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when is it legal to drink in the us | Legal drinking age - Wikipedia
The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary between different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks.
Kazakhstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Paraguay, Solomon Islands, India (certain states), the United States (except U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico), Yemen (Aden and Sana'a), Japan, Iceland, Canada (certain Provinces and Territories), and South Korea have the highest set drinking ages; however, some of these countries do not have off - premises drinking limits. Austria, Antigua and Barbuda, Belgium, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Ethiopia, Gibraltar, Luxembourg and Nicaragua have the lowest set drinking ages.
The most commonly known reason for the law behind the legal drinking age is the effect on the brain in adolescents. because the brain is still maturing, alcohol can have a negative effect on the memory and long - term thinking. Alongside that, it can cause liver failure, and create a hormone imbalance in teens due to the constant changes and maturing of hormones during puberty.
The most common minimum age to purchase alcohol in Africa is 18. Although it varies from the lowest age limit in Ethiopia being only 15 years, Zimbabwe with a minimum purchase age of 16 years, Gambia with an age limit of 17 years and Uganda where the minimum legal purchase age is 18 but minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider with a meal at a restaurant. Cameroon and Egypt are the only countries in Africa with a minimum purchase age of 21 years. However Algeria, Angola (except Luando Province), Central African Republic, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea - Bissau, Morocco, Togo, Tunisia and the Western Sahara have no laws on the book restricting the sale of alcohol to minors. In Libya, Somalia and Sudan the sale, production and consumption of alcohol is completely prohibited.
It is illegal to sell alcoholic beverages to anyone under the age of 18. It is also illegal for minors to buy and consume alcohol.
The minimum age to purchase and consume varies, but the most common age is 18 years. However, in North America the age limits varies between 18 and 21 years of age. Throughout the United States the minimum legal age to purchase any alcoholic beverage from a shop, supermarket, liquor store, bar, club or any other licensed premises is 21 years of age. In Canada each province can decide which minimum age limit is to be set to buy or consume alcohol. Most provinces have a minimum age of 19 years, while Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec have set a minimum age of 18 years. In South America all countries have set a minimum purchase age of 18 years, except for Guyana where minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider in a restaurant provided they buy a meal, and Paraguay the only country with a minimum legal purchase and drinking age of 20 years.
Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho, Texas, and Maryland, is considered legal for those under the age of 21.
By a judge 's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults 18 to 20 years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise.
The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents.
Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty - one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to a year in jail.
The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by - law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal).
It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public.
Most countries within Europe have set 18 as the minimum age to purchase alcohol. Although Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Gibraltar, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Serbia and Switzerland (except Ticino) maintain a minimum purchase age below 18 years permitting minors either full or limited access to alcohol. In 2005, 2007 and recently in 2015 the European Union has failed to enact a law forcing member states to raise their purchase age to 18 years. But in the past years several European countries have raised their drinking / purchase age or enacted laws restricting the access to alcohol for minors:
By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation. If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification. This card is rarely used though since a passport or drivers license is more commonly used.
Both the legal drinking and purchasing age in the Faroe Islands is 18.
Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine.
In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor 's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances.
Alcohol with more than 60 % ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products.
Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas.
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It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.
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who are the official winners of total drama | Total Drama - wikipedia
Total Drama is a Canadian animated comedy television series which is a homage and parody to common conventions from reality television. The show and its sequel seasons are collectively referred to as the Total Drama series. It premiered on the Canadian cable television specialty channel Teletoon on July 8, 2007, and on the American cable television channel Cartoon Network on June 5, 2008. All of the contestants have distinct personalities that serve as main plot points with the characters consisting of the eponymous fictional reality series and the contestants therein. The style of this series is similar to that of Survivor. Total Drama was met with critical acclaim upon release and has developed a cult following.
The Total Drama series is the original series of the greater Total Drama franchise, which consists of five seasons that have aired during a timeframe of seven years: the first season, Total Drama Island, the second season, Total Drama Action, the third season, Total Drama World Tour, the fourth season, Total Drama: Revenge of the Island, and the fifth season, titled as both Total Drama All - Stars and Total Drama: Pahkitew Island. The latest installment premiered on July 7, 2014, in the United States and September 4, 2014, in Canada. A spin - off series based on the main series, The Ridonculous Race, was produced shortly after the fifth season was aired. A spin - off series in an alternative universe, titled Total DramaRama was released on September 1, 2018 on Cartoon Network in the U.S. and on October 7, 2018 on Teletoon in Canada.
A month after the American debut of Total DramaRama, McGillis confirmed there would be no more new seasons of Total Drama, citing the lack of a "market for this experience in the wider entertainment marketplace '' as the main reason for the cancellation.
The name of each season consists of the title Total Drama with a different word or phrase later added. That changing word or phrase defines the theme for that season. This series is a competition to win a cash prize of C $100,000 in the first season and C $1,000,000 in every other season. This series takes elements of other widely known series such as Survivor, Fear Factor, The Amazing Race, and Escape from Scorpion Island. Like these other series, Total Drama is rated TV - PG because it features mild profanity, censored language, brief censored nudity, and some suggestive dialogue. When more suggestive dialogue is present, the episode is rated TV - PG - D. The first three seasons are rated TV - PG - D while the latter two are rated TV - PG. Unlike many other animated shows, this series has a different logo for every season (while each season might have multiple alternate logos), so there is no official logo for this series.
Most seasons in this series takes place in a different location. The first season, Total Drama Island, is set in Camp Wawanakwa, a fictional island located in an unspecified area in Muskoka, Ontario. The second season, Total Drama Action, is set in an abandoned movie studio lot in Toronto, Ontario. In the third season, Total Drama World Tour, the contestants are taken all around the world in the "Total Drama Jumbo Jet '', which seems to be structurally unstable. Some of the countries that are visited in the third season include Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The fourth season, Total Drama: Revenge of the Island, is set back at Camp Wawanakwa, but this time the island is radioactive. The first part of the fifth season, Total Drama All - Stars, also takes place on the island, due to the success of the first and fourth seasons. The second part, Total Drama: Pahkitew Island however, takes place on another island called Pahkitew Island after the destruction of Camp Wawanakwa.
Total Drama was developed and produced by Fresh TV and was distributed by Cake Entertainment. The series is funded in part by the Canada Media Fund (formerly the Canadian Television Fund), and the Canadian Film or Video Production Tax Credit. The first season was funded by Xenpohile Media, Bell Broadcast and New Media Fund. The series, primarily targeted at eight - to sixteen - year - olds, was animated at Elliott Animation and directed by Todd Kauffman and Mark Thornton of Neptoon Studios. The creators, Tom McGillis and Jennifer Pertsch, studied what teenagers liked and disliked about reality television shows in the writing process.
McGillis says they used a "countrywide online research project '' to determine this demographic 's likes. Fresh TV Inc. partners McGillis, Pertsch, Elliott and Irving produced the series. The budget for the first season was $ 8 million. It was animated in Flash, at Elliott Animation 's studio in Toronto.
Every cast and crew member on Total Drama had to sign a confidentiality agreement not to disclose who the winner was. All the characters were designed by Kauffman. An early name for the series was Camp TV when the series first started production in 2006. Camp TV Productions is still labeled in the end credits of every episode, along with the season number in Roman numerals.
Series production stopped in 2014 as no new seasons were produced since. Instead, starting in 2015 the studio has focused the franchise more on producing separate spin - off series, with their respective voice actors being reused in the new spin - offs.
On May 3, 2017, it was announced that Total Drama would be making a return. It was later revealed that it would be returning as a new series titled Total DramaRama. The show is a spin - off that has the contestants as kids in daycare.
This is a list of all the seasons that have aired with the original Canada air dates shown below along with basic elements for each season. The 100th episode of the whole series aired in Canada on February 27, 2014, with the producers very happy of this milestone. That means that it took Teletoon 6 years and 7 months for them to air the first 100 episodes.
There are currently five seasons in the Total Drama series that have aired worldwide which all are listed below. The air dates listed in the table are from the original Canadian airings.
Source for season list:
Orignally, co-creator Tom McGillis had stated that his personal goal was for Total Drama to go up to ten seasons. Alex Ganetakos, the executive story editor and the senior writer for the series, also mentioned that the production team planned to make more seasons in the future. However, in a Reddit Q&A on September 25, 2018, when asked about the future of the series, Tom McGillis responded with "Nope. Sorry to be a dreamkiller, but there 's no market for this experience in the wider entertainment marketplace right now ''.
Total Drama first premiered in Canada on July 8, 2007 on Teletoon, while the United States aired the show one year later on Cartoon Network on June 5, 2008, followed by several other countries thereafter. Since then, Total Drama has become an international franchise and one of the biggest successes for Fresh TV. As of September 2011, the entire series has been shown in over 100 countries around the world, with the first season airing in 188 countries worldwide.
The series aired on Teletoon in Canada, ABC1, ABC3, and Cartoon Network in Australia, Kix Jetix and Disney XD in the United Kingdom and Ireland, and Cartoon Network in the United States. The fourth season first aired on Télétoon+ and Canal+ Family in France, while the fifth season finished airing first on K2 in Italy. Australia was also the first country to finish airing the third season.
Total Drama has had a total of 52 characters in the series who were introduced as contestants throughout the series ' five seasons. The first three seasons consists of an original set of cast, with a total of 25 characters (22 are introduced in the first episode of the series, while the other three are introduced later on), while the fourth season consists of only a new cast with 13 characters. However, the fifth season brings back both casts to compete together and against each other, while also introducing a third set of cast with 14 new characters.
The names of all the contestants who have competed in the first five seasons are: Alejandro, Amy, Anne Maria, B, Beardo, Beth, Blaineley, Brick, Bridgette, Cameron, Cody, Courtney, Dakota, Dave, Dawn, DJ, Duncan, Ella, Eva, Ezekiel, Geoff, Gwen, Harold, Heather, Izzy, Jasmine, Jo, Justin, Katie, Leonard, Leshawna, Lightning, Lindsay, Max, Mike, Noah, Owen, Rodney, Sadie, Sam, Samey, Scarlett, Scott, Sierra, Staci, Shawn, Sky, Sugar, Topher, Trent, Tyler, and Zoey.
22 characters competed in Season 1, 15 competed in Season 2, 18 competed in Season 3, 13 competed in Season 4, and 14 characters competed in each half of Season 5 (28 total).
There are various voice actors who have recorded the voices for all the characters in the Total Drama series. Both Christian Potenza and Clé Bennett voice the two main characters in the series, who appear in almost every episode. Christian Potenza plays the role of egotistical and unapathetic host Chris McLean, saying that the best part of the job was that his character could not be voted off the show. Clé Bennett plays the role of the co-host of the series Chef. Other voice actors include Brian Froud, who voices contestants Harold and Sam and is the only other voice actor who has the main role in every season. Emilie - Claire Barlow plays the contestant Courtney on Total Drama and stated that Courtney was her favorite character that she had ever played.
A list of all the voice actors for the original cast: Rochelle Wilson / Emilie - Claire Barlow as Courtney, Clé Bennett as DJ, Julia Chantrey as Eva, Carla Collins as Blaineley, Katie Crown as Izzy, Novie Edwards as Leshawna, Megan Fahlenbock as Gwen, Kristin Fairlie as Bridgette, Brian Froud as Harold, Sarah Gadon as Beth, Marco Grazzini as Alejandro (for Total Drama World Tour), Carter Hayden as Noah, Alex House as Alejandro (for Total Drama All - Stars), Lauren Lipson as Sadie, Scott McCord as both Owen and Trent, Stephanie Anne Mills as both Katie and Lindsay, Drew Nelson as Duncan, Annick Obonsawin as Sierra, Peter Oldring as Ezekiel, Tyler and Cody, Dan Petronijevic as Geoff, Adam Reid as Justin, and Rachel Wilson as Heather.
For the second - generation cast, the voice actors are: Carleigh Beverly as Dakota, Jon Cor as Brick, Cory Doran as Mike, Kevin Duhaney as Cameron, Laurie Elliot as Jo, Brian Froud as Sam, Athena Karkanis as Anne Maria, Barbara Mamabolo as Zoey, Caitlynne Medrek as Dawn, Ashley Peters as Staci, Tyrone Savage as Lightning, and James Wallis as Scott.
For the third - generation cast, the voice actors are: Clé Bennett as Beardo and Leonard, Zachary Bennett as Shawn, Katie Bergin as Jasmine, Daniel DeSanto as Dave, Bruce Dow as Max, Kristi Friday as Scarlett, Christopher Jacot as Topher, Bryn McAuley as Amy and Samey, Sunday Muse as Ella, Sarah Podemski as Sky, Ian Ronningen as Rodney, and Rochelle Wilson as Sugar.
Most voice actors have only voiced one character, while some actors have voiced two characters. Peter Oldring and Clé Bennett are the only two voice actors who have voiced more than two characters, Oldring voicing three and Bennett voicing four (five if counting DJ 's mother). However, if the spin - offs are to be included, then multiple voice actors have voiced multiple characters throughout the franchise. Brian Froud, Rochelle Wilson, and Bennett are the only voice actors to voice contestants from more than one generation. Claire - Barlow revealed that Courtney was originally voiced by an unnamed voice actress, later revealed to be Rochelle Wilson as the first voice of Courtney in the first two episodes of Total Drama Island before the role was later given to her. Alejandro is the only character to have three voice actors; he was voiced by Marco Grazinni in Total Drama World Tour, Keith Oliver while he was in the robot suit and Alex House in Total Drama All - Stars. Josh is the only minor character to have a voice actor of his own, Dwayne Hill, as these roles are usually given to one of the main cast members.
Total Drama characters are seen in an entire different series called Skatoony where the characters are interviewed to play in quiz trivia games against real people and other Canadian series characters. Geoff, Leonard, Noah, and Owen also appear in Total Drama Presents: The Ridonculous Race as contestants. Beth, Bridgette, Cody, Courtney, Duncan, Gwen, Harold, Izzy, Leshawna, Noah, Owen appear in the prequel spin - off Total DramaRama as young children, along with Chef Hatchet.
As of 2011, the first season has been shown in over 188 countries while the entire franchise has been seen in at least 100. The series has received incredible ratings, ranking # 1 for the under - 14 age group base throughout the series airing period on Cartoon Network. The series also has very involved fans who keep talking about the series throughout various online communities, while also inspiring them to create their own fanart and fanfictions. Cake Entertainment, the main distributor of the series, calls the show "phenomenally popular '', while the creator of the series said that "For tweens around the world, Total Drama is more than just a parody of a reality show. It 's THEIR reality show ''.
The first season, Total Drama Island received general acclaim from critics and fans. Users from TV.com gave the show an 8.6 "Great '', while users from IMDB gave it a 7.5 out of 10. Common Sense Media gave the show 4 out of 5 stars, calling it a "(c) lever cartoon reality show spoof ''.
The second season, Total Drama Action, received less acclaim due to being seen as less on par with Total Drama Island; a primary criticism was the selection of contestants from Island who had already made it far in that season, thus neglecting most of the contestants who were eliminated earlier. Action currently holds a 7.9 on Metacritic based on 14 reviews.
The third season, Total Drama World Tour, has also received critical acclaim from critics and won multiple awards including "Best Animated Series '', "Best Voice Actress '' (for Annick Obonsawin), and was also nominated for several other awards; however, the criticisms included the overuse of the love triangle between Courtney, Duncan, and Gwen, as well as the destruction of the character Ezekiel.
Total Drama: Revenge of the Island received mixed to positive reviews, airing in over 100 countries and holding a 6.7 on Metacritic based on 15 reviews, thus indicating "Generally favorable reviews. ''
Total Drama All - Stars has received mixed to negative reviews, with the primary criticisms being the neglecting of original favorites in favor of the Revenge of the Island cast, and many wasted plotlines such as building up a reconciliation between Courtney and Gwen, only to have it be ruined again. All - Stars currently holds a 5.4 rating on Metacritic based on 9 reviews. Total Drama Pahkitew Island, however, received significantly more positive reviews.
Up until November 1, 2011, only Total Drama Island had been released on DVD. Cartoon Network released their Total Drama Island DVD in the U.S. on August 18, 2009 (Region 1), while Madman Entertainment (Region 4) also released Total Drama Island on DVD in Australia, but this time in two parts (Collection 1 on May 5, 2010, and Collection 2 on September 29, 2010). However, almost two years after Total Drama Action was first aired, Madman released their Collection 1 DVD of the second season on November 2, 2011 (with Collection 2 being released on July 4, 2012), making Australia the only country that has released the entirety of Total Drama Action for private home viewing. Australia also released Total Drama World Tour on DVD with Collection 1 being released on April 3, 2013, and Collection 2 being released on August 7, 2013. On October 8, 2014, Total Drama: Revenge of the Island was released into one part due to it being a shorter season. The first part of the fifth season, Total Drama All - Stars was released on March 4, 2015, with the second part, Total Drama: Pahkitew Island being released on July 7, 2015.
Total Drama episodes were made available on streaming services, such as Netflix, Amazon Prime, and iTunes. Currently, Netflix is missing Total Drama World Tour and Total Drama: Revenge of the Island while retaining all other seasons, especially The Ridonculous Race. Total Drama was made available for purchasing on iTunes until December 5, 2015, but still available on Amazon Prime, with the exception of The Ridonculous Race.
Teletoon hosted a Total Drama - based website called "Total Drama Online '' from 2009 to 2013 where players could play games and earn badges to win prizes. Even though most features (like user accounts, original avatar designer and badge counter) from this website are exclusive to only Canadian viewers, all of the games and basic elements were available to the rest of the world. Cartoon Network also had their own Total Drama website from 2009 to 2015 which was very similar to the Canadian one, but was only exclusive to viewers in the United States. Various alternate websites based on the series also exist throughout most of the other countries the show airs in, which are all in their respective languages.
A new spin - off series called Total Drama Presents: The Ridonculous Race was created by Fresh TV which takes place in the same universe as the current show. The new series is loosely based off after the format of The Amazing Race where the cast is split into multiple teams of two (referred to as duos) which race around the world throughout the series. There is a new host this series called Don, who replaced the original host Chris. Even though some of the characters from the main series make appearances, the spin - off series is primarily dominated by a new cast. The spin - off series is a "buddy comedy '' and includes 18 pairs of teams (36 characters). It first premiered on September 7, 2015, on Cartoon Network and later premiered on January 4, 2016, on the Canadian version of Cartoon Network.
Another spin - off series was announced on December 19, 2017, as Total Drama Daycare. The series was later renamed Total DramaRama. It was released in September 2018 on Cartoon Network in the U.S. and October 2018 on Teletoon in Canada. The new series will have 52 episodes and for the first time in the franchise, the episodes will have a new runtime with a shorter length of eleven minutes. It is set to feature some of the original characters from Total Drama Island as young children such as Beth, Bridgette, Cody, Courtney, Duncan, Gwen, Harold, Izzy, Leshawna, Noah and Owen as well as Jude Lizowski from 6teen. Chef Hatchet will also return as a younger adult. The series began production in early 2017, and Christian Potenza is confirmed to still have a role for the prequel.
These are other Canadian animated TV series that are also produced by Fresh TV:
https://www.corusent.com/news/corus-entertainment-reveals-its-outstanding-roster-of-new-and-returning-canadian-original-programming-for-2018-2019/
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who hosts who wants to be a millionaire | Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (U.S. game show) - wikipedia
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (often informally called Millionaire) is an American television game show based on the same - titled British program and developed for the United States by Michael Davies. The show features a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win a top prize of $1,000,000 by answering a series of multiple - choice questions of increasing difficulty (although, for a time, most of the questions were of random difficulty). The program has endured as one of the longest - running and most successful international variants in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? franchise.
The original U.S. version aired on ABC from August 16, 1999, to June 27, 2002, and was hosted by Regis Philbin. The daily syndicated version of the show began airing on September 16, 2002, and was hosted for eleven seasons by Meredith Vieira until May 31, 2013. Later hosts included Cedric the Entertainer in the 2013 -- 14 season, Terry Crews in the following season (2014 -- 15), and Chris Harrison, who began hosting on September 14, 2015.
As the first U.S. network game show to offer a million - dollar top prize, the show made television history by becoming one of the highest - rated game shows in the history of American television. The U.S. Millionaire has won seven Daytime Emmy Awards, and TV Guide ranked it No. 6 in its 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time.
At its core, the game is a quiz competition in which the goal is to correctly answer a series of fourteen (originally fifteen) consecutive multiple - choice questions. The questions are of increasing difficulty, except in the 2010 -- 15 format overhaul, where the contestants were faced with a round of ten questions of random difficulty, followed by a round of four questions of increasing difficulty. Each question is worth a specified amount of money; the amounts are cumulative in the first round, but not in the second. If the contestant gives a wrong answer to any question, their game is over and their winnings are reduced (or increased, in the first two questions) to $1,000 for tier - one questions, $5,000 for tier - two questions, and $50,000 for tier - three questions. However, the contestant has the option of "walking away '' without giving an answer after being presented with a question, in which case the game ends and the contestant is guaranteed to walk away with all the money they have previously received. With the exception of the shuffle format, upon correctly answering questions five and ten, contestants are guaranteed at least the amount of prize money associated with that level. If the contestant gives an incorrect answer, their winnings drop down to the last milestone achieved. Since 2015, if the contestant answers a question incorrectly before reaching question five, he or she leaves with $1,000, even on the first question that is worth only $500. For celebrities, the minimum guarantee for their nominated charities is $10,000. Prior to the shuffle format, a contestant left with nothing if (s) he answered a question incorrectly before reaching the first milestone. In the shuffle format era, contestants who incorrectly answered a question had their winnings reduced to $1,000 in round one and $25,000 in round two.
On the ABC versions, ten contestants competed in a preliminary "Fastest Finger '' round for the right to play the main game on each episode. The contestants were presented with a question and a list of four answers which needed to be put in a specific order. Using keys on their podiums, each of the contestants attempted to enter the correct order in the shortest amount of time, with a maximum time limit of 20 seconds. If the main game ended and there was still time available for another game, the remaining contestants played another Fastest Finger round for a chance to play the main game. In the event of a tie between two or more contestants, those contestants played an additional Fastest Finger question to break the tie. If all contestants answered the question incorrectly, the round was repeated with another question. Fastest Finger was eliminated from the gameplay when the syndicated version premiered in 2002.
From 2008 to 2010, time limits were used for each question. Contestants were given up to 15 seconds each for questions one through five, 30 seconds each for questions six through ten, and 45 seconds each for questions eleven through fourteen. Unused time was banked, and if the contestant reached question fifteen, he or she was given 45 seconds plus the amount of time previously banked. If the clock reached zero before a contestant could provide a final answer, the contestant was forced to walk away with the winnings they had at that point. During the clock format era, a "Millionaire Menu '' was introduced, in which categories are revealed for each question at the beginning of the game, and are made visible to the contestant for their future reference. Some prize levels also changed at the start of season eight. Most of the episodes in season eight (from the "Million Dollar Tournament of Ten '' onward) featured special "Celebrity Questions '' that were mid-level in monetary value, and were provided by notable individuals whose identities were not revealed until the contestant reached their special questions.
When the ninth syndicated season began on September 13, 2010, the format was overhauled. Ten questions were asked in round one, each assigned one of ten different money amounts which were randomized at the beginning of the game, as were the questions themselves. The difficulty of the questions was not tied to the dollar value. The dollar values for each question remained hidden until a contestant either provided a correct answer or chose to "jump '' the question. The value of each question answered correctly was added to the contestant 's bank, for a maximum total of $68,600. A contestant who completed the round successfully could walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank, or could walk without completing the round with half that amount (e.g., a contestant who banked $30,000 would leave with $15,000). After completing round one, the contestant moved on to a second round of gameplay (the "Classic Millionaire '' round), in which four non-categorized questions were played for set non-cumulative values and a correct answer augmented the contestant 's winnings to that point, as in the older formats. The shuffle format changes, including the randomization and double - round distribution of questions, were reverted for the fourteenth syndicated season.
From 2011 to 2014, certain weeks of the show were designated as "Double Your Money '' weeks. In those, a pre-selected question in round one was designated the "Double Money Question. '' When a contestant answered such a question correctly, the monetary value behind the question was doubled and added to his or her bank, giving him or her the possibility of adding up to $50,000 to his or her bank on a single question; under these special rules, it was possible for a contestant to finish round one with a maximum total of $93,600 in their bank. However, when a contestant "jumped '' the question, they forfeited the doubled money.
In the event that a contestant leaves and very little time remains (in the final part of an episode), a randomly selected audience member is given one chance to win $1,000 by answering the next question intended for the previous contestant (or $2,000 if the next question was on a Double Money episode). Regardless of the outcome, the audience member receives a special prize. In seasons nine and ten, the prize was a copy of the Millionaire video game; as of season eleven, audience members now receive 20 free playings for a Facebook game based on the show 's format. In season thirteen, which gave this game the name "Thousandaire '', the question the audience player faced did not come from the previous player 's stack, but was instead a separate question. Two additional audience games were also introduced and played in season thirteen: "Team Millionaire '', where two audience members are both presented with a single question and lock in their individual answers separately for the chance to win $500 and a bonus question with which they can double their money; and "Fastest Feet '', a variation of Fastest Finger which four audience members play for the chance to split $1,000.
Five different ladders have been used for a season or more over the course of the series.
