going on Seventeen '', Liesl 's verse of "Edelweiss '' sung with the Captain, the Captain and Baroness waltzing at the party, and minor dialogue cuts within existing scenes.
The film aired in its uncut form (minus the entr'acte) on April 9, 1995, on NBC. Julie Andrews hosted the four - hour telecast which presented the musical numbers in a letterbox format. As the film 's home video availability cut into its television ratings, NBC let their contract lapse in 2001. That year, the film was broadcast one time on the Fox network, in its heavily edited 140 - minute version. Since 2002, the film has aired on ABC, generally during Christmas week, and has been broadcast on its sister cable network, ABC Family, periodically around Easter and other holidays. Most of its more recent runs have been the full version in a four - hour time slot, complete with the entr'acte. ABC first broadcast a high definition version on December 28, 2008. On December 22, 2013, the annual broadcast had its highest ratings since 2007; the increase in ratings were credited to NBC 's broadcast of The Sound of Music Live! -- a live television adaptation of the original musical which aired earlier that month.
In the United Kingdom, the film was first screened by the BBC on 25 December 1978 and, as of December 2016, fifteen times since, mostly around Christmas time. As the BBC is not funded by advertising there was no need to cut scenes to fit within a timeslot and the film was screened in the full 174 - minute version without breaks.
The film has been released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD numerous times. The first DVD version was released on August 29, 2000 to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the film 's release. The film is often included in box sets with other Rodgers & Hammerstein film adaptations. A 40th anniversary DVD, with "making of '' documentaries and special features, was released on November 15, 2005. The film made its debut issue on Blu - ray Disc on November 2, 2010, for its 45th anniversary. For the Blu - ray release, the original 70 mm negatives were rescanned at 8K resolution, then restored and remastered at 4K resolution for the transfer to Blu - ray, giving the most detailed copy of the film seen thus far. On March 10, 2015, Fox Home Entertainment released The Sound of Music 50th Anniversary Ultimate Collector 's Edition -- a five - disc set featuring thirteen hours of bonus features, including a new documentary, The Sound of a City: Julie Andrews Returns to Salzburg. A March 2015 episode of ABC 's 20 / 20 entitled The Untold Story of the Sound of Music featured a preview of the documentary and interviews by Diane Sawyer.
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what are the big orcs in lord of the rings | Uruk - hai - wikipedia
The Uruk - hai are fictional characters in J.R.R. Tolkien 's fictional universe of Middle - earth. They are introduced in The Lord of the Rings as an advanced breed of orcs that serve Sauron and Saruman. The first uruks appeared out of Mordor in attacks on Gondor in T.A. 2475.
The name "Uruk - hai '' has the element Uruk, which is a Black Speech word related to Orc, related to the word "Urko '' in Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya. The element hai means "folk '', so "Uruk - hai '' is "Orc - folk ''. A similar term is "Olog - hai '' ("troll - folk ''), used for a breed of especially strong and vicious trolls capable of surviving sunlight.
Christopher Tolkien describes "Uruks '' as an anglicization of "Uruk - hai '' and his father used the two terms interchangeably a number of times. While "Uruk - hai '' means simply "Orc - folk '', the term was reserved for the soldier orcs of Mordor and Isengard. The larger orcs called the smaller breeds snaga ("slave '').
The Uruk - hai, described as large black orcs of great strength, first appeared from Mordor about the year 2475 of the Third Age, when they briefly took Ithilien and the city of Osgiliath. These original Uruks were of Sauron 's breeding, but Saruman bred his own, which could endure sunlight. Due to their superior size and strength, the Uruk often looked down upon and bullied other breeds of orc.
In The Two Towers, Aragorn observes that the fallen Uruk - hai at Amon Hen had different gear than he had seen before: swords and bows like those of men, and shields and helmets set with the white hand and S - rune of Saruman. Treebeard speculates that Saruman had crossbred Orcs and Men. These orcs, who named themselves "the fighting Uruk - hai '', made up a large part of Saruman 's army, together with the Dunlendings and other human enemies of Rohan. They were faster, stronger, and larger than normal orcs, and could travel during the day without being weakened, although they still did not like it. Saruman fed them with human flesh. Saruman 's Uruk - hai fought against the Rohirrim at the Battles of the Fords of Isen, at the first of which King Théoden 's son Théodred was killed, and at the Battle of the Hornburg, where the vast majority of the Uruks were defeated and destroyed.
The chapter "The Uruk - hai '' details some differences among the orcs. The raiding party included orcs from Mordor led by Grishnákh, Saruman 's "fighting Uruk - hai '' from Isengard led by Uglúk, and "northerners '', orcs from Moria. It was the dead Uruks from Isengard whom Aragorn found remarkable. The Uruk - hai of Isengard were the tallest of these orcs, and had large hands and thick legs. The orcs of Mordor were all long - armed and crook - legged, not as tall as the Isengarders but larger and more powerful than the orcs from Moria. The orcs of Moria in turn could see better in the dark than the Isengarders. Grishnákh from Mordor is described as "short '' but "very broad ''. In The Return of the King the orcs Shagrat and Gorbag are identified as Uruks of Mordor.
The Lord of the Rings describes several differences in the equipment and heraldry of Uruks and other orcs. Uruks and other orcs in the service of Barad - dûr used the symbol of the red Eye of Sauron. The orcs of Mordor referred to Sauron as the Great Eye, and the Red Eye was painted on their shields. In contrast, Aragorn comments that the Uruk - hai of Saruman were not equipped in the manner of other orcs at all: instead of curved scimitars, they used short broad - bladed swords; and they wore iron helms marked with the Elf - rune which had the value of "S ''. It was clear the "S '' stood for Saruman, considering Sauron 's general desire not to have his name written or spoken. Saruman 's Uruks used black shields emblazoned with a white hand, a symbol of Saruman.
The book speculates that Saruman commands various hybrids of Orcs and Men, including in the Shire. Some of these, called "half - orcs '' in The Two Towers, were sallow - skinned, squint - eyed, and as tall as men. Merry describes them as "horrible: man - high, but with goblin - faces ''. An account of the first Battle of the Fords of Isen in Unfinished Tales clearly treats Uruk - hai and "orc - men '' separately.
In Morgoth 's Ring, Tolkien states that Saruman did interbreed orcs and men, resulting in "Man - orcs large and cunning, and Orc - men treacherous and vile. '' However, the relationship of the Uruk - hai, as well as half - orcs and "goblin - men '', to these creatures is not made explicit.
In Ralph Bakshi 's animated The Lord of the Rings, differences between Orc kinds are not noted, though there are recurring physical and costume variations.
In Peter Jackson 's film trilogy, Saruman 's Uruk - hai are bred from pits beneath Isengard and when the time is "right '' they are dug up by lesser orcs working for Saruman, who are occasionally killed by the newborn Uruks. Jackson 's depiction of the Uruks being spawned from the mud came from Tolkien 's old description of orcs being "bred from the heats and slimes of the earth. '' It is said they were a result of cross-breeding orcs and "Goblin - men '', instead of Orcs and Men. In Tolkien 's writings "Goblin '' is just another term for orc.
The film versions of the Uruk - hai tend to be tall, broad, burly and with long black hair. They usually wield hooked broadswords and pikes. The first of them is Lurtz, an original character, who is the first of Saruman 's Uruk - hai to be bred and leads the raiding party that ambush the Fellowship of the Ring at Amon Hen, where Lurtz himself fatally wounds Boromir before being slain in turn by Aragorn. The Uruks are also shown to use crossbows at Helm 's Deep, though Tolkien does not mention the weapon in the book. Berserker Uruks were also used during the siege of Helm 's Deep, both to clear the ramparts of defenders and to detonate explosive mines to breach the deeping wall. These Uruks were very tall, wore no armour and were prepared for battle (and most likely death) by donning helmets filled with the blood of their enemy.
Sauron is shown to have bred his own Uruk - hai, known as Black Uruks. They can be seen when Frodo is captured by the orcs of Cirith Ungol and his mithril shirt leads to a confrontation between Shagrat, a Black Uruk of Mordor, and an orc from Minas Morgul called Gorbag. Gorbag threatens to stab Shagrat if he tries to steal the shirt, but he tosses it aside and throws Gorbag down a long flight of stairs, where he falls on top of several other Uruk - hai. A huge brawl between orcs and Uruk - hai spreads all over the fortress, allowing Sam to enter the tower with ease.
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this question is based on the st. louis arch video. what is the nickname given to the st. louis arch | Gateway arch - wikipedia
The Gateway Arch is a 630 - foot (192 m) monument in St. Louis, Missouri, United States. Clad in stainless steel and built in the form of a weighted catenary arch, it is the world 's tallest arch, the tallest man - made monument in the Western Hemisphere, and Missouri 's tallest accessible building. Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States, and officially dedicated to "the American people, '' it is the centerpiece of the Gateway Arch National Park and has become an internationally recognized symbol of St. Louis, as well as a popular tourist destination.
The Arch was designed by Finnish - American architect Eero Saarinen in 1947; construction began on February 12, 1963, and was completed on October 28, 1965, for $13 million (equivalent to $77.5 million in 2018). The monument opened to the public on June 10, 1967. It is located at the site of St. Louis 's founding on the west bank of the Mississippi River.
Around late 1933, civic leader Luther Ely Smith, returning to St. Louis from the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park in Vincennes, Indiana, saw the St. Louis riverfront area and envisioned that building a memorial there would both revive the riverfront and stimulate the economy He communicated his idea to mayor Bernard Dickmann, who on December 15, 1933, raised it in a meeting with city leaders. They sanctioned the proposal, and the nonprofit Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Association (JNEMA -- pronounced "Jenny May '') was formed. Smith was appointed chairman and Dickmann vice chairman. The association 's goal was to create:
A suitable and permanent public memorial to the men who made possible the western territorial expansion of the United States, particularly President Jefferson, his aides Livingston and Monroe, the great explorers, Lewis and Clark, and the hardy hunters, trappers, frontiersmen and pioneers who contributed to the territorial expansion and development of these United States, and thereby to bring before the public of this and future generations the history of our development and induce familiarity with the patriotic accomplishments of these great builders of our country.
Many locals did not approve of depleting public funds for the cause. Smith 's daughter SaLees related that when "people would tell him we needed more practical things '', he would respond that "spiritual things '' were equally important.
The association expected that $30 million would be needed to undertake the construction of such a monument. It called upon the federal government to foot three - quarters of the bill ($22.5 million).
The suggestion to renew the riverfront was not original, as previous projects were attempted but lacked popularity. The Jefferson memorial idea emerged amid the economic disarray of the Great Depression and promised new jobs. The project was expected to create 5,000 jobs for three to four years. Committee members began to raise public awareness by organizing fundraisers and writing pamphlets. They also engaged Congress by planning budgets and preparing bills, in addition to researching ownership of the land they had chosen, "approximately one - half mile in length... from Third Street east to the present elevated railroad. '' In January 1934, Senator Bennett Champ Clark and Representative John Cochran introduced to Congress an appropriation bill seeking $30 million for the memorial, but the bill failed to garner support due to the large amount of money solicited. In March of the same year, joint resolutions proposed the establishment of a federal commission to develop the memorial. Although the proposal aimed for only authorization, the bill incurred opposition because people suspected that JNEMA would later seek appropriation. On March 28 the Senate bill was reported out, and on April 5 it was turned over to the House Library Committee, which later reported favorably on the bills. On June 8, both the Senate and House bills were passed. On June 15, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill into law, instituting the United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission. The commission comprised 15 members, chosen by Roosevelt, the House, the Senate, and JNEMA. It first convened on December 19 in St. Louis, where members examined the project and its planned location.
Meanwhile, in December, the JNEMA discussed organizing an architectural competition to determine the design of the monument. Local architect Louis LeBeaume had drawn up competition guidelines by January 1935. On April 13, 1935, the commission certified JNEMA 's project proposals, including memorial perimeters, the "historical significance '' of the memorial, the competition, and the $30 million budget. Between February and April, the Missouri State Legislature passed an act allowing the use of bonds to facilitate the project. On April 15, then Governor Guy B. Park signed it into law. Dickmann and Smith applied for funding from two New Deal agencies -- the Public Works Administration (headed by Harold Ickes) and the Works Progress Administration (headed by Harry Hopkins). On August 7, both Ickes and Hopkins assented to the funding requests, each promising $10 million, and said that the National Park Service (NPS) would manage the memorial. A local bond issue election granting $7.5 million for the memorial 's development was held on September 10 and passed.
On December 21, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 7253 to approve the memorial, allocating the 82 - acre area as the first National Historic Site. The order also appropriated $3.3 million through the WPA and $3.45 million through the PWA ($6,750,000 in total). The motivation of the project was two-fold -- commemorating westward expansion and creating jobs. Some taxpayers began to file suits to block the construction of the monument, which they called a "boondoggle ''.
Using the 1935 grant of $6.75 million and $2.25 million in city bonds, the NPS acquired the buildings within the historic site -- through condemnation rather than purchase -- and demolished them. By September 1938, condemnation was complete. The condemnation was subject to many legal disputes which culminated on January 27, 1939, when the United States Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that condemnation was valid. A total of $6.2 million was distributed to land owners on June 14. Demolition commenced on October 9, 1939, when Dickmann extracted three bricks from a vacant warehouse.
Led by Paul Peters, adversaries of the memorial delivered to Congress a leaflet titled "Public Necessity or Just Plain Pork ''. The JNEMA 's lawyer, Bon Geaslin, believed that the flyers did not taint the project, but motivated members of Congress to find out more about the same. Although Representative John Cochran wanted to ask Congress to approve more funds, Geaslin believed the association should "keep a low profile, maintaining its current position during this session of Congress ''. He advised the association to "get a good strong editorial in one of the papers to the effect that a small group of tenants... is soliciting funds (to fight) the proposed improvement, and stating that these efforts do not represent the consensus of opinion in St. Louis..., and pointing out that such obstructions should be condemned ''.
Congress 's reduction in spending made it impossible for the allocated funds to be obtained. NPS responded that the city would reduce its contribution if the federal government did. It also asserted that the funds were sanctioned by an executive order, but superintendent John Nagle pointed out that what "one Executive Order does, another can undo ''. In March 1936, Representative Cochran commented during a House meeting that he "would not vote for any measure providing for building the memorial or allotting funds to it ''. Geaslin found Cochran 's statements to be a greater hindrance to the project than Paul Peters ' opposition, for Congress might have Cochran 's opinions as representative of public opinion.
Peters and other opponents asked Roosevelt to rescind Executive Order 7253 and to redirect the money to the American Red Cross. Smith impugned their motives, accusing them of being "opposed to anything that is ever advanced in behalf of the city. '' In February 1936, an editorial written by Paul W. Ward in The Nation denounced the project. Smith was infuriated, fearing the impact of attacks from a prestigious magazine, and wanted "to jump on it strong with hammer and tongs ''. William Allen White, a renowned newspaper editor, advised Smith not to fret.
Because the Mississippi River played an essential role in establishing St. Louis 's identity as the gateway to the west, a memorial commemorating it should be near the river. Railroad tracks that had been constructed in the 1930s on the levee obstructed views of the riverfront from the memorial site. When Ickes declared that the railway must be removed before he would allocate funds for the memorial, President of the St. Louis Board of Public Service Baxter Brown suggested that "a new tunnel... conceal the relocated tracks and re-grading of the site to elevate it over the tunnel. These modifications would eliminate the elevated and surface tracks and open up the views to the river. '' Although rejected by NPS architect Charles Peterson, Brown 's proposal formed the basis for the ultimate settlement.
-- Eero Saarinen: Shaping the Future, 2006
In November 1944, Smith discussed with Newton Drury, the National Park Service Director, the design of the memorial, asserting that the memorial should be "transcending in spiritual and aesthetic values '', best represented by "one central feature: a single shaft, a building, an arch, or something else that would symbolize American culture and civilization. ''
The idea of an architectural competition to determine the design of the memorial was favored at the JNEMA 's inaugural meeting. They planned to award cash for the best design. In January 1945, the JNEMA officially announced a two - stage design competition that would cost $225,000 to organize. Smith and the JNEMA struggled to raise the funds, garnering only a third of the required total by June 1945. Then mayor Aloys Kaufmann feared that the lack of public support would lead officials to abandon hope in the project. The passage of a year brought little success, and Smith frantically underwrote the remaining $40,000 in May 1946. By June, Smith found others to assume portions of his underwriting, with $17,000 remaining under his sponsorship. In February 1947, the underwriters were compensated, and the fund stood over $231,199.
Local architect Louis LaBeaume prepared a set of specifications for the design, and architect George Howe was chosen to coordinate the competition. On May 30, 1947, the contest officially opened. The seven - member jury that would judge the designs comprised Charles Nagel Jr., Richard Neutra, Roland Wank, William Wurster, LaBeaume, Fiske Kimball, and S. Herbert Hare. The competition comprised two stages -- the first to narrow down the designers to five and the second to single out one architect and his design. The design intended to include:
(a) an architectural memorial or memorials to Jefferson; dealing (b) with preservation of the site of Old St. Louis -- landscaping, provision of an open - air campfire theater, reerection or reproduction of a few typical old buildings, provision of a Museum interpreting the Westward movement; (c) a living memorial to Jefferson 's ' vision of greater opportunities for men of all races and creeds; ' (d) recreational facilities, both sides of the river; and (e) parking facilities, access, relocation of railroads, placement of an interstate highway.
Saarinen 's team included himself as designer, J. Henderson Barr as associate designer, and Dan Kiley as landscape architect, as well as Lily Swann Saarinen as sculptor and Alexander Girard as painter. In the first stage of the competition, Carl Milles advised Saarinen to change the bases of each leg to triangles instead of squares. Saarinen said that he "worked at first with mathematical shapes, but finally adjusted it according to the eye. '' At submission, Saarinen 's plans laid out the arch at 569 feet (173 m) tall and 592 feet (180 m) wide from center to center of the triangle bases.
On September 1, 1947, submissions for the first stage were received by the jury. The submissions were labeled by numbers only, and the names of the designers were kept anonymous. Upon four days of deliberation, the jury narrowed down the 172 submissions, which included Saarinen 's father Eliel, to five finalists, and announced the corresponding numbers to the media on September 27. Saarinen 's design (# 144) was among the finalists, and comments written on it included "relevant, beautiful, perhaps inspired would be the right word '' (Roland Wank) and "an abstract form peculiarly happy in its symbolism '' (Charles Nagel). Hare questioned the feasibility of the design but appreciated the thoughtfulness behind it. Local St. Louis architect Harris Armstrong was also one of the finalists. The secretary who sent out the telegrams informing finalists of their advancement mistakenly sent one to Eliel rather than Eero. The family celebrated with champagne, and two hours later, a competition representative called to correct the mistake. Eliel "' broke out a second bottle of champagne ' to toast his son. ''
They proceeded to the second stage, and each was given a $10,069 prize. Saarinen changed the height of the arch from 580 feet to 630 feet (190 m) and wrote that the arch symbolized "the gateway to the West, the national expansion, and whatnot. '' He wanted the landscape surrounding the arch to "be so densely covered with trees that it will be a forest - like park, a green retreat from the tension of the downtown city, '' according to The New York Times architectural critic Aline Bernstein Louchheim The deadline for the second stage arrived on February 10, 1948, and on February 18, the jury chose Saarinen 's design unanimously, praising its "profoundly evocative and truly monumental expression. '' The following day, during a formal dinner at Statler Hotel that the finalists and the media attended, Wurster pronounced Saarinen the winner of the competition and awarded the checks -- $40,000 to his team and $50,000 to Saarinen. The competition was the first major architectural design that Saarinen developed unaided by his father.
On May 25, the United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission endorsed the design. Later, in June, the NPS approved the proposal. Representative H.R. Gross, however, opposed the allocation of federal funds for the arch 's development.
The design drew varied responses. In a February 29, 1969, The New York Times article, Louchheim praised the arch 's design as "a modern monument, fitting, beautiful and impressive. '' Some local residents likened it to a "stupendous hairpin and a stainless steel hitching post. '' The most aggressive criticism emerged from Gilmore D. Clarke, whose February 26, 1948, letter compared Saarinen 's arch to an arch imagined by fascist Benito Mussolini, rendering the arch a fascist symbol. This allegation of plagiarism ignited fierce debates among architects about its validity. Douglas Haskell from New York wrote that "The use of a common form is not plagiarism... (T) his particular accusation amounts to the filthiest smear that has been attempted by a man highly placed in the architectural profession in our generation. '' Wurster and the jury refuted the charges, arguing that "the arch form was not inherently fascist but was indeed part of the entire history of architecture. '' Saarinen considered the opposition absurd, asserting, "It 's just preposterous to think that a basic form, based on a completely natural figure, should have any ideological connection. ''
By January 1951, Saarinen created 21 "drawings, including profiles of the Arch, scale drawings of the museums and restaurants, various parking proposals, the effect of the levee - tunnel railroad plan on the Arch footings, the Arch foundations, the Third Street Expressway, and the internal and external structure of the Arch. '' Fred Severud made calculations for the arch 's structure.
Several proposals were offered for moving the railroad tracks, including:
On July 7, 1949, in Mayor Joseph Darst 's office, city officials chose the Levee - Tunnel plan, rousing JNEMA members who held that the decision had been pressed through when Smith was away on vacation. Darst notified Secretary of the Interior Julius Krug of the city 's selection. Krug planned to meet with Smith and JNEM but canceled the meeting and resigned on November 11. His successor, Oscar L. Chapman, rescheduled the meeting for December 5 in Washington with delegates from the city government, JNEM, railroad officials, and Federal government. A day after the conference, they ratified a memorandum of understanding about the plan: "The five tracks on the levee would be replaced by three tracks, one owned by the Missouri Pacific Railroad (MPR) and two by the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis (TRRA) proceeding through a tunnel not longer than 3,000 feet. The tunnel would be approximately fifty feet west of the current elevated line. '' It would also have an overhead clearance of 18 feet (5.5 m), lower than the regular requirement of 22 feet (6.7 m). Chapman approved the document on December 22, 1949, and JNEM garnered the approval of the Missouri Public Service Commission on August 7, 1952.
Efforts to appropriate congressional funds began in January 1950 but were delayed until 1953 by the Korean War 's depletion of federal funds.
In August 1953, Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton declared that the Department of the Interior and the railroads should finalize the agreement on the new route. In October, NPS and the TRRA decided that the TRRA would employ a surveyor endorsed by Spotts "to survey, design, estimate, and report on '' the expenses of shifting the tracks. They chose Alfred Benesch and Associates, which released its final report on May 3, 1957. The firm estimated that the two proposals would cost more than expected: more than $11 million and $14 million, respectively. NPS director Conrad Wirth enjoined Saarinen to make small modifications to the design. In October, Saarinen redrafted the plans, suggesting:
(the placement of) the five sets of railroad tracks into a shortened tunnel 100 feet west of the trestle, with the tracks being lowered sixteen feet. This did not mean that the memorial would be cut off from the river, however, for Saarinen provided a 960 - foot - long (290 m) tunnel to be placed over the railroad where a "grand staircase '' rose from the levee to the Arch. At the north and south ends of the park, 150 - foot tunnels spanned the tracks, and led to the overlook museum, restaurant, and stairways down to the levee. Saarinen designed a subterranean visitor center the length of the distance between the legs, to include two theaters and an entrance by inward - sloping ramps.
On November 29, involved interests signed another memorandum of understanding approving Saarinen 's rework; implementing it would cost about $5.053 million. On March 10, 1959, mayor Raymond Tucker proposed that they drop "the tunnel idea in favor of open cuts roofed with concrete slabs, '' which would cost $2.684 million, $1.5 million less than the cost of the approved plan. On May 12, 1958, Tucker, TRRA president Armstrong Chinn, and Missouri Pacific Railroad president Russell Dearmont entered a written agreement: "The TRRA would place $500,000 in escrow for the project, and the city (would) sell $980,000 of the 1935 bonds to match the Federal contribution. '' Director Wirth and Secretary Seaton approved the plan on June 2.