The original primetime payment structure was also used for the first two seasons of the syndicated version. The third syndicated season saw a reduction in the values for questions ten through twelve. In the eighth syndicated season, the lower question values were adjusted to raise the first safe haven to $5,000. When the "shuffle format '' was used, the first ten questions had random amounts from $100 to $25,000, as listed above. In addition, the number of questions needed to win the million was reduced to 14, removing the $50,000 level; the last four values remained the same for round two. When the shuffle format ended at the start of the 2015 -- 16 season, the switch to 14 questions was retained; the first safe haven was kept at $5,000, but the second was raised to $50,000.
The $500,000 and $1,000,000 prizes were initially lump - sum payments, but were changed to annuities in September 2002 when the series moved to syndication. Contestants winning either of these prizes receive $250,000 thirty days after their show broadcasts and the remainder paid in equal annual payments. The $500,000 prize consists of $25,000 per year for 10 years, while the $1,000,000 prize consists of $37,500 per year for 20 years.
Any contestant who answers one of the first five questions incorrectly still receives a $1,000 consolation prize, contrary to what the home audience is told. This is in contrast to the old format, in which contestants who answered one of the first five questions incorrectly actually left with nothing at all.
Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions. They can use as many lifelines as desired per question, but each lifeline can only be used once per game. Three lifelines are available from the start of the game. Depending on the format of the show, additional lifelines may become available after the contestant correctly answers the fifth or tenth question. In the clock format, usage of lifelines temporarily paused the clock while the lifelines were played.
The show 's original three lifelines were "50: 50 '', in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers; "Phone - a-Friend '', which allowed the contestant to make a 30 - second call to one of a number of friends (who provided their phone numbers in advance) and read them the question and answer choices, after which the friend provided input; and "Ask the Audience '', in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be, after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant. 50: 50 was eliminated at the end of the show 's sixth syndicated season, only to be restored in season fourteen. Phone - a-Friend was removed on the episode aired January 11, 2010, after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using search engines and other Internet resources, unfairly privileging individuals who had computer access over those who did not, and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline where friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew. From 2004 to 2008, there was a fourth lifeline called "Switch the Question '', earned upon answering question ten, in which the computer replaced, at the contestant 's request, one question with another of the same monetary value; however, any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question. Switch the Question returned as "Cut the Question '' on a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014.
During the Super Millionaire spin - off, two new lifelines were introduced: "Double Dip '', which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question, but required them to play out the question, forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines; and "Three Wise Men '', in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers, appearing via face - to - face audio and video feeds, which answer they believed was correct, within a time limit of 30 seconds. When the clock format was implemented, Double Dip replaced 50: 50, and the show introduced a new lifeline called "Ask the Expert '', which was like Three Wise Men but had one person (usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people, lacked the time limit of its predecessor, and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question. Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question, but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone - a-Friend was removed.
The show 's lifelines sometimes used corporate sponsorship. The Phone - a-Friend lifeline was sponsored by the original AT&T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version, then by the current AT&T for the 2009 primetime episodes. From 2004 to 2006, Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL, which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their buddy list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers, to which the users replied with their choices. In addition, the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds.
During the shuffle format era, the show introduced a new lifeline, "Jump the Question '', which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve. At any point prior to selecting a final answer, a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one, thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer. However, if the contestant used Jump the Question, they did not gain any money from the question they chose to skip (for example, a contestant would not gain the typical $100,000 if they jumped to the $250,000 question). This lifeline could not be used on the $1 million question, since it is the final question in the game. The "Plus One '' lifeline, introduced in season thirteen, allows a contestant to bring a companion with him or her to the podium for help in answering a question. The introduction of this lifeline reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one. On occasional specially designated weeks, starting with a Halloween - themed week that aired from October 29 to November 2, 2012, the shuffle format used a special lifeline called "Crystal Ball '', which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer. Jump the Question was removed at the end of the show 's thirteenth syndicated season. For the show 's fourteenth season, during a special week of college shows, players got another lifeline called "Extra Help '', played similarly to "Plus One '' and allowing for another companion to help the player; however, it could only be used after "Plus One '' was used.
The first contestant to correctly answer all 15 questions and win the top prize of $1,000,000 was John Carpenter, on the episode aired November 19, 1999. In 2000, the million dollar top prize was awarded five times: to Dan Blonsky on the episode aired January 18, to Joe Trela on March 23, to Bob House on June 13, to Kim Hunt on July 6, and to David Goodman on July 11.
In January 2001, when no contestant had won $1 million in any show that aired over a period of five months, the top prize was then changed from a flat $1 million to an accumulating jackpot that increased by $10,000 for each episode where the top prize was not won. On April 10, 2001, Kevin Olmstead correctly answered the final question and won $2,180,000, making him the biggest winner in television history at the time. The top prize for correctly answering the final question returned to $1 million following Olmstead 's win and has remained unchanged since; just five days after Olmstead 's win, the standard $1 million prize was awarded to Bernie Cullen. The last top prize winner on the original network version was Ed Toutant, on the episode aired September 7, 2001; he had previously appeared on the episode aired January 31, 2001 when the jackpot was $1,860,000, where he was ruled to have answered his $16,000 question incorrectly, but when it was discovered that there was a mistake in that question, Toutant was invited back and won the $1,860,000 jackpot. On the Super Millionaire spin - off, Robert Essig won $1,000,000 after answering the twelfth question and then walked away, not reaching the final question for $10,000,000.
On the syndicated version 's first season, two contestants correctly answered all 15 questions and won the top prize of $1,000,000: Kevin Smith on February 18, 2003, and Nancy Christy on May 8 of the same year. During the Million Dollar Tournament of Ten which aired in November 2009, Sam Murray, who had previously supplied correct responses for eleven questions, risked his winnings on a special $1,000,000 question; he was the only contestant to answer his question correctly.
The original network version of the U.S. Millionaire and the subsequent primetime specials were hosted by Regis Philbin. When the syndicated version was being developed, the production team felt that it was not feasible for Philbin to continue hosting, as the show recorded four episodes in a single day, and that the team was looking for qualities in a new host: it had to be somebody who would love the contestants and be willing to root for them. Rosie O'Donnell was initially offered a hosting position on this new edition, but declined the opportunity almost immediately. Eventually Meredith Vieira, who had previously competed in a celebrity charity event on the original network version, was named host of the new syndicated edition.
ABC originally offered Vieira hosting duties on the syndicated Millionaire to sweeten one of her re-negotiations for the network 's daytime talk show The View, which she was moderating at the time. When the show was honored by GSN on its Gameshow Hall of Fame special, Vieira herself further explained her motivation for hosting the syndicated version as follows:
From 2007 to 2011, when Vieira was concurrently working as a co-host of Today, guest hosts appeared in the second half of each season of the syndicated version. Guest hosts who filled in for Vieira included Philbin, Al Roker, Tom Bergeron, Tim Vincent, Dave Price, Billy Bush, Leeza Gibbons, Cat Deeley, Samantha Harris, Shaun Robinson, Steve Harvey, John Henson, Sherri Shepherd, Tim Gunn, and D.L. Hughley.
On January 10, 2013, Vieira announced that after eleven seasons with the syndicated Millionaire, she would be leaving the show as part of an effort to focus on other projects in her career. She finalized taping of her last episodes with the show in November 2012. While Philbin briefly considered a return to the show, Cedric the Entertainer was introduced as her successor when season twelve premiered on September 2, 2013. On April 30, 2014, Deadline announced that Cedric had decided to leave the show in order to lighten his workload, resulting in him being succeeded by Terry Crews for the 2014 -- 15 season. Crews was succeeded by Chris Harrison, host of The Bachelor and its spin - offs, when season 14 premiered on September 14, 2015.
The original executive producers of the U.S. Millionaire were British television producers Michael Davies and Paul Smith, the latter of whom undertook the responsibility of licensing Millionaire to American airwaves as part of his effort to transform the UK program into a global franchise. Smith served until 2007 and Davies until 2010; additionally, Leigh Hampton (previously co-executive producer in the later days of the network version and in the syndicated version 's first two seasons) served as an executive producer from 2004 to 2010. Rich Sirop, who was previously a supervising producer, became the executive producer in 2010 and held that position until 2014, when he left Millionaire to hold the same position with Vieira 's newly launched syndicated talk show, and was replaced by James Rowley. Vincent Rubino, who had previously been the syndicated Millionaire 's supervising producer for its first two seasons, served as that version 's co-executive producer for the 2004 -- 05 season, after which he was succeeded by Vieira herself, who continued to hold the title until her departure in 2013 (sharing her position with Sirop for the 2009 -- 10 season).
Producers of the network version included Hampton, Rubino, Leslie Fuller, Nikki Webber, and Terrence McDonnell. For its first two seasons the syndicated version had Deirdre Cossman for its managing producer, then Dennis F. McMahon became producer for the next two seasons (joined by Dominique Bruballa as his line producer), after which Jennifer Weeks produced the next four seasons of syndicated Millionaire shows, initially accompanied by Amanda Zucker as her line producer, but later joined for the 2008 -- 09 season by Tommy Cody (who became sole producer in the 2009 -- 10 season). The first 65 shuffle format episodes were produced by McPaul Smith, and as of 2011, the title of producer is held by Bryan Lasseter. The network version had Ann Miller and Tiffany Trigg for its supervising producers; they were joined by Wendy Roth in the first two seasons, and by Michael Binkow in the third and final season. After Rubino 's promotion to co-executive producer, the syndicated version 's later supervising producers included Sirop (2004 -- 09), Geena Gintzig (2009 -- 10), Brent Burnette (2010 -- 12), Geoff Rosen (2012 -- 14), and Liz Harris (2014 -- 16), who currently serves as the co-executive producer.
The original network version of Millionaire was directed by Mark Gentile, who later served as the syndicated version 's consulting producer for its first two seasons, and then as the director of Duel, which ran on ABC from December 2007 to July 2008. The syndicated version was directed by Matthew Cohen from 2002 to 2010, by Rob George from 2010 to 2013, and by Brian McAloon in the 2013 -- 14 season. Former Price Is Right director Rich DiPirro became Millionaire 's director in 2014.
The U.S. version of Millionaire is a co-production of 2waytraffic, a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment, and Valleycrest Productions, a division of The Walt Disney Company. 2waytraffic purchased Millionaire 's original production company Celador in 2008, while Valleycrest has produced the series since its beginning, and holds the copyright on all U.S. Millionaire episodes to date. The show is distributed by Valleycrest 's corporate sibling Disney - ABC Home Entertainment & Television Distribution (previously known as Buena Vista Television).
The U.S. Millionaire was taped at ABC 's Television Center East studio on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York from 1999 to 2012. Tapings were moved to NEP Broadcasting 's Metropolis Studios in East Harlem in 2013, and production moved to studios located in Stamford, Connecticut the following year. For the 2016 -- 17 season, production relocated to Bally 's Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. Episodes of the syndicated version are produced from June to December. The show originally taped four episodes in a single day, but that number has since been changed to five.
When the U.S. version of Millionaire was first conceived in 1998, Michael Davies was a young television producer who was serving as the head of ABC 's little - noticed reality programming division (at a time when reality television had not yet become a phenomenon in America). At that time, ABC was lingering in third place in the ratings indexes among U.S. broadcast networks, and was on the verge of losing its status as one of the "Big Three '' networks. Meanwhile, the popularity of game shows was at an all - time nadir, as with the exception of The Price Is Right, the genre was absent from networks ' daytime lineups at that point. Having earlier created Debt for Lifetime Television and participated with Al Burton and Donnie Brainard in the creation of Win Ben Stein 's Money for Comedy Central, Davies decided to create a primetime game show that would save the network from collapse and revive interest in game shows.
Davies originally considered reviving CBS 's long - lost quiz show The $64,000 Question for a new era, with a new home on ABC. However, this effort 's development was limited as when the producer heard that the British Millionaire was about to make its debut, he got his friends and family members in the UK to record the show, and subsequently ended up receiving about eight FedEx packages from different family members, each containing a copy of Millionaire 's first episode. Davies was so captivated by everything that he had seen and heard, from host Chris Tarrant 's intimate involvement with the contestant to the show 's lighting system and music tracks, that he chose to abandon his work on the $64,000 Question revival in favor of introducing Millionaire to American airwaves, convinced that it would become extraordinarily popular.
When Davies presented his ideas for the U.S. Millionaire to ABC, the network 's executives initially rejected them, so he resigned his position there and became an independent producer. Determined to bring his idea for the show to fruition, Davies decided that he was betting his whole career on Millionaire 's production, and the first move that he made was planning to attach a celebrity host to the show. Along with Philbin, a number of other popular television personalities were considered for hosting positions on the U.S. Millionaire during its development, including Peter Jennings, Bob Costas, Phil Donahue, and Montel Williams, but among those considered, it was Philbin who wanted the job the most, and when he saw an episode of the British Millionaire and was blown away by his content, Davies and his team ultimately settled on having him host the American show. When Davies approached ABC again after having hired Philbin, the network finally agreed to accept the U.S. Millionaire. With production now ready to begin, the team had only five months to finish developing the show and get it launched, with Davies demanding perfection in every element of Millionaire 's production.
With few exceptions, any legal resident of the United States who is 18 years of age or older has the potential of becoming a contestant through Millionaire 's audition process. Those ineligible include employees, immediate family or household members, and close acquaintances of SPE, Disney, or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries; television stations that broadcast the syndicated version; or any advertising agency or other firm or entity engaged in the production, administration, or judging of the show. Also ineligible are current candidates for political office and individuals who have appeared on a different game show outside of cable that has been broadcast within the past year, is intended to be broadcast within the next year, or played the main game on any of the U.S. versions of Millionaire itself.
Potential contestants of the original primetime version had to compete in a telephone contest which had them dial a toll - free number and answer three questions by putting objects or events in order. Callers had ten seconds to enter the order on a keypad, with any incorrect answer ending the game / call. The 10,000 to 20,000 candidates who answered all three questions correctly were selected into a random drawing in which approximately 300 contestants competed for ten spots on the show using the same phone quiz method. Accommodations for contestants outside the New York City area included round trip airfare (or other transportation) and hotel accommodations.
The syndicated version 's potential contestants, depending on tryouts, are required to pass an electronically scored test comprising a set of thirty questions which must be answered within a 10 - minute time limit. Contestants who fail the test are eliminated, while those who pass are interviewed for an audition by the production staff, and those who impress the staff the most are then notified by postal mail that they have been placed into a pool for possible selection as contestants. At the producers ' discretion, contestants from said pool are selected to appear on actual episodes of the syndicated program; these contestants are given a phone call from staff and asked to confirm the information on their initial application form and verify that they meet all eligibility requirements. Afterwards, they are given a date to travel to the show 's taping facilities to participate in a scheduled episode of the show. Unlike its ABC counterpart, the syndicated version does not offer transportation or hotel accommodations to contestants at the production company 's expense; that version 's contestants are instead required to provide transportation and accommodations of their own.
The syndicated Millionaire also conducts open casting calls in various locations across the United States to search for potential contestants. These are held in late spring or early summer, with all dates and locations posted on the show 's official website. The producers make no guarantee on how many applicants will be tested at each particular venue; however, the show will not test any more than 2,500 individuals per audition day.
In cases when the show features themed episodes with two people playing as a team, auditions for these episodes ' contestants are announced on the show 's website. Both members of the team must pass the written test and the audition interview successfully in order to be considered for selection. If only one member of the team passes, he or she is placed into the contestant pool alone and must continue the audition process as an individual in order to proceed.
Originally, the U.S. Millionaire carried over the musical score from the British version, composed by father - and - son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan. Unlike older game show musical scores, Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show. The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song took some inspiration from the "Mars '' movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets, and their question cues from the $2,000 to the $32,000 / $25,000 level, and then from the $64,000 / $50,000 level onwards, took the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question, in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game. On GSN 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special, the narrator described the Strachan tracks as "mimicking the sound of a beating heart, '' and stated that as the contestant worked their way up the money ladder, the music was "perfectly in tune with their ever - increasing pulse. ''
The original Millionaire musical score holds the distinction of being the only game show soundtrack to be acknowledged by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, as the Strachans were honored with numerous ASCAP awards for their work, the earliest of them awarded in 2000. The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the clock format in 2008; for example, the question cues were synced to the "ticking '' sounds of the game clock. Even later, the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010, in favor of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams, co-founders of the Los Angeles - based company Ah2 Music.
The U.S. Millionaire 's basic set is a direct adaptation of the British version 's set design, which was conceived by Andy Walmsley. Paul Smith 's original licensing agreement for the U.S. Millionaire required that the show 's set design, along with all other elements of the show 's on - air presentation (musical score, lighting system, host 's wardrobe, etc.), adhere faithfully to the way in which they were presented in the British version; this same licensing agreement applied to all other international versions of the show, making Walmsley 's Millionaire set design the most reproduced scenic design in television history. The original version of the U.S. Millionaire 's set cost $200,000 to construct. The U.S. Millionaire 's production design is handled by George Allison, whose predecessors have included David Weller and Jim Fenhagen.
Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant (s) feel at ease, Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable, so that the program feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show. The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper. Before the shuffle format was implemented in 2010, the main game had the contestant and host sit in chairs in the center of the stage, known as "Hot Seats ''; these measured 3 feet (0.91 m) high, were modeled after chairs typically found in hair salons, and each seat featured a computer monitor directly facing it to display questions and other pertinent information. Shortly after the shuffle format was introduced to Millionaire, Vieira stated in an interview with her Millionaire predecessor on his morning talk show that the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat, which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous, actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer.
The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game. There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights, oil is vaporized, creating a haze effect. Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson, a professor at Syracuse University, stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside of prison when an escape was in progress.
When the shuffle format was introduced, the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium, and as a result, the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage. Also, two video screens were installed -- one that displays the current question in play, and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game. In September 2012, the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel, in order to take into account the show 's transition to high - definition broadcasting, which had just come about the previous year. The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones, having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one; and light - emitting diode (LED) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel.
The U.S. version of Millionaire was launched by ABC as a half - hour primetime program on August 16, 1999. When it premiered, it became the first U.S. network game show to offer a million - dollar top prize to contestants. After airing thirteen episodes and reaching an audience of 15 million viewers by the end of the show 's first week on the air, the program expanded to an hour - long format when it returned in November. The series, of which episodes were originally shown only a day after their initial taping, was promoted to regular status on January 18, 2000 and, at the height of its popularity, was airing on ABC five nights a week. The show was so popular during its original primetime run that rival networks created or re-incarnated game shows of their own (e.g., Greed, Twenty One, etc.), as well as importing various game shows of British and Australian origin to America (such as Winning Lines, Weakest Link, and It 's Your Chance of a Lifetime).
The nighttime version initially drew in up to 30 million viewers a day three times a week, an unheard - of number in modern network television. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, it averaged No. 1 in the ratings against all other television shows, with 28,848,000 viewers. In the next season (2000 -- 01), three nights out of the five weekly episodes placed in the top 10. However, the show 's ratings began to fall during the 2000 -- 01 season, so that at the start of the 2001 -- 02 season, the ratings were only a fraction of what they had been one year before, and by season 's end, the show was no longer even ranked among the top 20. ABC 's reliance on the show 's popularity led the network to fall quickly from its former spot as the nation 's most watched network.
As ABC 's overexposure of the primetime Millionaire led the public to tire of the show, there was speculation that the show would not survive beyond the 2001 -- 02 season. The staff planned on switching it to a format that would emphasize comedy more than the game and feature a host other than Philbin, but in the end, the primetime show was canceled, with its final episode airing on June 27, 2002.
In 2001, Millionaire producers began work on a half - hour daily syndicated version of the show, with the idea being that it would serve as an accompaniment to the network series which was still in production. ABC 's cancellation of the network Millionaire ended that idea; however, the syndicated Millionaire still had enough interest to be greenlit and BVT sold the series to local stations for the 2002 -- 03 season. The syndicated series nearly met the same fate as its predecessor, however, due in part to worries that stemmed from a decision made by one of its affiliates.
In the New York media market, BVT sold the syndicated Millionaire to CBS 's flagship station, WCBS - TV. In the season that had passed, WCBS ' mid-afternoon schedule included the syndicated edition of NBC 's Weakest Link, which aired at 4 pm from its January 2002 premiere. Joining Millionaire as a new syndicated series was a spinoff of The Oprah Winfrey Show hosted by Dr. Phil McGraw. WCBS picked up both series for 2002 -- 03, with Dr. Phil serving as lead - in for the syndicated Millionaire, which was plugged into the time slot that Weakest Link had been occupying.
At mid-season, WCBS announced that for the 2003 -- 04 season it had acquired the broadcast rights to The People 's Court after WNBC, which had been airing the revived series since its 1997 debut, dropped it from its lineup. WCBS announced plans to move The People 's Court into the time slot that was occupied by Millionaire and the still - airing 4: 30 pm local newscast once it joined the station 's lineup in September 2003. This led to speculation that the syndicated Millionaire would not be returning for a second season, and BVT 's concerns over losing its New York affiliate were compounded by the fact that there were not many time slots available for the show in New York outside of the undesirable late - night slots that syndicators try to avoid.
In June 2003, a shakeup at one of BVT 's corporate siblings provided the series with an opening. ABC announced that it would be returning the 12: 30 pm network time slot to its affiliates in October of that year following the cancellation of the soap opera Port Charles. ABC 's flagship, WABC - TV, was thus in need of a program to fill the slot and BVT went to them asking if the station would pick up Millionaire. WABC agreed to do this and when the new season launched that fall, the station began airing Millionaire at 12: 30 pm. Millionaire continued to air on WABC in the afternoon until the end of the 2014 -- 15 season, when it acquired the broadcast rights to FABLife for the 2015 -- 16 season. To make room for FABLife, the afternoon airing of Millionaire was moved to independent station WLNY - TV; however, FABLife was canceled in January 2016, and as a result, Millionaire moved back to WABC for the 2016 -- 17 season.
According to e-mails released in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack, Millionaire narrowly avoided cancellation after the 2014 -- 15 season. The show 's declining ratings prompted DADT to demand a dramatically reduced licensing fee for renewal, which SPE was hesitant to accept. The series was nonetheless renewed for the 2015 -- 16 season, with various cuts to the show 's production budget and a return to the original format (but with only 14 questions). Had the show not been renewed, SPE would have placed the show on extended hiatus for three years, reclaimed full rights to the show (without the innovations and format added in the syndicated run, to which DADT owns intellectual property rights), and shopped the revived show to another network or syndicator. In January 2017, it was announced that Millionaire has been renewed through 2018.
Game Show Network (GSN) acquired the rerun rights to the U.S. Millionaire in August 2003. The network initially aired only episodes from the three seasons of the original prime - time run; however, additional episodes were later added. These included the Super Millionaire spin - off, which aired on GSN from May 2005 to January 2007, and the first two seasons of the syndicated version, which began airing on November 10, 2008. On December 4, 2017, GSN acquired the rerun rights to the Harrison episodes of Millionaire (seasons fourteen and fifteen), which will begin airing December 18, 2017.
Various special editions and tournaments have been conducted which feature celebrities playing the game and donating winnings to charities of their choice. During celebrity editions on the original ABC version, contestants were allowed to receive help from their fellow contestants during the first ten questions. The most successful celebrity contestants throughout the show 's run have included Drew Carey, Rosie O'Donnell, Norm Macdonald, and Chip Esten, all of whom won $500,000 for their respective charities. The episode featuring O'Donnell's $500,000 win averaged 36.1 million viewers, the highest number for a single episode of the show.
There have also been special weeks featuring two or three family members or couples competing as a team, a "Champions Edition '' where former big winners returned and split their winnings with their favorite charities, a "Zero Dollar Winner Edition '' featuring contestants who previously missed one of the first - tier questions and left with nothing, and a "Tax - Free Edition '' in which H&R Block calculated the taxes of winnings to allow contestants to earn stated winnings after taxes, and various theme weeks featuring college students, teachers, brides - to - be, etc. as contestants. Additionally, the syndicated version once featured an annual "Walk In & Win Week '' with contestants who were randomly selected from the audience without having to take the audition test.
Special weeks have also included shows featuring questions concerning specific topics, such as professional football, celebrity gossip, movies, and pop culture. During a week of episodes in November 2007, to celebrate the 1,000 th episode of the syndicated Millionaire, all contestants that week started with $1,000 so that they could not leave empty - handed, and only had to answer ten questions to win $1,000,000. During that week, twenty home viewers per day also won $1,000 each.
In 2004, Philbin returned to host 12 episodes of a spin - off program titled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire in which contestants could potentially win $10,000,000. ABC aired five episodes of this spin - off during the week of February 22, 2004, and an additional seven episodes later that year in May. As usual, contestants had to answer a series of 15 multiple - choice questions of increasing difficulty, but the dollar values rose substantially. The first five questions for Super Millionaire were worth $1,000, $2,000, $3,000, $4,000, $5,000 (the first safe haven), the remaining ten questions were worth $10,000, $20,000, $30,000, $50,000, $100,000 (the second safe haven), $500,000, $1,000,000, $2,500,000, $5,000,000, and $10,000,000.