In July 1953, Representative Leonor Sullivan introduced H.R. 6549, a bill authorizing the allocation of no more than $5 million to build the arch. After much negotiation, both houses of Congress approved the bill in May 1954, and on May 18, 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law as Public Law 361. Congress could not afford to appropriate the funds in 1955, so association president William Crowdus resorted to asking the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations for $10 million. The foundations denied the request because their function as private foundations did not include funding national memorials. In 1956, Congress appropriated $2.64 million to be used to move the railroad tracks. The remainder of the authorized appropriation was requested via six congressional bills, introduced on July 1, 1958, that revised Public Law 361 to encompass the cost of the entire memorial, increasing federal funds by $12.25 million. A month later the Department of the Interior and the Bureau of the Budget endorsed the bill, and both houses of Congress unanimously passed the bill. Eisenhower signed it into law on September 7. The NPS held off on appropriating the additional funds, as it planned to use the already - appropriated funds to initiate the railroad work.
Saarinen and city functionaries collaborated to zone buildings near the arch. In April 1959, real estate developer Lewis Kitchen decided to construct two 40 - level edifices across from the arch. In July, after the plan was condemned for its potential obstruction of the arch, Kitchen discussed the issue with officials. A decision was delayed for several months because Saarinen had yet to designate the arch 's height, projected between 590 and 630 feet (180 and 190 m). By October, Mayor Tucker and Director Wirth resolved to restrict the height of buildings opposite the arch to 275 feet (84 m) (about 27 levels), and the city stated that plans for buildings opposite the arch would require its endorsement. Kitchen then decreased the height of his buildings, while Saarinen increased that of the arch.
Moving the railroad tracks was the first stage of the project. On May 6, 1959, after an official conference, the Public Service Commission called for ventilation to accompany the tunnel 's construction, which entailed "placing 3,000 feet of dual tracks into a tunnel 105 feet west of the elevated railroad, along with filling, grading, and trestle work. '' Eight bids for the work were reviewed on June 8 in the Old Courthouse, and the MacDonald Construction Co. of St. Louis won with a bid of $2,426,115, less than NPS 's estimate of the cost. At 10: 30 a.m. on June 23, 1959, the groundbreaking ceremony occurred; Tucker spaded the first portion of earth. Wirth and Dickmann delivered speeches.
The NPS acquired the $500,000 in escrow and transferred it to MacDonald to begin building the new tracks. In August, demolition of the Old Rock House was complete, with workers beginning to excavate the tunnel. In November, they began shaping the tunnel 's walls with concrete. Twenty - nine percent of the construction was completed by March and 95 % by November. On November 17, trains began to use the new tracks. June 1962 was the projected date of fruition.
On May 16, 1959, the Senate appropriations subcommittee received from St. Louis legislators a request for $2.4911 million, of which it granted only $133,000. Wirth recommended that they reseek the funds in January 1960.
On March 10, 1959, Regional Director Howard Baker received $888,000 as the city 's first subsidy for the project. On December 1, 1961, $23,003,150 in total had been authorized, with $19,657,483 already appropriated -- $3,345,667 remained not yet appropriated.
The bidding date, originally December 20, 1961, was postponed to January 22, 1962, to clarify the details of the arch construction. About 50 companies that had requested the construction requirements received bidding invitations. Extending from $11,923,163 to $12,765,078, all four bids exceeded the engineer estimate of $8,067,000. Wirth had a committee led by George Hartzog determine the validity of the bids in light of the government 's conditions. Following a meeting with the bidders, the committee affirmed the bids ' reasonableness, and Wirth awarded the lowest bidder, MacDonald Construction Co. of St. Louis, the contract for the construction of the arch and the visitor center. On March 14, 1962, he signed the contract and received from Tucker $2,500,000, the city 's subsidy for the phase. MacDonald reduced its bid $500,000 to $11,442,418. The Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel Company served as the subcontractor for the shell of the arch.
In 1959 and 1960, ground was broken, and in 1961, the foundation of the structure was laid. Construction of the arch itself began on February 12, 1963, as the first steel triangle on the south leg was eased into place. These steel triangles, which narrowed as they spiraled to the top, were raised into place by a group of cranes and derricks. The arch was assembled of 142 12 - foot - long (3.7 m) prefabricated stainless steel sections. Once in place, each section had its double - walled skin filled with concrete, prestressed with 252 tension bars. In order to keep the partially completed legs steady, a scissors truss was placed between them at 530 feet (160 m), later removed as the derricks were taken down. The whole endeavor was expected to be completed by fall 1964, in observance of St. Louis 's bicentennial.
Contractor MacDonald Construction Co. arranged a 30 - foot (9.1 m) tower for spectators and provided recorded accounts of the undertaking. In 1963, a million people went to observe the progress, and by 1964, local radio stations began to broadcast when large slabs of steel were to be raised into place. St. Louis Post-Dispatch photographer Art Witman documented the construction for the newspaper 's Sunday supplement Pictures, his longest and most noted assignment. He visited the construction site frequently from 1963 to 1967 recording of every stage of progress. With assistant Renyold Ferguson, he crawled along the catwalks with the construction workers up to 190m above the ground. He was the only news photographer on permanent assignment at the construction, with complete access. He primarily worked with slide film, but also used the only Panox camera in St. Louis to create panoramic photographs covering 140 degrees. Witman 's pictures of the construction are now housed in the State Historical Society of Missouri.
The project manager of MacDonald Construction Co., Stan Wolf, said that a 62 - story building was easier to build than the arch: "In a building, everything is straight up, one thing on top of another. In this arch, everything is curved. ''
Although an actuarial firm predicted thirteen workers would die while building the arch, no workers were killed during the monument 's construction. However, construction of the arch was still often delayed by safety checks, funding uncertainties, and legal disputes.
Civil rights activists regarded the construction of the arch as a token of racial discrimination. On July 14, 1964, during the workers ' lunchtime, civil rights protesters Percy Green and Richard Daly, both members of Congress of Racial Equality, climbed up 125 - feet on the north leg of the arch to "expose the fact that federal funds were being used to build a national monument that was racially discriminating against black contractors and skilled black workers. '' As the pair disregarded demands to get off, protesters on the ground demanded that at least 10 % of the skilled jobs belong to African Americans. Four hours later Green and Daly dismounted from the arch, to charges of "trespassing, peace disturbance, and resisting arrest. '' This incident inter alia spurred the United States Department of Justice to file the first pattern or practice case against AFL -- CIO under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, on February 4, 1966, but the department later called off the charges. The 1966 lawsuit was an attempt by the Office of Federal Contract Compliance (OFCC) to desegregate building - trade unions nationwide. Many technical building unions had little or no African - American representation into the mid-1960s. During Lyndon Johnson 's presidency, the federal government recognized the need for more integration in all levels of society and started enforcing equal employment opportunity through federally funded job contracts.
In 1964, the Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel Company of Warren, Pennsylvania sued MacDonald for $665,317 for tax concerns. In 1965, NPS requested that Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel remove the prominent letters "P-D-M '' (its initials) from a creeper derrick used for construction, contending that it was promotional and violated federal law with regards to advertising on national monuments. Although Pittsburgh - Des Moines Steel initially refused to pursue what it considered a precarious venture, the company relented after discovering that leaving the initials would cost $225,000 and after that, $42,000 per month, and the NPS dropped its lawsuit.
On October 26, 1965, the International Association of Ironworkers delayed work to ascertain that the arch was safe. After NPS director Kenneth Chapman gave his word that conditions were "perfectly safe, '' construction resumed on October 27. After the discovery of 16 defects, the tram was also delayed from running. The Bi-State Development Agency assessed that it suffered losses of $2,000 for each day the trains were stagnant.
On January 7, 1966, members of AFL -- CIO deserted their work on the visitor center, refusing to work with plumbers affiliated with Congress of Industrial Unions (CIU), which represented black plumbers. A representative of AFL -- CIO said, "This policy has nothing to do with race. Our experience is that these CIU members have in the past worked for substandard wages. '' CIU applied to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) for an injunction that required the AFL -- CIO laborers to return to work. On February 7, Judge John Keating Regan ruled that AFL -- CIO workers had participated in a secondary boycott. By February 11, AFL -- CIO resumed work on the arch, and an AFL -- CIO contractor declared that ten African Americans were apprenticed for arch labor. The standstill in work lasted a month. Considering how large Federal projects often "go haywire '', Secretary of War Newton D. Baker said, "This memorial will be like a cathedral; built slowly but surely. ''
President Lyndon B. Johnson and Mayor Alfonso J. Cervantes decided on a date for the topping out ceremony, but the arch had not been completed by then. The ceremony date was reset to October 17, 1965, and workers strained to meet the deadline, taking double shifts, but by October 17, the arch was still not complete. The chairman of the ceremony anticipated the ceremony to be held on October 30, a Saturday, to allow 1,500 schoolchildren, whose signatures were to be placed in a time capsule, to attend. Ultimately, PDM set the ceremony date to October 28.
The time capsule, containing the signatures of 762,000 students and others, was welded into the keystone before the final piece was set in place. On October 28, the arch was topped out as then Vice President Hubert Humphrey observed from a helicopter. A Catholic priest and a rabbi prayed over the keystone, a 10 - short - ton (9.1 t), eight - foot - long (2.4 m) triangular section. It was slated to be inserted at 10: 00 a.m. local time but was done 30 minutes early because thermal expansion had constricted the 8.5 - foot (2.6 m) gap at the top by 5 inches (13 cm). To mitigate this, workers used fire hoses to spray water on the surface of the south leg to cool it down and make it contract. The keystone was inserted in 13 minutes, only 6 inches (15 cm) remained. For the next section, a hydraulic jack had to pry apart the legs six feet (1.8 m). The last section was left only 2.5 feet (0.76 m). By noon, the keystone was secured. Some filmmakers, in hope that the two legs would not meet, had chronicled every phase of construction.
The Gateway Arch was expected to open to the public by 1964, but in 1967 the public relations agency stopped forecasting the opening date. The arch 's visitor center opened on June 10, 1967, and the tram began operating on July 24.
The arch was dedicated by Humphrey on May 25, 1968. He declared that the arch was "a soaring curve in the sky that links the rich heritage of yesterday with the richer future of tomorrow '' and brings a "new purpose '' and a "new sense of urgency to wipe out every slum. '' "Whatever is shoddy, whatever is ugly, whatever is waste, whatever is false, will be measured and condemned '' in comparison to the Gateway Arch. About 250,000 people were expected to attend, but rain canceled the outdoor activities. The ceremony had to be transferred into the visitor center. After the dedication, Humphrey crouched beneath an exit as he waited for the rain to subside so he could walk to his vehicle.
The project did not provide 5,000 jobs as expected -- as of June 1964, workers numbered fewer than 100. The project did, however, incite other riverfront restoration efforts, totaling $150 million. Building projects included a 50,000 - seat sports stadium, a 30 - story hotel, several office towers, four parking garages, and an apartment complex. The idea of a Disneyland amusement park that included "synthetic riverboat attractions '' was considered but later abandoned. The developers hoped to use the arch as a commercial catalyst, attracting visitors who would use their services. One estimate found that since the 1960s, the arch has incited almost $503,000,000 worth of construction.
In June 1976, the memorial was finalized by federal allocations -- "the statue of Thomas Jefferson was unveiled, the Museum of Westward Expansion was previewed, a theater under the Arch was dedicated in honor of Mayor Raymond Tucker and the catenary - like curving staircases from the Arch down to the levee were built. ''
Both the width and height of the arch are 630 feet (192 m). The arch is the tallest memorial in the United States and the tallest stainless steel monument in the world.
The cross-sections of the arch 's legs are equilateral triangles, narrowing from 54 feet (16 m) per side at the bases to 17 feet (5.2 m) per side at the top. Each wall consists of a stainless steel skin covering a sandwich of two carbon - steel walls with reinforced concrete in the middle from ground level to 300 feet (91 m), with carbon steel to the peak. The arch is hollow to accommodate a unique tram system that takes visitors to an observation deck at the top.
The structural load is supported by a stressed - skin design. Each leg is embedded in 25,980 short tons (23,570 t) of concrete 44 feet (13 m) thick and 60 feet (18 m) deep. Twenty feet (6.1 m) of the foundation is in bedrock. The arch is resistant to earthquakes and is designed to sway up to 18 inches (46 cm) in either direction, while withstanding winds up to 150 miles per hour (240 km / h). The structure weighs 42,878 short tons (38,898 t), of which concrete composes 25,980 short tons (23,570 t); structural steel interior, 2,157 short tons (1,957 t); and the stainless steel panels that cover the exterior of the arch, 886 short tons (804 t). This amount of stainless steel is the most used in any one project in history. The base of each leg at ground level had to have an engineering tolerance of ⁄ inch (0.40 mm) or the two legs would not meet at the top.
The geometric form of the structure was set by mathematical equations provided to Saarinen by Hannskarl Bandel. Bruce Detmers and other architects expressed the geometric form in blueprints with this equation:
y = A (cosh C x L − 1) ⇔ x = L C cosh − 1 (1 + y A) (\ displaystyle y = A \ left (\ cosh (\ frac (Cx) (L)) - 1 \ right) \ quad \ Leftrightarrow \ quad x = (\ frac (L) (C)) \ cosh ^ (- 1) \ left (1 + (\ frac (y) (A)) \ right)),
with the constants
A = f c Q b / Q t − 1 = 68.7672 (\ displaystyle A = (\ frac (f_ (c)) (Q_ (b) / Q_ (t) - 1)) = 68.7672)
C = cosh − 1 Q b Q t = 3.0022 (\ displaystyle C = \ cosh ^ (- 1) (\ frac (Q_ (b)) (Q_ (t))) = 3.0022)
where f = 625.0925 ft (191 m) is the maximum height of centroid, Q = 1,262.6651 sq ft (117 m) is the maximum cross sectional area of arch at base, Q = 125.1406 sq ft (12 m) is the minimum cross sectional area of arch at top, and L = 299.2239 ft (91 m) is the half width of centroid at the base. The triangular cross sectional area varies linearly with the vertical height of its centroid.
This hyperbolic cosine function describes the shape of a catenary. A chain that supports only its own weight forms a catenary; the chain is purely in tension. Likewise, an inverted catenary arch that supports only its own weight is purely in compression, with no shear. The catenary arch is the stablest of all arches since "the thrust passes down through the legs and is absorbed in the foundations, whereas in other arches, the pressure tends to force the legs apart. '' The Gateway Arch itself is not a common catenary, but a more general curve of the form y = Acosh (Bx). This makes it an inverted weighted catenary. Saarinen chose a weighted catenary over a normal catenary curve because it looked less pointed and less steep. In 1959, he caused some confusion about the actual shape of the arch when he wrote, "This arch is not a true parabola, as is often stated. Instead it is a catenary curve -- the curve of a hanging chain -- a curve in which the forces of thrust are continuously kept within the center of the legs of the arch. '' William V. Thayer, a professor of mathematics at St. Louis Community College, later wrote to the St. Louis Post-Dispatch calling attention to the fact that the structure was a weighted catenary.
The first proposal to illuminate the arch at night was announced on May 18, 1966, but the plan never came to fruition. In July 1998, funding for an arch lighting system was approved by St. Louis 's Gateway Foundation, which agreed to take responsibility for the cost of the equipment, its installation, and its upkeep. In January 1999, MSNBC arranged a temporary lighting system for the arch so the monument could be used as the background for a visit by Pope John Paul II. Since November 2001, the arch has been bathed in white light between 10 p.m. and 1 a.m. via a system of floodlights. Designed by Randy Burkett, it comprises 44 lighting fixtures situated in four pits just below ground level.
On October 5, 2004, the U.S. Senate, at the pressing of Senators Jim Talent and Kit Bond, approved a bill permitting the illumination in pink of the arch in honor of breast cancer awareness month. Both Estee Lauder and May Department Store Co. had championed the cause. One employee said that the arch would be a "beacon... for the importance of prevention and finding a cure. '' While the National Park Service took issue with the plan due to the precedent it would set for prospective uses of the arch, it yielded due to a realization that it and Congress were "on the same team '' and because the illumination was legally obligatory; on October 25, the plan was carried out. The previous time the arch was illuminated for promotional purposes was on September 12, 1995, under the management of local companies Fleishman - Hillard and Technical Productions when a rainbow spectrum was shone on the arch to publicize the debut of Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus ' Wizard of Oz on Ice at the Scottrade Center (then named the "Kiel Center '').
In April 1965, three million tourists were expected to visit the arch after completion; 619,763 tourists visited the top of the arch in its first year open. On January 15, 1969, a visitor from Nashville, Tennessee, became the one - millionth person to reach the observation area; the ten - millionth person ascended to the top on August 24, 1979. In 1974, the arch was ranked fourth on a list of "most - visited man - made attraction (s) ''. The Gateway Arch is one of the most visited tourist attractions in the world with over four million visitors annually, of which around one million travel to the top. The arch was listed as a National Historic Landmark on June 2, 1987, and is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
On December 8, 2009, sponsored by nonprofit CityArchRiver2015, the international design competition "Framing a Modern Masterpiece: The City + The Arch + The River 2015 '' commenced. It aimed to "design a plan to improve the riverfront park landscape, ease access for pedestrians across Memorial Drive and expand onto the East St. Louis riverfront, '' as well as to lure visitors. The contest consisted of three stages -- portfolio assessment (narrowed down to 8 -- 10 teams), team interviews (narrowed down to 4 -- 5 teams), and review of design proposals. The competition received 49 applicants, which were narrowed down to five in the first two stages. On August 17, 2010, the designs of the five finalists were revealed to the public and exhibited at the theater below the arch. On August 26, the finalists made their cases to an eight - member jury, and on September 21, the winner was revealed -- Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates. The initiative 's plans include updating Kiener Plaza and the Old Courthouse, connecting the city to the Arch grounds with a park over Interstate 70, a re-imagined museum and improved accessibility. The budget for the project is $380 million and is set to be completed in 2018.
Ground broke on the ' Park over the Highway ' project, the first component of the CityArchRiver project, on August 2, 2013. This project features a landscaped structure over Interstate 70 and rerouted surface traffic that had previously formed a moat separating the Gateway Arch from the Old Courthouse. This project was completed in December 2014.
The underground visitor center for the arch was designed as part of the National Park Service 's Mission 66 program. The 70,000 - square - foot (6,500 m) center is located directly below the arch, between its legs. Although construction on the visitor center began at the same time as construction for the arch itself, it did not conclude until 1976 because of insufficient funding; however, the center opened with several exhibits on June 10, 1967. Access to the visitor center is provided through ramps adjacent to each leg of the arch.
The center houses offices, mechanical rooms, and waiting areas for the arch trams, as well as its main attractions: the Museum of Westward Expansion and two theaters displaying films about the arch. The older theater opened in May 1972; the newer theater, called the Odyssey Theatre, was constructed in the 1990s and features a four - story - tall screen. Its construction required the expansion of the underground complex, and workers had to excavate solid rock while keeping the disruption to a minimum so the museum could remain open. The museum houses several hundred exhibits about the United States ' westward expansion in the 19th century and opened on August 10, 1977.
As part of the CityArchRiver project, the visitor center and museum underwent a $176 million expansion and renovation that was completed in the July 2018. Once completed, the renovation will include a 46,000 - square - foot underground addition featuring interactive story galleries, video walls, a fountain and a cafe.
Near the top of the Arch, passengers exit the tram compartment and climb a slight grade to enter the observation area. This arched deck, which is over 65 feet (20 m) long and 7 feet (2.1 m) wide, can hold up to about 160 people, four trams ' worth Sixteen windows per side, each measuring 7 by 27 inches (180 mm × 690 mm), offer views up to 30 miles (48 km) to the east across the Mississippi River and southern Illinois with its prominent Mississippian culture mounds at Cahokia Mounds and to the west over the city of St. Louis and St. Louis County beyond.
There are three modes of transportation up the arch: two sets of 1,076 - step emergency stairs (one per leg), a 12 - passenger elevator to the 372 - foot (113 m) height, and a tram in each leg.
Each tram is a chain of eight cylindrical, five - seat compartments with a small window on the doors. As each tram has a capacity of 40 passengers and there are two trams, 80 passengers can be transported at one time, with trams departing from the ground every 10 minutes. The cars swing like Ferris - wheel cars as they ascend and descend the arch. This fashion of movement gave rise to the idea of the tram as "half - Ferris wheel and half - elevator. '' The trip to the top takes four minutes, and the trip down takes three minutes.
Because of a lack of funds in March 1962, the NPS did not accept bids for the arch 's internal train system and considered discarding the idea. In May 1962, the Bi-State Development Agency proposed that it issue revenue bonds to obtain the required funds. The Department of the Interior and Bi-State entered into an agreement where Bi-State would construct and operate the tram. Bi-State would have to raise $1,977,750 for the construction of the tram system. It retired the bonds by setting a $1 riding fee to the top. Two months later, the agency had already received 45 advance reservations for seats on the tram.
Bi-State put in $3.3 million revenue bonds and has operated the tram system since. The tram in the north leg entered operation in June 1967, but visitors were forced to endure three - hour - long waits until April 21, 1976, when a reservation system was put in place. The south tram was completed by March 1968. Commemorative pins were awarded to the first 100,000 passengers. As of 2007, the trams have traveled 250,000 miles (400,000 km), conveying more than 25 million passengers.
On July 8, 1970, a six - year - old boy, his mother, and two of her friends were trapped in a tram in the arch 's south leg after the monument closed. According to the boy 's mother, the group went up the arch around 9: 30 p.m. CDT, but when the tram reached the de-boarding area, its doors did not open. The tram then reportedly traveled up to a storage area 50 feet (15 m) above the ground, and the power was switched off. One person was able to pry open the tram door and the four managed to reach a security guard for help after being trapped for about 45 minutes.
On July 21, 2007, a broken cable forced the south tram to be shut down, leaving only the north tram in service until repairs were completed in March 2008. Around 200 tourists were stuck inside the arch for about three hours because the severed cable contacted a high - voltage rail, causing a fuse to blow. The north tram was temporarily affected by the power outage as well, but some passengers were able to exit the arch through the emergency stairs and elevator. It was about two hours until all the tram riders safely descended, while those in the observation area at the time of the outage had to wait an additional hour before being able to travel back down. An arch official said the visitors, most of whom stayed calm during the ordeal, were not in any danger; they were later given refunds. The incident occurred while visitors in the arch were watching a fireworks display, and no one was seriously injured in the event. However, two people received medical treatment; one person needed oxygen and the other was diabetic. Almost immediately after the tram returned to service, however, it was closed again for new repairs after an electrical switch broke. The incident, which occurred on March 14, 2008, was billed as a "bad coincidence. ''
On the morning of February 9, 2011, a National Park Service worker was injured while performing repairs on the south tram. The 55 - year - old was working on the tram 's electrical system when he was trapped between it and the arch wall for around 30 seconds, until being saved by other workers. Emergency officials treated the injured NPS employee at the arch 's top before taking him to Saint Louis University Hospital in a serious condition.
On March 24, 2011, around one hundred visitors were stranded in the observation area for 45 minutes after the doors of the south tram refused to close. The tourists were safely brought down the arch in the north tram, which had been closed that week so officials could upgrade it with a new electronic transportation system. The National Park Service later attributed the malfunction to a computer glitch associated with the new system, which had already been implemented with the south tram. No one was hurt in the occurrence, but the arch suffered a slight loss in spring break tourism revenue.
Around 2: 15 p.m. local time on June 16, 2011, the arch 's north tram stalled due to a power outage. The tram became stuck about 200 feet (61 m) from the observation deck, and passengers eventually were told to climb the stairs to the observation area. It took National Park Service workers about one hour to manually pull the tram to the top, and the 40 trapped passengers were able to return down on the south tram, which had previously not been operating that day because there was not an abundance of visitors. An additional 120 people were at the observation deck at the time of the outage and also exited via the south tram. During the outage, visitors were stuck in the tram with neither lighting nor air conditioning. No one was seriously injured in the incident, but one visitor lost consciousness after suffering a panic attack, and a park ranger was taken away with minor injuries. The cause of the outage was not immediately known.