Contestants were given the standard three lifelines in place at the time (50: 50, Ask the Audience, and Phone - a-Friend) at the beginning of the game. However, after correctly answering the $100,000 question, the contestant earned two additional lifelines: Three Wise Men and Double Dip. The Three Wise Men lifeline involved a panel of three experts, one of whom was always a former Millionaire contestant and at least one of whom was female. When this lifeline was used, the contestant and panel had 30 seconds to discuss the question and choices before the audio and video feeds were dropped. Double Dip gave a contestant two chances to answer a question. Once used, no further lifelines could be used; moreover, if the "first final answer '' was incorrect, the contestant could not walk away. If the "second final answer '' was also wrong, the contestant left with $100,000.
To celebrate the tenth anniversary of Millionaire 's U.S. debut, the show returned to ABC primetime for an eleven - night event hosted by Philbin, which aired August 9 -- 23, 2009. The Academy Award - winning movie Slumdog Millionaire and the 2008 economic crisis helped boost interest of renewal of the game show.
The episodes featured game play based on the previous rule set of the syndicated version (including the rule changes implemented in season seven) but used the Fastest Finger round to select contestants. Various celebrities also made special guest appearances at the end of every episode; each guest played one question for a chance at $50,000 for a charity of their choice, being allowed to use any one of the four lifelines in place at the time (Phone - a-Friend, Ask the Audience, Double Dip, and Ask the Expert), but still earned a minimum of $25,000 for the charity if they answered the question incorrectly.
On August 18, 2009, New York City resident Nik Bonaddio appeared on the program, winning $100,000 with the help of the audience and later, Gwen Ifill as his lifelines. Bonaddio then used the proceeds to start the sports analytics firm numberFire, which was sold in September 2015 to FanDuel, a fantasy sports platform.
The finale of the tenth anniversary special, which aired on August 23, 2009, featured Ken Basin, an entertainment lawyer, Harvard Law graduate, and former Jeopardy! contestant, who went on to become the first contestant to play a $1,000,000 question in the "clock format '' era. With a time of 4: 39 (45 seconds + 3: 54 banked time), Basin was given a question involving President Lyndon Baines Johnson 's fondness for Fresca. Using his one remaining lifeline, Basin asked the audience, which supported his own hunch of Yoo - hoo rather than the correct answer. He decided to answer the question and lost $475,000, becoming the first contestant in the U.S. version to answer a $1,000,000 question incorrectly. After Basin finished his run, Vieira appeared on - camera and announced that all remaining Fastest Finger contestants would play with her on the first week of the syndicated version 's eighth season. After this, the million dollar question was not played again on a standard episode until September 25, 2013, when Josina Reaves became the second U.S. Millionaire contestant to incorrectly answer her $1,000,000 question, but only lost $75,000 as she used her Jump the Question lifelines on her $250,000 and $500,000 questions.
Although the syndicated Millionaire had produced two millionaires in its first season, Nancy Christy 's May 2003 win was still standing as the most recent when the program began its eighth season in fall of 2009. Deciding that six - plus years had been too long since someone had won the top prize, producers conducted a tournament to find a third million dollar winner. For the first nine weeks of the 2009 -- 10 season, each episode saw contestants attempt to qualify for what was referred to as the "Tournament of Ten ''. Contestants were seeded based on how much money they had won, with the biggest winner ranked first and the lowest ranked tenth. Ties were broken based on how much time a contestant had banked when they had walked away from the game.
The tournament began on the episode aired November 9, 2009, and playing in order from the lowest to the highest seed, tournament contestants played one at a time at the end of that episode and the next nine. The rules were exactly the same as they were for a normal million dollar question under the clock format introduced the season before, except here, the contestants had no lifelines at their disposal. Each contestant received a base time of 45 seconds. For each question they had answered before walking away, the contestants received any unused seconds that were left when they gave their answers. The accumulated total of those unused seconds was then added to the base time to give the contestants their final question time limit.
Each contestant had the same decision facing them as before, which was whether to attempt to answer the question or walk away with their pre-tournament total intact. Attempting the question and answering incorrectly incurred the same penalty as in regular play, with a reduction of their pre-tournament winnings to $25,000. If the question was answered correctly, the player that did so became the tournament leader. If another player after him / her answered correctly, that player assumed the lead and the previous leader kept their pre-tournament winnings. The highest remaining seed to have attempted and correctly answered their question at the end of the tournament on November 20, 2009 would be declared the winner and become the syndicated series ' third millionaire.
The first contestant to attempt to answer the million dollar question was Sam Murray, the tournament 's eighth - seeded qualifier. On November 11, Murray was asked approximately how many people had lived on Earth in its history and correctly guessed 100 billion. Murray was still atop the leaderboard entering the November 20 finale as he remained the only contestant to even attempt to answer his or her question. The only person who could defeat him was top seed and $250,000 winner Jehan Shamsid - Deen, who was asked a question regarding the Blorenge, cited as "a rare example of a word that rhymes with orange ''. Shamsid - Deen considered taking the risk, believing (correctly) that the name belonged to a mountain in Wales. However, she decided that the potential of losing $225,000 did not justify the risk and elected to walk away from the question, giving Murray the win and the million dollar prize.
Since its introduction to the United States, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire has been credited with not only single - handedly reviving the game show genre, but also breaking new ground for it. The series revolutionized the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system, dramatic music cues, and futuristic set. The show also became one of the highest - rated and most popular game shows in U.S. television history, and has been credited with paving the way for the rise of the reality TV phenomenon to prominence throughout the 2000s.
The U.S. Millionaire also made catchphrases out of various lines used on the show. In particular, "Is that your final answer? '', asked by Millionaire 's hosts whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified, was popularized by Philbin during his tenure as host, and was also included on TV Land 's special "100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases '', which aired in 2006. Meanwhile, during his tenure as host, Cedric signed off shows with a catchphrase of his own, "Watch yo ' wallet! ''
The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001. Philbin was honored with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001, while Vieira received one in 2005, and another in 2009. TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire # 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later ranked it # 6 on its 2013 "60 Greatest Game Shows '' list. GSN ranked Millionaire # 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and later honored the show in January 2007 on its only Gameshow Hall of Fame special.
In 2000, Pressman released two board game adaptions of Millionaire as well as a junior edition recommended for younger players. Several video games based on the varying gameplay formats of Millionaire have also been released throughout the course of the show 's U.S. history.
Between 1999 and 2001, Jellyvision produced five video game adaptations based upon the original primetime series for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation console, all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice. The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive, while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio. Of the five games, three featured general trivia questions, one was sports - themed, and another was a "Kids Edition '' featuring easier questions. In 2008, Imagination Games released a DVD version of the show, based on the 2004 -- 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice, as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar. Additionally, two Millionaire video games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the clock format, while the second, for Microsoft 's Xbox 360, was based on the shuffle format.
Ludia has also created a Facebook game based on Millionaire, which debuted on March 21, 2011. This game features an altered version of the shuffle format, condensing the number of questions to twelve -- eight in round one, and four in round two. A contestant can compete against eight other Millionaire fans in round one, and play round two alone if they make it into the top three. There is no "final answer '' rule; the contestant 's responses are automatically locked in. Answering a question correctly earns a contestant the value of that question, multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly. Contestants are allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one, and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question.
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire -- Play It! was an attraction at the Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park (when it was known as Disney - MGM Studios) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim, California. Both the Florida and California Play It! attractions opened in 2001; the California version closed in 2004, and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania!
The format in the Play It! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it. When a show started, a "Fastest Finger '' question was given, and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show. However, the main game had some differences: for example, contestants competed for points rather than dollars, the questions were set to time limits, and the Phone - a-Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theater who would find a guest to help. After the contestant 's game was over, they were awarded anything from a collectible pin, to clothing, to a Millionaire CD game, to a 3 - night Disney Cruise.
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how many 40 point games does michael jordan have in the playoffs | List of career achievements by Michael Jordan - wikipedia
This page details statistics, records, and other achievements pertaining to Michael Jordan.
Source: basketball-reference.com and nba.com
25 NBA Player of the Week 16 NBA Player of the Month
Total games: 1,264 (1,072 regular season, 179 postseason, 13 All - Star)
Seasons leading the league in scoring: 10 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Consecutive seasons leading the league in scoring: 7 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93)
Seasons leading the league in total points: 11 (1984 -- 85, 1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
First scoring champion with at least 100 three pointers 1995 -- 96 -- 1996 -- 97
Highest scoring average, points per game, career: 30.12 (32,292 / 1,072)
Seasons averaging 30 or more points per game: 8 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96)
Games scoring 30 or more points, career: 562
Consecutive games scoring 10 or more points: 866, March 25, 1986 to December 26, 2001
Consecutive points scored in a game: 23, vs. Atlanta Hawks, April 16, 1987
Seasons scoring 2,000 or more points: 11 (1984 -- 85, 1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Oldest player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring: 35 years, 61 days (1997 -- 98)
Oldest player in NBA history to score 50 points in a game: 38 years, 315 days (51 points, vs. New Orleans Hornets, December 29, 2001)
Oldest player in NBA history to score 40 points in a game: 40 years, 4 days (43 points, vs. New Jersey Nets, February 21, 2003)
Fewest games played to reach 31,000 points: 1,011 games, achieved vs. Portland Trail Blazers, December 10, 2002
Fewest games played to reach 32,000 points: 1,059 games, achieved at Golden State Warriors, March 23, 2003
Outscoring the opposing starting five: Jordan outscored the entire opposing starting five 58 -- 54, Chicago Bulls vs. New Jersey Nets, February 26, 1987
Seasons leading the league in field goals made: 10 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Consecutive seasons leading the league in field goals made: 7 (1986 -- 87 -- 1992 -- 93)
Seasons leading the league in field goal attempts: 9 (1986 -- 87 -- 1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90 -- 1992 -- 93, 1995 -- 96 -- 1997 -- 98)
Free throws made, half: 20, second half, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992 (since tied by Devin Booker)
Free throws made, quarter: 14, twice
Free throw attempts, half: 23, second half, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992
Free throw attempts, quarter: 16, fourth quarter, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992
Consecutive free throws made in a game: 19, vs. New Jersey Nets, February 26, 1987
Seasons leading the league in steals: 3 (1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90, 1992 -- 93)
Steals, half: 8, first half, at Boston Celtics, November 9, 1988
Games with 8 or more steals, career: 11
Personal fouls, quarter: 6, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, January 31, 1989
Points, career: 5,987
Highest scoring average, points per game, career: 33.4 (5,987 / 179)
Games scoring 50 or more points, career: 8
Consecutive games scoring 50 or more points: 2, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, April 28, 1988 to May 1, 1988
Games scoring 40 or more points, career: 38
Games scoring 30 or more points, career: 109
Games scoring 20 or more points, career: 173
Consecutive games scoring 20 or more points: 60, June 2, 1989 to May 11, 1993
Consecutive games scoring 10 or more points: 179, April 19, 1985 to June 14, 1998
Consecutive points scored in a game: 17, during second half (from 73 to 90 points), at New York Knicks, June 2, 1993
Points, one postseason: 759 (1992)
Scoring 35 or more points in all games, any playoff series: Twice 5 games, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1988 First Round 5 games, vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1990 Conference Semifinals
Scoring 30 or more points in all games, any playoff series: Seven times 3 games, vs. Boston Celtics, 1987 First Round 5 games, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1988 First Round 5 games, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1989 First Round 5 games, vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1990 Conference Semifinals 3 games, vs. Miami Heat, 1992 First Round 6 games, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals 3 games, vs. New Jersey Nets, 1998 First Round
Points, 3 - game series: 135, vs. Miami Heat, 1992 First Round (45.0 ppg)
Points, 5 - game series: 226, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, 1988 First Round (45.2 ppg)
Points, game: 63, at Boston Celtics, April 20, 1986 (2 OT)
Points, two consecutive games: 112, at Boston Celtics, 1986 Eastern Conference First Round, April 17 (49), 20 (63), 1986 (56.0 ppg)
Outscoring the opposing team in a quarter: Jordan outscored the entire opposing team 20 -- 19 in the second quarter of Game 1 of the 1988 Eastern Conference First Round, Chicago Bulls vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, April 28, 1988
Most points in three quarters: Jordan scored 54 points in three quarters (17 points in the second, 19 in the third and 18 in the fourth) in Game 3 of the 1992 Eastern Conference First Round, Chicago Bulls at Miami Heat, April 29, 1992
Most points without making the NBA Finals, one postseason: 591, 1989, and 587, 1990
NBA record 5 playoff series averaging at least 40 points per game
Field goals made, 3 - game series: 53, vs. Miami Heat, 1992 First Round
Field goals made, 5 - game series: 86, vs. Philadelphia 76ers, 1990 Conference Semifinals
Field goals made, 6 - game series: 101, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Field goals made, game: 24, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 1, 1988
Consecutive field goals made in a game without a miss: 13, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, June 5, 1991
Field goal attempts, career: 4,497
Field goal attempts, half: 25, first half, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 1, 1988
Three - point field goals made, half: 6, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 9, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Free throws made, career: 1,463
Free throws made, one postseason: 183 (1989)
Free throws made, game (regulation): 23, vs. New York Knicks, May 14, 1989
Free throws made, half: 14, second half, vs. Detroit Pistons, May 28, 1990
Free throws made, quarter: 13, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, May 21, 1991
Free throw attempts, career: 1,766
Free throw attempts, one postseason: 229 (1989)
Free throw attempts, 4 - game series: 58, vs. Milwaukee Bucks, 1985 First Round
Free throw attempts, game (regulation): 28, vs. New York Knicks, May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, half: 17, second half, vs. New York Knicks, May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, quarter: 14, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, May 21, 1991
Steals, career: 376
Highest scoring average, points per game, any championship series: 41.0 (246 / 6), vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Points, 6 - game series: 246, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals (41.0 ppg)
Consecutive games scoring 40 or more points: 4, vs. Phoenix Suns, June 11, 1993 to June 18, 1993
Consecutive games scoring 20 or more points: 35, June 2, 1991 to June 14, 1998
Scoring 30 or more points in all games, any championship series: 6 games, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Points, half: 35, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Field goals made, 6 - game series: 101, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Field goals made, half: 14, twice 14, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992 14, first half, vs. Phoenix Suns, June 16, 1993
Consecutive field goals made in a game without a miss: 13, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, June 5, 1991
Field goals made, 5 - game series: 63, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 1991 NBA Finals
Field goal attempts, 6 - game series: 199, vs. Phoenix Suns, 1993 NBA Finals
Three - point field goals made, career: 42
Three - point field goals made, game: 6, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Three - point field goals made, half: 6, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, game: 10, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 10, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Free throws made, quarter: 9, second quarter, at Utah Jazz, June 11, 1997
Free throw attempts, half: 15, second half, vs. Utah Jazz, June 4, 1997
Free throw attempts, quarter: 12, fourth quarter, vs. Utah Jazz, June 4, 1997
Steals, 5 - game series: 14, vs. Los Angeles Lakers, 1991 NBA Finals (2.8 spg)
Points, career: 262
Field goals made, career: 110
Field goals made, game: 17, 1988
Field goal attempts, career: 233
Field goal attempts, game: 27, 2003 (2 OT)
Steals, career: 37
Blocked shots, half: 4, 1988
NBA All - Defensive First Team selections: 9
Blocked shots by a guard, career: 893
Blocked shots by a guard, season: 131 (1987 -- 88)
Highest Player Efficiency Rating, career: 27.91
Only rookie in NBA history to lead his team in four statistics (1984 -- 85)
Second rookie in NBA history to average 20 + points, 5 + rebounds, and 5 + assists (1984 -- 85)
One of two players in NBA history to score 3,000 points in a season: 3,041 points scored in 82 games played (37.1 ppg) (1986 -- 87)
First player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season: 236 steals, 125 blocks (1986 -- 87)
Only player in NBA history with more than one season of 200 steals and 100 blocked shots: 259 steals, 131 blocks (1987 -- 88)
Only player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring and win Defensive Player of the Year in the same season (1987 -- 88)
First player in NBA history to win Rookie of the Year, Defensive Player of the Year and Most Valuable Player during his career
First player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring and win Defensive Player of the Year during his career
Only player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring, win Most Valuable Player, and Defensive Player of the Year in the same season (1987 -- 88)
First player in NBA history to win Most Valuable Player and Defensive Player of the Year in the same season (1987 -- 88)
First player in NBA history to lead the league both in scoring and steals in the same season (1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90, 1992 -- 93)
Fourth player in NBA history to lead the league in scoring and win the NBA championship in the same season
One of three players in history to sweep the Most Valuable Player awards for the regular season, All - Star Game and NBA Finals in the same season (1995 -- 96, 1997 -- 98)
One of three players in history to win an Olympic gold medal both as an amateur and professional (1984, 1992)
Sixth player in history to win an Olympic gold medal, NCAA championship and NBA championship
Only player in NBA history to win Rookie of the Year (1984 -- 85), Defensive Player of the Year (1987 -- 88), NBA MVP (1987 -- 88, 1990 -- 91, 1991 -- 92, 1995 -- 96, 1997 -- 98), All - Star MVP (1988, 1996, 1998), and Finals MVP (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)
Led the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls to the second - best regular season record in NBA history (72 wins, 10 losses)
Led the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls to the best combined regular season and postseason record in NBA history (87 wins, 13 losses)
Only player in NBA history to score 15 or more points in all games in his career: 179 games
Blocked shots by a guard, career: 158
Only guard in NBA history to lead his team in all 5 categories (points, rebounds, assists, steals, blocks) during a playoff series
Jordan came close to leading all 5 categories in a playoff series on 3 more occasions
Only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 5 assists, 2 steals in a playoff run (7 times)
Only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 6 assists, 2 steals in a playoff run (5 times)
Only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 6 assists in a title run (2 times)
Averaged at least 30 points, 6 rebounds, 4 assists, 2 steals in a record 9 different playoff runs
Only player in NBA history to shoot at least 38 % on 3 - point field goals in 3 NBA Finals runs (minimum 15 points per game and 1.5 three - point attempts per game)
In the 1997 title run, Jordan led a championship team in all 5 main categories (points, rebounds, assists, steals, blocks) for the last 3 rounds of the 1997 Playoffs
Only player in NBA history to lead a team to the championship with only one teammate averaging double figures in scoring
Most Valuable Player awards: 6 (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)
Scoring 20 or more points in all games, career: 35 games
One of seven players to lead a team in 4 out of 5 categories for an NBA Finals
Most Valuable Player awards: 3 (1988, 1996, 1998)
First player to record a triple - double in All - Star Game history: 14 points, 11 rebounds, 11 assists in 26 minutes (1997)
Ninth pair of teammates in NBA history to score 40 or more points in the same game: Chicago Bulls (110) at Indiana Pacers (102), February 18, 1996
One of at least three pairs of teammates in NBA history to record triple - doubles in the same game: Chicago Bulls (126) vs. Los Angeles Clippers (121), January 3, 1989 (OT)
Michael Jordan holds approximately 200 records as a Chicago Bull; these are some of them.
Seasons played: 13
Games played, career: 930
Games played, season: 82 (1984 -- 85, 1986 -- 87, 1987 -- 88, 1989 -- 90, 1990 -- 91, 1995 -- 96, 1996 -- 97, 1997 -- 98)
Minutes played, career: 35,887
Points, career: 29,277
Scoring average, points per game, career: 31.5 (29,277 / 930)
Points, season: 3,041 (1986 -- 87)
Scoring average, points per game, season: 37.1 (3,041 / 82) (1986 -- 87)
Points, game (overtime): 69, at Cleveland Cavaliers, March 28, 1990
Points, game (regulation): 61, vs. Atlanta Hawks, April 16, 1987
Points, half: 39, second half, vs. Milwaukee Bucks, February 16, 1988
Points, quarter: 30, fourth quarter, at Denver Nuggets, November 26, 1988
Consecutive points, game: 23, last 6: 33 of second quarter and first 2: 12 of third quarter, vs. Atlanta Hawks, April 16, 1987
Consecutive points, quarter: 18, vs. New York Knicks, November 21, 1986
Field goals made, career: 10,962
Field goals made, season: 1,098 (1986 -- 87)
Field goals made, game (overtime): 27, vs. Orlando Magic, January 16, 1993
Field goals made, game (regulation): 24, at Philadelphia 76ers, November 16, 1988
Field goals made, half: 15, first half, vs. Orlando Magic, January 16, 1993
Field goals made, quarter: 11, twice 11, first quarter, vs. Orlando Magic, January 16, 1993
Field goal attempts, career: 21,686
Field goal attempts, season: 2,279 (1986 -- 87)
Field goal attempts, game (overtime): 49, vs. Orlando Magic, January 16, 1993
Field goal attempts, game (regulation): 43, thrice 43, at Los Angeles Lakers, November 28, 1986 43, vs. Houston Rockets, January 15, 1987 43, vs. Orlando Magic, February 14, 1990
Field goal attempts, half: 24, twice 24, second half, vs. Orlando Magic, January 16, 1993
Field goal attempts, overtime: 8, vs. Seattle SuperSonics, February 23, 1988
Three - point field goals made, game: 7, vs. Golden State Warriors, January 18, 1990
Free throws made, one missed, game: 26 -- 27, vs. New Jersey Nets, February 26, 1987
Free throws made, career: 6,798
Free throws made, season: 833 (1986 -- 87)
Free throws made, game: 26, vs. New Jersey Nets, February 26, 1987
Free throws made, half: 20, second half, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992
Free throws made, quarter: 14, twice 14, fourth quarter, at Utah Jazz, November 15, 1989 14, fourth quarter, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992
Free throw attempts, career: 8,115
Free throw attempts, season: 972 (1986 -- 87)
Free throw attempts, game: 27, vs. New Jersey Nets, February 26, 1987
Free throw attempts, half: 23, second half, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992
Free throw attempts, quarter: 16, fourth quarter, at Miami Heat, December 30, 1992
Rebounds, career: 5,836
Defensive rebounds, career: 4,289
Assists, career: 5,012
Steals, career: 2,306
Steals, season: 259 (1987 -- 88)
Consecutive games with a steal: 77, March 25, 1988 to March 17, 1989
Steals, game: 10, vs. New Jersey Nets, January 29, 1988
Steals, half: 8, first half, at Boston Celtics, November 9, 1988
Steals, quarter: 6, third quarter, vs. New Jersey Nets, January 29, 1988
Personal fouls, quarter: 6, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, January 31, 1989
Turnovers, career: 2,589
Jordan 's rookie season was 1984 -- 85.
Minutes played: 3,144
Points: 2,313
Scoring average, points per game: 28.3 (2,313 / 82)
Field goals made: 837
Field goal attempts: 1,625
Free throws made: 630
Free throw attempts: 746
Steals: 196
Games played, career: 179
Minutes played, career: 7,474
Points, career: 5,987
Points, game (overtime): 63, at Boston Celtics, April 20, 1986 (2 OT)
Points, game (regulation): 56, at Miami Heat, April 29, 1992
Points, half: 37, second half, at Miami Heat, April 29, 1992
Points, quarter: 24, fourth quarter, at Philadelphia 76ers, May 11, 1990
Points, overtime: 9, at New York Knicks, May 9, 1989
Consecutive points, game: 17, during second half (from 73 to 90 points), at New York Knicks, June 2, 1993
Field goals made, career: 2,188
Field goals made, game: 24, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 1, 1988
Field goals made, half: 14, four times 14, first half, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 1, 1988 14, second half, at Philadelphia 76ers, May 11, 1990 14, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992 14, first half, vs. Phoenix Suns, June 16, 1993
Field goals made, quarter: 10, fourth quarter, at Philadelphia 76ers, May 11, 1990
Field goals made, overtime: 4, at New York Knicks, May 9, 1989
Field goal attempts, career: 4,497
Field goal attempts, game: 45, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 1, 1988
Field goal attempts, half: 25, first half, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 1, 1988
Field goal attempts, quarter: 13, first quarter, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Field goal attempts, overtime: 5, first overtime, at Boston Celtics, April 20, 1986
Three - point field goals made, half: 6, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Three - point field goal attempts, half: 10, first half, vs. Portland Trail Blazers, June 3, 1992
Free throws made, career: 1,463
Free throws made, game: 23, vs. New York Knicks, May 14, 1989
Free throws made, half: 14, second half, vs. Detroit Pistons, May 28, 1990
Free throws made, quarter: 13, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, May 21, 1991
Free throws made, overtime: 3, vs. New Jersey Nets, April 24, 1998
Free throw attempts, career: 1,766
Free throw attempts, game: 28, vs. New York Knicks, May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, half: 17, second half, vs. New York Knicks, May 14, 1989
Free throw attempts, quarter: 14, fourth quarter, vs. Detroit Pistons, May 21, 1991
Free throw attempts, overtime: 5, vs. New Jersey Nets, April 24, 1998
Assists, career: 1,022
Assists, game: 14, at New York Knicks, June 2, 1993
Personal fouls, overtime: 3, vs. Cleveland Cavaliers, May 5, 1989
Steals, career: 376
Steals, game: 6, four times
Points, half: 34, first half, vs. Charlotte Hornets, December 29, 2001
Points, first quarter: 24, vs. Charlotte Hornets, December 29, 2001
Points, second quarter: 19, vs. Chicago Bulls, January 4, 2002
MCI Center record -- points, game: 51, vs. Charlotte Hornets, December 29, 2001
* Jordan scored 50 points against the Milwaukee Bucks twice. The most recent occurrence is listed. * * Jordan scored 45 points against the Seattle SuperSonics twice. The most recent occurrence is listed.
* Excluding the Washington Bullets * * Expansion era, and including the Washington Bullets
* Including ties
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explain the supreme courts process of the rule of four | Supreme Court - Wikipedia
A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of many legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, instance court, judgment court, apex court, and highest court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of a supreme court are not subject to further review by any other court. Supreme courts typically function primarily as appellate courts, hearing appeals from decisions of lower trial courts, or from intermediate - level appellate courts.
However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states tend not to have a single highest court. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court '', for example, the High Court of Australia; this is because decisions by the High Court could formerly be appealed to the Privy Council. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court '' is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces / territories and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales and Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland, which are all subordinate to higher courts of appeal.
Some countries have multiple "supreme courts '' whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. Some countries with a federal system of government may have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. However, other federations, such as Canada, may have a supreme court of general jurisdiction, able to decide any question of law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court as is the case in the Netherlands. A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Portugal, Russia, Spain and South Africa. Within the former British Empire, the highest court within a colony was often called the "Supreme Court '', even though appeals could be made from that court to the United Kingdom 's Privy Council (based in London). A number of Commonwealth jurisdictions retain this system, but many others have reconstituted their own highest court as a court of last resort, with the right of appeal to the Privy Council being abolished.
In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts.
The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is created by the provisions of the Constitution of Bangladesh, 1972. There are two Divisions of the Supreme Court, i.e. (a) Appellate Division and (b) High Court Division. Appellate Division is the highest Court of Appeal and usually does not exercise the powers of a court of first instance. Whereas, the High Court Division is a Court of first instance in company and admiralty matters.
The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished. This court hears appeals from the courts of appeal from the provinces and territories, and also appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court is a "General Court of Appeal. '' It can decide any question of law considered by the lower courts, including constitutional law, federal law, and provincial law. The court 's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme '' can be confusing because, for example, the Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.
In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.
In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.
Note that within the constitutional framework of India, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) has a special status vis - a-vis the other states of India. Article 370 of the Constitution of India carves out certain exceptions for J&K. However, the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order 1954 makes Article 141 applicable to the state of J&K and hence law declared by the Supreme Court of India is equally applicable to all courts of J&K including the High Court.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.
Israel 's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג "ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo '' (a retrial).
In Nauru, there is no single highest court for all types of cases. The Supreme Court has final jurisdiction on constitutional matters, but any other case may be appealed further to the Appellate Court. In addition, an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976 provides for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the High Court of Australia in both criminal and civil cases, with the notable exception of constitutional cases.
In New Zealand, the right of appeal to the Privy Council was abolished following the passing of the Supreme Court Act (2003). A right of appeal to the Privy Council remains for criminal cases which were decided before the Supreme Court was created, but it is likely that the successful appeal by Mark Lundy to the Privy Council in 2013 will be the last appeal to the Board from New Zealand.
The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.
The Supreme Court has been the apex court for Pakistan since the declaration of the republic in 1956 (previously the Privy Council had that function). The Supreme Court has the final say on matters of constitutional law, federal law or on matters of mixed federal and provincial competence. It can hear appeals on matters of provincial competence only if a matter of a constitutional nature is raised.
With respect to Pakistan 's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court 's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.
The provinces have their own courts system, with the High Court as the apex court, except insofar as where an appeal can go to the Supreme Court as mentioned above.
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
In respect of Community Law the Supreme Court is subject to the decisions of the European Court of Justice. Since there can be no appeal from the Supreme Court, there is an interlocutory procedure by which the Supreme Court may refer to the European Court questions of European law which arise in cases before it, and obtain a definitive ruling before the Supreme Court gives its judgment.
The Supreme Court shares its members and accommodation at the Middlesex Guildhall in London with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which hears final appeals from certain smaller Commonwealth countries, admiralty cases, and certain appeals from the ecclesiastical courts and statutory private jurisdictions, such as professional and academic bodies.
(The Constitutional Reform Act also renamed the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland to the Court of Judicature, and the rarely cited Supreme Court of Judicature for England and Wales as the Senior Courts of England and Wales).
The Supreme Court was set up in 2009; until then the House of Lords was the ultimate court in addition to being a legislative body, and the Lord Chancellor, with legislative and executive functions, was also a senior judge in the House of Lords.
The Supreme Court of the United States, established in 1789, is the highest Federal court in the United States, with powers of judicial review first asserted in Calder v. Bull (1798) in Justice Iredell 's dissenting opinion. The power was later given binding authority by Justice Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (1803). There are currently nine seats on the US Supreme Court.
Each U.S. state has a state supreme court, which is the highest authority interpreting that state 's law and administering that state 's judiciary. Two states, Oklahoma and Texas, each have two separate highest courts that respectively specialize in criminal cases and civil cases. Although Delaware has a specialized court, the Court of Chancery, to hear cases in equity, it is not a supreme court because the Delaware Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over it.
The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court ''; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.
The Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis are generally held to be the historical model for civil law. From the late 18th century onwards, civil law jurisdictions began to codify their laws, most of all in civil codes.
In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria 's system of "ordinary courts '' (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.
In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.
In Croatia, the supreme jurisdiction is given to the Supreme Court, which secures a uniform application of laws. The Constitutional Court exists to verify constitutionality of laws and regulations, as well as decide on individual complaints on decisions on governmental bodies. It also decides on jurisdictional disputes between the legislative, executive and judicial branches.
In Denmark, all ordinary courts have original jurisdiction to hear all types of cases, including cases of a constitutional or administrative nature. As a result, there exists no special constitutional court, and therefore final jurisdiction is vested with the Danish Supreme Court (Højesteret) which was established 14 February 1661 by king Frederik III.
In France, supreme appellate jurisdiction is divided among three judicial bodies:
When there is jurisdictional dispute between judicial and administrative courts: the Court of Arbitration (Tribunal des conflits), which is empanelled half from the Court of Cassation and half from the Council of State and presided over by the Minister of Justice, is called together to settle the dispute or hand down a final decision.
The High Court (Haute Cour) exists only to impeach the President of the French Republic in case of "breach of his duties patently incompatible with his continuing in office ''. Since a constitutional amendment of 2007, the French Constitution states that the High Court is composed of all members of both Houses of Parliament. As of 2012, it has never been convened.
In Germany, there is no de jure single supreme court. Instead, cases are handled by numerous federal courts, depending on their nature.
Final interpretation of the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, if it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution.
When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Court of Justice) is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht (Federal Social Court) for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht (Federal Labour Court) for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof (Federal Fiscal Court) for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht (Federal Administrative Court) for administrative law. The so - called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad - hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court 's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well - defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.
In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest court. Its decisions, known as "arresten '', are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States - General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)
The Supreme Court of Iceland (Icelandic: Hæstiréttur Íslands, lit. Highest Court of Iceland) was founded under Act No. 22 / 1919 and held its first session on 16 February 1920. The Court holds the highest judicial power in Iceland, where the court system has two levels.
The Supreme Court of India, also known colloquially as the ' apex court ', is the highest judicial body in the Republic of India. Any decision taken by it is final and binding, and can only be modified in some cases (death sentence, etc.) by the President of India. It has several jurisdiction like 1. Original 2. Appellate 3. Advisory
It is also known as court of records, i.e. all judgements are recorded and printed. These are cited in lower courts as case - law in various cases.
Italy follows the French system of different supreme courts.
The Italian court of last resort for most disputes is the Corte Suprema di Cassazione. There is also a separate constitutional court, the Corte costituzionale, which has a duty of judicial review, and which can strike down legislation as being in conflict with the Constitution.
In Japan, the Supreme Court of Japan is called 最高 裁判所 (Saikō - Saibansho; called 最高 裁 Saikō - Sai for short), located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority within Japan to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local by laws). It has the power of judicial review (i.e., it can declare Acts of Diet and Local Assembly, and administrative actions, unconstitutional).
In Luxembourg, challenges on the conformity of the law to the Constitution are brought before the Cour Constitutionnelle (Constitutional Court). -- The most used and common procedure to present these challenges is by way of the "question préjudicielle '' (prejudicial question). The Court of last resort for civil and criminal proceedings is the "Cour de Cassation ''. For administrative proceedings the highest court is the "Cour Administrative '' (Administrative Court).
The supreme court of Macau is the Court of Final Appeal (Portuguese: Tribunal de Última Instância; Chinese: 澳門 終審 法院).
While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land '', belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.
In the judicial system of mainland China the highest court of appeal is the Supreme People 's Court. This supervises the administration of justice by all subordinate "local '' and "special '' people 's courts, and is the court of last resort for the whole People 's Republic of China except for Macau and Hong Kong
In Portugal, there are several supreme courts, each with a specific jurisdiction:
Until 2003, a fifth supreme court also existed for the military jurisdiction, this being the Supreme Military Court (Supremo Tribunal Militar). Presently, in time of peace, the supreme court for military justice matters is the Supreme Court of Justice, which now includes four military judges.
In the Republic of China (Taiwan), there are three different courts of last resort:
The Council of Grand Justices, consisting of 15 justices and mainly dealing with constitutional issues, is the counterpart of constitutional courts in some countries.
All three courts are directly under the Judicial Yuan, whose president also serves as Chief Justice in the Council of Grand Justices.
Founded by papal bull in 1532, the Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and the High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. However, the absolute highest court (excluding criminal matters) is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution). In Spain, high courts can not create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court. Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:
In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.
In Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is the final court of appeals. Due to Switzerland 's system of direct democracy, it has no authority to review the constitutionality of federal statutes, but the people can strike down a proposed law by referendum. According to settled case law, however, the Court is authorised to review the compliance of all Swiss law with certain categories of international law, especially the European Convention of Human Rights.
In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common - law and civil - law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2 / 3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges ' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.
In South Africa, a "two apex '' system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country 's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.
Historically, citizens appealed directly to the King along his route to places out of the Palace. A Thai King would adjudicate all disputes. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, an official department for appeals was set up, and, after Thailand adopted a western - styled government, Thai Supreme Court was established in 1891.
At present, the Supreme Court of Thailand retains the important status as the highest court of justice in the country. Operating separately from the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, the judgement of the Supreme Court is considered as final.
In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Supreme Court of the United Arab Emirates was created in 1973 after the adoption of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Emirati judicial system is complex blend of both Islamic law and civil law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the country (currently Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan).
Law of Indonesia at the national level is based on a combination of civil law from the tradition of Roman - Dutch law and customary law from the tradition of Adat. Law in regional jurisdictions can vary from province to province, including even Sharia law, for example Islamic criminal law in Aceh, though even at the national level, individual justices can cite sharia or other forms of non-Dutch law in their legal opinions.
The Supreme Court of Indonesia is the main judicial arm of the state, functioning as the final court of appeal as well as a means to re-open cases previously closed. The Supreme Court, which consists of a total of 51 justices, also oversees the regional high courts. It was founded at the country 's independence in 1945.
The Constitutional Court of Indonesia, on the other hand, is a part of the judicial branch tasked with review of bills and government actions for constitutionality, as well as regulation of the interactions between various arms of the state. The constitutional amendment to establish the court was passed in 2001, and the court itself was established in 2003. The Constitutional Court consists of nine justices serving nine year terms, and they 're appointed in tandem by the Supreme Court, the President of Indonesia and the People 's Representative Council.
In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People 's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese - based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.
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a moveable feast there's never any end to paris | Never Any End to Paris - wikipedia
Never Any End to Paris (Spanish: París no se acaba nunca) is a book by Enrique Vila - Matas first published in Spanish in 2003 and first published in English by New Directions Publishing (translated by Anne McLean) in 2011. The title is taken from the final chapter of A Moveable Feast by Ernest Hemingway (a work that Vila - Matas read at the age of fifteen which inspired him to eventually move to Paris to become a writer).
The book is a fictionalised autobiographical portrait of a youthful segment of Vila - Matas 's life that was spent in Paris in the 1970s (during which he lived in a room that was rented from Marguerite Duras). As part of a kind of literary apprenticeship, Duras gave him a 13 - point set of instructions for writing novels.
In particular, Vila - Matas explores the complexities and difficulties of living a life as an unknown writer attempting to make a name for himself in the literary world, chiefly as a result of financial and material poverty as well as the problem of attempting to gain recognition in a pre-existing literary milieu. The narrator relates a wide number of notable people and luminaries that he encountered during that period, encompassing, for instance, Sergio Pitol, Juan Marsé, Edgardo Cozarinsky, Roland Barthes, Georges Perec, Isabelle Adjani and Samuel Beckett. He also describes the challenges of living as somebody who is in effect exiled from his homeland, given his opposition to the rule of General Franco in his native Spain.
The work is constructed in the form of a lecture which spans three separate days and involves the deliberate blurring of the boundary between fiction and non-fiction as well as elements of meta - fiction. At the opening of the book, for instance, the question is posed: "Am I a lecture or a novel? '', raising immediate questions over its form and how that relates to its content. In terms of the question of how far the book is autobiographical and true to life, Vila - Matas argues that truth is more important than reality, drawing a distinction between the two and suggesting that the form of writing that he used to create Never Any End to Paris is one that manifests a form of truth that is of greater validity than if he had presented a version of his story that was merely ' realistic '.
The work is evocative of the literary style and preoccupations of other writers such as Roberto Bolaño, who Vila - Matas met and befriended in 1996.
Despite his pronouncements that he was poor and unhappy in Paris (in contrast to a poor and happy Hemingway), Vila - Matas 's book is also driven by a general love of Paris as a city in itself.
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what is the tone of the gypsy's (gipsy's) words | The Gypsy 's Wife - wikipedia
"The Gypsy 's Wife '' is a song written by the Canadian singer - songwriter Leonard Cohen that was first released on his sixth studio album Recent Songs (1979). Live recordings of it appear as the fourth track on Field Commander Cohen: Tour of 1979 (2001) and as the thirteenth track on Cohen 's Live in London (2009). It continued to feature regularly in his stage performances until his death.
The theme of the song is that of sexual infidelity and it is built around the refrain "And where, where is my gypsy wife tonight? '' It implicitly references the folk - song, which exists in many versions (e.g. "The Gypsy Rover '', "The Black Jack Davy '', "The Raggle - Taggle Gypsies ''), of the well - born bride who runs away with the gypsies. In Cohen 's version, it is the gypsy himself who comes home looking for his wife and finds her gone.
The song then moves in a more biblical direction, referencing Judith and Holofernes (coloured by details from the stories of Salome and Ruth) in the line "Whose head is this she 's dancing with on the threshing - floor? '', and later Genesis 7 -- 8, the story of Noah and the Flood.
In her 2012 work, Cohen biographer Sylvie Simmons writes of the song: "Its sensual melody is paired with dark accusatory lyrics that are biblical in tone. '' She called the stern sense of loss Cohen voiced, in the song, as "a touch disproportionate '', given his long history of finding lovers who were already in relationships with other men.
Cohen explained that he wrote the song partly about the break - up of his own long - term relationship with the Los Angeles graphic artist Suzanne Elrod in 1978. In an interview for the 1979 Harry Rasky documentary film The Song of Leonard Cohen, he said:
"The Gypsy 's Wife '' was one of the last and swiftest songs I 've written. I started it in Los Angeles around the time I began recording (Recent Songs), which was last March or April (1978), and the song was ready in about three months. And, of course, my own marriage was breaking up at the time and, in a sense, it was written for my gypsy wife, in other words the wife that was wandering away. But in another way it 's just a song about the way men and women have lost one another, that men and women have wandered away from each other and have become gypsies to each other. The last verse says There is no man or woman you ca n't touch. But you who come between them, you will be judged. In other words, even though we are in the midst of some kind of psychic catastrophe it 's not an invitation to take advantage of it, and that 's mostly what the song is about.
Although Cohen referred in this interview to his "marriage '' to Suzanne Elrod he later pointed out that "cowardice '' and "fear '' had prevented him from actually marrying her. Elrod is the mother of both of Cohen 's children: his son Adam Cohen (born 1972) and daughter Lorca (born 1974).
Cohen first performed "The Gypsy 's Wife '' live on stage in Paris on 10 October 1979. When he performed it live in Tel Aviv, Israel, on 24 November 1980, he introduced it with the words: "This is a little song that I wrote for my wife after she ran away. ''
The Canadian singer Patricia O'Callaghan has recorded two different cover versions of the song: the first with the Gryphon Trio on the album Broken Hearts & Madmen (2011) and the second on her solo album Matador: The Songs of Leonard Cohen (2012).
The Spanish flamenco cantaor (singer) Juan Rafael Cortés Santiago, who performs as Duquende, has recorded a Spanish translation, "Mi Gitana '' ("My Gypsy Wife ''), of the song (2007).
Elliot Wolfson introduced his chapter in "Hidden Truths from Eden: Esoteric Readings of Genesis 1 -- 3 '' with a quote from the songs lyrics.
Will Barno, author of "'', started each chapter with a quote from the lyrics of a Leonard Cohen song. He picked a quote from the song 's lyrics to preface a chapter he entitled "Pornography ''.
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what happened to the fukushima nuclear power plant | Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster - Wikipedia
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (福島 第 一 原子力 発電 所 事故, Fukushima Dai - ichi (pronunciation) genshiryoku hatsudensho jiko) was an energy accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, Fukushima Prefecture, initiated primarily by the tsunami following the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011. Immediately after the earthquake, the active reactors automatically shut down their sustained fission reactions. However, the tsunami disabled the emergency generators that would have provided power to control and operate the pumps necessary to cool the reactors. The insufficient cooling led to three nuclear meltdowns, hydrogen - air explosions, and the release of radioactive material in Units 1, 2 and 3 from 12 March to 15 March. Loss of cooling also raised concerns over the recently loaded spent fuel pool of Reactor 4, which increased in temperature on 15 March due to the decay heat from the freshly added spent fuel rods but did not boil down to exposure.
On 5 July 2012, the Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) found that the causes of the accident had been foreseeable, and that the plant operator, Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), had failed to meet basic safety requirements such as risk assessment, preparing for containing collateral damage, and developing evacuation plans. On 12 October 2012, TEPCO admitted for the first time that it had failed to take necessary measures for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants.
The Fukushima disaster was the most significant nuclear incident since the April 26, 1986 Chernobyl disaster and the second disaster to be given the Level 7 event classification of the International Nuclear Event Scale. However, there have been no fatalities linked to radiation due to the accident. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and World Health Organization report that there will be no increase in miscarriages, stillbirths or physical and mental disorders in babies born after the accident. Controversially, however, an estimated 1,600 deaths are believed to have occurred, primarily in the elderly, who had earlier lived in nursing homes, due to the resultant poor ad hoc evacuation conditions. In 2017 risk analysis has determined, that unlike Chernobyl, "relocation was unjustified for the 160,000 people relocated after Fukushima, '' asserting that 1,600 deaths occurred due to these stressful evacuation conditions, while the potential for future deaths from exposure to greater amounts of radiation would have been comparatively lower, had everyone instead stayed home and been supported by a shelter in place.
There are no clear plans for decommissioning the plant, but the plant management estimate is 30 or 40 years. A frozen soil barrier has been constructed in an attempt to prevent further contamination of seeping groundwater, but in July 2016 TEPCO revealed that the ice wall had failed to totally stop groundwater from flowing in and mixing with highly radioactive water inside the wrecked reactor buildings, adding that they are "technically incapable of blocking off groundwater with the frozen wall ''.
In February 2017, TEPCO released images taken inside Reactor 2 by a remote - controlled camera that show there is a 2 - meter (6.5 ft) wide hole in the metal grating under the pressure vessel in the reactor 's primary containment vessel, which could have been caused by fuel escaping the pressure vessel, indicating a meltdown / melt - through had occurred, through this layer of containment. Radiation levels of about 210 Sv per hour were subsequently detected inside the Unit 2 containment vessel. These values are in the context of undamaged spent fuel which has typical values of 270 Sv / h, after 10 years of cold shutdown, with no shielding.
The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant comprised six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric (GE) and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). At the time of the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011, Reactors 4, 5, and 6 were shut down in preparation for re-fueling. However, their spent fuel pools still required cooling.
Immediately after the earthquake, the electricity - producing Reactors 1, 2, and 3 automatically shut down their sustained fission reactions by inserting control rods in a legally - mandated safety procedure referred to as SCRAM, which ceases the reactors ' normal running conditions. As the reactors were unable to generate power to run their own coolant pumps, emergency diesel generators came online, as designed, to power electronics and coolant systems. These operated nominally until the tsunami destroyed the generators for Reactors 1 -- 5. The two generators cooling Reactor 6 were undamaged and were sufficient to be pressed into service to cool the neighboring Reactor 5 along with their own reactor, averting the overheating issues that Reactor 4 suffered.
The largest tsunami wave was 13 meters (43 ft) high and hit 50 minutes after the initial earthquake, overwhelming the plant 's seawall, which was 10 m (33 ft) high. The moment of impact was recorded by a camera. Water quickly flooded the low - lying rooms in which the emergency generators were housed. The flooded diesel generators failed soon afterwards, resulting in a loss of power to the critical coolant water pumps. These pumps needed to continuously circulate coolant water through a Generation II reactor for several days to keep the fuel rods from melting, as the fuel rods continued to generate decay heat after the SCRAM event. The fuel rods would become hot enough to melt during the fuel decay time period if an adequate heat sink was not available. After the secondary emergency pumps (run by back - up electrical batteries) ran out, one day after the tsunami, 12 March, the water pumps stopped and the reactors began to overheat.
Meanwhile, as workers struggled to supply power to the reactors ' coolant systems and restore power to their control rooms, a number of hydrogen - air chemical explosions occurred, the first in Unit 1, on 12 March and the last in Unit 4, on 15 March. It is estimated that the hot zirconium fuel cladding - water reaction in Reactors 1 -- 3 produced 800 to 1000 kilograms of hydrogen gas each. The pressurized gas was vented out of the reactor pressure vessel where it mixed with the ambient air, and eventually reached explosive concentration limits in Units 1 and 3. Due to piping connections between Units 3 and 4, or alternatively from the same reaction occurring in the spent fuel pool in Unit 4 itself, Unit 4 also filled with hydrogen, resulting in an explosion. In each case, the hydrogen - air explosions occurred at the top of each unit, that was in their upper secondary containment buildings. Drone overflights on 20 March and afterwards captured clear images of the effects of each explosion on the outside structures, while the view inside was largely obscured by shadows and debris.
Coinciding with the well understood implications of a loss of coolant accident, the insufficient cooling eventually led to meltdowns in Reactors 1, 2, and 3. The full extent of the movement of the resulting corium is unknown but it is now considered to be at least through the bottom of each reactor pressure vessel (RPV), residing somewhere between there and the water - table below each reactor. In a similar manner to what was observed at reactor 4 in Chernobyl.
There have been no fatalities linked to short term overexposure to radiation reported due to the Fukushima accident, while approximately 18,500 people died due to the earthquake and tsunami. The maximum cancer mortality and morbidity estimate according to the linear no - threshold theory is 1,500 and 1,800 but with most estimates considerably lower, in the range of a few hundred. In addition, the rates of psychological distress among evacuated people rose fivefold compared to the Japanese average due to the experience of the disaster and evacuation.
In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that the residents of the area who were evacuated were exposed to low amounts of radiation and that radiation - induced health impacts are likely to be low. In particular, the 2013 WHO report predicts that for evacuated infant girls, their 0.75 % pre-accident lifetime risk of developing thyroid cancer is calculated to be increased to 1.25 % by being exposed to radioiodine, with the increase being slightly less for males. The risks from a number of additional radiation - induced cancers are also expected to be elevated due to exposure caused by the other low boiling point fission products that were released by the safety failures. The single greatest increase is for thyroid cancer, but in total, an overall 1 % higher lifetime risk of developing cancers of all types, is predicted for infant females, with the risk slightly lower for males, making both some of the most radiation - sensitive groups. Along with those within the womb, which the WHO predicted, depending on their gender, to have the same elevations in risk as the infant groups.
A screening program a year later in 2012 found that more than a third (36 %) of children in Fukushima Prefecture have abnormal growths in their thyroid glands. As of August 2013, there have been more than 40 children newly diagnosed with thyroid cancer and other cancers in Fukushima prefecture as a whole. In 2015, the number of thyroid cancers or detections of developing thyroid cancers numbered 137. However, whether these incidences of cancer are elevated above the rate in un-contaminated areas and therefore were due to exposure to nuclear radiation is unknown at this stage. Data from the Chernobyl accident showed that an unmistakable rise in thyroid cancer rates following the disaster in 1986 only began after a cancer incubation period of 3 -- 5 years; however, whether this data can be directly compared to the Fukushima nuclear disaster is yet to be determined.
A survey by the newspaper Mainichi Shimbun computed that of some 300,000 people who evacuated the area, approximately 1,600 deaths related to the evacuation conditions, such as living in temporary housing and hospital closures, had occurred as of August 2013, a number comparable to the 1,599 deaths directly caused by the earthquake and tsunami in the Fukushima Prefecture in 2011. The exact causes of the majority of these evacuation related deaths were not specified, as according to the municipalities, that would hinder application for condolence money compensation by the relatives of the deceased.
On 5 July 2012, the Japanese National Diet - appointed Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) submitted its inquiry report to the Japanese Diet. The Commission found the nuclear disaster was "manmade '', that the direct causes of the accident were all foreseeable prior to 11 March 2011. The report also found that the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant was incapable of withstanding the earthquake and tsunami. TEPCO, the regulatory bodies (NISA and NSC) and the government body promoting the nuclear power industry (METI), all failed to correctly develop the most basic safety requirements -- such as assessing the probability of damage, preparing for containing collateral damage from such a disaster, and developing evacuation plans for the public in the case of a serious radiation release. Meanwhile, the government - appointed Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company submitted its final report to the Japanese government on 23 July 2012. A separate study by Stanford researchers found that Japanese plants operated by the largest utility companies were particularly unprotected against potential tsunami.