On June 16, 1965, the Federal Aviation Administration cautioned that aviators who flew through the arch would be fined and their licenses revoked. At least ten pilots have disobeyed this order, beginning on June 22, 1966.
In 1973, Nikki Caplan was granted an FAA exception to fly a hot air balloon between the arch 's legs as part of the Great Forest Park Balloon Race. During the flight, on which the St. Louis park director was a passenger, the balloon hit the arch and plummeted 70 feet before recovering.
In 1976, a U.S. Army exhibition skydiving team was permitted to fly through the arch as part of Fourth of July festivities, and since then, numerous skydiving exhibition teams have legally jumped onto the Arch grounds, after having flown their parachutes through the legs of the Arch.
The arch has been a target of various stunt performers, and while such feats are generally forbidden, several people have parachuted to or from the arch regardless. In June 1980, the National Park Service declined a request by television producers to have a performer jump from the arch; a similar appeal by stuntman Dan Koko was also turned away in February 1986. Koko, who was a stunt double for Superman, wanted to perform the leap during Fourth of July celebrations. In 2013 Alexander Polli, a European BASE jumper, planned to fly a wingsuit under the arch but had his demo postponed by the FAA.
1980 accident
On November 22, 1980, at about 8: 45 a.m. CST, 33 - year - old Kenneth Swyers of Overland, Missouri, parachuted onto the top of the arch. His plan was to release his main parachute and then jump off the arch using his reserve parachute to perform a base jump. Unfortunately, after landing the wind blew him to the side, and he slid down the north leg to his death. The accident was witnessed by several people, including Swyers ' wife, also a parachutist. She said her husband "was not a hot dog, daredevil skydiver '' and that he had prepared for the jump two weeks in advance. Swyers, who had made over 1,600 jumps before the incident, was reported by one witness to have "landed very well '' on the top of the arch, but "had no footing. '' Swyers was reportedly blown to the top of the arch by the wind and was unable to save himself when his reserve parachute failed to deploy. The Federal Aviation Administration said the jump was unauthorized, and investigated the pilot involved in the incident.
On December 27, 1980, St. Louis television station KTVI reported receiving calls from supposed witnesses of another stunt landing. The alleged parachutist, who claimed to be a retired professional stuntman, was said to be wearing a Santa Claus costume when he jumped off an airplane around 8: 00 a.m. CST, parachuted onto the arch, grasped the monument 's beacon, and used the same parachute to glide down unharmed. KTVI said it was told the feat was done as an act of homage to Swyers, and "apparently was a combination of a dare, a drunk, and a tribute. '' On the day after the alleged incident, authorities declared the jump a hoax. A spokesperson for the St. Louis Metropolitan Police Department said no calls were received about the jump until after it was broadcast on the news, and the Federal Aviation Administration said the two calls it had received were very similar. One caller also left an out - of - service phone number, while the other never followed up with investigators. Arch officials said they did not witness any such jump, and photos provided by the alleged parachutist were unclear.
1992 stunt
On September 14, 1992, 25 - year - old John C. Vincent climbed to the top of the Gateway Arch using suction cups and proceeded to parachute back to the ground. He was later charged with two misdemeanors: climbing a national monument and parachuting in a national park. Federal prosecutor Stephen Higgins called the act a "great stunt '' but said it was "something the Park Service does n't take lightly. '' Vincent, a construction worker and diver from Harvey, Louisiana, said he did it "just for the excitement, just for the thrill, '' and had previously parachuted off the World Trade Center in May 1991. He said that scaling the arch "was n't that hard '' and had considered a jump off the monument for a few months. In an interview, Vincent said he visited the arch 's observation area a month before the stunt, to see if he could use a maintenance hatch for accessing the monument 's peak. Due to the heavy security, he instead decided to climb up the arch 's exterior using suction cups, which he had used before to scale shorter buildings. Dressed in black, Vincent began crawling up the arch around 3: 30 a.m. CST on September 14 and arrived undetected at the top around 5: 45 a.m., taking an additional 75 minutes to rest and take photos before finally jumping. During this time, he was seen by two traffic reporters inside the One Metropolitan Square skyscraper.
Vincent was also spotted mid-air by Deryl Stone, a Chief Ranger for the National Park Service. Stone reported seeing Vincent grab his parachute after landing and run to a nearby car, which quickly drove away. However, authorities were able to detain two men on the ground who had been videotaping the jump. Stone said 37 - year - old Ronald Carroll and 27 - year - old Robert Weinzetl, both St. Louis residents, were found with a wireless communication headset and a video camera, as well as a still camera with a telephoto lens. The two were also charged with two misdemeanors: disorderly conduct and commercial photography in a national park. Vincent later turned himself in and initially pleaded not guilty to the charges against him. However, he eventually accepted a guilty plea deal in which he testified against Carroll and Weinzetl, revealing that the two consented to recording the jump during a meeting of all three on the day before his stunt occurred. Federal magistrate judge David D. Noce ruled on January 28, 1993, that Carroll had been involved in a conspiracy and was guilty of both misdemeanor charges; the charges against Weinzetl had been dropped by federal attorneys. In his decision, Noce stated, "There are places in our country where the sufficiently skilled can savor the exhilaration and personal satisfaction of accomplishing courageous and intrepid acts, of reaching dreamed - of heights and for coursing dangerous adventures, '' but added that other places are designed for "the exhilaration of mere observation and for the appreciation of the imaginings and the works of others. The St. Louis Arch and the grounds of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial are in the latter category. ''
Two years after the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, a little over $1 million was granted to institute a counterterrorism program. Park officials were trained to note the activity of tourists, and inconspicuous electronic detection devices were installed. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, security efforts were more prominent, security checkpoints moved to the entrance of the visitor center. At the checkpoints, visitors are screened by magnetometers and x-ray equipment, devices which have been in place since 1997.
The Arch also became one of several U.S. monuments placed under restricted airspace during 2002 Fourth of July celebrations. In 2003, 10 - foot - long (3.0 m), 32 - inch - high (81 cm), 4,100 - pound (1,900 kg) movable Jersey barriers were installed to impede terrorist attacks on the arch. Later that year, it was announced that these walls were to be replaced by concrete posts encased in metal to be more harmonious with the steel color of the arch. The movable bollards can be manipulated from the park 's dispatch center, which has also been upgraded.
In 2006, arch officials hired a "physical security specialist, '' replacing a law enforcement officer. The responsibilities of the specialist include risk assessment, testing the park 's security system, increasing security awareness of other employees, and working with other government agencies to improve the arch 's security procedures.
-- Robert W. Duffy of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, October 4, 2003
Built as a monument to the westward expansion of the United States, the arch typifies "the pioneer spirit of the men and women who won the West, and those of a latter day to strive on other frontiers. '' The arch has become the iconic image of St. Louis, appearing in many parts of city culture. In 1968, three years after the monument 's opening, the St. Louis phone directory contained 65 corporations with "Gateway '' in their title and 17 with "Arch ''. Arches also appeared over gas stations and drive - in restaurants. In the 1970s, a local sports team adopted the name "Fighting Arches ''; St. Louis Community College would later (when consolidating all athletic programs under a single banner) name its sports teams "Archers ''. Robert S. Chandler, an NPS superintendent, said, "Most (visitors) are awed by the size and scale of the Arch, but they do n't understand what it 's all about... Too many people see it as just a symbol of the city of St. Louis. ''
The arch has also appeared as a symbol of the State of Missouri. On November 22, 2002, at the Missouri State Capitol, Lori Hauser Holden, wife of then Governor Bob Holden uncovered the winning design for a Missouri coin design competition as part of the Fifty States Commemorative Coin Program. Designed by watercolorist Paul Jackson, the coin portrays "three members of the Lewis and Clark expedition paddling a boat on the Missouri River upon returning to St. Louis '' with the arch as the backdrop. Holden said that the arch was "a symbol for the entire state... Four million visitors each year see the Arch. (The coin) will help make it even more loved worldwide. '' A special license plate designed by Arnold Worldwide featured the arch, labeled with "Gateway to the West. '' Profits earned from selling the plates would fund the museum and other educational components of the arch.
Louchheim wrote that although the arch "has a simplicity which should guarantee timeliness '', it is entirely modern as well because of the innovative design and its scientific considerations. In The Dallas Morning News, architectural critic David Dillon opined that the arch exists not as a functional edifice but as a symbol of "boundless American optimism ''. He articulates the arch 's multiple "moods '' -- "reflective in sunlight, soft and pewterish in mist; crisp as a line drawing one moment, chimerical the next '' -- as a way the arch has "paid for itself many times over in wonder ''.
Some have questioned whether St. Louis really was -- as Saarinen said -- the "Gateway to the West ''. Kansas City - born "deadline poet '' Calvin Trillin wrote,
I know you 're thinking that there are considerable differences between T.S. Eliot and me. Yes, it is true that he was from St. Louis, which started calling itself the Gateway to the West after Eero Saarinen 's Gateway Arch was erected, and I 'm from Kansas City, where people think of St. Louis not as the Gateway to the West but as the Exit from the East.
In 1966, the arch was given a Special Award for Excellence from the American Institute of Steel Construction for being "an outstanding achievement in technology and aesthetics. '' On February 9, 1967, the arch received the Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award of 1967 from the American Society of Civil Engineers. The arch was once among Travel + Leisure 's unofficial rankings for the most - visited attraction in the world, after Lenin 's Tomb, Disney World, Disneyland, and the Eiffel Tower. On February 22, 1990, the arch received the American Institute of Architects ' (AIA) Twenty - Five Year Award for its "enduring significance that has withstood the test of time. '' It was declared "a symbolic bridge between East and West, past and future, engineering and art '' that "embodies the boundless optimism of a growing nation. '' In 2007, the arch was ranked fourteenth on the AIA 's "America 's Favorite Architecture '' list.
The first act of vandalism was committed in June 1968: the vandals etched their names on various parts of the arch. In all, $10,000 was spent that year to repair damage from vandalism. The arch was first targeted by graffiti artists on March 5, 1969.
In 2010, signs of corrosion were reported at the upper regions of the stainless steel surface. Carbon steel in the north leg has been rusting, possibly a result of water accumulation, a side effect of leaky welds in an environment that often causes rain to enter the skin of the structure. Maintenance workers use mops and a temporary setup of water containers to ease the problem. According to NPS documents, the corrosion and rust pose no safety concerns.
A more comprehensive study of the corrosion had been suggested as early as 2006 by architectural specialists studying the Arch, and reiterated in a 2010 Historic Structure Report. In September 2010, the NPS granted Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. a contract for a structural study that would "gather data about the condition of the Arch to enable experts to develop and implement the right long - term solutions. ''
Stain samples were taken from the west face of the Arch on October 21, 2014, to determine the best way to clean it. The cleaning will cost about $340,000.
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name the two types of vaporization and explain the difference between them. give one example of each | Hydraulic brake - wikipedia
A hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, typically containing glycol ethers or diethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism.
Fred Duesenberg originated hydraulic brakes on his 1914 racing cars and Duesenberg was the first automotive marque to use the technology on a passenger car in 1921. This braking system could have earned him a fortune if he had patented it. In 1917 Malcolm Loughead (who later changed the spelling of his name to Lockheed) developed a hydraulic brake system. "Lockheed '' is a common term for brake fluid in France.
The technology was carried forward in automotive use and eventually led to the introduction of the self - energizing hydraulic drum brake system (Edward Bishop Boughton, London England, June 28, 1927) which is still in use today.
The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds, consists of the following:
The system is usually filled with a glycol - ether based brake fluid (other fluids may also be used).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later, disc brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have shown better heat dissipation and greater resistance to ' fading ' and are therefore generally safer than drum brakes. So four - wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most basic vehicles. Many two - wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake for the rear wheel.
The following description uses the terminology for / and configuration of a simple disc brake.
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston (s) in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system, forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or more caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O - rings (which prevent leakage of the fluid).
The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor, and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor or is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat - tolerant materials such as kevlar or sintered glass.
Alternatively, in a drum brake, the fluid enters a wheel cylinder and presses one or two brake shoes against the inside of the spinning drum. The brake shoes use a similar heat - tolerant friction material to the pads used in disc brakes.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal / lever allows the spring (s) in the master cylinder assembly to return the master piston (s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper assembly, moving it back into its housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use. Leakage may happen, however, from cracks in the O - rings or from a puncture in the brake line. Cracks can form if two types of brake fluid are mixed or if the brake fluid becomes contaminated with water, alcohol, antifreeze, or any number of other liquids.
Hydraulic brakes transfer energy to stop an object, normally a rotating axle. In a very simple brake system, with just two cylinders and a disc brake, the cylinders could be connected via tubes, with a piston inside the cylinders. The cylinders and tubes are filled with incompressible oil. The two cylinders have the same volume, but different diameters, and thus different cross-section areas. The cylinder that the operator uses is called the master cylinder. The spinning disc brake will be adjacent to the piston with the larger cross-section. Suppose the diameter of the master cylinder is half the diameter of the slave cylinder, so the master cylinder has a cross-section four times smaller. Now, if the piston in the master cylinder is pushed down 40 mm, the slave piston will move 10 mm. If 10 newtons (N) of force are applied to the master piston, the slave piston will press with a force of 40 N.
This force can be further increased by inserting a lever connected between the master piston, a pedal, and a pivot point. If the distance from the pedal to the pivot is three times the distance from the pivot to the connected piston, then it multiplies the pedal force by a factor of 3, when pushing down on the pedal, so that 10 N becomes 30 N on the master piston and 120 N on the brake pad. Conversely, the pedal must move three times as far as the master piston. If we push the pedal 120 mm down, the master piston will move 40 mm and the slave piston will move the brake pad by 10 mm.
(For typical light duty automotive braking systems)
In a four - wheel car, the FMVSS Standard 105, 1976; requires that the master cylinder be divided internally into two sections, each of which pressurizes a separate hydraulic circuit. Each section supplies pressure to one circuit. The combination is known as a dual master cylinder. Passenger vehicles typically have either a front / rear split brake system or a diagonal split brake system (the master cylinder in a motorcycle or scooter may only pressurize a single unit, which will be the front brake).
A front / rear split system uses one master cylinder section to pressurize the front caliper pistons and the other section to pressurize the rear caliper pistons. A split circuit braking system is now required by law in most countries for safety reasons; if one circuit fails, the other circuit can still stop the vehicle.
Diagonal split systems were used initially on American Motors automobiles in the 1967 production year. The right front and left rear are served by one actuating piston while the left front and the right rear are served, exclusively, by a second actuating piston (both pistons pressurize their respective coupled lines from a single foot pedal). If either circuit fails, the other, with at least one front wheel braking (the front brakes provide most of the braking force, due to weight transfer), remains intact to stop the mechanically damaged vehicle. By the 1970s, diagonally split systems had become common among automobiles sold in the United States. This system was developed with front - wheel - drive cars ' suspension design to maintain better control and stability during a system failure.
The diameter and length of the master cylinder has a significant effect on the performance of the brake system. A larger diameter master cylinder delivers more hydraulic fluid to the caliper pistons, yet requires more brake pedal force and less brake pedal stroke to achieve a given deceleration. A smaller diameter master cylinder has the opposite effect.
A master cylinder may also use differing diameters between the two sections to allow for increased fluid volume to one set of caliper pistons or the other.
A proportioning valve may be used to reduce the pressure to the rear brakes under heavy braking. This limits the rear braking to reduce the chances of locking up the rear brakes, and greatly lessens the chances of a spin.
The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a movable rubber diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low - pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal is depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the brake pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an air valve which lets in atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster. Since the pressure becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver 's foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. A relatively small diameter booster unit is required; for a very conservative 50 % manifold vacuum, an assisting force of about 1500 N (200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an area of 0.03 square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal apply stopping) or if "run out '' is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the driver 's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston.
The fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to a pressure differential valve, sometimes referred to as a "brake failure valve '', which performs two functions: it equalizes pressure between the two systems, and it provides a warning if one system loses pressure. The pressure differential valve has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines attach) with a piston between them. When the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure from the other side moves the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in the brake system.
From the pressure differential valve, brake tubing carries the pressure to the brake units at the wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the automobile, it is necessary to use hydraulic brake hose from the end of the steel line at the vehicle frame to the caliper at the wheel. Allowing steel brake tubing to flex invites metal fatigue and, ultimately, brake failure. A common upgrade is to replace the standard rubber hoses with a set which are externally reinforced with braided stainless - steel wires; these have negligible expansion under pressure and can give a firmer feel to the brake pedal with less pedal travel for a given braking effort.
The term ' power hydraulic brakes ' can also refer to systems operating on very different principles where an engine - driven pump maintains continual hydraulic pressure in a central accumulator. The driver 's brake pedal simply controls a valve to bleed pressure into the brake units at the wheels, rather than actually creating the pressure in a master cylinder by depressing a piston. This form of brake is analogous to an air brake system but with hydraulic fluid as the working medium rather than air. However, on an air brake air is vented from the system when the brakes are released and the reserve of compressed air must be replenished. On a power hydraulic brake system fluid at low pressure is returned from the brake units at the wheels to the engine - driven pump as the brakes are released, so the central pressure accumulator is almost instantly re-pressurised. This makes the power hydraulic system highly suitable for vehicles that must frequently stop and start (such as buses in cities). The continually circulating fluid also removes problems with freezing parts and collected water vapour that can afflict air systems in cold climates. The AEC Routemaster bus is a well - known application of power hydraulic brakes and the successive generations of Citroen cars with hydropneumatic suspension also used fully powered hydraulic brakes rather than conventional automotive brake systems.
Air brake systems are bulky, and require air compressors and reservoir tanks. Hydraulic systems are smaller and less expensive.
Hydraulic fluid must be non-compressible. Unlike air brakes, where a valve is opened and air flows into the lines and brake chambers until the pressure rises sufficiently, hydraulic systems rely on a single stroke of a piston to force fluid through the system. If any vapor is introduced into the system it will compress, and the pressure may not rise sufficiently to actuate the brakes.
Hydraulic braking systems are sometimes subjected to high temperatures during operation, such as when descending steep grades. For this reason, hydraulic fluid must resist vaporization at high temperatures.
Water vaporizes easily with heat and can corrode the metal parts of the system. Water which enters brake lines, even in small amounts, will react with most common brake fluids (i.e., those which are hygroscopic) causing the formation of deposits which can clog the brake lines and reservoir. It is almost impossible to completely seal any brake system from exposure to water, which means that regular changing out of brake fluid is necessary to ensure that the system is not becoming overfilled with the deposits caused by reactions with water. Light oils are sometimes used as hydraulic fluids specifically because they do not react with water: oil displaces water, protects plastic parts against corrosion, and can tolerate much higher temperatures before vaporizing, but has other drawbacks vs. traditional hydraulic fluids.
"Brake fade '' is a condition caused by overheating in which braking effectiveness reduces, and may be lost. It may occur for many reasons. The pads which engage the rotating part may become overheated and "glaze over '', becoming so smooth and hard that they can not grip sufficiently to slow the vehicle. Also, vaporization of the hydraulic fluid under temperature extremes or thermal distortion may cause the linings to change their shape and engage less surface area of the rotating part. Thermal distortion may also cause permanent changes in the shape of the metal components, resulting in a reduction in braking capability that requires replacement of the affected parts.
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when were the branches of the military established | United States Armed Forces - Wikipedia
Gen Joseph Dunford, USMC
Military history of the United States
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The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States of America. It consists of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard. The President of the United States is the Commander - in - Chief of the U.S. Armed Forces and forms military policy with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), both federal executive departments, acting as the principal organs by which military policy is carried out. All five armed services are among the seven uniformed services of the United States.
From the time of its inception, the U.S. Armed Forces played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of national unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War. Even so, the founders of the United States were suspicious of a permanent military force. It played a critical role in the American Civil War, continuing to serve as the armed forces of the United States, although a number of its officers resigned to join the military of the Confederate States. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold War 's onset, created the modern U.S. military framework. The Act established the National Military Establishment, headed by the Secretary of Defense; and created the Department of the Air Force and the National Security Council. It was amended in 1949, renaming the National Military Establishment the Department of Defense, and merged the cabinet - level Department of the Army, Department of the Navy, and Department of the Air Force, into the Department of Defense.
The U.S. Armed Forces are one of the largest militaries in terms of the number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a large pool of paid volunteers. Although conscription has been used in the past in various times of both war and peace, it has not been used since 1972, but the Selective Service System retains the power to conscript males, and requires that all male citizens and residents residing in the U.S. between the ages of 18 -- 25 register with the service.
As of 2017, the U.S. spends about US $610 billion annually to fund its military forces and Overseas Contingency Operations. Put together, the U.S. constitutes roughly 40 percent of the world 's military expenditures. The U.S. Armed Forces has significant capabilities in both defense and power projection due to its large budget, resulting in advanced and powerful technologies which enables a widespread deployment of the force around the world, including around 800 military bases outside the United States. The U.S. Air Force is the world 's largest air force, the U.S. Navy is the world 's largest navy by tonnage, and the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps combined are the world 's second largest air arm.
The history of the U.S. Armed Forces dates to 14 June 1775, with the creation of the Continental Army, even before the Declaration of Independence marked the establishment of the United States. The Continental Navy, established on 13 October 1775, and Continental Marines, established on 10 November 1775, were created in close succession by the Second Continental Congress in order to defend the new nation against the British Empire in the American Revolutionary War.
These forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. The Congress of the Confederation created the current United States Army on 3 June 1784. The United States Congress created the current United States Navy on 27 March 1794 and the current United States Marine Corps on 11 July 1798. All three services trace their origins to their respective Continental predecessors. The 1787 adoption of the Constitution gave the Congress the power to "raise and support armies '', to "provide and maintain a navy '' and to "make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces '', as well as the power to declare war. The President is the U.S. Armed Forces ' commander - in - chief.
The United States Coast Guard traces its origin to the founding of the Revenue Cutter Service on 4 August 1790 which merged with the United States Life - Saving Service on 28 January 1915 to establish the Coast Guard. The United States Air Force was established as an independent service on 18 September 1947; it traces its origin to the formation of the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps, which was formed 1 August 1907 and was part of the Army Air Forces before becoming an independent service as per the National Security Act of 1947.
Command over the U.S. Armed Forces is established in the Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander - in - Chief. The Constitution also allows for the creation of "executive Departments '' headed by "principal officers '' whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act. The DoD is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the U.S. Armed Forces chain of command, with the exception of the Coast Guard, which is under the Secretary of Homeland Security, and is just below the President and serves as the principal assistant to the President in all defense - related matters. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, which by law is the ultimate lawful source of military orders.
To coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only advisory power to the President, but several of the members who statutorily comprise the council (the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Energy and the Secretary of Defense) possess executive authority over their own departments.
Just as the President, the Secretary of Defense, and the Secretary of Homeland Security, are in charge of the entire military establishment, maintaining civilian control of the military, so too are each of the Defense Department 's constitutive military departments headed by civilians. The four DoD branches are organized into three departments, each with civilian heads. The Department of the Army is headed by the Secretary of the Army, the Department of the Navy is headed by the Secretary of the Navy and the Department of the Air Force is headed by the Secretary of the Air Force. The Marine Corps is organized under the Department of the Navy, however it is still considered a separate and equal service. The Coast Guard is under the Department of Homeland Security and receives its operational orders from the Secretary of Homeland Security. However, the Coast Guard may be transferred to the Department of the Navy by the President or Congress during a time of war, thereby placing it within the DoD.