TEPCO admitted for the first time on 12 October 2012 that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants. There are no clear plans for decommissioning the plant, but the plant management estimate is thirty or forty years.
A frozen soil barrier was constructed in an attempt to prevent further contamination of seeping groundwater by melted - down nuclear fuel, but in July 2016 TEPCO revealed that the ice wall had failed to stop groundwater from flowing in and mixing with highly radioactive water inside the wrecked reactor buildings, adding that they are "technically incapable of blocking off groundwater with the frozen wall ''.
In 2018, some tours to visit Fukushima disastered area have been started.
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant site close - up
Map of Japan 's electricity distribution network, showing incompatible systems between regions. Fukushima is in the 50 hertz Tohoku region.
Simplified cross-section sketch of a typical BWR Mark I containment as used in units 1 to 5 Key: RPV: reactor pressure vessel DW: dry well enclosing reactor pressure vessel. WW: wet well - torus - shaped all around the base enclosing steam suppression pool. Excess steam from the dry well enters the wet well water pool via downcomer pipes. SFP: spent fuel pool area SCSW: secondary concrete shield wall
The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant consisted of six GE light water boiling water reactors (BWRs) with a combined power of 4.7 gigawatts, making it one of the world 's 25 largest nuclear power stations. It was the first GE - designed nuclear plant to be constructed and run entirely by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). Reactor 1 was a 439 MWe type (BWR - 3) reactor constructed in July 1967, and commenced operation on 26 March 1971. It was designed to withstand an earthquake with a peak ground acceleration of 0.18 g (1.4 m / s, 4.6 ft / s) and a response spectrum based on the 1952 Kern County earthquake. Reactors 2 and 3 were both 784 MWe type BWR - 4s. Reactor 2 commenced operation in July 1974, and Reactor 3 in March 1976. The earthquake design basis for all units ranged from 0.42 g (4.12 m / s, 13.5 ft / s) to 0.46 g (4.52 m / s, 14.8 ft / s). After the 1978 Miyagi earthquake, when the ground acceleration reached 0.125 g (1.22 m / s, 4.0 ft / s) for 30 seconds, no damage to the critical parts of the reactor was found. Units 1 -- 5 have a Mark - 1 type (light bulb torus) containment structure; unit 6 has Mark 2 - type (over / under) containment structure. In September 2010, Reactor 3 was partially fueled by mixed - oxides (MOX).
At the time of the accident, the units and central storage facility contained the following numbers of fuel assemblies:
There was no MOX fuel in any of the cooling ponds at the time of the incident. The only MOX fuel was currently loaded in the Unit 3 reactor.
Nuclear reactors generate electricity by using the heat of the fission reaction to produce steam, which is used to drive turbines in order to generate electricity. When the reactor stops operating, the radioactive decay of unstable isotopes in the fuel continues to generate heat (decay heat) for a time, and so require continued cooling. Initially this decay heat amounts to approximately 6.5 % of the amount produced by fission, decreasing over several days before reaching shutdown levels. Afterwards, spent fuel rods typically require several years in a spent fuel pool before they can be safely transferred to dry cask storage vessels. The decay heat in the Unit 4 spent fuel pool had the capacity to boil about 70 metric tons (69 long tons; 77 short tons) of water per day.
In the reactor core, high - pressure systems cycle water between the reactor pressure vessel and heat exchangers. These systems transfer heat to a secondary heat exchanger via the essential service water system, using water pumped out to sea or an onsite cooling tower. Units 2 and 3 were equipped with steam turbine - driven emergency core cooling systems that could be directly operated by steam produced by decay heat, and which could inject water directly into the reactor. Some electrical power was needed to operate valves and monitoring systems.
Unit 1 was equipped with a different, entirely passive cooling system, the Isolation Condenser (IC). It consisted of a series of pipes run from the reactor core to the inside of a large tank of water. When the valves are opened, steam flows upward to the IC where the cool water in the tank condenses the steam back to water, and it runs under gravity back to the reactor core. For unknown reasons, Unit 1 's IC was operated only intermittently during the emergency. However, during a 25 March 2014 presentation to the TVA, Dr Takeyuki Inagaki explained that the IC was being operated intermittently to maintain reactor vessel level and to prevent the core from cooling too quickly which can increase reactor power. Unfortunately, as the tsunami engulfed the station, the IC valves were closed and could not be reopened automatically due to the loss of electrical power, but could have been opened manually. On 16 April 2011, TEPCO declared that cooling systems for Units 1 -- 4 were beyond repair.
When a reactor is not producing electricity, its cooling pumps can be powered by other reactor units, the grid, diesel generators, or batteries.
Two emergency diesel generators were available for each of Units 1 -- 5 and three for Unit 6.
In the late 1990s, three additional backup generators for Units 2 and 4 were placed in new buildings located higher on the hillside, to comply with new regulatory requirements. All six units were given access to these generators, but the switching stations that sent power from these backup generators to the reactors ' cooling systems for Units 1 through 5 were still in the poorly protected turbine buildings. The switching station for Unit 6 was protected inside the only GE Mark II reactor building and continued to function. All three of the generators added in the late 1990s were operational after the tsunami. If the switching stations had been moved to inside the reactor buildings or to other flood - proof locations, power would have been provided by these generators to the reactors ' cooling systems.
The reactor 's emergency diesel generators and DC batteries, crucial components in powering cooling systems after a power loss, were located in the basements of the reactor turbine buildings, in accordance with GE 's specifications. Mid-level GE engineers expressed concerns, relayed to Tepco, that this left them vulnerable to flooding.
Fukushima I was not designed for such a large tsunami, nor had the reactors been modified when concerns were raised in Japan and by the IAEA.
Fukushima II was also struck by the tsunami. However, it had incorporated design changes that improved its resistance to flooding, reducing flood damage. Generators and related electrical distribution equipment were located in the watertight reactor building, so that power from the electricity grid was being used by midnight. Seawater pumps for cooling were protected from flooding, and although 3 of 4 initially failed, they were restored to operation.
Used fuel assemblies taken from reactors are initially stored for at least 18 months in the pools adjacent to their reactors. They can then be transferred to the central fuel storage pond. Fukushima I 's storage area contains 6375 fuel assemblies. After further cooling, fuel can be transferred to dry cask storage, which has shown no signs of abnormalities.
Many of the internal components and fuel assembly cladding are made from zircaloy because it is relatively transparent to neutrons. At normal operating temperatures of approximately 300 ° C (572 ° F), zircaloy is inert. However, above 1,200 degrees Celsius (2,190 ° F), zirconium metal can react exothermically with water to form free hydrogen gas. The reaction between zirconium and the coolant produces more heat, accelerating the reaction. In addition, zircaloy can react with uranium dioxide to form zirconium dioxide and uranium metal. This exothermic reaction together with the reaction of boron carbide with stainless steel can release additional heat energy, thus contributing to the overheating of a reactor.
On 27 February 2012, the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency ordered TEPCO to report its reasoning for changing the piping layout for the emergency cooling system.
The original plans separated the piping systems for two reactors in the isolation condenser from each other. However, the application for approval of the construction plan showed the two piping systems connected outside the reactor. The changes were not noted, in violation of regulations.
After the tsunami, the isolation condenser should have taken over the function of the cooling pumps, by condensing the steam from the pressure vessel into water to be used for cooling the reactor. However, the condenser did not function properly and TEPCO could not confirm whether a valve was opened.
On 30 October 1991, one of two backup generators of Reactor 1 failed, after flooding in the reactor 's basement. Seawater used for cooling leaked into the turbine building from a corroded pipe at 20 cubic meters per hour, as reported by former employees in December 2011. An engineer was quoted as saying that he informed his superiors of the possibility that a tsunami could damage the generators. TEPCO installed doors to prevent water from leaking into the generator rooms.
The Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission stated that it would revise its safety guidelines and would require the installation of additional power sources. On 29 December 2011, TEPCO admitted all these facts: its report mentioned that the room was flooded through a door and some holes for cables, but the power supply was not cut off by the flooding, and the reactor was stopped for one day. One of the two power sources was completely submerged, but its drive mechanism had remained unaffected.
In 2007, TEPCO set up a department to supervise its nuclear facilities. Until June 2011, its chairman was Masao Yoshida, the Fukushima Daiichi chief. A 2008 in - house study identified an immediate need to better protect the facility from flooding by seawater. This study mentioned the possibility of tsunami - waves up to 10.2 meters (33 ft). Headquarters officials insisted that such a risk was unrealistic and did not take the prediction seriously.
A Mr. Okamura of the Active Fault and Earthquake Research Center (replaced in 2014 by Research Institute of Earthquake and Volcano Geology (IEVG), Geological Survey of Japan (GSJ), AIST) urged TEPCO and NISA to review their assumption of possible tsunami heights based on a ninth century earthquake, but it was not seriously considered at that time. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission warned of a risk of losing emergency power in 1991 (NUREG - 1150) and NISA referred to the report in 2004. No action to mitigate the risk was taken.
Japan, like the rest of the Pacific Rim, is in an active seismic zone, prone to earthquakes. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) had expressed concern about the ability of Japan 's nuclear plants to withstand earthquakes. At a 2008 meeting of the G8 's Nuclear Safety and Security Group in Tokyo, an IAEA expert warned that a strong earthquake with a magnitude above 7.0 could pose a "serious problem '' for Japan 's nuclear power stations. The region had experienced three earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8, including the 869 Sanriku earthquake, the 1896 Sanriku earthquake, and the 1933 Sanriku earthquake.
The 9.0 M Tōhoku earthquake occurred at 14: 46 on Friday, 11 March 2011, with the epicenter near Honshu, the largest island of Japan. It produced maximum ground g - forces of 0.56, 0.52, 0.56 (5.50, 5.07 and 5.48 m / s, 18.0, 16.6 and 18.0 ft / s) at units 2, 3, and 5 respectively. This exceeded the earthquake tolerances of 0.45, 0.45, and 0.46 g (4.38, 4.41 and 4.52 m / s, 14.4, 14.5 and 14.8 ft / s). The shock values were within the design tolerances at units 1, 4, and 6.
When the earthquake struck, units 1, 2, and 3 were operating, but units 4, 5, and 6 had been shut down for a scheduled inspection. Reactors 1, 2, and 3 immediately shut down automatically; this meant the plant stopped generating electricity and could no longer use its own power. One of the two connections to off - site power for units 1 -- 3 also failed, so 13 on - site emergency diesel generators began providing power.
The earthquake triggered a 13 - to - 15 - meter (43 to 49 ft) - high tsunami that arrived approximately 50 minutes later. The waves overtopped the plant 's 5.7 - meter (19 ft) seawall, flooding the basements of the power plant 's turbine buildings and disabling the emergency diesel generators at approximately 15: 41. TEPCO then notified authorities of a "first - level emergency ''. The switching stations that provided power from the three backup generators located higher on the hillside failed when the building that housed them flooded. Power for the plant 's control systems switched to batteries designed to provide power for about eight hours. Further batteries and mobile generators were dispatched to the site, but were delayed by poor road conditions; the first arrived at 21: 00 11 March, almost six hours after the tsunami struck.
Unsuccessful attempts were made to connect portable generating equipment to power water pumps. The failure was attributed to flooding at the connection point in the Turbine Hall basement and the absence of suitable cables. TEPCO switched its efforts to installing new lines from the grid. One generator at unit 6 resumed operation on 17 March, while external power returned to units 5 and 6 only on 20 March.
The government initially set in place a four - stage evacuation process: a prohibited access area out to 3 km (1.9 mi), an on - alert area 3 -- 20 km (1.9 -- 12.4 mi) and an evacuation prepared area 20 -- 30 km (12 -- 19 mi). On day one, an estimated 170,000 people were evacuated from the prohibited access and on - alert areas. Prime Minister Kan instructed people within the on - alert area to leave and urged those in the prepared area to stay indoors. The latter groups were urged to evacuate on 25 March. The 20 km (12 mi) exclusion zone was guarded by roadblocks to ensure that fewer people would be affected by the radiation.
The earthquake and tsunami damaged or destroyed more than one million buildings leading to a total of 470,000 people needing evacuation. Of the 470,000, the nuclear accident was responsible for 154,000 being evacuated.
In Reactors 1, 2, and 3, overheating caused a reaction between the water and the zircaloy, creating hydrogen gas. On 12 March, an explosion in Unit 1 was caused by the ignition of the hydrogen, destroying the upper part of the building. On 14 March, a similar explosion occurred in the Reactor 3 building, blowing off the roof and injuring eleven people. On the 15th, there was an explosion in the Reactor 4 building due to a shared vent pipe with Reactor 3.
The amount of damage sustained by the reactor cores during the accident, and the location of molten nuclear fuel ("corium '') within the containment buildings, is unknown; TEPCO has revised its estimates several times. On 16 March 2011, TEPCO estimated that 70 % of the fuel in Unit 1 had melted and 33 % in Unit 2, and that Unit 3 's core might also be damaged. As of 2015 it can be assumed that most fuel melted through the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), commonly known as the "reactor core '') and is resting on the bottom of the primary containment vessel (PCV), having been stopped by the PCV concrete. In July 2017 a remotely controlled robot filmed for the first time apparently melted fuel, just below the pressure vessel of Unit 3.
TEPCO released further estimates of the state and location of the fuel in a November 2011 report. The report concluded that the Unit 1 RPV was damaged during the disaster and that "significant amounts '' of molten fuel had fallen into the bottom of the PCV. The erosion of the concrete of the PCV by the molten fuel after the core meltdown was estimated to stop at approx. 0.7 meters (2 ft 4 in) in depth, while the thickness of the containment is 7.6 meters (25 ft) thick. Gas sampling carried out before the report detected no signs of an ongoing reaction of the fuel with the concrete of the PCV and all the fuel in Unit 1 was estimated to be "well cooled down, including the fuel dropped on the bottom of the reactor ''. Fuel in Units 2 and 3 had melted, however less than in Unit 1, and fuel was presumed to be still in the RPV, with no significant amounts of fuel fallen to the bottom of the PCV. The report further suggested that "there is a range in the evaluation results '' from "all fuel in the RPV (none fuel fallen to the PCV) '' in Unit 2 and Unit 3, to "most fuel in the RPV (some fuel in PCV) ''. For Unit 2 and Unit 3 it was estimated that the "fuel is cooled sufficiently ''. According to the report, the greater damage in Unit 1 (when compared to the other two units) was due to the longer time that no cooling water was injected in Unit 1. This resulted in much more decay heat accumulating, as for about 1 day there was no water injection for Unit 1, while Unit 2 and Unit 3 had only a quarter of a day without water injection.
In November 2013, Mari Yamaguchi reported for Associated Press that there are computer simulations which suggest that "the melted fuel in Unit 1, whose core damage was the most extensive, has breached the bottom of the primary containment vessel and even partially eaten into its concrete foundation, coming within about 30 centimeters (1 ft) of leaking into the ground '' -- a Kyoto University nuclear engineer said with regards to these estimates: "We just ca n't be sure until we actually see the inside of the reactors. ''
According to a December 2013 report, TEPCO estimated for Unit 1 that "the decay heat must have decreased enough, the molten fuel can be assumed to remain in PCV (primary container vessel) ''.
In August 2014, TEPCO released a new revised estimate that Reactor 3 had a complete melt through in the initial phase of the accident. According to this new estimate within the first three days of the accident the entire core content of Reactor 3 had melted through the RPV and fallen to the bottom of the PCV. These estimates were based on a simulation, which indicated that Reactor 3 's melted core penetrated through 1.2 meters (3 ft 11 in) of the PCV 's concrete base, and came close to 26 -- 68 centimeters (10 -- 27 in) of the PCV 's steel wall.
In February 2015, TEPCO started the muon scanning process for Units 1, 2, and 3. With this scanning setup it will be possible to determine the approximate amount and location of the remaining nuclear fuel within the RPV, but not the amount and resting place of the corium in the PCV. In March 2015 TEPCO released the result of the muon scan for Unit 1 which showed that no fuel was visible in the RPV, which would suggest that most if not all of the molten fuel had dropped onto the bottom of the PCV -- this will change the plan for the removal of the fuel from Unit 1.
In February 2017, six years after the disaster, radiation levels inside the Unit 2 containment building were crudely estimated to be about 650 Sv / h. The estimation was revised later to 80 Sv / h. These readings were the highest recorded since the disaster occurred in 2011 and the first recorded in that area of the reactor since the meltdowns. Images showed a hole in metal grating beneath the reactor pressure vessel, suggesting that melted nuclear fuel had escaped the vessel in that area. In January 2018 a remote - controlled camera confirmed that nuclear fuel debris was at the bottom of the Unit 2 PCV, showing fuel had escaped the RPV. The handle from the top of a nuclear fuel assembly was also observed, confirming that a considerable amount of the nuclear fuel had melted.
Reactor 4 was not operating when the earthquake struck. All fuel rods from Unit 4 had been transferred to the spent fuel pool on an upper floor of the reactor building prior to the tsunami. On 15 March, an explosion damaged the fourth floor rooftop area of Unit 4, creating two large holes in a wall of the outer building. It was reported that water in the spent fuel pool might be boiling. Radiation inside the Unit 4 control room prevented workers from staying there for long periods. Visual inspection of the spent fuel pool on 30 April revealed no significant damage to the rods. A radiochemical examination of the pond water confirmed that little of the fuel had been damaged.
In October 2012, the former Japanese Ambassador to Switzerland and Senegal, Mitsuhei Murata, said that the ground under Fukushima Unit 4 was sinking, and the structure may collapse.
In November 2013, TEPCO began moving the 1533 fuel rods in the Unit 4 cooling pool to the central pool. This process was completed on 22 December 2014.
Reactors 5 and 6 were also not operating when the earthquake struck. Unlike Reactor 4, their fuel rods remained in the reactor. The reactors had been closely monitored, as cooling processes were not functioning well. Both Unit 5 and Unit 6 shared a working generator and switchgear during the emergency and achieved a successful cold shutdown nine days later on 20 March.
On 21 March, temperatures in the fuel pond had risen slightly, to 61 ° C (142 ° F) and water was sprayed over the pool. Power was restored to cooling systems on 24 March and by 28 March, temperatures were reported down to 35 ° C (95 ° F).
Radioactive material was released from the containment vessels for several reasons: deliberate venting to reduce gas pressure, deliberate discharge of coolant water into the sea, and uncontrolled events. Concerns about the possibility of a large scale release led to a 20 - kilometer (12 mi) exclusion zone around the power plant and recommendations that people within the surrounding 20 -- 30 km (12 -- 19 mi) zone stay indoors. Later, the UK, France, and some other countries told their nationals to consider leaving Tokyo, in response to fears of spreading contamination. In 2015, the tap water contamination was still higher in Tokyo compared to other cities in Japan. Trace amounts of radioactivity, including iodine - 131, caesium - 134, and caesium - 137, were widely observed.
Between 21 March and mid-July, around 27 PBq of caesium - 137 (about 8.4 kg or 19 lb) entered the ocean, with about 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April. However, the Fukushima coast has some of the world 's strongest currents and these transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, thus causing great dispersion of the radioactive elements. The results of measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments led to the supposition that the consequences of the accident, in terms of radioactivity, would be minor for marine life as of autumn 2011 (weak concentration of radioactivity in the water and limited accumulation in sediments). On the other hand, significant pollution of sea water along the coast near the nuclear plant might persist, due to the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported towards the sea by surface water running over contaminated soil. Organisms that filter water and fish at the top of the food chain are, over time, the most sensitive to caesium pollution. It is thus justified to maintain surveillance of marine life that is fished in the coastal waters off Fukushima. Despite caesium isotopic concentrations in the waters off of Japan being 10 to 1000 times above the normal concentrations prior to the accident, radiation risks are below what is generally considered harmful to marine animals and human consumers.
A monitoring system operated by the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) tracked the spread of radioactivity on a global scale. Radioactive isotopes were picked up by over 40 monitoring stations.
On 12 March, radioactive releases first reached a CTBTO monitoring station in Takasaki, Japan, around 200 km (120 mi) away. The radioactive isotopes appeared in eastern Russia on 14 March and the west coast of the United States two days later. By day 15, traces of radioactivity were detectable all across the northern hemisphere. Within one month, radioactive particles were noted by CTBTO stations in the southern hemisphere.
Estimates of radioactivity released ranged from 10 -- 40 % of that of Chernobyl. The significantly contaminated area was 10 - 12 % of that of Chernobyl.
In March 2011, Japanese officials announced that "radioactive iodine - 131 exceeding safety limits for infants had been detected at 18 water - purification plants in Tokyo and five other prefectures ''. On 21 March, the first restrictions were placed on the distribution and consumption of contaminated items. As of July 2011, the Japanese government was unable to control the spread of radioactive material into the nation 's food supply. Radioactive material was detected in food produced in 2011, including spinach, tea leaves, milk, fish, and beef, up to 320 kilometres from the plant. 2012 crops did not show signs of radioactivity contamination. Cabbage, rice and beef showed insignificant levels of radioactivity. A Fukushima - produced rice market in Tokyo was accepted by consumers as safe.
On 24 August 2011, the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) of Japan published the results of the recalculation of the total amount of radioactive materials released into the air during the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. The total amounts released between 11 March and 5 April were revised downwards to 130 PBq (petabecquerels, 3.5 mega curies) for iodine - 131 and 11 PBq for caesium - 137, which is about 11 % of Chernobyl emissions. Earlier estimations were 150 PBq and 12 PBq.
In 2011, scientists working for the Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Kyoto University and other institutes, recalculated the amount of radioactive material released into the ocean: between late March through April they found a total of 15 PBq for the combined amount of iodine - 131 and caesium - 137, more than triple the 4.72 PBq estimated by TEPCO. The company had calculated only the direct releases into the sea. The new calculations incorporated the portion of airborne radioactive substances that entered the ocean as rain.
In the first half of September 2011, TEPCO estimated the radioactivity release at some 200 MBq (megabecquerels, 5.4 milli curies) per hour. This was approximately one four - millionth that of March. Traces of iodine - 131 were detected in several Japanese prefectures in November and December 2011.
According to the French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, between 21 March and mid-July around 27 PBq of caesium - 137 entered the ocean, about 82 percent before 8 April. This emission represents the most important individual oceanic emissions of artificial radioactivity ever observed. The Fukushima coast has one of the world 's strongest currents (Kuroshio Current). It transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, dispersing the radioactivity. As of late 2011 measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments suggested that the consequences for marine life would be minor. Significant pollution along the coast near the plant might persist, because of the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported to the sea by surface water crossing contaminated soil. The possible presence of other radioactive substances, such as strontium - 90 or plutonium, has not been sufficiently studied. Recent measurements show persistent contamination of some marine species (mostly fish) caught along the Fukushima coast. Migratory pelagic species are highly effective and rapid transporters of radioactivity throughout the ocean. Elevated levels of caesium - 134 appeared in migratory species off the coast of California that were not seen pre-Fukushima.
As of March 2012, no cases of radiation - related ailments had been reported. Experts cautioned that data was insufficient to allow conclusions on health impacts. Michiaki Kai, professor of radiation protection at Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences, stated, "If the current radiation dose estimates are correct, (cancer - related deaths) likely wo n't increase. ''
In May 2012, TEPCO released their estimate of cumulative radioactivity releases. An estimated 538.1 PBq of iodine - 131, caesium - 134 and caesium - 137 was released. 520 PBq was released into the atmosphere between 12 -- 31 March 2011 and 18.1 PBq into the ocean from 26 March -- 30 September 2011. A total of 511 PBq of iodine - 131 was released into both the atmosphere and the ocean, 13.5 PBq of caesium - 134 and 13.6 PBq of caesium - 137. TEPCO reported that at least 900 PBq had been released "into the atmosphere in March last year (2011) alone ''.
In 2012 researchers from the Institute of Problems in the Safe Development of Nuclear Energy, Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Hydrometeorological Center of Russia concluded that "on March 15, 2011, ~ 400 PBq iodine, ~ 100 PBq caesium, and ~ 400 PBq inert gases entered the atmosphere '' on that day alone.
In August 2012, researchers found that 10,000 nearby residents had been exposed to less than 1 millisievert of radiation, significantly less than Chernobyl residents.
As of October 2012, radioactivity was still leaking into the ocean. Fishing in the waters around the site was still prohibited, and the levels of radioactive Cs and Cs in the fish caught were not lower than immediately after the disaster.
On 26 October 2012, TEPCO admitted that it could not stop radioactive material entering the ocean, although emission rates had stabilized. Undetected leaks could not be ruled out, because the reactor basements remained flooded. The company was building a 2,400 - foot - long steel and concrete wall between the site and the ocean, reaching 100 feet (30 m) below ground, but it would not be finished before mid-2014. Around August 2012 two greenling were caught close to shore. They contained more than 25,000 becquerels (0.67 milli curies) of caesium - 137 per kilogram (11,000 Bq / lb; 0.31 μCi / lb), the highest measured since the disaster and 250 times the government 's safety limit.