The President, Secretary of Defense and other senior executive officials are advised by a seven - member Joint Chiefs of Staff, which is headed by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest - ranking officer in the United States military and the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The rest of the body is composed of the heads of each of the DoD 's service branches (the Chief of Staff of the Army, the Chief of Naval Operations, the Commandant of the Marine Corps and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force) as well as the Chief of the National Guard Bureau. Although commanding one of the five military branches, the Commandant of the Coast Guard is not a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Despite being composed of the highest - ranking officers in each of the respective branches, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not possess operational command authority. Rather, the Goldwater - Nichols Act charges them only with advisory power.
All of the branches work together during operations and joint missions in Unified Combatant Commands, under the authority of the Secretary of Defense with the typical exception of the Coast Guard. Each of the Unified Combatant Commands is headed by a Combatant Commander, a senior commissioned officer who exercises supreme command authority per 10 U.S.C. § 164 over all of the forces, regardless of branch, within his geographical or functional command. By statute, the chain of command flows from the President to the Secretary of Defense to each of the Combatant Commanders. In practice, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff often acts as an intermediary between the Secretary of Defense and the Combatant Commanders.
The United States has the world 's largest military budget. In the fiscal year 2016, $580.3 billion in funding were enacted for the DoD and for "Overseas Contingency Operations '' in the War on Terrorism. Outside of direct DoD spending, the United States spends another $218 to $262 billion each year on other defense - related programs, such as Veterans Affairs, Homeland Security, nuclear weapons maintenance and DoD.
By military department, $146.9 billion was allocated for the Department of the Army, $168.8 billion for the Department of the Navy, $161.8 billion for the Department of the Air Force and $102.8 billion for DoD - wide spending. By function, $138.6 billion was requested for personnel, $244.4 billion for operations and maintenance, $118.9 billion for procurement, $69.0 billion for research and development, $1.3 billion for revolving and management funds, $6.9 billion for military construction and $1.3 billion for family housing.
The projected active duty end strength in the armed forces for fiscal year 2017 was 1,281,900 servicemembers, with an additional 801,200 people in the seven reserve components. It is an all - volunteer military, but conscription through the Selective Service System can be enacted at the President 's request and Congress ' approval. All males ages 18 through 25 who are living in the United States are required to register with the Selective Service for a potential future draft.
The U.S. Armed Forces is the world 's third largest military, after the Chinese 's People 's Liberation Army and the Indian Armed Forces, and has troops deployed around the globe.
As in most militaries, members of the U.S. Armed Forces hold a rank, either that of officer, warrant officer or enlisted, to determine seniority and eligibility for promotion. Those who have served are known as veterans. Rank names may be different between services, but they are matched to each other by their corresponding paygrade. Officers who hold the same rank or paygrade are distinguished by their date of rank to determine seniority, while officers who serve in certain positions of office of importance set by law, outrank all other officers in active duty of the same rank and paygrade, regardless of their date of rank. Currently, only one in four persons in the United States of the proper age meet the moral, academic and physical standards for military service.
February 2018 Demographic Reports and end strengths for reserve components.
As of 31 December 2010, U.S. Armed Forces troops were stationed in 150 countries; the number of non-contingent deployments per country ranges from 1 in Suriname to over 50,000 in Germany. Some of the largest deployments are: 103,700 in Afghanistan, 52,440 in Germany (see list), 35,688 in Japan (USFJ), 28,500 in South Korea (USFK), 9,660 in Italy and 9,015 in the United Kingdom. These numbers change frequently due to the regular recall and deployment of units.
Altogether, 77,917 military personnel are located in Europe, 141 in the former Soviet Union, 47,236 in East Asia and the Pacific, 3,362 in North Africa, the Near East and South Asia, 1,355 in sub-Saharan Africa and 1,941 in the Western Hemisphere excluding the United States itself.
Including U.S. territories and ships afloat within territorial waters As of 31 December 2009, a total of 1,137,568 personnel were on active duty within the United States and its territories (including 84,461 afloat). The vast majority (941,629 personnel) were stationed at bases within the contiguous United States. There were an additional 37,245 in Hawaii and 20,450 in Alaska while 84,461 were at sea, 2,972 in Guam and 179 in Puerto Rico.
Prospective service members are often recruited from high school or college, the target age ranges being 18 -- 35 in the Army, 18 -- 28 in the Marine Corps, 18 -- 34 in the Navy, 18 -- 39 in the Air Force and 18 -- 27 (up to age 32 if qualified for attending guaranteed "A '' school) in the Coast Guard. With the permission of a parent or guardian, applicants can enlist at age 17 and participate in the Delayed Entry Program (DEP), in which the applicant is given the opportunity to participate in locally sponsored military activities, which can range from sports to competitions led by recruiters or other military liaisons (each recruiting station 's DEP varies).
After enlistment, new recruits undergo basic training (also known as "boot camp '' in the Marine Corps, Navy and Coast Guard), followed by schooling in their primary Military Occupational Specialty (MOS), rating and Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) at any of the numerous training facilities around the United States. Each branch conducts basic training differently. The Marine Corps send all non-infantry MOS 's to an infantry skills course known as Marine Combat Training prior to their technical schools. Air Force Basic Military Training graduates attend Technical Training and are awarded their Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC) at the apprentice (3) skill level. All Army recruits undergo Basic Combat Training (BCT), followed by Advanced Individual Training (AIT), with the exceptions of cavalry scouts, infantry, armor, combat engineers and military police recruits who go to One Station Unit Training (OSUT), which combines BCT and AIT. The Navy sends its recruits to Recruit Training and then to "A '' schools to earn a rating. The Coast Guard 's recruits attend basic training and follow with an "A '' school to earn a rating.
Initially, recruits without higher education or college degrees will hold the pay grade of E-1 and will be elevated to E-2 usually soon after basic training. Different services have different incentive programs for enlistees, such as higher initial ranks for college credit, being an Eagle Scout and referring friends who go on to enlist as well. Participation in DEP is one way recruits can achieve rank before their departure to basic training.
There are several different authorized pay grade advancement requirements in each junior - enlisted rank category (E-1 to E-3), which differ by service. Enlistees in the Army can attain the initial pay grade of E-4 (specialist) with a four - year degree, but the highest initial pay grade is usually E-3 (members of the Army Band program can expect to enter service at the grade of E-4). Promotion through the junior enlisted ranks occurs after serving for a specified number of years (which can be waived by the soldier 's chain of command), a specified level of technical proficiency or maintenance of good conduct. Promotion can be denied with reason.
With very few exceptions, becoming a non-commissioned officer (NCO) or petty officer in the U.S. Armed Forces is accomplished by progression through the lower enlisted ranks. However, unlike promotion through the lower enlisted tier, promotion to NCO is generally competitive. NCO ranks begin at E-4 or E-5, depending upon service and are generally attained between three and six years of service. Junior NCOs function as first - line supervisors and squad leaders, training the junior enlisted in their duties and guiding their career advancement.
While considered part of the non-commissioned officer corps by law, senior non-commissioned officers (SNCOs) referred to as chief petty officers in the Navy and Coast Guard, or staff non-commissioned officers in the Marine Corps, perform duties more focused on leadership rather than technical expertise. Promotion to the SNCO ranks, E-7 through E-9 (E-6 through E-9 in the Marine Corps) is highly competitive. Personnel totals at the pay grades of E-8 and E-9 are limited by federal law to 2.5 percent and 1 percent of a service 's enlisted force, respectively. SNCOs act as leaders of small units and as staff. Some SNCOs manage programs at headquarters level and a select few wield responsibility at the highest levels of the military structure. Most unit commanders have a SNCO as an enlisted advisor. All SNCOs are expected to mentor junior commissioned officers as well as the enlisted in their duty sections. The typical enlistee can expect to attain SNCO rank after 10 to 16 years of service.
Each of the five services employs a single Senior Enlisted Advisor at departmental level. This individual is the highest ranking enlisted member within that respective service and functions as the chief advisor to the service secretary, service chief and Congress on matters concerning the enlisted force. These individuals carry responsibilities and protocol requirements equivalent to three - star general or flag officers. They are as follows:
Additionally, all services except for the Air Force have an active warrant officer corps. Above the rank of warrant Officer One, these officers may also be commissioned, but usually serve in a more technical and specialized role within units. More recently, they can also serve in more traditional leadership roles associated with the more recognizable officer corps. With one notable exception (Army helicopter and fixed - wing pilots), these officers ordinarily have already been in the military often serving in senior NCO positions in the field in which they later serve as a warrant officer as a technical expert. Most Army pilots have served some enlisted time. It is also possible to enlist, complete basic training, go directly to the Warrant Officer Candidate School at Fort Rucker, Alabama and then on to flight school.
Warrant officers in the U.S. military garner the same customs and courtesies as commissioned officers. They may attend the officer 's club, receive a command and are saluted by junior warrant officers and all enlisted service members.
The Air Force ceased to grant warrants in 1959 when the enlisted grades of E-8 and E-9 were created. Most non-flying duties performed by warrant officers in other services are instead performed by senior NCOs in the Air Force.
Officers receive a commission in one of the branches of the U.S. Armed Forces through one of the following routes.
Officers receive a commission assigning them to the officer corps from the President with the Senate 's consent. To accept this commission, all officers must take an oath of office.
Through their careers, officers usually will receive further training at one or a number of the many staff colleges.
Company grade officers in pay grades O - 1 through O - 3 (known as "junior '' officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) function as leaders of smaller units or sections of a unit, typically with an experienced SNCO (or CPO in the Navy and Coast Guard) assistant and mentor.
Field grade officers in pay grades O - 4 through O - 6 (known as "senior '' officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) lead significantly larger and more complex operations, with gradually more competitive promotion requirements.
General officers, (known as flag officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) serve at the highest levels and oversee major portions of the military mission.
These are ranks of the highest honor and responsibility in the U.S. Armed Forces, but they are almost never given during peacetime and only a very small number of officers during wartime have held a five - star rank:
No corresponding rank exists for the Marine Corps or the Coast Guard. As with three - and four - star ranks, Congress is the approving authority for a five - star rank confirmation.
The rank of General of the Armies is considered senior to General of the Army, but was never held by active duty officers at the same time as persons who held the rank of General of the Army. It has been held by two people: John J. Pershing who received the rank in 1919 after World War I and George Washington who received it posthumously in 1976 as part of the American Bicentennial celebrations. Pershing, appointed to General of the Armies in active duty status for life, was still alive at the time of the first five - star appointments during World War II and was thereby acknowledged as superior in grade by seniority to any World War II -- era Generals of the Army. George Washington 's appointment by Public Law 94 - 479 to General of the Armies of the United States was established by law as having "rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present '', making him not only superior to Pershing, but superior to any grade in the Army in perpetuity.
In the Navy, the rank of Admiral of the Navy theoretically corresponds to that of General of the Armies, though it was never held by active - duty officers at the same time as persons who held the rank of Fleet Admiral. George Dewey is the only person to have ever held this rank. After the establishment of the rank of Fleet Admiral in 1944, the Department of the Navy specified that the rank of Fleet Admiral was to be junior to the rank of Admiral of the Navy. However, since Dewey died in 1917 before the establishment of the rank of Fleet Admiral, the six - star rank has not been totally confirmed.
The Woman 's Army Auxiliary Corps was established in the United States in 1942. Women saw combat during World War II, first as nurses in the Pearl Harbor attacks on 7 December 1941. The Woman 's Naval Reserve, Marine Corps Women 's Reserve and Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) were also created during this conflict. In 1944, WACs arrived in the Pacific and landed in Normandy on D - Day. During the war, 67 Army nurses and 16 Navy nurses were captured and spent three years as Japanese prisoners of war. There were 350,000 American women who served during World War II and 16 were killed in action. In total, they gained over 1,500 medals, citations and commendations. Virginia Hall, serving with the Office of Strategic Services, received the second - highest U.S. combat award, the Distinguished Service Cross, for action behind enemy lines in France.
After World War II, demobilization led to the vast majority of serving women being returned to civilian life. Law 625, The Women 's Armed Services Act of 1948, was signed by President Truman, allowing women to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces in fully integrated units during peace time, with only the WAC remaining a separate female unit. During the Korean War of 1950 -- 1953, many women served in the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals, with women serving in Korea numbering 120,000 during the conflict. During the Vietnam War, 600 women served in the country as part of the Air Force, along with 500 members of the WAC and over 6,000 medical personnel and support staff. The Ordnance Corps began accepting female missile technicians in 1974 and female crewmembers and officers were accepted into Field Artillery missile units.
In 1974, the first six women naval aviators earned their wings as Navy pilots. The Congressionally mandated prohibition on women in combat places limitations on the pilots ' advancement, but at least two retired as captains. In 1989, Captain Linda L. Bray, 29, became the first woman to command American soldiers in battle during the invasion of Panama. The 1991 Gulf War proved to be the pivotal time for the role of women in the U.S. Armed Forces to come to the attention of the world media; there are many reports of women engaging enemy forces during the conflict.
In the 2000s, women can serve on U.S. combat ships, including in command roles. They are permitted to serve on submarines. Women can fly military aircraft and make up 2 % of all pilots in the U.S. Military. In 2003, Major Kim Campbell was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for landing her combat damaged A-10 Thunderbolt II with no hydraulic control and only one functional engine after being struck by hostile fire over Baghdad.
On 3 December 2015, U.S. Defense Secretary Ashton Carter announced that all military combat jobs would become available to women. This gave women access to the roughly 10 % of military jobs which were previously closed off due to their combat nature. The decision gave military services until January 2016 to seek exceptions to the rule if they believe that certain jobs, such as machine gunners, should be restricted to men only. These restrictions were due in part to prior studies which stated that mixed gender units are less capable in combat. Physical requirements for all jobs remained unchanged, though. Many women believe this will allow for them to improve their positions in the military, since most high - ranking officers start in combat positions. Since women are now available to work in any position in the military, female entry into the draft has been proposed.
Sergeant Leigh Ann Hester became the first woman to receive the Silver Star, the third - highest U.S. decoration for valor, for direct participation in combat. In Afghanistan, Monica Lin Brown was presented the Silver Star for shielding wounded soldiers with her body. In March 2012, the U.S. military had two women, Ann E. Dunwoody and Janet C. Wolfenbarger, with the rank of four - star general. In 2016, Air Force General Lori Robinson became the first female officer to command a major Unified Combatant Command (USNORTHCOM) in the history of the United States Armed Forces.
Despite concerns of a gender gap, all personnel both men and women at the same rank and time of service are compensated the same rate across all branches.
A study conducted by the RAND Corporation also suggests that women who make the military their career see an improved rate of promotion, as they climb through the military ranks at a faster rate.
Under current Department of Defense regulation, the various components of the U.S. Armed Forces have a set order of seniority. Examples of the use of this system include the display of service flags, placement of Soldiers, Marines, Sailors, Airmen and Coast Guardsmen in formation, etc. When the Coast Guard shall operate as part of the Department of the Navy, United States Coast Guard Academy cadets, the United States Coast Guard and the Coast Guard Reserve shall take precedence after United States Naval Academy midshipmen; the United States Navy; and Navy Reserve, respectively.
Note: While the U.S. Navy is older than the Marine Corps, the Marine Corps takes precedence due to previous inconsistencies in the Navy 's birth date. The Marine Corps has recognized its observed birth date on a more consistent basis. The Second Continental Congress is considered to have established the Navy on 13 October 1775 by authorizing the purchase of ships, but did not actually pass the "Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies '' until 27 November 1775. The Marine Corps was established by act of said Congress on 10 November 1775. The Navy did not officially recognize 13 October 1775 as its birth date until 1972, when then -- Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Elmo Zumwalt authorized it to be observed as such.
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what type of bridge is the donghai bridge | Donghai bridge - Wikipedia
Donghai Bridge (Chinese: t 東海 大橋, s 东海 大桥, p Dōnghǎi Dàqiáo, Wu Tonhe Dujiau lit. "East China Sea Bridge '') is a Chinese bridge counted among the longest cross-sea bridges in the world. It was completed on December 10, 2005. It has a total length of 32.5 kilometres (20.2 mi) and connects mainland Shanghai 's Pudong New Area with the offshore Yangshan Deep - Water Port in Zhejiang 's Shengsi County. Most of the bridge is a low - level viaduct. There are also cable - stayed sections to allow for the passage of large ships, the largest with a span of 420 metres (1,380 ft). Donghai Bridge is part of the S2 Hulu Expressway.
The bridge has a long and narrow speedway and does not allow vehicles that do not meet the weight requirements.
On 29 January 2014, Shanghai 's urban planning authorities announced that they would build a second bridge combining road and rail to help meet growing transport demands for the Yangshan deep - water port.
Media related to Donghai Bridge at Wikimedia Commons
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when was the last time the us has been to the moon | Moon landing - Wikipedia
Luna programme (USSR) Chang'e 3 (China)
Surveyor program (USA) Apollo program (USA)
A Moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. This includes both manned and unmanned (robotic) missions. The first human - made object to reach the surface of the Moon was the Soviet Union 's Luna 2 mission, on 13 September 1959.
The United States ' Apollo 11 was the first manned mission to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969. There have been six manned U.S. landings (between 1969 and 1972) and numerous unmanned landings, with no soft landings happening from 22 August 1976 until 14 December 2013.
To date, the United States is the only country to have successfully conducted manned missions to the Moon, with the last departing the lunar surface in December 1972.
After the unsuccessful attempt by the Luna 1 to land on the moon in 1959, the Soviet Union performed the first hard (unpowered) moon landing later that same year with the Luna 2 spacecraft, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 with Ranger 4. Since then, twelve Soviet and U.S. spacecraft have used braking rockets to make soft landings and perform scientific operations on the lunar surface, between 1966 and 1976. In 1966 the USSR accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during the Luna 9 and Luna 13 missions. The U.S. followed with five unmanned Surveyor soft landings.
The Soviet Union achieved the first unmanned lunar soil sample return with the Luna 16 probe on 24 September 1970. This was followed by Luna 20 and Luna 24 in 1972 and 1976, respectively. Following the failure at launch in 1969 of the first Lunokhod, Luna E-8 No. 201, the Luna 17 and Luna 21 were successful unmanned lunar rover missions in 1970 and 1973.
Many missions were failures at launch. In addition, several unmanned landing missions achieved the Lunar surface but were unsuccessful, including: Luna 15, Luna 18, and Luna 23 all crashed on landing; and the U.S. Surveyor 4 lost all radio contact only moments before its landing.
More recently, other nations have crashed spacecraft on the surface of the Moon at speeds of around 8,000 kilometres per hour (5,000 mph), often at precise, planned locations. These have generally been end - of - life lunar orbiters that, because of system degradations, could no longer overcome perturbations from lunar mass concentrations ("masscons '') to maintain their orbit. Japan 's lunar orbiter Hiten impacted the Moon 's surface on 10 April 1993. The European Space Agency performed a controlled crash impact with their orbiter SMART - 1 on 3 September 2006.
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) performed a controlled crash impact with its Moon Impact Probe (MIP) on 14 November 2008. The MIP was an ejected probe from the Indian Chandrayaan - 1 lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface.
The Chinese lunar orbiter Chang'e 1 executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009. The rover mission Chang'e 3 was launched on 1 December 2013 and soft - landed on 14 December.
A total of twelve men have landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two US pilot - astronauts flying a Lunar Module on each of six NASA missions across a 41 - month period starting on 20 July 1969 UTC, with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on Apollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 UTC with Gene Cernan and Jack Schmitt on Apollo 17. Cernan was the last to step off the lunar surface.
All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board the Command Module. The last three missions had a rover for increased mobility.
In order to go to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave the gravity well of the Earth. The only practical way of accomplishing this currently is with a rocket. Unlike other airborne vehicles such as balloons or jets, a rocket is the only known form of propulsion which can continue to increase its speed at high altitudes in the vacuum outside the Earth 's atmosphere.
Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a "hard landing '' impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a "soft landing '' (which is the only viable option with human occupants). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard moon landing with a ruggedized seismometer package in 1962 all failed. The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first unmanned soft lunar landing by the U.S.
The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100 % of the escape velocity of the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon 's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth 's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi / s). The change in velocity (referred to as a delta - v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the original launch vehicle as part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing on Titan carried out by the Huygens probe in 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by using atmospheric entry techniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability.
The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959. Crash landings may occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have been many such moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program the S - IVB third stage of the Saturn V moon rocket as well as the spent ascent stage of the lunar module were deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as a moonquake on seismometers that had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping the internal structure of the Moon.
To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape the gravity well of the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb the kinetic energy of a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing. These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon 's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter 's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields and parachutes must in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree.
The intense efforts devoted in the 1960s to achieving first an unmanned and then ultimately a manned moon landing become easier to understand in the political context of its historical era. World War II had introduced many new and deadly innovations including blitzkrieg - style surprise attacks used in the invasion of Poland and in the attack on Pearl Harbor; the V - 2 rocket, a ballistic missile which killed thousands in attacks on London and Antwerp; and the atom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union that had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of the hydrogen bomb.
Willy Ley wrote in 1957 that a rocket to the Moon "could be built later this year if somebody can be found to sign some papers ''. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 as the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth and so initiated the Space Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear - tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes. Also, the steady beeping of the radio beacon aboard Sputnik 1 as it passed overhead every 96 minutes was widely viewed on both sides as effective propaganda to Third World countries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Soviet political system compared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid - fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R - 7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth 's gravity into a solar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never - before - seen far side of the Moon. These were the Luna 1, Luna 2, and Luna 3 spacecraft.
The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency, NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so - called missile gap and enable a policy of deterrence to nuclear war with the Soviets known as mutual assured destruction or MAD. These newly developed missiles were made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets).
While NASA stressed peaceful and scientific uses for these rockets, their use in various lunar exploration efforts also had secondary goal of realistic, goal - oriented testing of the missiles themselves and development of associated infrastructure, just as the Soviets were doing with their R - 7.
After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public "Luna '' mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a "Sputnik '' or "Cosmos '' Earth - orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all.
In contrast to Soviet lunar exploration triumphs in 1959, success eluded initial U.S. efforts to reach the Moon with the Pioneer and Ranger programs. Fifteen consecutive U.S. unmanned lunar missions over a six - year period from 1958 to 1964 all failed their primary photographic missions; however, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions.
Failures included three U.S. attempts in 1962 to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to use retrorockets to survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunar reconnaissance photography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km / h).
Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on the Thor booster modified with an Able upper stage carried an infrared image scanning television system with a resolution of 1 milliradian to study the Moon 's surface, an ionization chamber to measure radiation in space, a diaphragm / microphone assembly to detect micrometeorites, a magnetometer, and temperature - variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions. The first, a mission managed by the United States Air Force, exploded during launch; all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and 1,450 kilometres (900 mi), far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon.
NASA then collaborated with the United States Army 's Ballistic Missile Agency to fly two extremely small cone - shaped probes on the Juno ICBM, carrying only photocells which would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using a Geiger - Müller tube detector. The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), serendipitously gathering data that established the presence of the Van Allen radiation belts before reentering Earth 's atmosphere. The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on - board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach a solar orbit.
The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four "paddlewheel '' solar panels extending from a one - meter diameter spherical spin - stabilized spacecraft body that was equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television - like system, estimate the Moon 's mass and topography of the poles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measure magnetic fields, detect low frequency electromagnetic waves in space and use a sophisticated integrated propulsion system for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well. None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on its Atlas ICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage.
Following the unsuccessful Atlas - Able Pioneer probes, NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory embarked upon an unmanned spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known as Mariners; lunar versions were Rangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon; Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package; and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide - area photographs of the Moon during their descent.
The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical. Spacecraft experiments included a Lyman - alpha telescope, a rubidium - vapor magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium - energy - range particle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic - ray integrating ionization chamber, cosmic dust detectors, and scintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and a perigee of 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi).
From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of the magnetosphere over a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high - bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one - shot fifteen - minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earth parking orbit after launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days.
The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States. All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact - limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono - propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds - force (22.5 kN), and a gold - and chrome - plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code - named Tonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquid freon. A 42 kg (56 pounds) 30 - centimetre - diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere.
This payload sphere contained six silver - cadmium batteries to power a fifty - milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer that was designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 5 lb (2.3 kg) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch.
No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200 - scan - line television camera which was to capture images during the free - fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds. Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took picture (which may be viewed here).
Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid - fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface.
On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in - flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of prior heat sterilization of the spacecraft by keeping it above the boiling point of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in - flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon.
Heat sterilization was discontinued for the final four Block III Ranger probes. These replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo manned Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high - altitude photographs in the final twenty - minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. While Ranger 6 suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequent Ranger 7 mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success.
Breaking the six - year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, the Ranger 7 mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through the United States Congress intact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo manned Moon landing program. Subsequent successes with Ranger 8 and Ranger 9 further buoyed U.S. hopes.
The Luna 9 spacecraft, launched by the Soviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February, 1966. Airbags protected its 99 kilograms (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km / h). Luna 13 duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface.
Luna 16 was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth. It represented the first lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union, and was the third lunar sample return mission overall, following the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions. This mission was later successfully repeated by Luna 20 (1972) and Luna 24 (1976).
In 1970 and 1973 two Lunokhod ("Moonwalker '') robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions.
The U.S. robotic Surveyor program was part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions the radar and landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor 's seven missions made successful unmanned Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long - term exposure to the lunar environment.
Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with unmanned spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming manned landers with their much greater weight.
However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50 kilometres (31 mi) - per - hour ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160 kilometres (99 mi) - per - hour impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar - controlled, adjustable - thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a manned flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so - called Space Race to land a man on the Moon.
Advances in other areas were necessary before manned spacecraft could follow unmanned ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all utilized flight paths from Earth that traveled directly to the lunar surface without first placing the spacecraft in a lunar orbit. Such direct ascents use a minimum amount of fuel for unmanned spacecraft on a one - way trip.
In contrast, manned vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth - return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to a lunar orbit rendezvous mission profile for a manned Moon landing.
Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions which featured lunar orbit operations as a necessary prerequisite to a manned Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial unmanned orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of manned landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings.
An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon 's maria. Such mass concentrations ("mascons '') can send a manned mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low - altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years.
Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASA Lunar Prospector orbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume that would be detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientist Eugene Shoemaker was delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor -- currently the only human remains on the Moon.
Luna 10 became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966.
It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so that it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so - called free return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a manned circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges above and beyond those found in a manned low - Earth - orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a manned Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth 's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon.
Manned Earth - orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km / h; 7,600 m / s). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth 's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 25,000 miles per hour (40,000 km / h; 11,000 m / s). The g - loading on astronauts during the resulting deceleration can be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force.
Achieving a manned circumlunar loop flight prior to a manned lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with their Zond spacecraft program. The first three Zonds were unmanned planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate manned program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high - speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a manned circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose.
Initial manned spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the Soviet Vostok and U.S. Mercury programs. A two - flight extension of the Vostok program known as Voskhod effectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in ten Gemini low Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second - generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove critical techniques for orbital rendezvous and docking that were crucial to a manned lunar landing mission profile.
After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviets Union began flying their second - generation Zond manned spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him immediately to Earth. The Zond spacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operational Proton launch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet manned Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third - generation Soyuz spacecraft requiring development of the advanced N - 1 booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a manned Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. manned lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort.
Like Zond, Apollo Moon flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop in the event that a Service Module malfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit as planned. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard the Apollo 13 mission in 1970, which is the only manned circumlunar loop mission flown to date.
Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of the Space Race with its payload of turtles, insects, plants and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both of these Zond missions flew off - nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to human crewmembers had they been aboard.
As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue unmanned Zond tests until their reliability to support manned flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA 's continuing problems with the lunar module, and because of CIA reports of a potential Soviet manned circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan of Apollo 8 from an Earth - orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968.
In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site in Baikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon. Cosmonauts went on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first manned trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the Soviet Politburo decided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond / Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a manned Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another unmanned test when it was finally launched several weeks later.
By this time flights of the third generation U.S. Apollo spacecraft had begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. The Apollo 8 mission carried out the first manned trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying the Saturn V booster for manned use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. Apollo 10 then performed a full dress rehearsal of a manned Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 47,400 feet (14.4 km) altitude above the lunar surface, performing necessary low - altitude mapping of trajectory - altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module that was too overweight to allow a successful landing. With the failure of the unmanned Soviet sample return Moon landing attempt Luna 15 in July 1969, the stage was set for Apollo 11.
Plans for manned Moon exploration originated during the Eisenhower administration. In a series of mid-1950s articles in Collier 's magazine, Wernher von Braun had popularized the idea of a manned expedition to the Moon to establish a lunar base. A manned Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management, atmospheric re-entry without ablative overheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviet Union 's launch of Sputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the United States Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965.
After the early Soviet successes, especially Yuri Gagarin 's flight, US President John F. Kennedy looked for a US project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice President Lyndon Johnson to make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit the Third World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the United States, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission.
Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads, and consequently, rockets with smaller payload capacities. By comparison, Soviet nuclear weapons were much heavier, and the powerful R - 7 rocket was developed to carry them. More modest potential missions such as flying around the Moon without landing or establishing a space lab in orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun) were determined to offer too much advantage to the Soviets, since the US would have to develop a heavy rocket to match the Soviets. A Moon landing, however, would capture world imagination while functioning as propaganda.
Johnson had championed the US manned space program ever since the Sputnik scare, sponsoring the legislation which created NASA when he was in the Senate in 1958. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best manned space achievement to counter the Soviets ' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating the USSR to a manned lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. This last dismayed NASA 's leader, James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA 's support from the scientific community.
The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn V launch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record of zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle - caused mission failures, in thirteen launches.
For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians on the left, who wanted more money spent on social programs, and on those on the right, who favored a more military project. By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnson became President in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy planned.
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said in October 1963 that the USSR was "not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon, '' while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year would the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon - landing attempt, which ultimately failed.
At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather - monitoring satellites. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Sergey Korolev, the Soviet space program 's chief designer, had started promoting his Soyuz craft and the N1 launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a manned Moon landing.
Khrushchev directed Korolev 's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a manned cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all manned projects under his direction.
With Korolev 's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, the co-ordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for the mission that would have placed Aleksei Leonov on the Moon 's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a manned landing suffered first delay and then cancellation.
A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks. This had several failures. It eventually succeeded with Luna 16. But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then.
In total, twenty - four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar - orbit - only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly - by, by means of free return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth - orbit - only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of manned Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronaut Alan Bean is the cost it imposes in government subsidies.
Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has remained unaffected in a direct way regarding the desire for territorial expansion. After the successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.
President Richard Nixon had speechwriter William Safire prepare a condolence speech for delivery in the event that Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon 's surface and could not be rescued.
In 1951, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke forecast that man would reach the Moon by 1978.
On 16 August 2006, the Associated Press reported that NASA is missing the original Slow - scan television tapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported that the SSTV tapes were found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11 Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.
Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation. Using LROC images, five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11.
Launched on 24 January 1990, 11: 46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiter Hiten was commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18: 03: 25.7 UT (11 April 03: 03: 25.7 JST).
Lunar Prospector was launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected.
Launched 27 September 2003, 23: 14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, the ESA lunar orbiter SMART - 1 performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km / s. The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5: 42 UTC.
SELENE or Kaguya was launched on 14 September 2007. After successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the crater Gill at 18: 25 UTC on 10 June 2009.
The Chinese lunar orbiter Chang'e 1, launched 24 October 2007, 10: 05 UTC, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20: 44 GMT, after a 16 - month mission.
Chandrayaan - 1 was launched on 22 October 2008, 00: 52 UTC. The impactor, the Moon Impact Probe, impacted near Shackleton Crater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20: 31 IST. Chandrayaan - 2 is scheduled for launch in 2018.
The LCROSS data collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board an Atlas V rocket with a Centaur upper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11: 31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kinetic energy equivalent of detonating approximately 2 tons of TNT (8.86 GJ). Six minutes later at 11: 37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface.
The GRAIL mission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board a Delta II rocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later. The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012. The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012.
LADEE was launched on 7 September 2013. The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft 's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into the far side of the Moon, which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim of Sundman V crater.
On 14 December 2013 at 13: 12 UTC Chang'e 3 soft - landed a rover on the Moon. This was the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 on 22 August 1976.
Progress in space exploration has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the Solar System as well. The Huygens probe of the Cassini -- Huygens mission to Saturn performed a successful unmanned moon landing on Titan in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe Phobos 2 came within 120 mi (190 km) of performing an unmanned moon landing on Mars ' moon Phobos in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called Fobos - Grunt ("grunt '' means "soil '' in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on Jupiter 's Europa moon to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.
China is planning to land another rover and collect samples in the Chang'e 4 mission and return lunar soil samples by 2018 in the Chang'e 5 mission.
ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, is planning a second version of Chandrayaan named Chandrayaan 2. According to former ISRO Chairman G. Madhavan Nair, "The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) hopes to land two rovers -- one Indian and another Russian -- on the Moon in 2018, as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission. The rover will be designed to move on wheels on the lunar surface, pick up samples of soil or rocks, do on - site chemical analysis and send the data to the mother - spacecraft Chandrayaan II, which will be orbiting above. Chandrayaan II will transmit the data to Earth. '' The payloads have already been finalized. ISRO has mentioned that due to weight restrictions it will not be carrying any overseas payloads on this mission. The lander weight is projected to be 1,250 kg, and the spacecraft will be launched by the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle.
Russia 's Luna - Glob 1 is expected to be launched in 2018. In 2007 the head of the Russian Space Agency announced plans to send cosmonauts to the Moon by 2025 and establish a permanent robotically operated base there in 2027 -- 2032. In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place a cosmonaut on the Moon by 2030, leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid another Space Race.
The Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP) is a program of robotic spacecraft missions which NASA will use to prepare for future Moon landings. Three orbiters have been launched in the program, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), and the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), launched in 2013, but no Moon landings are scheduled yet.
The Google Lunar X Prize competition offers a $20 million award for the first privately funded team to land a robotic probe on the Moon. Like the Ansari X Prize before it, the competition aims to advance the state of the art in private space exploration. Of the several competing teams, Puli Space Technologies at one time (2012) planned to launch in 2014 and Astrobotic Technology plans to launch in the second half of 2016 with their own rover plus another team 's lunar rovers from Hakuto.
In 2019, a consortium of Vodafone, Audi and PT Scientists are planning a moon landing. The mission is to launch a lander and two small rovers to the moon from Cape Canaveral, Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket during the 50th - anniversary year of NASA 's Apollo 11 moon landing. Nokia will assist to setup a LTE network in moon to manage lunar terrestrial communication system of the mission.
Many conspiracy theorists hold that the Apollo Moon landings were a hoax; however, empirical evidence is readily available to show that manned moon landings did indeed occur. Anyone on Earth with an appropriate laser and telescope system can bounce laser beams off three retroreflector arrays left on the Moon by Apollo 11, 14 and 15, verifying deployment of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment at historically documented Apollo Moon landing sites and so proving equipment constructed on Earth was successfully transported to the surface of the Moon. In addition, in August 2009 NASA 's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter began to send back high resolution photos of the Apollo landing sites. These photos show not only the large Descent Stages of the lunar landers left behind but also tracks of the astronauts ' walking paths in the lunar dust.
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franklin leonard the creator of the black list | Franklin Leonard - wikipedia
Franklin Leonard is an American film executive best known for founding The Black List, a yearly publication featuring Hollywood 's most popular unproduced screenplays. After working as a development executive for Overbrook Entertainment and Universal Pictures, Leonard is currently an adviser to BoomGen Studios and Plympton. Leonard serves on the board of directors for Young Storytellers.
After graduating magna cum laude from Harvard University in 2000 in Social Studies, Leonard began his career as the Communications Director for John Cranley 's campaign for the United States House of Representatives in Ohio 's first district. He went on to work as a columnist for the Trinidad Guardian, an analyst for McKinsey & Company, and an assistant for Creative Artists Agency.
Beginning in 2004, Leonard worked as a development executive for John Goldwyn Productions, Appian Way Productions, and Mirage Entertainment. While working at Appian Way in 2005, he came up with the concept behind "The Black List, '' forwarding a spreadsheet to seventy five fellow producers to collect the names of well - known but unproduced screenplays. After becoming an instant success, The Black List was adapted into a website and has provided over two hundred screenplays which later became feature films. The vast majority of The Black List scripts however were already purchased or commissioned by large studios, prior to being placed on The Black List.
Leonard went on to become one of the youngest executives at Universal Pictures, serving as Director of Development and Production. Two years later, he was Vice President of Creative Affairs at Will Smith 's production company, Overbrook Entertainment. Leonard shared the title with Smith 's brother - in - law Caleeb Pinkett, and later left the company after two years.
Besides his full - time work on The Black List, Leonard is currently an adviser to Plympton, a literary studio that specializes in serialized fiction, and BoomGen Studios, where he assisted in developing the transmedia graphic novel 1001. He is also a Judge on the Afrinolly Short Film Competition; Africa 's most prestigious Short Film Competition with a $25,000 first place cash prize to winners. He currently serves on the board of directors for Young Storytellers, an arts education nonprofit organization.
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what are the four parts of disney world | Walt Disney World - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 23 ′ 07 '' N 81 ° 33 ′ 50 '' W / 28.385233 ° N 81.563874 ° W / 28.385233; - 81.563874 The Walt Disney World Resort is an entertainment complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, near Orlando and Kissimmee, Florida. Opened on October 1, 1971, the resort is owned and operated by Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, a division of The Walt Disney Company. It was initially operated by Walt Disney World Company. The property covers 27,258 acres (43 sq mi; 110 km), featuring four theme parks, two water parks, twenty - seven themed resort hotels, nine non -- Disney hotels, several golf courses, a camping resort, and other entertainment venues, including Disney Springs.
Designed to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955, the complex was developed by Walt Disney in the 1960s. "The Florida Project '', as it was known, was intended to present a distinct vision with its own diverse set of attractions. Walt Disney 's original plans also called for the inclusion of an "Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow '' (EPCOT), a planned community intended to serve as a test bed for new city living innovations. After extensive lobbying, the Government of Florida created the Reedy Creek Improvement District, a special government district that essentially gave The Walt Disney Company the standard powers and autonomy of an incorporated city. Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, before construction began. Without Disney spearheading the construction, the company created a resort similar to Disneyland, abandoning experimental concepts for a planned community. Magic Kingdom was the first theme park to open in the complex, in 1971, followed by Epcot in 1982, Disney 's Hollywood Studios in 1989, and the most recent, Disney 's Animal Kingdom in 1998.
Today, Walt Disney World is the most visited vacation resort in the world, with an average annual attendance of over 52 million. The resort is the flagship destination of Disney 's worldwide corporate enterprise, and has become a popular staple in American culture.
In 1959, Walt Disney Productions began looking for land to house a second resort to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955. Market surveys at the time revealed that only 5 % of Disneyland 's visitors came from east of the Mississippi River, where 75 % of the population of the United States lived. Additionally, Walt Disney disliked the businesses that had sprung up around Disneyland and wanted more control over a larger area of land in the next project.
Walt Disney flew over a potential site in Orlando, Florida -- one of many -- in November 1963. After witnessing the well - developed network of roads and taking the planned construction of both Interstate 4 and Florida 's Turnpike into account, with McCoy Air Force Base (later Orlando International Airport) to the east, Disney selected a centrally - located site near Bay Lake. To avoid a burst of land speculation, Walt Disney World Company used various dummy corporations to acquire 30,500 acres (48 sq mi; 123 km) of land. In May 1965, some of these major land transactions were recorded a few miles southwest of Orlando in Osceola County. In addition, two large tracts totaling $1.5 million were sold, and smaller tracts of flatlands and cattle pastures were purchased by exotically - named companies such as the "Ayefour Corporation '', "Latin - American Development and Management Corporation '' and the "Reedy Creek Ranch Corporation ''. Some are now memorialized on a window above Main Street, U.S.A. in Magic Kingdom. The smaller parcels of land acquired were called "outs ''. They were 5 - acre (2 ha) lots platted in 1912 by the Munger Land Company and sold to investors. Most of the owners in the 1960s were happy to get rid of the land, which was mostly swamp at the time. Another issue was the mineral rights to the land, which were owned by Tufts University. Without the transfer of these rights, Tufts could come in at any time and demand the removal of buildings to obtain minerals. Eventually, Disney 's team negotiated a deal with Tufts to buy the mineral rights for $15,000.
Working strictly in secrecy, real estate agents unaware of their client 's identity began making offers to landowners in April 1964 in parts of southwest Orange and northwest Osceola counties. The agents were careful not to reveal the extent of their intentions, and they were able to negotiate numerous land contracts with some including large tracts of land for as little as $100 an acre. With the understanding that the recording of the first deeds would trigger intense public scrutiny, Disney delayed the filing of paperwork until a large portion of the land was under contract.
Early rumors and speculation about the land purchases assumed possible development by NASA in support of the nearby Kennedy Space Center, as well as references to other famous investors such as Ford, the Rockefellers, and Howard Hughes. An Orlando Sentinel news article published weeks later on May 20, 1965, acknowledged a popular rumor that Disney was building an "East Coast '' version of Disneyland. However, the publication denied its accuracy based on an earlier interview with Disney at Kennedy Space Center, in which he claimed a $50 million investment was in the works for Disneyland, and that he had no interest in building a new park. In October 1965, editor Emily Bavar from the Sentinel visited Disneyland during the park 's 10th - anniversary celebration. In an interview with Disney, she asked him if he was behind recent land purchases in Central Florida; Bavar later described that Disney "looked like I had thrown a bucket of water in his face '' before denying the story. His reaction, combined with other research obtained during her Anaheim visit, led Bavar to author a story on October 21, 1965, where she predicted that Disney was building a second theme park in Florida. Three days later after gathering more information from various sources, the Sentinel published another article headlined, "We Say: ' Mystery Industry ' Is Disney ''.
Walt Disney had originally planned to publicly reveal Disney World on November 15, 1965, but in light of the Sentinel story, Disney asked Florida Governor Haydon Burns to confirm the story on October 25. His announcement called the new theme park "the greatest attraction in the history of Florida ''. The official reveal was kept on the previously - planned November 15 date, and Disney joined Burns in Orlando for the event.
Walt Disney died from Circulatory Collapse caused by lung cancer on December 15, 1966, before his vision was realized. His brother and business partner, Roy O. Disney, postponed his retirement to oversee construction of the resort 's first phase.
On February 2, 1967, Roy O. Disney held a press conference at the Park Theatres in Winter Park, Florida. The role of EPCOT was emphasized in the film that was played. After the film, it was explained that for Disney World, including EPCOT, to succeed, a special district would have to be formed: the Reedy Creek Improvement District with two cities inside it, Bay Lake and Reedy Creek, now Lake Buena Vista. In addition to the standard powers of an incorporated city, which include the issuance of tax - free bonds, the district would have immunity from any current or future county or state land - use laws. The only areas where the district had to submit to the county and state would be property taxes and elevator inspections. The legislation forming the district and the two cities was signed into law by Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr. on May 12, 1967. The Supreme Court of Florida then ruled in 1968 that the district was allowed to issue tax - exempt bonds for public projects within the district, despite the sole beneficiary being Walt Disney Productions.
The district soon began construction of drainage canals, and Disney built the first roads and the Magic Kingdom. The Contemporary Resort Hotel and Polynesian Village were also completed in time for the park 's opening on October 1, 1971. The Palm and Magnolia golf courses near Magic Kingdom had opened a few weeks before, while Fort Wilderness opened a month later. 24 days after the park opened, Roy O. Disney dedicated the property and declared that it would be known as "Walt Disney World '' in his brother 's honor. In his own words: "Everyone has heard of Ford cars. But have they all heard of Henry Ford, who started it all? Walt Disney World is in memory of the man who started it all, so people will know his name as long as Walt Disney World is here. '' After the dedication, Roy Disney asked Walt 's widow, Lillian, what she thought of Walt Disney World. According to biographer Bob Thomas, she responded, "I think Walt would have approved. '' Roy Disney died at age 78 on December 20, 1971, less than three months after the property opened.
Admission prices in 1971 were $3.50 for adults, $2.50 for juniors under age 18, and one dollar for children under twelve.
Much of Walt Disney 's plans for his Progress City were abandoned after his death after the company board decided that it did not want to be in the business of running a city. The concept evolved into the resort 's second theme park, EPCOT Center (renamed Epcot in 1996), which opened in 1982. While still emulating Walt Disney 's original idea of showcasing new technology, it is closer to a world 's fair than a "community of tomorrow ''. Some of the urban planning concepts from the original idea of EPCOT would instead be integrated into the community of Celebration much later. The resort 's third theme park, Disney - MGM Studios (renamed Disney 's Hollywood Studios in 2008), opened in 1989 and is inspired by show business. The resort 's fourth theme park, Disney 's Animal Kingdom, opened in 1998.
George Kalogridis was named president of the resort in December 2012, replacing Meg Crofton, who had overseen the site since 2006.
On January 21, 2016, the resort 's management structure was changed, with general managers within a theme park being in charge of an area or land, instead of on a functional basis as previously. Theme parks have already had a vice-president overseeing them. Disney Springs and Disney Sports were also affected. Now hotel general managers manage a single hotel instead of some managing multiple hotels.
On October 18, 2017, it was announced that resort visitors can now bring dogs on the following resorts: Disney 's Yacht Club Resort, Disney Port Orleans Resort -- Riverside, Disney 's Art of Animation Resort and Disney 's Fort Wilderness Resort & Campground.
Hurricane Frances causes the second closure on Sept. 15. Hurricane Jeanne closes the resort for its third time on September 26.
The Florida resort is not within Orlando city limits but is southwest of Downtown Orlando. Much of the resort is in southwestern Orange County, with the remainder in adjacent Osceola County. The property includes the cities of Lake Buena Vista and Bay Lake which are governed by the Reedy Creek Improvement District. The site is accessible from Central Florida 's Interstate 4 via Exits 62B (World Drive), 64B (US 192 West), 65B (Osceola Parkway West), 67B (SR 536 West), and 68 (SR 535 North), and Exit 8 on SR 429, the Western Expressway. At its founding, the park occupied approximately 30,500 acres (48 sq mi; 123 km). Portions of the property have since been sold or de-annexed, including land now occupied by the Disney - built community of Celebration. Now the park occupies 27,258 acres (43 sq mi; 110 km), about the size of San Francisco, or twice the size of Manhattan.
Cinderella Castle at Magic Kingdom
Spaceship Earth at Epcot
The Chinese Theatre at Disney 's Hollywood Studios
Tree of Life at Disney 's Animal Kingdom
Disney 's property includes four golf courses. The three 18 - hole golf courses are Disney 's Palm (4.5 stars), Disney 's Magnolia (4 stars), and Disney 's Lake Buena Vista (4 stars). There is also a nine - hole walking course (no electric carts allowed) called Oak Trail, designed for young golfers. The Magnolia and Palm courses played home to the PGA Tour 's Children 's Miracle Network Hospitals Classic. Arnold Palmer Golf Management manages the Disney golf courses.
Additionally, there are two themed miniature golf complexes, each with two courses, Fantasia Gardens and Winter Summerland. The two course at Fantasia Gardens are Fantasia Garden and Fantasia Fairways. The Garden course is a traditional miniature - style course based on the "Fantasia '' movies with musical holes, water fountains and characters. Fantasia Fairways is a traditional golf course on miniature scale having water hazards and sand traps.
The two courses at Winter Summerland are Summer and Winter both theme around Santa. Summer is the more challenging of the two 18 - hole courses.