On 22 July 2013, it was revealed by TEPCO that the plant continued to leak radioactive water into the Pacific Ocean, something long suspected by local fishermen and independent investigators. TEPCO had previously denied that this was happening. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe ordered the government to step in.
On 20 August, in a further incident, it was announced that 300 metric tons (300 long tons; 330 short tons) of heavily contaminated water had leaked from a storage tank, approximately the same amount of water as one eighth (1 / 8) of that found in an Olympic - size swimming pool. The 300 metric tons (300 long tons; 330 short tons) of water was radioactive enough to be hazardous to nearby staff, and the leak was assessed as Level 3 on the International Nuclear Event Scale.
On 26 August, the government took charge of emergency measures to prevent further radioactive water leaks, reflecting their lack of confidence in TEPCO.
As of 2013, about 400 metric tons (390 long tons; 440 short tons) of water per day of cooling water was being pumped into the reactors. Another 400 metric tons (390 long tons; 440 short tons) of groundwater was seeping into the structure. Some 800 metric tons (790 long tons; 880 short tons) of water per day was removed for treatment, half of which was reused for cooling and half diverted to storage tanks. Ultimately the contaminated water, after treatment to remove radionuclides other than tritium, may have to be dumped into the Pacific. TEPCO intend to create an underground ice wall to reduce the rate contaminated groundwater reaches the sea.
In February 2014, NHK reported that TEPCO was reviewing its radioactivity data, after finding much higher levels of radioactivity than was reported earlier. TEPCO now says that levels of 5 MBq (0.12 milli curies) of strontium per liter (23 MBq / imp gal; 19 MBq / U.S. gal; 610 μCi / imp gal; 510 μCi / U.S. gal) were detected in groundwater collected in July 2013 and not the 900 kBq (0.02 milli curies) (4.1 MBq / imp gal; 3.4 MBq / U.S. gal; 110 μCi / imp gal; 92 μCi / U.S. gal) that were initially reported.
On 10 September 2015, floodwaters driven by Typhoon Etau prompted mass evacuations in Japan and overwhelmed the drainage pumps at the stricken Fukushima nuclear plant. A TEPCO spokesperson said that hundreds of metric tons of radioactive water had entered the ocean as a result. Plastic bags filled with contaminated soil and grass were also swept away by the flood waters.
In March 2014, numerous news sources, including NBC, began predicting that the radioactive underwater plume traveling through the Pacific Ocean would reach the western seaboard of the continental United States. The common story was that the amount of radioactivity would be harmless and temporary once it arrived. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration measured caesium - 134 at points in the Pacific Ocean and models were cited in predictions by several government agencies to announce that the radiation would not be a health hazard for North American residents. Groups, including Beyond Nuclear and the Tillamook Estuaries Partnership, challenged these predictions on the basis of continued isotope releases after 2011, leading to a demand for more recent and comprehensive measurements as the radioactivity made its way east. These measurements were taken by a cooperative group of organizations under the guidance of a marine chemist with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and it was revealed that total radiation levels, of which only a fraction bore the fingerprint of Fukushima, were not high enough to pose any direct risk to human life and in fact were far less than Environmental Protection Agency guidelines or several other sources of radiation exposure deemed safe. Integrated Fukushima Ocean Radionuclide Monitoring project (InFORM) also failed to show any significant amount of radiation and as a result authors received death threats from supporters of a Fukushima - induced "wave of cancer deaths across North America '' theory.
Government agencies and TEPCO were unprepared for the "cascading nuclear disaster ''. The tsunami that "began the nuclear disaster could and should have been anticipated and that ambiguity about the roles of public and private institutions in such a crisis was a factor in the poor response at Fukushima ''. In March 2012, Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda said that the government shared the blame for the Fukushima disaster, saying that officials had been blinded by a false belief in the country 's "technological infallibility '', and were taken in by a "safety myth ''. Noda said "Everybody must share the pain of responsibility. ''
According to Naoto Kan, Japan 's prime minister during the tsunami, the country was unprepared for the disaster, and nuclear power plants should not have been built so close to the ocean. Kan acknowledged flaws in authorities ' handling of the crisis, including poor communication and coordination between nuclear regulators, utility officials, and the government. He said the disaster "laid bare a host of an even bigger man - made vulnerabilities in Japan 's nuclear industry and regulation, from inadequate safety guidelines to crisis management, all of which he said need to be overhauled. ''
Physicist and environmentalist Amory Lovins said that Japan 's "rigid bureaucratic structures, reluctance to send bad news upwards, need to save face, weak development of policy alternatives, eagerness to preserve nuclear power 's public acceptance, and politically fragile government, along with TEPCO 's very hierarchical management culture, also contributed to the way the accident unfolded. Moreover, the information Japanese people receive about nuclear energy and its alternatives has long been tightly controlled by both TEPCO and the government. ''
The Japanese government did not keep records of key meetings during the crisis. Data from the SPEEDI network were emailed to the prefectural government, but not shared with others. Emails from NISA to Fukushima, covering 12 March 11: 54 PM to 16 March 9 AM and holding vital information for evacuation and health advisories, went unread and were deleted. The data was not used because the disaster countermeasure office regarded the data as "useless because the predicted amount of released radiation is unrealistic. '' On 14 March 2011 TEPCO officials were instructed not to use the phrase "core meltdown '' at press conferences.
On the evening of March 15, Prime Minister Kan called Seiki Soramoto, who used to design nuclear plants for Toshiba, to ask for his help in managing the escalating crisis. Soramoto formed an impromptu advisory group, which included his former professor at the University of Tokyo, Toshiso Kosako, a top Japanese expert on radiation measurement. Mr. Kosako, who studied the Soviet response to the Chernobyl crisis, said he was stunned at how little the leaders in the prime minister 's office knew about the resources available to them. He quickly advised the chief cabinet secretary, Yukio Edano, to use SPEEDI, which used measurements of radioactive releases, as well as weather and topographical data, to predict where radioactive materials could travel after being released into the atmosphere.
The Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company 's interim report stated that Japan 's response was flawed by "poor communication and delays in releasing data on dangerous radiation leaks at the facility ''. The report blamed Japan 's central government as well as TEPCO, "depicting a scene of harried officials incapable of making decisions to stem radiation leaks as the situation at the coastal plant worsened in the days and weeks following the disaster ''. The report said poor planning worsened the disaster response, noting that authorities had "grossly underestimated tsunami risks '' that followed the magnitude 9.0 earthquake. The 12.1 - meter (40 ft) high tsunami that struck the plant was double the height of the highest wave predicted by officials. The erroneous assumption that the plant 's cooling system would function after the tsunami worsened the disaster. "Plant workers had no clear instructions on how to respond to such a disaster, causing miscommunication, especially when the disaster destroyed backup generators. ''
In February 2012, the Rebuild Japan Initiative Foundation described how Japan 's response was hindered by a loss of trust between the major actors: Prime Minister Kan, TEPCO 's Tokyo headquarters and the plant manager. The report said that these conflicts "produced confused flows of sometimes contradictory information ''. According to the report, Kan delayed the cooling of the reactors by questioning the choice of seawater instead of fresh water, accusing him of micromanaging response efforts and appointing a small, closed, decision - making staff. The report stated that the Japanese government was slow to accept assistance from U.S. nuclear experts.
A 2012 report in The Economist said: "The operating company was poorly regulated and did not know what was going on. The operators made mistakes. The representatives of the safety inspectorate fled. Some of the equipment failed. The establishment repeatedly played down the risks and suppressed information about the movement of the radioactive plume, so some people were evacuated from more lightly to more heavily contaminated places. ''
From 17 to 19 March 2011, US military aircraft measured radiation within a 45 km (28 mi) radius of the site. The data recorded 125 micro sieverts per hour of radiation as far as 25 km (15.5 mi) northwest of the plant. The US provided detailed maps to the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) on 18 March and to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) two days later, but officials did not act on the information.
The data were not forwarded to the prime minister 's office or the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC), nor were they used to direct the evacuation. Because a substantial portion of radioactive materials reached ground to the northwest, residents evacuated in this direction were unnecessarily exposed to radiation. According to NSC chief Tetsuya Yamamoto, "It was very regrettable that we did n't share and utilize the information. '' Itaru Watanabe, from the Science and Technology Policy Bureau, blamed the US for not releasing the data.
Data on the dispersal of radioactive materials were provided to the U.S. forces by the Japanese Ministry for Science a few days after March 11; however, the data was not shared publicly until the Americans published their map on March 23, at which point Japan published fallout maps compiled from ground measurements and SPEEDI the same day. According to Watanabe 's testimony before the Diet, the US military was given access to the data "to seek support from them '' on how to deal with the nuclear disaster. Although SPEEDI 's effectiveness was limited by not knowing the amounts released in the disaster, and thus was considered "unreliable '', it was still able to forecast dispersal routes and could have been used to help local governments designate more appropriate evacuation routes.
On 19 June 2012, science minister Hirofumi Hirano stated that his "job was only to measure radiation levels on land '' and that the government would study whether disclosure could have helped in the evacuation efforts.
On 28 June 2012 Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency officials apologized to mayor Yuko Endo of Kawauchi Village for NISA having failed to release the American - produced radiation maps in the first days after the meltdowns. All residents of this village were evacuated after the government designated it a no - entry zone. According to a Japanese government panel, authorities had shown no respect for the lives and dignity of village people. One NISA official apologized for the failure and added that the panel had stressed the importance of disclosure; however, the mayor said that the information would have prevented the evacuation into highly polluted areas, and that apologies a year too late had no meaning.
In June 2016, it was revealed that TEPCO officials had been instructed on 14 March 2011 not to describe the reactor damage using the word "meltdown ''. Officials at that time were aware that 25 -- 55 % of the fuel had been damaged, and the threshold for which the term "meltdown '' became appropriate (5 %) had been greatly exceeded. TEPCO President Naomi Hirose told the media: "I would say it was a cover - up... It 's extremely regrettable. ''
The incident was rated 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES). This scale runs from 0, indicating an abnormal situation with no safety consequences, to 7, indicating an accident causing widespread contamination with serious health and environmental effects. Prior to Fukushima, the Chernobyl disaster was the only level 7 event on record, while the Three Mile Island accident was rated as level 5.
A 2012 analysis of the intermediate and long - lived radioactivity released found about 10 -- 20 % of that released from the Chernobyl disaster. Approximately 15 PBq of caesium - 137 was released, compared with approximately 85 PBq of caesium - 137 at Chernobyl, indicating the release of 26.5 kilograms (58 lb) of caesium - 137.
Unlike Chernobyl, all Japanese reactors were in concrete containment vessels, which limited the release of strontium - 90, americium - 241, and plutonium, which were among the radioisotopes released by the earlier incident.
Some 500 PBq of iodine - 131 were released, compared to approximately 1,760 PBq at Chernobyl. Iodine - 131 has a half life of 8.02 days, decaying into a stable nuclide. After ten half lives (80.2 days), 99.9 % has decayed to xenon - 131, a stable isotope.
No deaths followed short - term radiation exposure, though there were a number of deaths in the evacuation of the nearby population, while 15,884 died (as of 10 February 2014) due to the earthquake and tsunami.
Very few cancers would be expected as a result of accumulated radiation exposures, even though people in the area worst affected by Japan 's Fukushima nuclear accident have a slightly higher risk of developing certain cancers such as leukemia, solid cancers, thyroid cancer, and breast cancer.
Estimated effective doses from the accident outside Japan are considered to be below (or far below) the dose levels regarded as very small by the international radiological protection community.
In 2013, WHO reported that area residents who were evacuated were exposed to so little radiation that radiation - induced health effects were likely to be below detectable levels. The health risks were calculated by applying conservative assumptions, including the conservative linear no - threshold model of radiation exposure, a model that assumes even the smallest amount of radiation exposure will cause a negative health effect. The report indicated that for those infants in the most affected areas, lifetime cancer risk would increase by about 1 %. It predicted that populations in the most contaminated areas faced a 70 % higher relative risk of developing thyroid cancer for females exposed as infants, and a 7 % higher relative risk of leukemia in males exposed as infants and a 6 % higher relative risk of breast cancer in females exposed as infants. One - third of involved emergency workers would have increased cancer risks. Cancer risks for fetuses were similar to those in 1 year old infants. The estimated cancer risk to children and adults was lower than infants.
These percentages represent estimated relative increases over the baseline rates and are not absolute risks for developing such cancers. Due to the low baseline rates of thyroid cancer, even a large relative increase represents a small absolute increase in risks. For example, the baseline lifetime risk of thyroid cancer for females is just three - quarters of one percent and the additional lifetime risk estimated in this assessment for a female infant exposed in the most affected location is one - half of one percent.
According to a linear no - threshold model (LNT model), the accident would most likely cause 130 cancer deaths. However, radiation epidemiologist Roy Shore countered that estimating health effects from the LNT model "is not wise because of the uncertainties. '' Darshak Sanghavi noted that to obtain reliable evidence of the effect of low - level radiation would require an impractically large number of patients, Luckey reported that the body 's own repair mechanisms can cope with small doses of radiation and Aurengo stated that "The LNT model can not be used to estimate the effect of very low doses... ''
In April 2014, studies confirmed the presence of radioactive tuna off the coasts of the Pacific U.S. Researchers carried out tests on 26 albacore tuna caught prior to the 2011 power plant disaster and those caught after. However, the amount of radioactivity is less than that found naturally in a single banana. Caesium - 137 and caesium - 134 have been noted in Japanese whiting in Tokyo Bay as of 2016. "Concentration of radiocesium in the Japanese whiting was one or two orders of magnitude higher than that in the sea water, and an order of magnitude lower than that in the sediment. '' They were still within food safety limits.
In June 2016 Tilman Ruff, co-president of the political advocacy group, the "International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War '' argues that 174,000 people have been unable to return to their homes and ecological diversity has decreased and malformations have been found in trees, birds, and mammals.
Five years after the event, the Department of Agriculture from the University of Tokyo (which holds many experimental agricultural research fields around the affected area) has noted that "the fallout was found at the surface of anything exposed to air at the time of the accident. The main radioactive nuclides are now caesium - 137 and caesium - 134 '', but these radioactive compounds have not dispersed much from the point where they landed at the time of the explosion, "which was very difficult to estimate from our understanding of the chemical behavior of cesium ''.
In February 2018 Japan renewed the export of fish caught off Fukushima 's nearshore zone. According to prefecture officials, no seafood had been found with radiation levels exceeding Japan safety standards since April 2015. Thailand is the first country to receive a shipment of fresh fish from Japan 's Fukushima prefecture. A group campaigning to help prevent global warming has demanded the Food and Drug Administration disclose the name of the importer of fish from Fukushima and of the Japanese restaurants in Bangkok serving. Srisuwan Janya, chairman of the Stop Global Warming Association, said the FDA must protect the rights of consumers by ordering restaurants serving Fukushima fish to make that information available to their customers, so they could decide whether to eat it or not.
The World Health Organization stated that a 2013 thyroid ultrasound screening program was, due to the screening effect, likely to lead to an increase in recorded thyroid cases due to early detection of non-symptomatic disease cases. The overwhelming majority of thyroid growths are benign growths that will never cause symptoms, illness, or death, even if nothing is ever done about the growth. Autopsy studies on people who died from other causes show that more than one third of adults technically have a thyroid growth / cancer. As a precedent, in 1999 in South Korea, the introduction of advanced ultrasound thyroid examinations resulted in an explosion in the rate of benign thyroid cancers being detected and needless surgeries occurring. Despite this, the death rate from thyroid cancer has remained the same.
According to the Tenth Report of the Fukushima Prefecture Health Management Survey released in February 2013, more than 40 % of children screened around Fukushima prefecture were diagnosed with thyroid nodules or cysts. Ultrasonographic detectable thyroid nodules and cysts are extremely common and can be found at a frequency of up to 67 % in various studies. 186 (0.5 %) of these had nodules larger than 5.1 mm (0.20 in) and / or cysts larger than 20.1 mm (0.79 in) and underwent further investigation, while none had thyroid cancer. A Russia Today report into the matter was highly misleading. Fukushima Medical University give the number of children diagnosed with thyroid cancer, as of December 2013, as 33 and concluded "it is unlikely that these cancers were caused by the exposure from I - 131 from the nuclear power plant accident in March 2011 ''.
In October 2015, 137 children from the Fukushima Prefecture were described as either being diagnosed with or showing signs of developing thyroid cancer. The study 's lead author Toshihide Tsuda from Okayama University stated that the increased detection could not be accounted for by attributing it to the screening effect. He described the screening results to be "20 times to 50 times what would be normally expected. '' By the end of 2015, the number had increased to 166 children.
However, despite his paper being widely reported by the media, an undermining error, according to teams of other epidemiologists who point out Tsuda 's remarks are fatally wrong, is that Tsuda did an apples and oranges comparison by comparing the Fukushima surveys, which uses advanced ultrasound devices that detect otherwise unnoticeable thyroid growths, with data from traditional non-advanced clinical examinations, to arrive at his "20 to 50 times what would be expected '' conclusion. In the critical words of epidemiologist Richard Wakeford, "It is inappropriate to compare the data from the Fukushima screening program with cancer registry data from the rest of Japan where there is, in general, no such large - scale screening, ''. Wakeford 's criticism was one of seven other author 's letters that were published criticizing Tsuda 's paper. According to Takamura, another epidemiologist, who examined the results of small scale advanced ultrasound tests on Japanese children not near Fukushima, "The prevalence of thyroid cancer (using the same detection technology) does not differ meaningfully from that in Fukushima Prefecture, ''.
In 2016 Ohira et al. conducted a study cross-comparing thyroid cancer patients from Fukushima prefecture evacuees with rates of Thyroid cancer in from those outside of the evacuation zone. Ohira et al. found that "The duration between accident and thyroid examination was not associated with thyroid cancer prevalence. There were no significant associations between individual external doses and prevalence of thyroid cancer. External radiation dose was not associated with thyroid cancer prevalence among Fukushima children within the first 4 years after the nuclear accident... ''
A 2018 publication by Yamashita et al. has also concluded that attribution of Thyroid cancers can also be attributed to the screening effect. They noted that the mean age of the patients at the time of the accident was 10 -- 15 years, while no cases were found in children from the ages of 0 - 5 who would have been most susceptible. Yamashita et al. thus conclude that "In any case, the individual prognosis can not be accurately determined at the time of FNAC at present. It is therefore urgent to search not only for intraoperative and postoperative prognostic factors but also for predictive prognostic factors at the FNAC / preoperative stage. ''
Thyroid cancer is one of the most survivable cancers, with an approximate 94 % survival rate after first diagnosis. That rate increases to a nearly 100 % survival rate if caught early.
Radiation deaths at Chernobyl were also statistically undetectable. Only 0.1 % of the 110,645 Ukraninian cleanup workers, included in a 20 - year study out of over 500,000 former Soviet clean up workers, had as of 2012 developed leukemia, although not all cases resulted from the accident.
Data from Chernobyl showed that there was a steady then sharp increase in thyroid cancer rates following the disaster in 1986, but whether this data can be directly compared to Fukushima is yet to be determined.
Chernobyl thyroid cancer incidence rates did not begin to increase above the prior baseline value of about 0.7 cases per 100,000 people per year until 1989 to 1991, 3 -- 5 years after the incident in both adolescent and child age groups. The rate reached its highest point so far, of about 11 cases per 100,000 in the decade of the 2000s, approximately 14 years after the accident. From 1989 to 2005, an excess of 4,000 children and adolescent cases of thyroid cancer were observed. Nine of these had died as of 2005, a 99 % survival rate.
In the former Soviet Union, many patients with negligible radioactive exposure after the Chernobyl disaster displayed extreme anxiety about radiation exposure. They developed many psychosomatic problems, including radiophobia along with an increase in fatalistic alcoholism. As Japanese health and radiation specialist Shunichi Yamashita noted:
We know from Chernobyl that the psychological consequences are enormous. Life expectancy of the evacuees dropped from 65 to 58 years -- not because of cancer, but because of depression, alcoholism, and suicide. Relocation is not easy, the stress is very big. We must not only track those problems, but also treat them. Otherwise people will feel they are just guinea pigs in our research.
A survey by the Iitate local government obtained responses from approximately 1,743 evacuees within the evacuation zone. The survey showed that many residents are experiencing growing frustration, instability, and an inability to return to their earlier lives. Sixty percent of respondents stated that their health and the health of their families had deteriorated after evacuating, while 39.9 % reported feeling more irritated compared to before the disaster.
Summarizing all responses to questions related to evacuees ' current family status, one - third of all surveyed families live apart from their children, while 50.1 % live away from other family members (including elderly parents) with whom they lived before the disaster. The survey also showed that 34.7 % of the evacuees have suffered salary cuts of 50 % or more since the outbreak of the nuclear disaster. A total of 36.8 % reported a lack of sleep, while 17.9 % reported smoking or drinking more than before they evacuated.
Stress often manifests in physical ailments, including behavioral changes such as poor dietary choices, lack of exercise, and sleep deprivation. Survivors, including some who lost homes, villages, and family members, were found likely to face mental health and physical challenges. Much of the stress came from lack of information and from relocation.
A survey computed that of some 300,000 evacuees, approximately 1,600 deaths related to the evacuation conditions, such as living in temporary housing and hospital closures that had occurred as of August 2013, a number comparable to the 1,599 deaths directly caused by the earthquake and tsunami in the Prefecture. The exact causes of these evacuation related deaths were not specified, because according to the municipalities, that would hinder relatives applying for compensation.
In June 2011, TEPCO stated the amount of contaminated water in the complex had increased due to substantial rainfall. On 13 February 2014, TEPCO reported 37 kBq (1.0 micro curie) of caesium - 134 and 93 kBq (2.5 micro curies) of caesium - 137 were detected per liter of groundwater sampled from a monitoring well. Dust particles gathered 4 km from the reactors in 2017 included microscopic nodules of melted core samples encased in caesium. After decades of exponential decline in ocean caesium from weapons testing fallout, radioactive isotopes of caesium in the Sea of Japan increased after Fukushima from 1.5 mBq / L to about 2.5 mBq / L and are still rising as of 2018, while those just off the western coast of Japan have declined.
According to reinsurer Munich Re, the private insurance industry will not be significantly affected by the disaster. Swiss Re similarly stated, "Coverage for nuclear facilities in Japan excludes earthquake shock, fire following earthquake and tsunami, for both physical damage and liability. Swiss Re believes that the incident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant is unlikely to result in a significant direct loss for the property & casualty insurance industry. ''
The amount of compensation to be paid by TEPCO is expected to reach 7 trillion yen.
Costs to Japanese taxpayers are likely to exceed 12 trillion yen ($100 billion). In December 2016 the government estimated decontamination, compensation, decommissioning, and radioactive waste storage costs at 21.5 trillion yen ($187 billion), nearly double the 2013 estimate.
In March 2017, a Japanese court ruled that negligence by the Japanese government had led to the Fukushima disaster by failing to use its regulatory powers to force TEPCO to take preventive measures. The Maebashi district court near Tokyo awarded ¥ 39 million (US $345,000) to 137 people who were forced to flee their homes following the accident.
By March 2012, one year after the disaster, all but two of Japan 's nuclear reactors had been shut down; some had been damaged by the quake and tsunami. Authority to restart the others after scheduled maintenance throughout the year was given to local governments, who in all cases decided against. According to The Japan Times, the disaster changed the national debate over energy policy almost overnight. "By shattering the government 's long - pitched safety myth about nuclear power, the crisis dramatically raised public awareness about energy use and sparked strong anti-nuclear sentiment ''. An energy white paper, approved by the Japanese Cabinet in October 2011, says "public confidence in safety of nuclear power was greatly damaged '' by the disaster and called for a reduction in the nation 's reliance on nuclear power. It also omitted a section on nuclear power expansion that was in the previous year 's policy review.
Michael Banach, the current Vatican representative to the IAEA, told a conference in Vienna in September 2011 that the disaster created new concerns about the safety of nuclear plants globally. Auxiliary Bishop of Osaka Michael Goro Matsuura said this incident should cause Japan and other countries to abandon nuclear projects. He called on the worldwide Christian community to support this anti-nuclear campaign. Statements from Bishops ' conferences in Korea and the Philippines called on their governments to abandon atomic power. Author Kenzaburō Ōe, who received a Nobel prize in literature, urged Japan to abandon its reactors.
The nuclear plant closest to the epicenter of the earthquake, the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, successfully withstood the cataclysm. According to Reuters it may serve as a "trump card '' for the nuclear lobby, providing evidence that it is possible for a correctly designed and operated nuclear facility to withstand such a cataclysm.
The loss of 30 % of the country 's generating capacity led to much greater reliance on liquified natural gas and coal. Unusual conservation measures were undertaken. In the immediate aftermath, nine prefectures served by TEPCO experienced power rationing. The government asked major companies to reduce power consumption by 15 %, and some shifted their weekends to weekdays to smooth power demand. Converting to a nuclear - free gas and oil energy economy would cost tens of billions of dollars in annual fees. One estimate is that even including the disaster, more lives would have been lost if Japan had used coal or gas plants instead of nuclear.