Of the thirty - four resorts and hotels on the Walt Disney World property, twenty - eight are owned and operated by Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. These are classified into four categories -- Deluxe, Moderate, Value, and Disney Vacation Club Villas -- and are located in one of five resort areas: the Magic Kingdom, Epcot, Wide World of Sports, Animal Kingdom, or Disney Springs resort areas.
While all of the Deluxe resort hotels have achieved an AAA Four Diamond rating, Disney 's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa is considered the highest tier flagship luxury resort on the Walt Disney World Resort complex.
The Grand Floridian Resort & Spa, Walt Disney World 's flagship resort
Disney 's Polynesian Resort, a deluxe level resort
Caribbean Beach Resort, the first moderate resort at Walt Disney World
Fort Wilderness, Disney 's campground and cabin resort
Disney 's All Star Movies Resort, one of five value resorts
Shades of Green Resort, owned and operated by the United States Military
The Walt Disney World Dolphin
The Walt Disney World Swan
The Hilton at Walt Disney World, located at Hotel Plaza Boulevard
Guests with a Disney Resort reservation (excluding the Walt Disney World Swan and Dolphin) that arrive at Orlando International Airport can be transported to their resort from the airport using the complimentary Disney Magical Express service, which is operated by Mears Destination Services. Guests can also have their bags picked up and transported to their resort for them through a contract with BAGS Incorporated on participating airlines. Many resorts feature Airline Check - in counters for guests returning to the airport. Here their bags will be checked all the way through to their final destination and they can also have boarding passes printed for them. Some participating airlines are Delta, United, American, Jet Blue, and Alaska Airlines.
In 2014, the resort 's four theme parks all ranked in the top 8 on the list of the 25 most visited theme parks in the world; (1st) Magic Kingdom - 19,332,000 visitors, (6th) Epcot - 11,454,000 visitors, (7th) Disney 's Animal Kingdom - 10,402,000 visitors, and (8th) Disney 's Hollywood Studios - 10,312,000 visitors.
The Walt Disney World Resort is serviced by Disney Transport, a complimentary mass transportation system allowing guest access across the property. The Walt Disney World Monorail System provides free transportation at Walt Disney World. The system operates on three routes that interconnect at the Transportation and Ticket Center (TTC), adjacent to the Magic Kingdom 's parking lot. A fleet of Disney - operated buses on property, branded Disney Transport, is also complimentary for guests.
Disney Transport also operates a fleet of watercraft, ranging in size from water taxis, up to the ferries that connect the Magic Kingdom to the Transportation and Ticket Center. Disney Transport is also responsible for maintaining the fleet of parking lot trams that are used for shuttling visitors between the various theme park parking lots and their respective main entrances.
When the Magic Kingdom opened in 1971, the site employed about 5,500 "cast members ''. Today, Walt Disney World employs more than 74,000 cast members, spending more than $1.2 billion on payroll and $474 million on benefits each year. The largest single - site employer in the United States, Walt Disney World has more than 3,700 job classifications. The resort also sponsors and operates the Walt Disney World College Program, an internship program that offers American college students (CP 's) the opportunity to live about 15 miles (24 km) off - site in four Disney - owned apartment complexes and work at the resort, and thereby provides much of the theme park and resort "front line '' cast members. There is also the Walt Disney World International College Program, an internship program that offers international college students (ICP 's) from all over the world the same opportunity.
Walt Disney World 's corporate culture uses jargon based on theatrical terminology. For example, park visitors are always "guests '', employees are "cast members, '' rides are "attractions '' or "adventures '', cast members costumed as famous Disney characters in a way that does not cover their faces are known as "face characters '', jobs are "roles '', and public and nonpublic areas are respectively labeled "onstage '' and "backstage ''.
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when did harry potter and the order of the phoenix come out | Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is a fantasy novel written by J.K. Rowling and the fifth novel in the Harry Potter series. It follows Harry Potter 's struggles through his fifth year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, including the surreptitious return of the antagonist Lord Voldemort, O.W.L. exams, and an obstructive Ministry of Magic. The novel was published on 21 June 2003 by Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom, Scholastic in the United States, and Raincoast in Canada. Five million copies were sold in the first 24 hours of publication. It is the longest book of the series.
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix has won several awards, including being named an American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults in 2003. The book has also been made into a film, which was released in 2007, and into a video game by Electronic Arts.
During another summer with his Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon, Harry Potter and Dudley are attacked by Dementors. After using magic to save Dudley and himself, Harry is expelled from Hogwarts, but the decision is later reversed after a hearing at the Ministry of Magic. Harry is whisked off by a group of wizards (including the real Mad - Eye Moody, Professor Lupin, and several new faces, including Nymphadora Tonks, a bubbly young witch who is a Metamorphmagus (a wizard who can change his / her appearance without a potion or spell), and Kingsley Shacklebolt, a senior Auror with egalitarian views) to Number 12, Grimmauld Place, the childhood home of his godfather, Sirius Black. The building also serves as the headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix, of which Mr. and Mrs. Weasley and Sirius are also members. Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger explain that the Order of the Phoenix is a secret organisation led by Hogwarts headmaster Albus Dumbledore, dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort and his followers, the Death Eaters. From the members of the Order, Harry and the others learn that Voldemort is seeking an object that he did not have prior to his first defeat, and assume this object to be a weapon of some sort. Harry learns that the Ministry of Magic, led by Cornelius Fudge, is refusing to acknowledge Voldemort 's return because of the panic and chaos that doing so would cause, and has been running a smear campaign against him and Dumbledore.
At Hogwarts, Harry learns that Dolores Umbridge, a senior employee in the Ministry of Magic, will be the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. Umbridge and Harry clash, as she, like Fudge, refuses to believe that Voldemort has returned. She punishes Harry for his rebellious outbursts by having him write "I must not tell lies '' with a cursed quill that carves the phrase into his skin. She also refuses to teach her students how to perform defensive spells, prompting Harry, Ron and Hermione to form their own Defence Against the Dark Arts group (with students from Gryffindor, Ravenclaw and Hufflepuff), which they call Dumbledore 's Army. Many students sign up, including Neville Longbottom, Fred and George Weasley, Ginny Weasley and Luna Lovegood. Struggling to find a place to practise, Dobby the house elf tells him about the Room of Requirement and its uses. The club meet there to learn and practise defensive spells under Harry 's instruction.
Meanwhile, Rubeus Hagrid has not yet returned from the secret mission given to him by Dumbledore at the end of the previous book, and is absent for the first part of the school year. Upon his return, Harry, Ron, and Hermione learn that his mission, which was mostly unsuccessful, was to seek out the last giants to stop them from joining Lord Voldemort. Professor Umbridge has been steadily amassing more and more power and influence at the school, and as she begins regularly inspecting Hagrid 's Care of Magical Creatures lessons, it is clear that she intends to get rid of him.
One night, Harry has a vision through the eyes of Voldemort 's snake Nagini, possessed by Voldemort, attacking Ron 's father Arthur Weasley. Harry informs Professor McGonagall and Dumbledore, and Mr. Weasley is rescued. Dumbledore arranges for Harry to take Occlumency lessons with Professor Snape to protect his mind against further invasions by Voldemort.
Umbridge finally sacks Professor Trelawney, the Divination teacher; However, she is outraged when Professor Dumbledore undermines her power by allowing Trelawney to continue living at the school, and hires Firenze, a centaur, to take her place, in spite of Umbridge 's prejudice against part - humans. Soon after, Umbridge is given a tip - off about Dumbledore 's Army by Marietta Edgecombe, who in doing so unwittingly activates a curse set by Hermione which disfigures her face. Despite Dobby 's warning, the gang are caught and get into trouble with Fudge. When Dumbledore takes responsibility for the illegal organisation, he is forced to leave the school and go into hiding. Dolores Umbridge becomes headmistress, and Fred and George cause pandemonium around the school in revenge.
During one Occlumency lesson, Snape is called away and Harry, left alone, looks into Snape 's Pensieve, viewing a memory of his time as a student at Hogwarts. Harry is shocked to witness his father, James Potter, and Sirius bullying and humiliating Snape. Snape catches Harry and, enraged, refuses to continue the lessons. Distraught at this revelation of his father 's character, Harry talks to Sirius and Lupin by using Floo powder through the fireplace in Umbridge 's own office and learns more about his parents and their background. After helping Harry break into Umbridge 's office, Fred and George then leave Hogwarts to start a joke - shop in Diagon Alley.
Suspecting that he will be next teacher to be sacked by Umbridge, Hagrid confesses to Harry, Ron and Hermione that he has brought his giant half - brother, Grawp, to Hogwarts, and hidden him in the Forbidden Forest, with the intention of eventually introducing him to human society. Hagrid asks the three of them to look after Grawp if he himself must leave the school. Sure enough, Umbridge leads a party of Aurors to attack Hagrid in his house one night. Hagrid overpowers them and flees the school; McGonagall, trying to disrupt the violence, is badly injured and is put in St. Mungo 's Hospital.
On the last day of O.W.L. tests, Harry has a vision of Sirius being tortured by Voldemort in the Department of Mysteries. He tries again to illegally use Umbridge 's office fireplace to communicate with the Order of the Phoenix 's headquarters to make sure the vision was genuine, and is told by Kreacher the house - elf that Sirius is indeed at the Ministry, before Umbridge catches Harry and his friends in the act. Snape is summoned to provide Veritaserum in order to question Harry, but he claims to have no further stocks of the potion left. Remembering that Snape is also a member of the Order of the Phoenix, Harry gives him a cryptic warning about Sirius 's fate, but Snape claims to have not understood it.
Umbridge decides to use the illegal Cruciatus Curse on Harry to interrogate him on Sirius 's whereabouts. She also reveals she herself ordered the Dementor attack on him, intending to have him either silenced or discredited. Hermione intervenes and in order to create a distraction, convinces Umbridge that they are hiding a weapon of Dumbledore 's in the Forbidden Forest. Harry and Hermione lead her into an area of the forest inhabited by centaurs, where Umbridge provokes them into taking her captive. The centaurs are furious upon learning that Hermione used them to do her bidding and turn on the pair, but Grawp arrives and clashes with the centaurs, allowing Harry and Hermione to escape.
Luna, Ron, Ginny, and Neville join them in the forest and all six fly to the Ministry on thestrals, expecting to find and rescue Sirius. Once in the Department of Mysteries, Harry realises that his vision was falsely planted by Voldemort; however, he finds a glass sphere that bears his and the Dark Lord 's names. Death Eaters led by Lucius Malfoy attack in order to capture the sphere, which is a recording of a prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort, which is revealed to be the object Voldemort has been trying to obtain for the whole year, the Dark Lord believing that there was something he missed when he first heard the prophecy. Lucius explains that only the subjects of the prophecies, in this case Harry or Voldemort, can safely remove them from the shelves. During a heated fight Neville accidentally kicks and smashes the prophecy. Harry and his friends, soon joined by members of the Order, enter a battle with the Death Eaters, during which Bellatrix Lestrange kills Sirius and Voldemort himself arrives to kill Harry, but Dumbledore rescues him and climatically fights the Dark Lord to a stalemate. In the midst of the duel, Voldemort unsuccessfully tries to possess Harry in an attempt to get Dumbledore to kill the boy, then escapes just as Cornelius Fudge appears, finally faced with first - hand evidence that Voldemort has truly returned.
In his office, Dumbledore explains that Snape had understood Harry 's cryptic warning, and had subsequently contacted Sirius, learning that he was still at Grimmauld Place. After Harry failed to return from the Forbidden Forest, Snape deduced where he had gone and alerted the Order of the Phoenix, allowing them to save Harry and his friends. It is revealed that during the Christmas holidays, Kreacher had interpreted a command of Sirius 's as an order to leave the house, and went to Narcissa Malfoy, the wife of Lucius, and told them about Harry and Sirius 's close relationship; Voldemort subsequently realised that he could lure Harry to the Department of Mysteries by tricking him into thinking that Sirius was in danger there.
Dumbledore then explains the prophecy: Before Harry was born, Professor Trelawney predicted that a boy with the power to defeat Voldemort would be born, would be marked as an equal by Voldemort and have powers unknown to him, and that one of the pair must kill the other, for "neither can live while the other survives ''. Voldemort learnt of the first part of the prophecy, and subsequently tried to murder Harry in the belief that he could prevent it from coming true, unaware that he would grant Harry power by doing so. Dumbledore tells Harry that he must stay with the Dursleys for one last summer because by taking Harry into her home, his Aunt Petunia, Lily 's sister, seals the protection that Harry 's mother afforded him when she died; as long as he is there, he is safe from Voldemort and his followers.
Harry comes to terms with the responsibility of the prophecy, but mourns for the loss of his godfather. Luna comforts him, telling him about her and her father 's belief in heaven. Harry then finds an old hand - held mirror in his dormitory that was a gift from Sirius. He realises that Sirius would not want him to be depressed on the matter, and resolves to continue fighting Voldemort.
Potter fans waited three years between the releases of the fourth and fifth books. Before the release of the fifth book, 200 million copies of the first four books had already been sold and translated into 55 languages in 200 countries. As the series was already a global phenomenon, the book forged new pre-order records, with thousands of people queuing outside book stores on 20 June 2003 to secure their copy at midnight. Despite the security, thousands of copies were stolen from an Earlestown, Merseyside warehouse on 15 June 2003.
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was met with mostly positive reviews, and received several awards. The book was cited as an American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults and as an American Library Association Notable Book, both in 2004. It also received the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio 2004 Gold Medal along with several other awards.
The novel was also well received by critics. Rowling was praised for her imagination by USA Today writer Deirdre Donahue. Most of the negative reviewers were concerned with the violence contained in the novel and with morality issues occurring throughout the book.
The New York Times writer John Leonard praised the novel, saying "The Order of the Phoenix starts slow, gathers speed and then skateboards, with somersaults, to its furious conclusion... As Harry gets older, Rowling gets better. '' However, he also criticises "the one - note Draco Malfoy '' and the predictable Lord Voldemort.
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the fifth book in the Harry Potter series. The first book in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was first published by Bloomsbury in 1997 with an initial print - run of 500 copies in hardback, three hundred of which were distributed to libraries. By the end of 1997, the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9 to 11 year - olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. The second novel, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was published in the UK on 2 July 1998. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 simultaneously by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book from the series, yet the second shortest film at 2 hours and 18 minutes.
After the publishing of Order of the Phoenix, the sixth book of the series, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, was published on 16 July 2005, and sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was published 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release: 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.
In 2007, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was released in a film version directed by David Yates and written by Michael Goldenberg. The film was produced by David Heyman 's company, Heyday Films, alongside David Barron. The budget was reportedly between £ 75 and 100 million (US $150 -- 200 million), and it became the unadjusted eleventh - highest - grossing film of all time, and a critical and commercial success. The film opened to a worldwide 5 - day opening of $333 million, third all - time, and grossed $938.4 million in total, second to Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End for the greatest total of 2007.
A video game adaptation of the book and film versions of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was made for Microsoft Windows, PS2, PS3, Xbox 360, PSP, Nintendo DS, Wii, Game Boy Advance and Mac OS X. It was released on 25 June 2007 in the U.S., 28 June 2007 in Australia and 29 June 2007 in the UK and Europe for PlayStation 3, PSP, PlayStation 2, Windows and 3 July 2007 for most other platforms. The games were published by Electronic Arts.
The book is also depicted in the 2011 video game Lego Harry Potter: Years 5 -- 7.
The first official foreign translation of the book appeared in Vietnamese on 21 July 2003, when the first of twenty - two instalments was released. The first official European translation appeared in Serbia and Montenegro in Serbian, by the official publisher Narodna Knjiga, in early September 2003. Other translations appeared later (e.g. in November 2003 in Dutch and German). The English - language version has topped the best - seller list in France, while in Germany and the Netherlands an unofficial distributed translation process has been started on the Internet.
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what is the mean income in the united states | Household income in the United States - Wikipedia
Household income is an economic measure that can be applied to one household, or aggregated across a large group such as a county, city, or the whole country. It is commonly used by the United States government and private institutions to describe a household 's economic status or to track economic trends in the US.
One key measure is the real median level, meaning half of households have income above that level and half below, adjusted for inflation. According to the Census, this measure was $59,039 in 2016, a record high. This was the largest two year percentage increase on record.
The distribution of U.S. household income has become more unequal since around 1980, with the income share received by the top 1 % trending upward from around 10 % or less over the 1953 -- 1981 period to over 20 % by 2007. After falling somewhat due to the Great Recession in 2008 and 2009, inequality rose again during the economic recovery, a typical pattern historically.
A household 's income can be calculated various ways but the US Census as of 2009 measured it in the following manner: the income of every resident of that house that is over the age of 15, including wages and salaries, as well as any kind of governmental entitlement such as unemployment insurance, disability payments or child support payments received, along with any personal business, investment, or other recurring sources of income.
The residents of the household do not have to be related to the head of the household for their earnings to be considered part of the household 's income. As households tend to share a similar economic context, the use of household income remains among the most widely accepted measures of income. That the size of a household is not commonly taken into account in such measures may distort any analysis of fluctuations within or among the household income categories, and may render direct comparisons between quintiles difficult or even impossible.
The U.S. Census Bureau reported in September 2017 that real median household income was $59,039 in 2016, exceeding any previous year. This was the fourth consecutive year with a statistically significant increase by their measure.
Changes in median income reflect several trends: the aging of the population, changing patterns in work and schooling, and the evolving makeup of the American family, as well as long - and short - term trends in the economy itself. For instance, the retirement of the Baby Boom generation should push down overall median income, as more persons enter lower - income retirement. However, analysis of different working age groups indicate a similar pattern of stagnating median income as well.
Journalist Annie Lowrey wrote in September 2014: "The root causes (of wage stagnation) include technological change, the decline of labor unions, and globalization, economists think, though they disagree sharply on how much to weight each factor. But foreign - produced goods became sharply cheaper, meaning imports climbed and production moved overseas. And computers took over for humans in many manufacturing, clerical, and administrative tasks, eroding middle - class jobs growth and suppressing wages. ''
Another line of analysis, known as "total compensation, '' presents a more complete picture of real wages. The Kaiser Family Foundation conducted a study in 2013 which shows that employer contributions to employee healthcare costs went up 78 % from 2003 to 2013. The marketplace has made a trade - off: expanding benefits packages vs. increasing wages.
Measured relative to GDP, total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970. This indicates a shift in income from labor (persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries) to capital (persons who derive income via ownership of businesses, land and assets). This trend is common across the developed world, due in part to globalization. Wages and salaries have fallen from approximately 51 % GDP in 1970 to 43 % GDP in 2013. Total compensation has fallen from approximately 58 % GDP in 1970 to 53 % GDP in 2013.
However, as indicated by the charts below, household income has still increased significantly since the late 1970s and early 80s in real terms, partly due to higher individual median wages, and partly due to increased opportunities for women.
According to the CBO, between 1979 and 2011, gross median household income, adjusted for inflation, rose from $59,400 to $75,200, or 26.5 %. However, once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective, real median household income grew 46 %, representing significant growth.
Use of individual household income: The government and organizations may look at one particular household 's income to decide if a person is eligible for certain programs, such as nutrition assistance or need - based financial aid, among many others.
Use at the aggregate level: Summaries of household incomes across groups of people - often the entire country - are also studied as part of economic trends like standard of living and distribution of income and wealth. Household income as an economic measure can be represented as a median, a mean, a distribution, and other ways. Household income can be studied across time, region, education level, race / ethnicity, and many other dimensions. As an indicator of economic trends, it may be studied along with related economic measures such as disposable income, debt, household net worth (which includes debt and investments, durable goods like cars and houses), wealth, and employment statistics.
Median inflation - adjusted ("real '') household income generally increases and decreases with the business cycle, declining in each year during the periods 1979 through 1983, 1990 through 1993, 2000 through 2004 and 2008 through 2012, while rising in each of the intervening years. Extreme poverty in the United States, meaning households living on less than $2 per day before government benefits, more than doubled from 636,000 to 1.46 million households (including 2.8 million children) between 1996 and 2011, with most of this increase occurring between late 2008 and early 2011.
The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office conducted a study analyzing household income throughout the income distribution, by combining the Census and IRS income data sources. Unlike the Census measure of household income, the CBO showed income before and after taxes, and by also taking into account household size. Also, the CBO definition of income is much broader, and includes in kind transfers as well as all monetary transfers from the government. The Census ' official definition of money income excludes food stamps and the EITC, for example, while CBO includes it.
Between 1979 and 2011, gross median household income, adjusted for inflation, rose from $59,400 to $75,200, or 26.5 %. This compares with the Census ' growth of 10 %. However, once adjusted for household size and looking at taxes from an after - tax perspective, real median household income grew 46 %, representing significant growth.
While median gross household income showed much stronger growth than depicted by the Census, inequality was shown to still have increased. The top 10 % saw gross household income grow by 78 %, versus 26.5 % for the median. Interestingly, the bottom 10 %, using the same measure, saw higher growth than the median (40 %).
Another common measurement of personal income is the mean household income. Unlike the median household income, which divides all households in two halves, the mean income is the average income earned by American households. In the case of mean income, the income of all households is divided by the number of all households. The mean income is usually more affected by the relatively unequal distribution of income which tilts towards the top. As a result, the mean tends to be higher than the median income, with the top earning households boosting it. Overall, the mean household income in the United States, according to the US Census Bureau 2014 Annual Social and Economic Supplement, was $72,641.
The US Census Bureau also provides a breakdown by self - identified ethnic groups as follows (as of March 2014):
Median income is the amount which divides the income distribution into two equal groups, half having income above that amount, and half having income below that amount. Mean income (average) is the amount obtained by dividing the total aggregate income of a group by the number of units in that group. The means and medians for households and families are based on all households and families. Means and medians for people are based on people 15 years old and over with income.
The aggregate income measures the combined income earned by all persons in a particular income group. In 2007, all households in the United States earned roughly $7.723 trillion. One half, 49.98 %, of all income in the US was earned by households with an income over $100,000, the top twenty percent. Over one quarter, 28.5 %, of all income was earned by the top 8 %, those households earning more than $150,000 a year. The top 3.65 %, with incomes over $200,000, earned 17.5 %. Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $75,000, 18.2 % of households, earned 16.5 % of all income. Households with annual incomes from $50,000 to $95,000, 28.1 % of households, earned 28.8 % of all income. The bottom 10.3 % earned 1.06 % of all income.
White Americans made up roughly 75.1 % of all people in 2000, 87.93 % of all households in the top 5 % were headed by a person who identified as being White alone. Only 4.75 % of all household in the top 5 % were headed by someone who identified as Hispanic or Latino of any race, versus 12.5 % of persons identifying themselves as Hispanic or Latino in the general population.
Overall, 86.01 % of all households in the top two quintiles with upper - middle range incomes of over $55,331 were headed by someone identifying as White alone, while 7.21 % were being headed by someone who identified as Hispanic and 7.37 % by someone who identified as African American or Black. Overall, households headed by Hispanics and African Americans were underrepresented in the top two quintiles and overrepresented in the bottom two quintiles. Households headed by people who identified as being Asian alone were also overrepresented among the top two quintiles. In the top five percent the percentage of Asians was nearly twice as high as the percentage of Asians among the general population. Whites were relatively even distributed throughout the quintiles only being underrepresented in the lowest quintile and slightly overrepresented in the top quintile and the top five percent.
In terms of race in 2010 data, Asian American households had the highest median household income of $57,518, European - American households ranked second with $48,977, Hispanic or Latino households ranked third with $34,241. African - American or Black households had the lowest median household income of all races with $30,134.
Source: US Census Bureau, 2004
Household income as well as per capita income in the United States rise significantly as the educational attainment increases. In 2005 graduates with a Master 's in Business Administration (MBA) who accepted job offers were expected to earn a base salary of $88,626. They were also expected to receive an "average signing bonus of $17,428. ''
According to the US Census Bureau persons with doctorates in the United States had an average income of roughly $81,400. The average for an advanced degree was $72,824, with men averaging $90,761 and women averaging $50,756 annually. Year - round full - time workers with a professional degree had an average income of $109,600 while those with a master 's degree had an average income of $62,300. Overall, "... (a) verage earnings ranged from $18,900 for high school dropouts to $25,900 for high school graduates, $45,400 for college graduates and $99,300 for workers with professional degrees (M.D., D.P.T., D.P.M., D.O., J.D., Pharm. D., D.D.S., or D.V.M.).
Individuals with graduate degrees have an average per capita income exceeding the median household income of married couple families among the general population ($63,813 annually). Higher educational attainment did not, however, help close the income gap between the genders as the life - time earnings for a male with a professional degree were roughly forty percent (39.59 %) higher than those of a female with a professional degree. The lifetime earnings gap between males and females was the smallest for those individuals holding an associate degrees with male life - time earnings being 27.77 % higher than those of females. While educational attainment did not help reduce the income inequality between men and women, it did increase the earnings potential of individuals of both sexes, enabling many households with one or more graduate degree householders to enter the top household income quintile. These data were not adjusted for preferential differences among men and women whom attend college. For example, men often study fields of engineering while women often pursue social sciences. Since the difference between earnings in said fields of study are often quite large, it is natural for us to observe men earning more than women. That is to say, not all degrees are created equally.
Household income also increased significantly with the educational attainment of the householder. The US Census Bureau publishes educational attainment and income data for all households with a householder who was aged twenty - five or older. The biggest income difference was between those with some college education and those who had a Bachelor 's degree, with the latter making $23,874 more annually. Income also increased substantially with increased post-secondary education. While the median annual household income for a household with a householder having an associate degree was $51,970, the median annual household income for householders with a bachelor 's degree or higher was $73,446. Those with doctorates had the second highest median household with a median of $96,830; $18,289 more than that for those at the master 's degree level, but $3,170 lower than the median for households with a professional degree holding householder.
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003
The change in median personal and household since 1991 also varied greatly with educational attainment. The following table shows the median household income according to the educational attainment of the householder. All data is in 2003 dollars and only applies to householders whose householder is aged twenty - five or older. The highest and lowest points of the median household income are presented in bold face. Since 2003, median income has continued to rise for the nation as a whole, with the biggest gains going to those with associate degrees, bachelor 's degree or more, and master 's degrees. High - school dropouts fared worse with negative growth.
SOURCE: US Census Bureau, 2003
Household income in the United States varies substantially with the age of the person who heads the household. Overall, the median household income increased with the age of householder until retirement age when household income started to decline. The highest median household income was found among households headed by working baby - boomers.
Households headed by persons between the ages of 45 and 54 had a median household income of $61,111 and a mean household income of $77,634. The median income per member of household for this particular group was $27,924. The highest median income per member of household was among those between the ages of 54 and 64 with $30,544 (The reason this figure is lower than the next group is because pensions and Social Security add to income while a portion of older individuals also have work - related income.).
The group with the second highest median household income, were households headed by persons between the ages 35 and 44 with a median income of $56,785, followed by those in the age group between 55 and 64 with $50,400. Not surprisingly the lowest income group was composed of those households headed by individuals younger than 24, followed by those headed by persons over the age of 75. Overall, households headed by persons above the age of seventy - five had a median household income of $20,467 with the median household income per member of household being $18,645. These figures support the general assumption that median household income as well as the median income per member of household peaked among those households headed by middle aged persons, increasing with the age of the householder and the size of the household until the householder reaches the age of 64. With retirement income replacing salaries and the size of the household declining, the median household income decreases as well.
While median household income has a tendency to increase up to four persons per household, it declines for households beyond four persons. For example, in the state of Alabama in 2004, two - person households had a median income of $39,755, with $48,957 for three - person households, $54,338 for four - person households, $50,905 for five - person households, $45,435 for six - person households, with seven - or - more - person households having the second lowest median income of only $42,471.
Considering other racial and geographical differences in regards to household income, it should come as no surprise that the median household income varies with race, size of household and geography. The state with the highest median household income in the United States as of the US Census Bureau 2009 is Maryland with $69,272, followed by New Jersey, Connecticut and Alaska, making the Northeastern United States the wealthiest area by income in the entire country.
Regionally, in 2010, the Northeast reached a median income of $53,283, the West, $53,142, the South, $45,492, and the Midwest, $48,445. Each figure represents a decline from the previous year.
In 2010, the median household income by state ranged from $35,693 in Mississippi to $66,334 in Maryland. Despite having the highest median home price in the nation and home prices that far outpaced incomes, California ranked only ninth in income, with a median household income of $61,021. While California 's median income was not near enough to afford the average California home or even a starter home, West Virginia, which had one of the nation 's lowest median household incomes, also had the nation 's lowest median home price.
By Census Bureau Region, of the 15 states with the highest median household income, only Minnesota is located in the Mid-West, while eight are in the Northeast (New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and New York) and the other six (Alaska, Hawaii, California, Washington, Colorado and Utah) are in the West.
The southern states had, on average, the lowest median household income, with nine of the country 's fifteen poorest states located in the South. However, most of the poverty in the South is located in rural areas. Metropolitan areas such as Atlanta, Nashville, Charlotte, Raleigh, Birmingham, Dallas, Houston, and Miami are areas within the southern states that have above average income levels. Overall, median household income tended to be the highest in the nation 's most urbanized northeastern, upper midwestern and west coast states, while rural areas, mostly in the southern and mountain states (like New Mexico, Montana and Idaho), had the lowest median household income.
As of 2015, the median household income ranged from $40,037 in Mississippi to $76,805 in Maryland. < http://www.deptofnumbers.com/income/maryland/ >
Household income is one of the most commonly used measures of income and, therefore, also one of the most prominent indicators of social class. Household income and education do not, however, always reflect perceived class status correctly. Sociologist Dennis Gilbert acknowledges that "... the class structure... does not exactly match the distribution of household income '' with "the mismatch (being) greatest in the middle... '' (Gilbert, 1998: 92) As social classes commonly overlap, it is not possible to define exact class boundaries.
According to Leonard Beeghley a household income of roughly $95,000 would be typical of a dual - earner middle class household while $60,000 would be typical of a dual - earner working class household and $18,000 typical for an impoverished household. William Thompson and Joseph Hickey see common incomes for the upper class as those exceeding $500,000 with upper middle class incomes ranging from the high 5 - figures to most commonly in excess of $100,000. They claim the lower middle class ranges from $35,000 to $75,000; $16,000 to $30,000 for the working class and less than $2,000 for the lower class.
General:
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when were the triplets born on this is us | This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American drama television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. The program details the lives and families of two parents, and their three children born on the same day as their father 's birthday. This Is Us is filmed in Los Angeles.
The series has been nominated for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. Sterling K. Brown has received an Emmy, a Golden Globe, a Critics ' Choice Award, and an NAACP Image Award for his acting in the series. Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz received Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017.
The series follows the lives of siblings Kevin, Kate, and Randall (known as the "Big Three ''), and their parents Jack and Rebecca Pearson. It takes place in the present and using flashbacks, at various times in the past. Kevin and Kate are the two surviving members of a triplet pregnancy, born six weeks premature on Jack 's 36th birthday in 1980; their brother is stillborn. Believing they were meant to have three children, Jack and Rebecca, who are white, decide to adopt Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station. Jack dies when his children are 17.
Most episodes feature a storyline taking place in the present (2016 -- 2018, contemporaneous with airing) and a storyline taking place at a set time in the past; but some episodes are set in one time period or use multiple flashback time periods. Flashbacks often focus on Jack and Rebecca c. 1980 both before and after their babies ' birth, or on the family when the Big Three are children (at least ages 8 -- 10) or adolescents; these scenes usually take place in Pittsburgh, where the Big Three are born and raised. Various other time periods and locations have also served a settings. As adults, Kate lives in Los Angeles, Randall and his family are in New Jersey, and Kevin relocates from Los Angeles to New York City.
Fogelman intentionally recruited behind - the - scenes talent that would reflect the diversity of his cast, with the goal of bringing greater authenticity to the dialog and storylines. These include black directors Regina King and George Tillman, Jr. and black female writers Kay Oyegun and Jas Waters (part of a 30 % black core writing staff that far outpaces the industry standard of 5 %). In addition, Fogelman 's sister Deborah, whose struggles with weight were one of the initial inspirations for the show, serves as a consultant.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.72 / 10 based on 63 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 94 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 17 reviews.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
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the absolute refractory period in cardiac muscle cells is | Refractory period (physiology) - wikipedia
Refractoriness is the fundamental property of any object of autowave nature (especially excitable medium) not to respond on stimuli, if the object stays in the specific refractory state. In common sense, refractory period is the characteristic recovery time, a period of time that is associated with the motion of the image point on the left branch of the isocline u _̇ = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ dot (u)) = 0) (for more details, see also Reaction - diffusion and Parabolic partial differential equation).
In physiology, a refractory period is a period of time during which an organ or cell is incapable of repeating a particular action, or (more precisely) the amount of time it takes for an excitable membrane to be ready for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state following an excitation. It most commonly refers to electrically excitable muscle cells or neurons. Absolute refractory period corresponds to depolarization and repolarization, whereas relative refractory period corresponds to hyperpolarization.
After initiation of an action potential, the refractory period is defined two ways: The absolute refractory period coincides with nearly the entire duration of the action potential. In neurons, it is caused by the inactivation of the Na channels that originally opened to depolarize the membrane. These channels remain inactivated until the membrane hyperpolarizes. The channels then close, de-inactivate, and regain their ability to open in response to stimulus.
The relative refractory period immediately follows the absolute. As voltage - gated potassium channels open to terminate the action potential by repolarizing the membrane, the potassium conductance of the membrane increases dramatically. K ions moving out of the cell bring the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for potassium. This causes brief hyperpolarization of the membrane, that is, the membrane potential becomes transiently more negative than the normal resting potential. Until the potassium conductance returns to the resting value, a greater stimulus will be required to reach the initiation threshold for a second depolarization. The return to the equilibrium resting potential marks the end of the relative refractory period.
The refractory period in cardiac physiology is related to the ion currents that, in cardiac cells as in nerve cells, flow into and out of the cell freely. The flow of ions translates into a change in the voltage of the inside of the cell relative to the extracellular space. As in nerve cells, this characteristic change in voltage is referred to as an action potential. Unlike that in nerve cells, the cardiac action potential duration is closer to 100 ms (with variations depending on cell type, autonomic tone, etc.). After an action potential initiates, the cardiac cell is unable to initiate another action potential for some duration of time (which is slightly shorter than the "true '' action potential duration). This period of time is referred to as the refractory period, which is 250ms in duration and helps to protect the heart.
In the classical sense, the cardiac refractory period is separated into an absolute refractory period and a relative refractory period. During the absolute refractory period, a new action potential can not be elicited. During the relative refractory period, a new action potential can be elicited under the correct circumstances.
The cardiac refractory period can result in different forms of re-entry, which are a cause of tachycardia. Vortices of excitation in the myocardium (autowave vortices) are a form of re-entry. Such vortices can be a mechanism of life - threatening cardiac arrhythmias. In particular, the autowave reverberator, more commonly referred to as spiral waves or rotors, can be found within the atria and may be a cause of atrial fibrillation.
The refractory period in a neuron occurs after an action potential and generally lasts one millisecond. An action potential consists of three phases.
Phase one is depolarization. During depolarization, voltage - gated sodium ion channels open, increasing the neuron 's membrane conductance for sodium ions and depolarizing the cell 's membrane potential (from typically - 70 mV toward a positive potential). In other words, the membrane is made less negative. After the potential reaches the activation threshold (- 55 mV), the depolarization is actively driven by the neuron and overshoots the equilibrium potential of an activated membrane (+ 30 mV).
Phase two is repolarization. During repolarization, voltage - gated sodium ion channels inactivate (different from the closed state) due to the now - depolarized membrane, and voltage - gated potassium channels activate (open). Both the inactivation of the sodium ion channels and the opening of the potassium ion channels act to repolarize the cell 's membrane potential back to its resting membrane potential.
When the cell 's membrane voltage overshoots its resting membrane potential (near - 60mV), the cell enters a phase of hyperpolarization. This is due to a larger - than - resting potassium conductance across the cell membrane. This potassium conductance eventually drops and the cell returns to its resting membrane potential.
The refractory periods are due to the inactivation property of voltage - gated sodium channels and the lag of potassium channels in closing. Voltage - gated sodium channels have two gating mechanisms, the activation mechanism that opens the channel with depolarization and the inactivation mechanism that closes the channel with repolarization. While the channel is in the inactive state, it will not open in response to depolarization. The period when the majority of sodium channels remain in the inactive state is the absolute refractory period. After this period, there are enough voltage - activated sodium channels in the closed (active) state to respond to depolarization. However, voltage - gated potassium channels that opened in response to repolarization do not close as quickly as voltage - gated sodium channels; to return to the active closed state. During this time, the extra potassium conductance means that the membrane is at a higher threshold and will require a greater stimulus to cause action potentials to fire. This period is the relative refractory period.
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it always feels like somebody's watching me lyrics | Somebody 's Watching Me - wikipedia
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' is a song recorded by American singer Rockwell, released by the Motown label on January 14, 1984, as the lead single from his debut studio album of the same name. Rockwell 's debut single release, the song features guest vocals by brothers Michael Jackson (in the chorus) and Jermaine Jackson (additional backing vocals).
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' became a major commercial success internationally, topping the charts in Belgium, France and Spain, and reaching the Top 5 in Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States (peaking at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100). The song reached No. 6 in the United Kingdom, Rockwell 's only Top 40 hit there.
Rockwell is a son of Motown CEO Berry Gordy. At the time of the recording, Rockwell was estranged from his father and living with Ray Singleton, his father 's ex-wife and the mother of his older half - brother, Kerry Gordy. Singleton served as executive producer on the project and would occasionally play some demo tracks to Berry. The elder Gordy was less than enthusiastic about Rockwell 's music until he heard the single with a familiar voice featuring prominently on background vocals.
"Somebody 's Watching Me '' was written in the key of C - sharp minor in time with a tempo of 124 beats per minute. The vocals span from C# to C#.
Produced by Curtis Anthony Nolen, the song featured backing vocals by Michael and Jermaine Jackson, with Alan Murray on percussion.
The music video to "Somebody 's Watching Me '' (which uses the radio edit instead of the album version) underscores the song 's paranoid tone with a haunted house - inspired theme, including imagery of floating heads, ravens, graveyards, and shower scenes referencing Psycho.
The video opens with Rockwell coming home to discover that a newspaper in Chinese has been delivered to his doorstep. As he takes a quick shower, he begins to have strange visions (in a manner recalling The Dead Zone) of himself being pursued around his house by assorted ghoulish appartions, of the looming figure of a cadaverous - looking man, and of finding a tombstone engraved with his own name. His shower is interrupted when he hears something outside and goes out on his balcony to investigate. He is shocked to see the man from his visions standing at his gate, but as he struggles to get a better look in spite of the sun in his face he is greatly relieved to see that he is merely a mailman, coming to deliver the correct newspaper. As the mailman walks up the path towards the front porch, however, a brief close - up of his arm reveals that he is, in fact, a zombie. Rockwell emerges onto the porch to receive the paper, which the mailman genially hands over. As the mailman brings his other arm around to strike, Rockwell has just enough time to notice that he is not human.
Due in part to the popularity of the music video, the song is sometimes used for Halloween celebrations, with cover versions found in various collections of Halloween music.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
DJ BoBo based his 1992 single "Somebody Dance with Me '' on "Somebody 's Watching Me '' with new lyrics and rap. The DJ BoBo single reached No. 1 in Sweden and Switzerland, and the Top 5 in Austria, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands and Norway. In 2012, a remix of the hit was made by Remady titled "Somebody Dance With Me (Remady 2013 Mix) '' by DJ BoBo featuring Manu - L. Released early in 2013, it charted on the Swiss Hitparade, reaching No. 4. The mix was made on the 20th anniversary of the initial hit by DJ BoBo in November 1992.
In 2006, Dutch dance group Beatfreakz recorded a pseudo-cover of the song which sampled the chorus but omitted the verses. This version was a Top 10 hit in Belgium, Finland, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.
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elisa test is used to detect which of the following disease | ELISA - wikipedia
The enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (/ ɪˈlaɪzə /, / ˌiːˈlaɪzə /) is a test that uses antibodies and color change to identify a substance.
ELISA is a popular format of "wet - lab '' type analytic biochemistry assay that uses a solid - phase enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to detect the presence of a substance, usually an antigen, in a liquid sample or wet sample.
The ELISA has been used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and plant pathology, as well as a quality - control check in various industries.
Antigens from the sample are attached to a surface. Then, a further specific antibody is applied over the surface so it can bind to the antigen. This antibody is linked to an enzyme, and, in the final step, a substance containing the enzyme 's substrate is added. The subsequent reaction produces a detectable signal, most commonly a color change in the substrate.
Performing an ELISA involves at least one antibody with specificity for a particular antigen. The sample with an unknown amount of antigen is immobilized on a solid support (usually a polystyrene microtiter plate) either non-specifically (via adsorption to the surface) or specifically (via capture by another antibody specific to the same antigen, in a "sandwich '' ELISA). After the antigen is immobilized, the detection antibody is added, forming a complex with the antigen. The detection antibody can be covalently linked to an enzyme, or can itself be detected by a secondary antibody that is linked to an enzyme through bioconjugation. Between each step, the plate is typically washed with a mild detergent solution to remove any proteins or antibodies that are non-specifically bound. After the final wash step, the plate is developed by adding an enzymatic substrate to produce a visible signal, which indicates the quantity of antigen in the sample.
Of note, ELISA can perform other forms of ligand binding assays instead of strictly "immuno '' assays, though the name carried the original "immuno '' because of the common use and history of development of this method. The technique essentially requires any ligating reagent that can be immobilized on the solid phase along with a detection reagent that will bind specifically and use an enzyme to generate a signal that can be properly quantified. In between the washes, only the ligand and its specific binding counterparts remain specifically bound or "immunosorbed '' by antigen - antibody interactions to the solid phase, while the nonspecific or unbound components are washed away. Unlike other spectrophotometric wet lab assay formats where the same reaction well (e.g. a cuvette) can be reused after washing, the ELISA plates have the reaction products immunosorbed on the solid phase which is part of the plate, and so are not easily reusable.
As an analytic biochemistry assay, ELISA involves detection of an "analyte '' (i.e. the specific substance whose presence is being quantitatively or qualitatively analyzed) in a liquid sample by a method that continues to use liquid reagents during the "analysis '' (i.e. controlled sequence of biochemical reactions that will generate a signal which can be easily quantified and interpreted as a measure of the amount of analyte in the sample) that stays liquid and remains inside a reaction chamber or well needed to keep the reactants contained; It is opposed to "dry lab '' that can use dry strips -- and even if the sample is liquid (e.g. a measured small drop), the final detection step in "dry '' analysis involves reading of a dried strip by methods such as reflectometry and does not need a reaction containment chamber to prevent spillover or mixing between samples.
As a heterogenous assay, ELISA separates some component of the analytical reaction mixture by adsorbing certain components onto a solid phase which is physically immobilized. In ELISA, a liquid sample is added onto a stationary solid phase with special binding properties and is followed by multiple liquid reagents that are sequentially added, incubated and washed followed by some optical change (e.g. color development by the product of an enzymatic reaction) in the final liquid in the well from which the quantity of the analyte is measured. The qualitative "reading '' usually based on detection of intensity of transmitted light by spectrophotometry, which involves quantitation of transmission of some specific wavelength of light through the liquid (as well as the transparent bottom of the well in the multiple - well plate format). The sensitivity of detection depends on amplification of the signal during the analytic reactions. Since enzyme reactions are very well known amplification processes, the signal is generated by enzymes which are linked to the detection reagents in fixed proportions to allow accurate quantification -- thus the name "enzyme linked ''.
The analyte is also called the ligand because it will specifically bind or ligate to a detection reagent, thus ELISA falls under the bigger category of ligand binding assays. The ligand - specific binding reagent is "immobilized '', i.e., usually coated and dried onto the transparent bottom and sometimes also side wall of a well (the stationary "solid phase ' / '' solid substrate '' here as opposed to solid microparticle / beads that can be washed away), which is usually constructed as a multiple - well plate known as the "ELISA plate ''. Conventionally, like other forms of immunoassays, the specificity of antigen - antibody type reaction is used because it is easy to raise an antibody specifically against an antigen in bulk as a reagent. Alternatively, if the analyte itself is an antibody, its target antigen can be used as the binding reagent.
Before the development of the ELISA, the only option for conducting an immunoassay was radioimmunoassay, a technique using radioactively labeled antigens or antibodies. In radioimmunoassay, the radioactivity provides the signal, which indicates whether a specific antigen or antibody is present in the sample. Radioimmunoassay was first described in a scientific paper by Rosalyn Sussman Yalow and Solomon Berson published in 1960.
Because radioactivity poses a potential health threat, a safer alternative was sought. A suitable alternative to radioimmunoassay would substitute a nonradioactive signal in place of the radioactive signal. When enzymes (such as horseradish peroxidase) react with appropriate substrates (such as ABTS or TMB), a change in color occurs, which is used as a signal. However, the signal has to be associated with the presence of antibody or antigen, which is why the enzyme has to be linked to an appropriate antibody. This linking process was independently developed by Stratis Avrameas and G.B. Pierce. Since it is necessary to remove any unbound antibody or antigen by washing, the antibody or antigen has to be fixed to the surface of the container; i.e., the immunosorbent must be prepared. A technique to accomplish this was published by Wide and Jerker Porath in 1966.
In 1971, Peter Perlmann and Eva Engvall at Stockholm University in Sweden, and Anton Schuurs and Bauke van Weemen in the Netherlands independently published papers that synthesized this knowledge into methods to perform EIA / ELISA.
Traditional ELISA typically involves chromogenic reporters and substrates that produce some kind of observable color change to indicate the presence of antigen or analyte. Newer ELISA - like techniques use fluorogenic, electrochemiluminescent, and quantitative PCR reporters to create quantifiable signals. These new reporters can have various advantages, including higher sensitivities and multiplexing. In technical terms, newer assays of this type are not strictly ELISAs, as they are not "enzyme - linked '', but are instead linked to some nonenzymatic reporter. However, given that the general principles in these assays are largely similar, they are often grouped in the same category as ELISAs.
In 2012, an ultrasensitive, enzyme - based ELISA test using nanoparticles as a chromogenic reporter was able to give a naked - eye colour signal, from the detection of mere attograms of analyte. A blue color appears for positive results and red color for negative. Note that this detection only can confirm the presence or the absence of analyte not the actual concentration.
The steps of direct ELISA follows the mechanism below:
The enzyme acts as an amplifier; even if only few enzyme - linked antibodies remain bound, the enzyme molecules will produce many signal molecules. Within common - sense limitations, the enzyme can go on producing color indefinitely, but the more antibody is bound, the faster the color will develop. A major disadvantage of the direct ELISA is the method of antigen immobilization is not specific; when serum is used as the source of test antigen, all proteins in the sample may stick to the microtiter plate well, so small concentrations of analyte in serum must compete with other serum proteins when binding to the well surface. The sandwich or indirect ELISA provides a solution to this problem, by using a "capture '' antibody specific for the test antigen to pull it out of the serum 's molecular mixture.
ELISA may be run in a qualitative or quantitative format. Qualitative results provide a simple positive or negative result (yes or no) for a sample. The cutoff between positive and negative is determined by the analyst and may be statistical. Two or three times the standard deviation (error inherent in a test) is often used to distinguish positive from negative samples. In quantitative ELISA, the optical density (OD) of the sample is compared to a standard curve, which is typically a serial dilution of a known - concentration solution of the target molecule. For example, if a test sample returns an OD of 1.0, the point on the standard curve that gave OD = 1.0 must be of the same analyte concentration as the sample.