Many political activists have begun calling for a phase - out of nuclear power in Japan, including Amory Lovins, who claimed, "Japan is poor in fuels, but is the richest of all major industrial countries in renewable energy that can meet the entire long - term energy needs of an energy - efficient Japan, at lower cost and risk than current plans. Japanese industry can do it faster than anyone -- if Japanese policymakers acknowledge and allow it ''. Benjamin K. Sovacool asserted that Japan could have exploited instead its renewable energy base. Japan has a total of "324 GW of achievable potential in the form of onshore and offshore wind turbines (222 GW), geothermal power plants (70 GW), additional hydroelectric capacity (26.5 GW), solar energy (4.8 GW) and agricultural residue (1.1 GW). ''
In contrast, others have said that the zero mortality rate from the Fukushima incident confirms their opinion that nuclear fission is the only viable option available to replace fossil fuels. Journalist George Monbiot wrote "Why Fukushima made me stop worrying and love nuclear power. '' In it he said, "As a result of the disaster at Fukushima, I am no longer nuclear - neutral. I now support the technology. '' He continued, "A crappy old plant with inadequate safety features was hit by a monster earthquake and a vast tsunami. The electricity supply failed, knocking out the cooling system. The reactors began to explode and melt down. The disaster exposed a familiar legacy of poor design and corner - cutting. Yet, as far as we know, no one has yet received a lethal dose of radiation. '' Responses to Monbiot noted his "false calculation that (nuclear powered electricity) is needed, that it can work economically, and that it can solve its horrific waste, decommissioning and proliferation - security pitfalls... (along with human) safety, health and indeed human psychology issues. ''
In September 2011, Mycle Schneider said that the disaster can be understood as a unique chance "to get it right '' on energy policy. "Germany -- with its nuclear phase - out decision based on a renewable energy program -- and Japan -- having suffered a painful shock but possessing unique technical capacities and societal discipline -- can be at the forefront of an authentic paradigm shift toward a truly sustainable, low - carbon and nuclear - free energy policy. ''
On the other hand, climate and energy scientists James Hansen, Ken Caldeira, Kerry Emanuel, and Tom Wigley released an open letter calling on world leaders to support development of safer nuclear power systems, stating "There is no credible path to climate stabilization that does not include a substantial role for nuclear power. '' In December 2014, an open letter from 75 climate and energy scientists on the website of pro-nuclear advocate Barry Brook asserted "nuclear power has lowest impact on wildlife and ecosystems -- which is what we need given the dire state of the world 's biodiversity. '' Brook 's advocacy for nuclear power has been challenged by opponents of nuclear industries, including environmentalist Jim Green of Friends of the Earth. Brook has described the Australian Greens political party (SA Branch) and Australian Youth Climate Coalition as "sad '' and "increasingly irrelevant '' after they expressed their opposition to nuclear industrial development.
As of September 2011, Japan planned to build a pilot offshore floating wind farm, with six 2 MW turbines, off the Fukushima coast. The first became operational in November 2013. After the evaluation phase is complete in 2016, "Japan plans to build as many as 80 floating wind turbines off Fukushima by 2020. '' In 2012, Prime Minister Kan said the disaster made it clear to him that "Japan needs to dramatically reduce its dependence on nuclear power, which supplied 30 % of its electricity before the crisis, and has turned him into a believer of renewable energy ''. Sales of solar panels in Japan rose 30.7 % to 1,296 MW in 2011, helped by a government scheme to promote renewable energy. Canadian Solar received financing for its plans to build a factory in Japan with capacity of 150 MW, scheduled to begin production in 2014.
As of September 2012, the Los Angeles Times reported that "Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda acknowledged that the vast majority of Japanese support the zero option on nuclear power '', and Prime Minister Noda and the Japanese government announced plans to make the country nuclear - free by the 2030s. They announced the end to construction of nuclear power plants and a 40 - year limit on existing nuclear plants. Nuclear plant restarts must meet safety standards of the new independent regulatory authority. The plan requires investing $500 billion over 20 years.
On 16 December 2012, Japan held its general election. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) had a clear victory, with Shinzō Abe as the new Prime Minister. Abe supported nuclear power, saying that leaving the plants closed was costing the country 4 trillion yen per year in higher costs. The comment came after Junichiro Koizumi, who chose Abe to succeed him as premier, made a recent statement to urge the government to take a stance against using nuclear power. A survey on local mayors by the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper in January 2013 found that most of them from cities hosting nuclear plants would agree to restarting the reactors, provided the government could guarantee their safety. More than 30,000 people marched on 2 June 2013, in Tokyo against restarting nuclear power plants. Marchers had gathered more than 8 million petition signatures opposing nuclear power.
In October 2013, it was reported that TEPCO and eight other Japanese power companies were paying approximately 3.6 trillion yen (37 billion dollars) more in combined imported fossil fuel costs compared to 2010, before the accident, to make up for the missing power.
From 2016 to 2018 the nation fired up at least eight new coal power plants, plans for an additional 36 coal stations over the next decade are the biggest planned coal power expansion in any developed nation. The new national energy plan that would have coal provide 26 % of Japan 's electricity in 2030, presents the abandoning of a previous goal of reducing coal 's share to 10 %. The coal revival is seen as having alarming implications for air pollution and Japan 's ability to meet its pledges to cut greenhouse gases by 80 % by 2050.
A number of nuclear reactor safety system lessons emerged from the incident. The most obvious was that in tsunami - prone areas, a power station 's sea wall must be adequately tall and robust. At the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, closer to the epicenter of 11 March earthquake and tsunami, the sea wall was 14 meters (46 ft) tall and successfully withstood the tsunami, preventing serious damage and radioactivity releases.
Nuclear power station operators around the world began to install Passive Autocatalytic hydrogen Recombiners ("PARs ''), which do not require electricity to operate. PARs work much like the catalytic converter on the exhaust of a car to turn potentially explosive gases such as hydrogen into water. Had such devices been positioned at the top of Fukushima I 's reactor buildings, where hydrogen gas collected, the explosions would not have occurred and the releases of radioactive isotopes would arguably have been much less.
Unpowered filtering systems on containment building vent lines, known as Filtered Containment Venting Systems (FCVS), can safely catch radioactive materials and thereby allow reactor core de-pressurization, with steam and hydrogen venting with minimal radioactivity emissions. Filtration using an external water tank system is the most common established system in European countries, with the water tank positioned outside the containment building. In October 2013, the owners of Kashiwazaki - Kariwa nuclear power station began installing wet filters and other safety systems, with completion anticipated in 2014.
For generation II reactors located in flood or tsunami prone areas, a 3 + day supply of back - up batteries has become an informal industry standard. Another change is to harden the location of back - up diesel generator rooms with water - tight, blast - resistant doors and heat sinks, similar to those used by nuclear submarines. The oldest operating nuclear power station in the world, Beznau, which has been operating since 1969, has a ' Notstand ' hardened building designed to support all of its systems independently for 72 hours in the event of an earthquake or severe flooding. This system was built prior to Fukushima Daiichi.
Upon a station blackout, similar to the one that occurred after Fukushima 's back - up battery supply was exhausted, many constructed Generation III reactors adopt the principle of passive nuclear safety. They take advantage of convection (hot water tends to rise) and gravity (water tends to fall) to ensure an adequate supply of cooling water to handle the decay heat, without the use of pumps.
As the crisis unfolded, the Japanese government sent a request for robots developed by the U.S. military. The robots went into the plants and took pictures to help assess the situation, but they could n't perform the full range of tasks usually carried out by human workers. The Fukushima disaster illustrated that robots lacked sufficient dexterity and robustness to perform critical tasks. In response to this shortcoming, a series of competitions were hosted by DARPA to accelerate the development of humanoid robots that could supplement relief efforts. Eventually a wide variety of specially designed robots were employed (leading to a robotics boom in the region), but as of early 2016 three of them had promptly become non-functional due to the intensity of the radioactivity; one was destroyed within a day.
Japanese authorities later admitted to lax standards and poor oversight. They took fire for their handling of the emergency and engaged in a pattern of withholding and denying damaging information. Authorities allegedly wanted to "limit the size of costly and disruptive evacuations in land - scarce Japan and to avoid public questioning of the politically powerful nuclear industry ''. Public anger emerged over an "official campaign to play down the scope of the accident and the potential health risks ''.
In many cases, the Japanese government 's reaction was judged to be less than adequate by many in Japan, especially those who were living in the region. Decontamination equipment was slow to be made available and then slow to be utilized. As late as June 2011, even rainfall continued to cause fear and uncertainty in eastern Japan because of its possibility of washing radioactivity from the sky back to earth.
To assuage fears, the government enacted an order to decontaminate over a hundred areas with a level contamination greater than or equivalent to one millisievert of radiation. This is a much lower threshold than is necessary for protecting health. The government also sought to address the lack of education on the effects of radiation and the extent to which the average person was exposed.
Previously a proponent of building more reactors, Kan took an increasingly anti-nuclear stance following the disaster. In May 2011, he ordered the aging Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plant closed over earthquake and tsunami concerns, and said he would freeze building plans. In July 2011, Kan said, "Japan should reduce and eventually eliminate its dependence on nuclear energy ''. In October 2013, he said that if the worst - case scenario had been realized, 50 million people within a 250 - kilometer (160 mi) radius would have had to evacuate.
On 22 August 2011, a government spokesman mentioned the possibility that some areas around the plant "could stay for some decades a forbidden zone ''. According to Yomiuri Shimbun the Japanese government was planning to buy some properties from civilians to store waste and materials that had become radioactive after the accidents. Chiaki Takahashi, Japan 's foreign minister, criticized foreign media reports as excessive. He added that he could "understand the concerns of foreign countries over recent developments at the nuclear plant, including the radioactive contamination of seawater ''.
Due to frustration with TEPCO and the Japanese government "providing differing, confusing, and at times contradictory, information on critical health issues '' a citizen 's group called "Safecast '' recorded detailed radiation level data in Japan. The Japanese government "does not consider nongovernment readings to be authentic ''. The group uses off - the - shelf Geiger counter equipment. A simple Geiger counter is a contamination meter and not a dose rate meter. The response differs too much between different radioisotopes to permit a simple GM tube for dose rate measurements when more than one radioisotope is present. A thin metal shield is needed around a GM tube to provide energy compensation to enable it to be used for dose rate measurements. For gamma emitters either an ionization chamber, a gamma spectrometer or an energy compensated GM tube are required. Members of the Air Monitoring station facility at the Department of Nuclear Engineering at the University of Berkeley, California have tested many environmental samples in Northern California.
In 2014 Japan enacted the State Secrecy Law. The Fukushima incident falls under this law and, as a "state secret '', independent investigations and reports are forbidden by law.
The international reaction to the disaster was diverse and widespread. Many inter-governmental agencies immediately offered help, often on an ad hoc basis. Responders included IAEA, World Meteorological Organization and the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization.
In May 2011, UK chief inspector of nuclear installations Mike Weightman traveled to Japan as the lead of an International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) expert mission. The main finding of this mission, as reported to the IAEA ministerial conference that month, was that risks associated with tsunamis in several sites in Japan had been underestimated.
In September 2011, IAEA Director General Yukiya Amano said the Japanese nuclear disaster "caused deep public anxiety throughout the world and damaged confidence in nuclear power ''. Following the disaster, it was reported in The Economist that the IAEA halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.
In the aftermath, Germany accelerated plans to close its nuclear power reactors and decided to phase the rest out by 2022. Italy held a national referendum, in which 94 percent voted against the government 's plan to build new nuclear power plants. In France, President Hollande announced the intention of the government to reduce nuclear usage by one third. So far, however, the government has only earmarked one power station for closure -- the aging plant at Fessenheim on the German border -- which prompted some to question the government 's commitment to Hollande 's promise. Industry Minister Arnaud Montebourg is on record as saying that Fessenheim will be the only nuclear power station to close.
On a visit to China in December 2014 he reassured his audience that nuclear energy was a "sector of the future '' and would continue to contribute "at least 50 % '' of France 's electricity output.
Another member of Hollande 's Socialist Party, the MP Christian Bataille, says the plan to curb nuclear was hatched as a way of securing the backing of his Green coalition partners in parliament.
Nuclear power plans were not abandoned in Malaysia, the Philippines, Kuwait, and Bahrain, or radically changed, as in Taiwan. China suspended its nuclear development program briefly, but restarted it shortly afterwards. The initial plan had been to increase the nuclear contribution from 2 to 4 percent of electricity by 2020, with an escalating program after that. Renewable energy supplies 17 percent of China 's electricity, 16 % of which is hydroelectricity. China plans to triple its nuclear energy output to 2020, and triple it again between 2020 and 2030.
New nuclear projects were proceeding in some countries. KPMG reports 653 new nuclear facilities planned or proposed for completion by 2030. By 2050, China hopes to have 400 -- 500 gigawatts of nuclear capacity -- 100 times more than it has now. The Conservative Government of the United Kingdom is planning a major nuclear expansion despite widespread public objection. So is Russia. India are also pressing ahead with a large nuclear program, as is South Korea. Indian Vice President M Hamid Ansari said in 2012 that "nuclear energy is the only option '' for expanding India 's energy supplies, and Prime Minister Modi announced in 2014 that India intended to build 10 more nuclear reactors in a collaboration with Russia.
Three investigations into the Fukushima disaster showed the man - made nature of the catastrophe and its roots in regulatory capture associated with a "network of corruption, collusion, and nepotism. '' Regulatory capture refers to the "situation where regulators charged with promoting the public interest defer to the wishes and advance the agenda of the industry or sector they ostensibly regulate. '' Those with a vested interest in specific policy or regulatory outcomes lobby regulators and influence their choices and actions. Regulatory capture explains why some of the risks of operating nuclear power reactors in Japan were systematically downplayed and mismanaged so as to compromise operational safety.
Many reports say that the government shares blame with the regulatory agency for not heeding warnings and for not ensuring the independence of the oversight function. The New York Times said that the Japanese nuclear regulatory system sided with and promoted the nuclear industry because of amakudari (' descent from heaven ') in which senior regulators accepted high paying jobs at companies they once oversaw. To protect their potential future position in the industry, regulators sought to avoid taking positions that upset or embarrass the companies. TEPCO 's position as the largest electrical utility in Japan made it the most desirable position for retiring regulators. Typically the "most senior officials went to work at TEPCO, while those of lower ranks ended up at smaller utilities. ''
In August 2011, several top energy officials were fired by the Japanese government; affected positions included the Vice-minister for Economy, Trade and Industry; the head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, and the head of the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy.
In 2016 three former TEPCO executives, chairman Tsunehisa Katsumata and two vice presidents, were indicted for negligence resulting in death and injury. In June 2017 the first hearing took place, in which the three pleaded not guilty to professional negligence resulting in death and injury.
The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) was the first independent investigation commission by the National Diet in the 66 - year history of Japan 's constitutional government.
Fukushima "can not be regarded as a natural disaster, '' the NAIIC panel 's chairman, Tokyo University professor emeritus Kiyoshi Kurokawa, wrote in the inquiry report. "It was a profoundly man - made disaster -- that could and should have been foreseen and prevented. And its effects could have been mitigated by a more effective human response. '' "Governments, regulatory authorities and Tokyo Electric Power (TEPCO) lacked a sense of responsibility to protect people 's lives and society, '' the Commission said. "They effectively betrayed the nation 's right to be safe from nuclear accidents.
The Commission recognized that the affected residents were still struggling and facing grave concerns, including the "health effects of radiation exposure, displacement, the dissolution of families, disruption of their lives and lifestyles and the contamination of vast areas of the environment ''.
The purpose of the Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations (ICANPS) was to identify the disaster 's causes and propose policies designed to minimize the damage and prevent the recurrence of similar incidents. The 10 member, government - appointed panel included scholars, journalists, lawyers, and engineers. It was supported by public prosecutors and government experts. and released its final, 448 - page investigation report on 23 July 2012.
The panel 's report faulted an inadequate legal system for nuclear crisis management, a crisis - command disarray caused by the government and TEPCO, and possible excess meddling on the part of the Prime Minister 's office in the crisis ' early stage. The panel concluded that a culture of complacency about nuclear safety and poor crisis management led to the nuclear disaster.
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who sings burn it down with linkin park | Burn It Down (Linkin Park song) - wikipedia
"Burn It Down '' is a song by American rock band Linkin Park. The song was released to radio stations, as well as a digital download, on April 16, 2012, as the lead single from their fifth studio album Living Things. The song was written by the band and produced by co-lead vocalist Mike Shinoda and Rick Rubin, who co-produced the band 's studio albums Minutes to Midnight (2007) and A Thousand Suns (2010). A music video for the song was directed by Linkin Park turntablist Joe Hahn. As of February 13, 2013, "Burn It Down '' had sold over one million copies in the United States, making it their eighth million selling single.
The song 's working title was "Buried at Sea '' and was recorded in February 2012, as revealed by numerous LPTVs (behind - the - scenes footage) released in April and May 2012. Lead singer Chester Bennington talked about the song in an interview with MTV, saying what made the song interesting was "the really high energy and the really strong electronic melodies and hooks kind of set this song apart, which is why we chose it as our first single. '' Mike Shinoda, the band 's rapper and producer, noted that the song 's meaning can be open to numerous interpretations, with an example being "what we do in pop culture, where we build somebody up to be the next great thing and then we just like to destroy them at the end of the day, and we 've lived through that, so I think there 's a lot of personal energy that went into the connection of that story. '' In an interview with The Huffington Post, Shinoda clarified that his explanation of "Burn It Down '' was based on the band 's personal experiences, saying:
... We 're talking about my personal story and his personal story, and there 's also a layer of pop culture that plays a role in the lyrics of the song. For example, people build up a certain celebrity or musician or actor or whatever and they 're popular one minute and the next thing, you know either they 've done something wrong or they 've done nothing wrong and there 's just a bad rumor that goes around about them and then everybody 's attacking that person. That 's just the way things are. We 've actually lived through that as a band. All that stuff plays a role.
On March 28, 2012, Shinoda confirmed that the first single for Living Things would be "Burn It Down ''. On April 5, 2012, the band released a series of sliding puzzles at the band 's official website to unlock snippets of the song. The last puzzle was completed on April 11, 2012, revealing the cover art. Another game was released, in which the snippets of the song were finally unveiled. A 30 - second preview of the song was released by radio station SONiC 102.9. The song premiered on numerous modern rock radio stations. The band teamed up with the Lotus F1 team to create a musical racing iPad app entitled Linkin Park GP, where players drive a Lotus E20 and interact with an environment that allows the player to create a remix of "Burn It Down '', as well as zooming into individual sections of the song. Linkin Park GP was released on May 24, 2012. On September 4, 2012, "Burn It Down '', along with "Breaking the Habit '', "Shadow of the Day '', and "New Divide '', were released in the "Linkin Park Pack 02 '' as downloadable content for the music rhythm video game, Rock Band 3.
In June 2015, Nintendo of America released the video for "Burn it Down '' in 3D as one of the final batch of videos in the Nintendo Video 3DS application.
The band performed the single for the very first time at Third Encore Rehearsal Studios in Burbank, California on May 16, 2012, to an audience who won passes from radio station KROQ. The band performed the single at numerous award shows, namely: the 2012 Billboard Music Awards at the MGM Grand Las Vegas, TV total Autoball at the Lanxess Arena in Cologne, Germany,. the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards Japan at the Makuhari Messe, and the American Music Awards of 2012 at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles. "Burn It Down '' was also included in the set list of the 11th Annual Honda Civic Tour (2012), where the band 's performance of the song was accompanied by pyrotechnics.
"Burn It Down '' received generally positive reviews from numerous professional critics. Praise was directed towards Bennington 's vocals, while criticism was pointed to the song 's lyrics. Nick Catucci from Rolling Stone described Bennington 's verses as his "prettiest ever '' and concluded that the song "leaves open the option of just dancing the night away. '' He believed that the song is one of the band 's best singles. According to Chris Martins of Spin, "Burn It Down '' is "seared but still high - sheen slab of cross-pollinated pop driven by four - on - the - floor pump and the pulse of guitars and synths irreparably fused together. '' Rick Florino of Artistdirect hailed "Burn It Down '' as "one of the most incendiary tracks of 2012, '' awarding the song with a perfect five stars. Anne Erickson of Loudwire praised Bennington and Shinoda 's vocals, commenting that the song is "packed with subdued rhythms, riffs and raps, draped in a sea of atmospheric electronics. '' AOL Radio listed "Burn It Down '' as the best rock song and the second best alternative song of 2012, defining "Burn It Down '' as "the perfect example of how Linkin Park has been able to stay relevant and become one of the most popular rock bands of today. ''
Andrew Unterberger of Popdust felt mixed towards the song, commended Bennington 's vocals, while criticizing Shinoda 's raps and the song 's lyrics. Tim Grierson of About.com noted that the song "enrapture (s) the ear... but the words are n't nearly as captivating, dealing in a familiar love - as - Armageddon conceit. '' Genevieve Koski and Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club were both negative towards "Burn It Down '', in which Koski said that the song "amplifies its mediocrity with its preening self - importance '' and "seems to be competing for some sort of award for Vaguest Lyrics. '' Jeff Sorensen, writing for The Huffington Post, thought that the song 's lyrical content was "like they were flipping through a dictionary and put crappy drop D guitar riffs to it. ''
The music video was directed by Joe Hahn, the band 's turntablist. Filming for the video commenced on March 28, 2012. Warner Bros. Records announced that a lyric video would also premiere on April 15. It was released through YouTube. Bennington described the music video 's set as an "electronic pod, full of wires and cables, '' as well as stating that the video features numerous visual effects. Bennington also noted the video 's similarity to their live performances, saying "we 're really trying to capture a live kind of element with the band just playing just very similar to how we would perform live. '' Bennington noted that Hahn pushed the group in making the video -- "And, for whatever reason, I usually get it the worst. I 've almost drowned, I had all this powder thrown in my face... On this new one, I was sweating like crazy. It was intense. '' "Burn It Down '' was used in the promotional teaser for the 2012 NBA Playoffs on TNT, featuring previews of the music video. The music video premiered on May 24, 2012 on MTV. The music video was nominated for the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards in two categories for the Best Rock Video and Best Visual Effects. The video peaked at Vh1 India 's top 50 videos of 2012 at # 5. "Burn It Down '' 's video was also ranked 11th of the Top 40 Music Videos Of 2012 by Fuse.
The music video of "Burn It Down '' received critical acclaim. Perri Tomkiewicz of Billboard praised the music video of "Burn It Down '' as "simple yet striking... (it) displays the group 's new electro influences without relinquishing their long - standing and rebellious rock roots. '' Mark Graham of VH1 compared the video to the band 's previous music video for "Waiting for the End '', as well as "the undeniable combination of the organic and the mechanical present in the setting in which the band performs '' of the film Alien. James Montgomery of MTV noticed the band was "pushed to the absolute limit... to the point where, when the band bursts into flames at the end, you ca n't help wondering if they did n't just spontaneously combust. '' Marc Hogan of Spin noted that the video "soundtracks an emotion - wracked live performance accompanied by -- you guessed it -- fiery visual effects. '' Chad Childers of Loudwire described the video as "a not - so - standard performance piece with the band members in a sweltering room seemingly filled with light and energy that only intensifies as the video progresses. '' David Greenwald of MTV echoed similar comments, calling it a "darker, industrial offering, with trippy sci - fi special effects and a Matrix - y all - black wardrobe palette. ''
Linkin Park, Warner Bros. Records and Genero held a contest in which fans can create their own music video of "Burn It Down ''. The winner chosen by the band and Warner Bros. will receive $5,000 and the winning video will premiere on MTV worldwide. On August 7, the overall winner, Jem Garrard, was chosen by Genero, the band, and Warner Bros.; the other finalists were: Pauline Goasmat, Tomato22, iVideoMaking, Supers4upen, RiKYaN, TKJAC, A Strike to Burn Productions, JPKaukonen, Little Earth, Alexander_Oph, and Dackant.
"Burn It Down '' debuted at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100, selling 115,000 downloads in its first week. The song slid down to number 62 the following week on the US Billboard Hot 100. It stayed on the chart for 23 weeks. The song debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart in its first week and number 2 on the Rock Songs chart. The song peaked at number 1 on the US "Alternative Songs '' chart as well as the US rock songs and US mainstream rock songs chart becoming their second song after "New Divide '' to do so. The song reached its million sales mark in the US in December 2012, and as of June 2014, it has sold 1,297,000 copies in the US.
In Poland, "Burn It Down '' peaked also at number 1 and in Germany, it peaked at number 2, becoming their most successful song in these countries. It is also their first single to chart in France since "Shadow of the Day '' peaked at number 20.
All tracks written by Linkin Park.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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the bride comes to yellow sky stephen crane summary | The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky - wikipedia
"The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky '' is an 1898 western short story by American author Stephen Crane (1871 -- 1900). Originally published in McClure 's Magazine, it was written in England. The story 's protagonist is a Texas marshal named Jack Potter, who is returning to the town of Yellow Sky with his eastern bride. Potter 's nemesis, the gunslinger Scratchy Wilson, drunkenly plans to accost the sheriff after he disembarks the train, but he changes his mind upon seeing the unarmed man with his bride.
The short story inspired a 1967 opera of the same name by Roger Nixon, and the 1952 film Face to Face.