The use and meaning of the names "direct ELISA '' and "indirect ELISA '' differs in the literature and on web sites depending on the context of the experiment. When the presence of an antigen is analyzed, the name "direct ELISA '' refers to an ELISA in which only a labelled primary antibody is used, and the term "indirect ELISA '' refers to an ELISA in which the antigen is bound by the primary antibody which then is detected by a labeled secondary antibody. In the latter case a sandwich ELISA is clearly distinct from an indirect ELISA. When the "primary '' antibody is of interest, e.g. in the case of immunization analyses, this antibody is directly detected by the secondary antibody and the term "indirect ELISA '' applies to a setting with two antibodies.
A "sandwich '' ELISA is used to detect sample antigen. The steps are:
The image to the right includes the use of a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme, though, in the technical sense, this is not necessary if the primary antibody is conjugated to an enzyme (which would be direct ELISA). However, the use of a secondary - antibody conjugate avoids the expensive process of creating enzyme - linked antibodies for every antigen one might want to detect. By using an enzyme - linked antibody that binds the Fc region of other antibodies, this same enzyme - linked antibody can be used in a variety of situations. Without the first layer of "capture '' antibody, any proteins in the sample (including serum proteins) may competitively adsorb to the plate surface, lowering the quantity of antigen immobilized. Use of the purified specific antibody to attach the antigen to the plastic eliminates a need to purify the antigen from complicated mixtures before the measurement, simplifying the assay, and increasing the specificity and the sensitivity of the assay. A sandwich ELISA used for research often need validation because of the risk of false positive results.
A third use of ELISA is through competitive binding. The steps for this ELISA are somewhat different from the first two examples:
Some competitive ELISA kits include enzyme - linked antigen rather than enzyme - linked antibody. The labeled antigen competes for primary antibody binding sites with the sample antigen (unlabeled). The less antigen in the sample, the more labeled antigen is retained in the well and the stronger the signal.
Commonly, the antigen is not first positioned in the well.
For the detection of HIV antibodies, the wells of microtiter plate are coated with the HIV antigen. Two specific antibodies are used, one conjugated with enzyme and the other present in serum (if serum is positive for the antibody). Cumulative competition occurs between the two antibodies for the same antigen, causing a stronger signal to be seen. Sera to be tested are added to these wells and incubated at 37 ° C, and then washed. If antibodies are present, the antigen - antibody reaction occurs. No antigen is left for the enzyme - labelled specific HIV antibodies. These antibodies remain free upon addition and are washed off during washing. Substrate is added, but there is no enzyme to act on it, so a positive result shows no color change.
Because the ELISA can be performed to evaluate either the presence of antigen or the presence of antibody in a sample, it is a useful tool for determining serum antibody concentrations (such as with the HIV test or West Nile virus). It has also found applications in the food industry in detecting potential food allergens, such as milk, peanuts, walnuts, almonds, and eggs and as serological blood test for coeliac disease. ELISA can also be used in toxicology as a rapid presumptive screen for certain classes of drugs.
The ELISA was the first screening test widely used for HIV because of its high sensitivity. In an ELISA, a person 's serum is diluted 400 times and applied to a plate to which HIV antigens are attached. If antibodies to HIV are present in the serum, they may bind to these HIV antigens. The plate is then washed to remove all other components of the serum. A specially prepared "secondary antibody '' -- an antibody that binds to other antibodies -- is then applied to the plate, followed by another wash. This secondary antibody is chemically linked in advance to an enzyme.
Thus, the plate will contain enzyme in proportion to the amount of secondary antibody bound to the plate. A substrate for the enzyme is applied, and catalysis by the enzyme leads to a change in color or fluorescence. ELISA results are reported as a number; the most controversial aspect of this test is determining the "cut - off '' point between a positive and a negative result.
A cut - off point may be determined by comparing it with a known standard. If an ELISA test is used for drug screening at workplace, a cut - off concentration, 50 ng / ml, for example, is established, and a sample containing the standard concentration of analyte will be prepared. Unknowns that generate a stronger signal than the known sample are "positive. '' Those that generate weaker signal are "negative ''.
Dr Dennis E Bidwell and Alister Voller created the ELISA test to detect various kind of diseases, such as malaria, Chagas disease, and Johne 's disease. ELISA tests also are used as in in vitro diagnostics in medical laboratories. The other uses of ELISA include:
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japan would be in what stage of rostow's ladder of development | Rostow 's Stages of growth - wikipedia
Rostow 's Stages of Economic Growth model is one of the major historical models of economic growth. It was published by American economist Walt Whitman Rostow in 1960. The model postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages, of varying length:
Rostow 's model is one of the more structuralist models of economic growth, particularly in comparison with the "backwardness '' model developed by Alexander Gerschenkron, although the two models are not mutually exclusive.
Rostow argued that economic take - off must initially be led by a few individual economic sectors. This belief echoes David Ricardo 's comparative advantage thesis and criticizes Marxist revolutionaries ' push for economic self - reliance in that it pushes for the "initial '' development of only one or two sectors over the development of all sectors equally. This became one of the important concepts in the theory of modernization in social evolutionism.
Below is an outline of Rostow 's Five Stages of Growth:
Rostow claimed that these stages of growth were designed to tackle a number of issues, some of which he identified himself, writing:
"Under what impulses did traditional, agricultural societies begin the process of their modernization? When and how did regular growth become a built - in feature of each society? What forces drove the process of sustained growth along and determined its contours? What common social and political features of the growth process may be discerned at each stage? What forces have determined relations between the more developed and less developed areas; and what relation if any did the relative sequence of growth bear to outbreak of war? And finally where is compound interest taking us? Is it taking us to communism; or to the affluent suburbs, nicely rounded out with social overhead capital; to destruction; to the moon; or where? ''
Rostow asserts that countries go through each of these stages fairly linearly, and set out a number of conditions that were likely to occur in investment, consumption, and social trends at each state. Not all of the conditions were certain to occur at each stage, however, and the stages and transition periods may occur at varying lengths from country to country, and even from region to region.
Rostow 's model is a part of the liberal school of economics, laying emphasis on the efficacy of modern concepts of free trade and the ideas of Adam Smith. It disagrees with Friedrich List 's argument which states that economies which rely on exports of raw materials may get "locked in '', and would not be able to diversify, regarding this Rostow 's model states that economies may need to depend on raw material exports to finance the development of industrial sector which has not yet of achieved superior level of competitiveness in the early stages of take - off. Rostow 's model does not disagree with John Maynard Keynes regarding the importance of government control over domestic development which is not generally accepted by some ardent free trade advocates. The basic assumption given by Rostow is that countries want to modernize and grow and that society will agree to the materialistic norms of economic growth.
An economy in this stage has an unlimited production function which barely attains the minimum level of potential output. This does not entirely mean that the economy 's production level is static. The output level can still be increased, as there was often a surplus of uncultivated land which can be used for increasing agricultural production. Modern science and technology has yet to be introduced. As a result, these pre-Newtonian societies, unaware of the possibilities to manipulate the external world, rely heavily on manual labor and self - sufficiency to survive. States and individuals utilize irrigation systems in many instances, but most farming is still purely for subsistence. There have been technological innovations, but only on ad hoc basis. All of that this can result in increases in output, but never beyond an upper limit which can not be crossed. Trade is predominantly regional and local, largely done through barter, and the monetary system is not well developed. Investment 's share never exceeds 5 % of total economic production.
Wars, famines and epidemics like plague cause initially expanding populations to halt or shrink, limiting the single greatest factor of production: human manual labor. Volume fluctuations in trade due to political instability are frequent; historically, trading was subject to great risk and transport of goods and raw materials was expensive, difficult, slow and unreliable. The manufacturing sector and other industries have a tendency to grow but are limited by inadequate scientific knowledge and a "backward '' or highly traditionalist frame of mind which contributes to low labour productivity. In this stage, some regions are entirely self - sufficient.
In settled agricultural societies before the Industrial Revolution, a hierarchical social structure relied on near - absolute reverence for tradition, and an insistence on obedience and submission. This resulted in concentration of political power in the hands of landowners in most cases; everywhere, family and lineage, and marriage ties, constituted the primary social organization, along with religious customs, and the state only rarely interacted with local populations and in limited spheres of life. This social structure was generally feudalistic in nature. Under modern conditions, these characteristics have been modified by outside influences, but the least developed regions and societies fit this description quite accurately...
In the second stage of economic growth the economy undergoes a process of change for building up of conditions for growth and take off. Rostow said that these changes in society and the economy had to be of fundamental nature in the socio - political structure and production techniques. This pattern was followed in Europe, parts of Asia, the Middle East and Africa. There is also a second or third pattern in which he said that there was no need for change in socio - political structure because these economies were not deeply caught up in older, traditional social and political structures. The only changes required were in economic and technical dimensions. The nations which followed this pattern were in North America and Oceania (New Zealand and Australia).
There are three important dimensions to this transition: firstly, the shift from an agrarian to an industrial or manufacturing society begins, albeit slowly. Secondly, trade and other commercial activities of the nation broaden the market 's reach not only to neighboring areas but also to far - flung regions, creating international markets. Lastly, the surplus attained should not be wasted on the conspicuous consumption of the land owners or the state, but should be spent on the development of industries, infrastructure and thereby prepare for self - sustained growth of the economy later on. Furthermore, agriculture becomes commercialized and mechanized via technological advancement; shifts increasingly towards cash or export - oriented crops; and there is a growth of agricultural entrepreneurship.
The strategic factor is that investment level should be above 5 % of the national income. This rise in investment rate depends on many sectors of the economy. According to Rostow capital formation depends on the productivity of agriculture and the creation of social overhead capital. Agriculture plays a very important role in this transition process as the surplus quantity of the produce is to be utilized to support an increasing urban population of workers and also becomes a major exporting sector, earning foreign exchange for continued development and capital formation. Increases in agricultural productivity also lead to expansion of the domestic markets for manufactured goods and processed commodities, which adds to the growth of investment in the industrial sector.
Social overhead capital creation can only be undertaken by government, in Rostow 's view. Government plays the driving role in development of social overhead capital as it is rarely profitable, it has a long gestation period, and the pay - offs accrue to all economic sectors, not primarily to the investing entity; thus the private sector is not interested in playing a major role in its development.
All these changes effectively prepare the way for "take - off '' only if there is basic change in attitude of society towards risk taking, changes in working environment, and openness to change in social and political organisations and structures. According to Rostow, the preconditions to take - off begins from an external intervention by more developed and advanced societies, which "set in motion ideas and sentiments which initiated the process by which a modern alternative to the traditional society was constructed out of the old culture. '' The pre-conditions of take - off closely track the historic stages of the (initially) British Industrial Revolution.
Referring to the graph of savings and investment, notably, there is a steep increase in the rate of savings and investment from the stage of "Pre Take - off '' till "Drive to Maturity: '' then, following that stage, the growing rate of savings and investment moderates. This initial and accelerating steep increase in savings and investment is a pre-condition for the economy to reach the "Take - off '' stage and far beyond.
This stage is characterized by dynamic economic growth. As Rostow suggests, all is premised on a sharp stimulus (or multiple stimuli) that is / are any or all of economic, political and technological change. The main feature of this stage is rapid, self - sustained growth. Take - off occurs when sector led growth becomes common and society is driven more by economic processes than traditions. At this point, the norms of economic growth are well established and growth becomes a nation 's "second nature '' and a shared goal. In discussing the take - off, Rostow is noted to have adopted the term "transition '', which describes the process of a traditional economy becoming a modern one. After take - off, a country will generally take as long as fifty to one hundred years to reach the mature stage according to the model, as occurred in countries that participated in the Industrial Revolution and were established as such when Rostow developed his ideas in the 1950s.
Per Rostow there are three main requirements for take - off:
1. The rate of productive investment should rise from approximately 5 % to over 10 % of national income or net national product
2. The development of one or more substantial manufacturing sectors, with a high rate of growth;
3. The existence or quick emergence of a political, social and institutional framework which exploits the impulses to expansion in the modern sector and the potential external economy effects of the take - off.
The third requirement implies that the needed capital must be mobilized from domestic resources and steered into the economy, rather than into domestic or state consumption. Industrialization becomes a crucial phenomenon as it helps to prepare the basic structure for structural changes on a massive scale. Rostow says that this transition does not follow a set trend as there are a variety of different motivations or stimulus which began this growth process.
Take off requires a large and sufficient amount of loanable funds for expansion of the industrial sector which generally come from two sources which are:
The take - off also needs a group of entrepreneurs in the society who pursue innovation and accelerate the rate of growth in the economy. For such an entrepreneurial class to develop, firstly, an ethos of "delayed gratification '', a preference for capital accumulation over expenditure, and high tolerance of risk must be present. Secondly, entrepreneurial groups typically develop because they can not secure prestige and power in their society via marriage, via participating in well - established industries, or through government or military service (among other routes to prominence) because of some disqualifying social or legal attribute; and lastly, their rapidly changing society must tolerate unorthodox paths to economic and political power.
The ability of a country to make it through this stage depends on the following major factors:
An example of a country in the Take - off stage of development is Equatorial Guinea. It has the largest increases in GDP growth since 1980 and the rate of productive investment has risen from 5 % to over 10 % of income or product.
In the table note that Take - off periods of different countries are the same as the industrial revolution in those countries.
After take - off, there follows a long interval of sustained growth known as the stage of drive to maturity. Rostow defines it "as the period when a society has effectively applied the range of modern technology to the bulk of its resources. '' Now regularly growing economy drives to extend modern technology over the whole front of its economic activity. Some 10 - 20 % of the national income is steadily invested, permitting output regularly to outstrip the increase in population. The makeup of the economy changes unceasingly as technique improves, new industries accelerate, older industries level off. The economy finds its place in the international economy: goods formerly imported are produced at home; new import requirements develop, and new export commodities to match them. The leading sectors in an economy will be determined by the nature of resource endowments and not only by technology.
On comparing the dates of take - off and drive to maturity, these countries reached the stage of maturity in approximately 60 years.
The structural changes in the society during this stage are in three ways:
During this stage a country has to decide whether the industrial power and technology it has generated is to be used for the welfare of its people or to gain supremacy over others, or the world in toto.
A prime example of a country in the Drive to Maturity stage is South Africa. It is developing a world - class infrastructure - including a modern transport network, widely available energy, and sophisticated telecommunications facilities. Additionally, the commercial farm sector shed 140,000 jobs, a decline of roughly 20 %, in the eleven - year period from 1988 to 1998.
This diversity leads to reduction in poverty rate and increasing standards of living, as the society no longer needs to sacrifice its comfort in order to build up certain sectors.
The age of high mass consumption refers to the period of contemporary comfort afforded many western nations, wherein consumers concentrate on durable goods, and hardly remember the subsistence concerns of previous stages. Rostow uses the Buddenbrooks dynamics metaphor to describe this change in attitude. In Thomas Mann 's 1901 novel, Buddenbrooks, a family is chronicled for three generations. The first generation is interested in economic development, the second in its position in society. The third, already having money and prestige, concerns itself with the arts and music, worrying little about those previous, earthly concerns. So too, in the age of high mass consumption, a society is able to choose between concentrating on military and security issues, on equality and welfare issues, or on developing great luxuries for its upper class. Each country in this position chooses its own balance between these three goals. There is a desire to develop an egalitarian society and measures are taken to reach this goal. According to Rostow, a country tries to determine its uniqueness and factors affecting it are its political, geographical and cultural structure and also values present in its society.
Historically, the United States is said to have reached this stage first, followed by other western European nations, and then Japan in the 1950s.
This step is more of a theoretical speculation by Rostow rather than an analytical step in the process by Rostow. Individuals begin having larger families and do not value income as a pre-requisite for more vacation days. Consumer products become more durable and more diverse. New Americans will behave in a way where the high economic security and level mass consumption is considered normal. Rostow does make the point that it is possible with the large baby boom it could either cause economic issues or dictate an even larger diffusion of consumer goods. With increasing urban and suburban population there will be undoubtedly an increase in consumer goods and services as well.
Rostow 's thesis is biased towards a western model of modernization, but at the time of Rostow the world 's only mature economies were in the west, and no controlled economies were in the "era of high mass consumption. '' The model de-emphasizes differences between sectors in capitalistic vs. communistic societies, but seems to innately recognize that modernization can be achieved in different ways in different types of economies.
Another assumption that Rostow took is of trying to fit economic progress into a linear system. This assumption is questioned due to empirical evidence of many countries making ' false starts ' then reaching a degree of progress and change and then slipping back. E.g.: In the case of contemporary Russia slipping back from high mass consumption to a country in transition.
Another criticism of Rostow 's work is that it consideres large countries with a large population (Japan), with natural resources available at just the right time in its history (Coal in Northern European countries), or with a large land mass (Argentina). He has little to say and indeed offers little hope for small countries, such as Rwanda, which do not have such advantages. Neo-liberal economic theory to Rostow, and many others, does offer hope to much of the world that economic maturity is coming and the age of high mass consumption is nigh. This does leave a potential "grim meathook future '' for the outliers, which do not have the resources, political will, or external backing to become competitive with already developed economies. (See Dependency theory)
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who replaced clarence in the e street band | Jake Clemons - Wikipedia
Jake Clemons (born February 27, 1980) is a singer - songwriter, an American musician and since 2012 is best known for being the saxophonist for Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band. Clemons took over the role of saxophonist for the band when his uncle, Clarence Clemons, a founding member of the band, died in 2011. Clemons also has performed various instruments including percussion and also provided backing vocals on the band 's Wrecking Ball Tour, High Hopes Tour. and The River Tour. Clemons attended the Virginia Governor 's School for the Arts to study jazz performance. Clemons also has performed with Eddie Vedder, Roger Waters, The Swell Season and The Roots.
Clemons released a solo album titled Fear & Love in January 2017.
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is there a sequel to the son of batman | Son of Batman - wikipedia
Son of Batman is a direct - to - video animated superhero film which is part of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. It is an adaptation of Grant Morrison and Andy Kubert 's 2006 Batman and Son storyline. The film was released as a digital download on April 22, 2014, and was released on physical media May 6, 2014.
At the headquarters of the League of Assassins, Ra 's al Ghul grooms Damian Wayne (son of his daughter, Talia, and Batman) to succeed him as head of the league. The league is attacked by a group of assassins led by Slade Wilson, Ra 's al Ghul 's initial choice for successor before meeting Batman. Feeling betrayed, Slade decides to seize power. During the battle, Ra 's is defeated and fatally burned, dying before he can reach the Lazarus Pit. Damian stabs Slade 's right eye during the battle, forcing him to flee. Talia takes Damian to Gotham City to meet his father and ask for his protection.
In Gotham City, Batman confronts Killer Croc, who is stealing mutagenic chemicals and steroids to enhance himself. Batman gets ambushed by Croc before Talia electrocutes the latter from behind. She tells Batman about her father 's death and leaves their son in his care, though Damian believes that he can take care of himself and does not need Batman. Slade, now calling himself Deathstroke, captures Dr. Kirk Langstrom, who conspired with both Croc and Ra 's, promising the latter a formula for his soldiers. Slade threatens Langstrom 's wife Francine and his daughter Rebecca to force him to recreate the Man - Bat formula for him. Damian bypasses Wayne Towers security to speak to Bruce, telling him that Deathstroke 's contact Ubu is stationed in Gotham. Although Damian wants to avenge Ra 's al Ghul by killing Deathstroke, Bruce objects to Damian 's willingness to take lives. Talia is captured by Deathstroke when she and her assassins attack his compound.
Against Batman 's orders, Damian leaves the Batcave and, after a chase and a long fight, defeats Ubu, whom he located by accessing the Bat - Computer. Before Damian can kill him, Nightwing arrives, mistakes him for a criminal and subdues him before bringing him back to the Batcave. Batman berates Damian for his recklessness, willingness to kill and exposing their operation. Batman then has Damian don the mantle of Robin to teach him discipline. Searching for a lead on Langstrom 's location, Batman goes to Arkham to interrogate a rabid Killer Croc, who supplied the mutagens to Langstrom in exchange for his enhancements and is currently going through drastic, agonizing withdrawal symptoms that cause him to shed his scales and tail. Since others are too afraid of him to medicate him without being harmed, Batman promises Croc help in exchange for information. Batman follows Croc 's lead about the formula 's mutagen to Langstrom 's apartment, where he finds a throwing star that he takes evidence of Deathstroke 's involvement. Before he leaves, he goes throughout the building and finds a storage room filled with caged bats, with one larger cage being empty and broken open from inside. Batman then finds a rabid gorilla with bat - like mutations, one of Langstrom 's unstable subjects, and it attacks him until it dies from its mutations. A drone aircraft sent by Deathstroke then flies past and crashes on the building, destroying it, though Batman evades the explosion. Commissioner Gordon warns them about an abandoned stadium believed to house Deathstroke 's men.
At the stadium, Batman and Damian question Langstrom but are attacked when Damian becomes violent. Before they successfully escape, they fight off a swarm of Man - Bats. In the cave, Langstrom reveals Deathstroke 's plan to create superhuman, flight - capable assassins. While Nightwing works with Langstrom on an antidote, Batman and Damian rescue their family. Batman guesses that Talia has been abducted when he finds evidence of torture in an empty cell, which he keeps from Damian to not set him off. They find and rescue Langstrom 's family, but Batman is unaware that Deathstroke challenged Damian to a fight in exchange for Talia 's life through a video device he gave Langstrom 's daughter in exchange for sparing them. Both Langstrom 's daughter and Deathstroke 's video tell him not to involve Batman in their fight.
Nightwing learns that Deathstroke is operating in an oil rig off the Scottish coast, and when Batman is distracted, Damian goes to the rig. He finds Deathstroke and Talia in an underwater base with a swarm of Man - Bats and another Lazarus Pit, whose fluid Deathstroke intends to sell. Damian pulls a gun on Deathstroke, who holds one against Talia 's head until Damian drops his gun. Deathstroke fires at him, but Talia is hit instead after she jumps in the path of Deathstroke 's gunfire. As Deathstroke corners Damian, Batman appears and the Man - Bats attack. Batman wards them off with sonar - emitting batarangs, while Deathstroke flees with Damian giving chase.
Batman heals Talia in Lazarus Pit, while Nightwing and Langstrom reach the oil rig and cure the Man - Bats. At the same time, Damian fights and defeats Deathstroke, but refuses to kill him because he is his father 's son. The elevator from the rig to the underwater base is destroyed when the Man - Bats, overwhelmed by the sonar devices, overcrowd the glass elevator shaft, flooding the base. Batman, Talia and Damian escape, but Deathstroke gets left behind. Batman believes that Damian should stay with him and remain as Robin while Talia still wishes to recreate the League with Batman, who would rather disband the League, and Damian at her side. She decides to let him care for their son and leaves with the League of Assassins though she says she will return for him.
As the credits roll, a slideshow of the fight between Damian and Nightwing is played between credits.
The soundtrack to Son of Batman was released on May 20, 2014, with music composed by Frederik Wiedmann.
The film received generally mixed to positive reviews. IGN gave the film a rating of 7.5 out of 10, saying "Son of Batman finds the humor amidst the more adult - oriented action elements in this latest DC animated adventure ''. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 75 % based on 8 votes. Common Sense Media gave the film a 4 star rating out of 5, stating "Violent and noirish Batman is engaging but cynical ''. Conversely, Brian Lowry of Variety stated "at times this feels like a sitcom premise -- a chop - socky "Full House '', or maybe, "Full Cave '' ". Tommy Cook for Collider.com also gave the film a negative review, commenting "Striving for the dark edge of what I guess people expect from a Batman movie while still maintaining that Saturday morning toon sheen, the film feels mass produced to appeal to all (give the adults -- gore; the kids -- a spunky child sidekick.); however in the effort to appease everyone, SoB in fact caters to none ''.
It earned $6,428,188 from domestic home video sales.
In 2015, a sequel to Son of Batman was released under the title of Batman vs. Robin. In 2016, a third movie was released under the title of Batman: Bad Blood.
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