Stephen Crane was an American author born on November 1, 1871 in Newark, New Jersey who passed away on June 5, 1900 from tuberculosis. At the time of his death he was living in Germany. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "He is known for being a novelist, poet, and short - story writer, best known for his novels Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) and The Red Badge of Courage (1895) and the short stories "The Open Boat, '' "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky, '' and "The Blue Hotel. ''
The short story opens in a parlor car of a train traveling westward from San Antonio towards a late - nineteenth - century Texas town named Yellow Sky. In this section a couple of characters are introduced - Jack Potter, and his bride. Newly married in San Antonio, "They were evidently very happy ''. Be particularly aware of how the narrator describes the bride. "The bride was not pretty, nor was she very young. She wore a dress of blue cashmere, with small reservations of velvet here and there, and with steel blue buttons abounding ''. Jack Potter is then described briefly as the Marshal of Yellow Sky. He is "... a man known, liked, and feared in his corner, a prominent person... ''. Further into chapter one, Potter is getting more and more anxious while approaching his town. "In San Antonio he was a man hidden in the dark. A knife to sever any friendly duty, any form, was easy to his hand in that remote city. But the hour of Yellow Sky - the hour of daylight - was approaching ''. The section ends with Potter and his wife stepping off the train and fleeing the scene.
Section two begins in the setting of a bar in Yellow Sky called the Weary Gentlemen saloon. It introduces a few more characters in the first couple sentences. "One was a drummer, who talked a great deal and rapidly; three were Texans who did not care to talk at the time; and two were Mexican sheep - herders, who did not talk as a general practice in the Weary Gentlemen saloon ''. In the fourth paragraph a young man appears in the doorway of the saloon and says "Scratchy Wilson 's drunk, and has turned loose with both hands ''. The drummer is n't aware of who Scratchy Wilson is, but when the barkeeper closes the shutters and locks the door, the drummer begins asking the barkeeper questions. The barkeeper answers his questions by stating "You see, this here Scratchy Wilson is a wonder with a gun - a perfect wonder; and when he goes on the war trail, we hunt our holes - naturally. He 's about the last one of the old gang that used to hang out along the river here. He 's a terror when he 's drunk. When he 's sober he 's all right - kind of simple - would n't hurt a fly - nicest fellow in town. But when he 's drunk - whoo! ''. The plot of the second section is to add some rising suspense for chapter three when Scratchy Wilson appears.
This section is solely about Scratchy Wilson. "A man in a maroon - colored flannel shirt '' and childlike red and gold boots is walking up the main street of Yellow Sky carrying a revolver. He is yelling throughout the town with a voice "that seemed to have no relation to the ordinary vocal strength of a man ''. This man is the drunk Scratchy Wilson, and he is in search of a fight. When Scratchy approaches the door to the saloon, he comes into contact with the bartender 's dog. The dog starts to walk away from Scratchy, he yells at it, and it starts to sprint. He starts shooting at the dog, missing both times but forcing the dog to flee in a new direction. He now turns his attention to the saloon door and pounds on it with his revolver demanding to be served a drink. He becomes infuriated, no one is letting him in, so he stabs some paper to the door and shoots at it. While walking back down the main street, the name Jack Potter comes to Scratchy 's mind. He goes to the house of his "ancient antagonist '' and demands he come out and fight, becoming more and more enraged that Sheriff Potter is not answering him.
Sheriff Jack Potter and his bride walk around the corner to his house. There, they come face to face with Scratchy Wilson; reloading his revolver. He sees the Sheriff, drops his gun and pulls a fresh one from his holster. Scratchy believes that Jack going to attack him from behind. Sheriff Potter informs Scratchy that he was unarmed and would not be fighting him tonight. Being from the old west where everyone carries a gun, Scratchy does not believe Jack has no gun with him. The Sheriff tells him that he does not have his weapon because he was just married in San Antonio. Scratchy, in disbelief, sees Jack 's new wife standing next to him on the street and instantly breaks his rage. He sinks his head and walks away leaving the bride and groom in peace.
The short story "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky '' is written to show the vast incline of society for the West. Paul Sorrentino, a published essay writer, wrote about the correlation between the name Jack Potter and a political figure for Texas named Robert Potter. Robert Potter signed the Texas Declaration of Independence. "In 1888 Archibald Clavering Gunter combined the exploits of various Potters from Texas in his enormously best selling novel Mr. Potter from Texas, a romantic adventure about a Mr. Sampson Potter, the stereotypical rugged frontiersman with the cliched heart of gold, who had been a ranger, Congressman, cattleman, and sheriff... ''. "By the time that Crane wrote "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky '' in 1897 about a Texas marshal named Jack Potter, the names Potter and Texas Jack were legendary symbols of the self - made frontiersman who helped pave the west for the advance of civilization. From Scratchy Wilson 's point of view, however, this advancement had not yet occurred ''.
"The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky '' is written in a third - person omniscient point of view with an omniscient narrator. "The narrator is "all - knowing '' and "can move from place to place... slipping into and out of characters ''. We as readers only follow a handful of characters and are always told what they say; never hearing their internal dialogue. We also get back stories of certain things that only an omnipotent narrator could know, "... Maroon - colored flannel shirt, which had been purchased for purpose of decoration, and made principally by some Jewish woman on the east side of New York ''.
"Well, I ' low it 's off Jack, '' said Wilson. He was looking at the ground. "Married! '' He was not a student of chivalry; it was merely that in the presence of this foreign condition he was a simple child on the earlier plains. He picked up his starboard revolver, and, placing both weapons in their holsters, he went away. His feet made funnel - shaped tracks in the heavy sand.
Meyers calls theme "the central idea or meaning of a story. It provides a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols, and other elements of the story are organized. '' The theme of "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky '' is "the dying of the sentimentalized West with the encroachment of the lifestyle of the civilized East ''. The old west that once was is fading and very little is left. Scratchy Wilson is a leftover of that time. He was once a member of a wild west gang; now he is just a childlike drunk residing outside of town. Moreover, even though Scratchy is a symbol of a bygone era, he has been changed. He wears clothing from "some Jewish woman on the East Side of New York '' and boots that were "beloved in winter by little sledding boys ''. These items that he wears are not things you would find in Texas; they were likely brought in by salesmen or drummers into the town from the East. Scratchy is but a child and when faced with change that he is not ready for, he cowers back to his home with his head sunken.
The story takes place in three main locations in the late 1800s: the train, the Weary Gentleman saloon, and outside Sheriff Jack Potter 's house. The train and saloon help to set the period. A time where trains are a major form of transportation and in Yellow Sky 's case, one of the only ways to get there. The saloon acts as a way to give insight and backstory to the two main characters, Jack and Scratchy. We get a perspective on the two from side characters in the story. The Sheriff 's house, an immovable object in Scratchy 's warpath, is the final scene of the story. Presently there came the spectacle of a madman churning himself into deepest rage over the immobility of a house. He fumed at it as the winter wind attacks a prairie cabin in the North. To the distance, there should have gone the sound of a tumult like the fighting of two hundred Mexicans. As necessity bade him, he paused for breath or to reload his revolvers.
Crane uses a vast amount of imagery in the story, for example; "... Crane used nautical imagery in "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky '' as a visual reminder of this westward movement. In the passenger - car with its "sea - green figured velvet '', a waiter, like a "pilot, '' is "steering (Potter and his bride) through their meal ''. Contemplating the best way to sneak into Yellow Sky undetected, Potter envisions himself as a boat, "a plains - craft '' - to use a phrase invented by Crane. In the past, when Scratchy terrorized the town, Potter "would sail in and pull out all the kinks in this thing '', though this time the boat - like Potter encounters resistance as he and his bride, like two boat sails, "put forth the efforts of a pair walking bowed against a strong wind ''. Confronted with the stormy Scratchy, the bride becomes a "drowning woman '' and Potter, despite attempts to maintain his course of direction, is "stiffening and steadying '' while "a vision of the Pullman floated '' in his mind as a symbol of his new condition. After Scratchy reluctantly accepts the end of the childlike drama that he and the marshal have repeatedly enacted in the past, he picks up his "starboard revolver '', "his throat (working) like a pump '' of a steamboat, and drifts away, his feet creating the "funnel - shaped tracks '' that form the wake of a boat symbolizing the funeral wake commemorating the passing of the frontier ''.
p. 143 - 144.
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what did boomer do to get into wentworth | List of Wentworth characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from the Australian television series Wentworth. The series follow the lives of the inmates and officers at Wentworth Correctional Centre.
Bea Smith (Danielle Cormack) (seasons 1 - 4) came to be an inmate after attempting to murder her husband, Harry, after she had endured years of domestic violence. After entering the facility she is coveted by both Franky Doyle and Jacs Holt in their fight for "Top Dog '' of the prison. Bea struggles adjusting to her new life in prison as well as trying to keep up with her daughter, Debbie, and her husband while they are on the outside world. After Bea 's daughter is murdered on the order of Jacs Holt, Bea kills her by jabbing a pen into her neck and is charged with manslaughter. After believing that Debbie committed suicide, it is later revealed to Bea that Debbie was murdered by Brayden Holt, Jacs ' son. Hellbent on revenge, Bea concocts a plan to escape Wentworth and kill Brayden for killing Debbie. After a bloody fight with Franky, Bea slices her own wrists, as sliced wrists can not be cuffed, and is transferred to hospital where she escapes after being treated. Bea finds Brayden and holds him hostage in his mechanic shop where she gets him to confess to killing Debbie, after which she kills him. Bea is charged with murder and returns to Wentworth as the new "Top Dog ''. She maintains a tough anti-drug trafficking policy with inmates. During a fire started by Ferguson, after killing Jess, Bea saves Doreen 's baby and Franky. Bea is serving life without parole. Loneliness, the loss of Debbie and the stress of being "Top Dog '' over time takes its toll on Bea. Season four widely focuses on Bea discovering a side of herself she never believed to be there after falling in love with new - inmate Allie Novak. In the finale of season 4, Bea believes Allie to be dead after she was given a hotshot (a lethal amount of illicit drugs) by Joan Ferguson. As Joan is walking out of the prison following her release, Bea confronts her with a screwdriver. After a struggle ensues between the two, Joan gains control of the screwdriver and Bea impales herself onto it 13 times, ensuring that Joan can not be released from Wentworth and will be forced to remain in custody until her trial. Cormack left the show and Bea died at the end of the scuffle from blood loss.
Francesca "Franky '' Doyle (Nicole da Silva) (seasons 1 -- present) is an inmate at Wentworth Correctional Centre. Franky was sent to Wentworth after she was charged with assault for throwing boiling oil on a television presenter of a cooking show that she was participating on for criticising her food. Franky is a lesbian who has had relationships with some of the inmates and staff at Wentworth. Franky has been paroled and is in a relationship with forensic psychologist, Bridget Westfall.
Vera Bennett (Kate Atkinson) (seasons 1 -- present) is the Deputy Governor at Wentworth Correctional Centre. Vera is shown as a timid and shy individual who has difficulty forming friendships and relationships due to having to take care of her mother. Rather than confiding in her colleagues about her mother, Vera lies about having a boyfriend named Adam. Vera forms a relationship with her co-worker, Matthew "Fletch '' Fletcher, however their relationship ends after Vera reads Fletch 's journal. In season 2, Vera becomes the protege of Governor, Joan Ferguson where she changes her personality into one that is much stronger and not so much of a shy pushover. In the season 4 premiere, Vera is appointed the new Prison Governor of Wentworth after Joan is charged with the murder of former inmate, Jess Warner and is remanded in custody awaiting sentencing.
Doreen Anderson (Shareena Clanton) (seasons 1 - 5) is an inmate at Wentworth Correctional Centre. Doreen was charged with reckless endangerment for losing her unborn baby after having a car accident due to heavily drinking and drug use.
Elizabeth "Liz '' Birdsworth (Celia Ireland) (seasons 1 -- present) is an inmate at Wentworth Correctional Centre. Liz is a recovering alcoholic, who was first sent to Wentworth for the manslaughter of her mother - in - law. While under the influence of alcohol, Liz drove a tractor over a party setup for her mother - in - law 's birthday after stressing that it was not going to be good enough. To avoid running over her daughter, Liz turned the tractor but accidentally ran over and killed her mother - in - law. Liz was the peer worker of the prison, dealing with inmates and the staff if there was an issue. However, Liz lost the right to be peer worker after she relapsed into her alcoholism. Since then Liz has been on and off with her addiction. Eventually, Liz makes parole and tries to start her life anew once on the outside. Liz tries to reconnect with her children but is too scared to do so. Liz later returns to Wentworth after having broken the conditions of her parole.
Matthew "Fletch '' Fletcher (Aaron Jeffery) (seasons 1 - 3) is a correctional officer at Wentworth. Fletcher is shown to have previously been a soldier who served in various war zones, including East Timor. His experience with a young girl being shot leaves him with PTSD and nightmares, and he is shown to easily lose his temper under stress. He attempts to have a relationship with fellow corrections officer Vera Bennett, but it ends after she reads a journal filled with expressions of rage as part of his therapy. He has a contentious relationship with Officer Will Jackson, and it is later revealed that he had a brief affair with Will 's wife Meg Jackson; she became pregnant with his child and had an abortion just weeks before her death in the prison. This leads to the two having a brawl in the boiler room during a prison riot. He is also shown as being transphobic towards Maxine when she arrives at Wentworth.
He has doubts and reservations about Governor Ferguson and suspects her abuse but is initially unable to prove it. During Ferguson 's attempt to remove drugs from the prison, Franky implicates Fletch as a potential source for smuggling, causing him to fight with Franky in her cell. At the end of season 2, during Bea 's plan to escape and take revenge on Brayden Holt, Jess seduces Fletch in the shower, enabling Bea to steal his access card and gather supplies. A distraught Fletch takes his concerns to Channing after Ferguson attempts to transfer him out, but the investigation is shut down when Ferguson uncovers evidence of Channing 's prostitution ring and blackmails him. After encountering an inmate who was previously tortured by Ferguson at Blackmoor Prison, he learns of her involvement with an inmate named Jianna and vendetta against Will Jackson and plans to report it to the board, however en route to Will 's house he is struck by a speeding van driven by Ferguson 's accomplice and nearly killed.
During season 3, Fletcher spends his time recovering from his attack, which leaves him both physically injured and with severe mental damage and amnesia. Will visits to finally put their past behind them. Vera also comes to visit him during his rehab, which is later discovered by Ferguson. After a severe bout of depression and alcoholism, Vera gives him advice that helps him start to get back on track, and Ferguson and Channing offer him his job back in an attempt to discover what he still remembers. Seeing Bea 's drawing of Ferguson 's henchman triggers his memory and he finally pieces together what happened to him. He allies himself with Bea and Vera to finally take Ferguson down by using their knowledge of her past against her.
Will Jackson (Robbie Magasiva) (seasons 1 -- present) is a correctional officer at Wentworth. Will is a former social worker who transferred to corrections. Will was married to the previous governor, Meg Jackson. After Meg was killed during a riot at the prison Will spiralled into a depression that he tried to cure with alcohol and drugs. At one point, Will overdosed but Fletch managed to save him.
Jacqueline "Jacs '' Holt (Kris McQuade) (season 1) was an inmate at Wentworth. Jacs was serving fourteen years for the manslaughter of an associate of her husband, Vinnie Holt. Jacs was in a competition for "Top Dog '' with Franky Doyle, often insulting Franky 's sexuality and ordering hits to try and take her out of the running. Jacs attempts to befriend Bea Smith when she was new to the prison, often alluding to how horrible it would be if something were to happen to Bea 's daughter, Debbie, if Bea was not going to co-operate with Jacs wishes. After Bea siding with Franky, Jacs orders her son, Brayden to kill Debbie by heroin overdose. Jacs is confronted by Bea after she hears the news about Debbie 's death, and Bea stabs a pen into Jacs neck, killing her.
Sue "Boomer '' Jenkins (Katrina Milosevic) (seasons 1 -- present) is an inmate at Wentworth who is serving time for grievous bodily harm and drug trafficking. Boomer is best friends with Franky Doyle and serves as her muscle. Boomer is often portrayed as a slow and sometimes mentally challenged individual.
Erica Davidson (Leeanna Walsman) (season 1) was the Governor of Wentworth after Meg Jackson. Before becoming the governor, Erica was a prisoner advocate, and an acquaintance of Franky Doyle. Although engaged, Erica explores her feelings for Franky, hinting that she is bisexual.
Joan Ferguson (Pamela Rabe) (seasons 2 -- present) became the Governor of Wentworth after Erica Davidson. Before being the governor, Ferguson was a correctional officer at Blackmoore Prison, where she shared a special bond with an inmate named Jianna, whom was pregnant. She becomes a prisoner in season 4.
Karen "Kaz '' Proctor (Tammy McIntosh) (seasons 3 -- present) is an inmate at Wentworth and the leader of the Red Right Hand. She also acts as a maternal figure for Allie which adds to tension between her and Bea.
Bridget Westfall (Libby Tanner) (seasons 3 -- present) is a forensic psychologist who works with the inmates at Wentworth. Bridget identifies as a lesbian, and has feelings for Franky Doyle, to which Franky reciprocates. Bridget 's feelings for Franky develops far enough where Bridget decides to quit because of the suspension from other prisoners and staff. When Feanky gets out of prison she goes to live with Bridget.
Maxine Conway (Socratis Otto) (seasons 2 - 5) is a transgender inmate at Wentworth. Maxine was sent to Wentworth after stabbing her boyfriend, Gary, with scissors after he cut off her hair as a result of Maxine 's gender reassignment surgery. Maxine is seen as the muscle in the prison, often affiliated with Bea Smith as her second in command. Upon Maxine 's entry into Wentworth she was trumped with transphobic insults and bets as to whether she had a penis or vagina. After Maxine 's adjustment to prison life, her boyfriend 's brother comes to visit her and leaves her male looking clothes and a visitors pass that Maxine uses to try and escape the prison. Vera, upon finishing her shift, noticed that Maxine was trying to escape and called out to Will to stop Maxine from leaving. After being taken back into the prison, Vera refuses to give Maxine her wig back. In season 4, Maxine is diagnosed with breast cancer. In season 5, after having a double mastectomy, Maxine is transferred to Barnhurst prison as they have a better treatment facility to help with her chemotherapy.
Kim Chang (Ra Chapman) (seasons 1 -- present) is an inmate at Wentworth. Kim was Franky 's friend with benefits inside the prison. Kim was often seen as Franky 's weakness when she was Top Dog, which other inmates would try to exploit. Kim makes parole and leaves on bad terms with Franky, as Kim goes back to her boyfriend once outside. Kim later breaks the conditions of her parole and is sent back to Wentworth. Kim reveals that she did it on purpose to be with Franky because she loves her, but is angered when Franky has moved on. Later on, she becomes a drug user and joins the Asian crew as Tina 's drug mule.
Simone "Simmo '' Slater (Ally Fowler) (seasons 1 - 3) was an inmate at Wentworth. Simmo was one of Jacs Holt 's henchmen, and had connections with Jacs ' family and business on the outside world. Simmo was a recovering heroin addict, until her husband ordered her to kill Bea Smith at the request of Vinnie Holt to avenge the murder of his wife, Jacs. Simmo refuses to kill Bea and goes to Franky for drugs, with which she intended to use to kill herself but Bea Smith discovered her in time. After Simmo recovers, she again refuses to kill Bea. Later, Bea discovers Simmo in her room after dying of a heroin overdose. It is later discovered that Governor Ferguson gave Simmo a hot shot of Pink Dragon heroin.
Rosalind "Roz '' Jago Roz was one of Jac 's henchmen, and later Simmo 's friend and muscle source.
Sky Pierson (Kathryn Beck) (season 2) is an inmate at Wentworth. Sky is heavily addicted to heroin and one of Franky 's henchmen. Sky is shown constantly trying to score heroin and even threatens to cut it out of the stomach of a new inmate after she was arrested for drug trafficking. Sky only appears in the second season, her fate is currently unknown.
Jess Warner (Georgia Chara) (seasons 2 - 3) was an inmate at Wentworth. Jess was serving a five - year sentence for the murder of a baby. Jess ' records were sealed due to the nature of her crime, which led Bea Smith to believe that she was the hitman that the Holt 's had hired to kill her. When Bea confronts Jess, she tells Bea that she was wrongfully accused of the murder of a baby. Jess is shown to have feelings for Fletch to which he reciprocates, which Jess takes advantage of. Jess has sex with Fletch in the shower rooms while Bea uses Fletch 's swipe card to move through the prison. When Jess finds out that Doreen is pregnant, she becomes obsessed with helping Doreen with her pregnancy. After Doreen gives birth, Jess ' obsession with the baby grows to the point where she kidnaps the baby and tries to smother him. Ferguson finds her and chokes her to death.
Sophie Donaldson (Edwina Samuels) (seasons 2 - 3) is an inmate at Wentworth and Liz Birdsworth 's daughter. Sophie was sent to prison for driving under the influence of alcohol on a suspended license and hit a cyclist.
Kelly Byrant Was a prisoner at the same place Ferguson was a guard before Wentworth.
Lindsay Coulter
Jodie Spiteri
Lucy "Juice '' Gambaro (Sally - Anne Upton) (seasons 1 -- present) is an inmate at Wentworth. She and her crew are often predatory towards new or young prisoners and are known to gang - rape victims. "Juice '' has Hepatitis - C and pricks Vera with an infected needle while holding her hostage.
Portrayed by Charlie Tjoe Tina is the leader of one of Wentworth 's drug trafficing groups. She and her followers do n't follow Bea 's rulea, which often results in Tina getting bashed by Maxine.
Portrayed by Rachael Maza
Portrayed by Daniielle Alexis
Jen "Hutch '' Hutchins (Sarah Hallam) is an inmate with long blonde hair. She defends Ferguson in "Coup De Grace '', insisting "it was self defense Franky '' when Franky accuses Joan of murder.
Meg Jackson (Catherine McClements) (season 1) was the Governor of Wentworth Correctional Centre. Meg was married to Will Jackson, an officer at Wentworth. She also had an affair with Fletcher which led to an abortion two weeks before the riot. Meg died during a riot at the prison after being stabbed in the chest with a shiv. It is later revealed that Meg was killed by Franky Doyle accidentally.
Linda Miles (Jacqueline Brennan) (seasons 1 -- present) is an officer at Wentworth. Miles has a gambling problem and is corruptible.
Derek Channing (Martin Sacks) (seasons 1 -- present) is the regional director for Wentworth. Derek is manipulated and blackmailed by Joan Ferguson when she threatens to reveal his participation in an illegal prostitution ring involving ex-inmates. he was became took over as the new Acting Governor wentworth Correctional Centre.
Rose Atkins (Maggie Naouri) (seasons 2 -- present) is a nurse who works in the medical centre at Wentworth.
Nurse Lee Radcliffe (Madeleine Jevic) is another nurse.
Vinnie Holt
Rita Bennett
Debbie Smith is Bea Smith 's daughter.
Brayden Holt Murderer of Debbie Smith and is killed by Bea for killing her daughter.
Harry Smith
He is Bea 's ex husband and father of Debbie Smith. Will Jackson was accused of his murder, but it was revealed later that he was killed by one of Ferguson 's accomplices.
Colin Bates
Nash Taylor Father of Doreen Anderson 's baby
Portrayed by Maria Mercedes
Portrayed by Sophia Katos
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who took the initiative to form the warsaw pact | Warsaw Pact - wikipedia
People 's Socialist Republic of Albania (to 1961)
World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU)
The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defence treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland among the Soviet Union and seven Soviet satellite states of Central and Eastern Europe during the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 per the London and Paris Conferences of 1954, but it is also considered to have been motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO; there was no direct confrontation between them. Instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs. Its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 (with the participation of all Pact nations except Albania, Romania and East Germany), which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland and its electoral success in June 1989.
East Germany withdrew from the Pact following reunification with West Germany in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from the six remaining member states in Hungary. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech Republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) that had been part of the Soviet Union.
In the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance -- abbreviated WAPA, Warpac and WP. Elsewhere, in the former member states, the Warsaw Treaty is known as:
The Warsaw Treaty 's organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore, the Supreme Commander of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization which commanded and controlled all the military forces of the member countries was also a First Deputy Minister of Defence of the USSR, and the Chief of Combined Staff of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was also a First Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces.
The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them. This policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism and act as the leader of the global socialist movement. A corollary to this idea was the necessity of intervention if a country appeared to be violating core socialist ideas and Communist Party functions, which was explicitly stated in the Brezhnev Doctrine. Geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union with the desire to create a buffer zone to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers.
Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and Poland. These states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO. Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets and Eastern Europeans. As the Soviet Union already had bilateral treaties with all of its eastern satellites, the Pact has been long considered ' superfluous ', and because of the rushed way in which it was conceived, NATO officials labeled it as a ' cardboard castle '. Previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO.
The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January -- February 1954. Soviet foreign minister Molotov made proposals to have Germany reunified and elections for a pan-German government, under conditions of withdrawal of the four powers ' armies and German neutrality, but all were refused by the other foreign ministers, Dulles (USA), Eden (UK) and Bidault (France). Proposals for the reunification of Germany were nothing new: earlier on 20 March 1952, talks about a German reunification, initiated by the so - called ' Stalin Note ', ended after the United Kingdom, France and the United States insisted that a unified Germany should not be neutral and should be free to join the European Defence Community and rearm. James Dunn (USA), who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman (France), affirmed that "the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians and to press on the European Defense Community ''. According to John Gaddis "there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer '' from USSR. While historian Rolf Steininger asserts that Adenauer 's conviction that "neutralization means sovietization '' was the main factor in the rejection of the Soviet proposals, Adenauer also feared that German unification might have resulted in the end of the CDU 's dominance in the West German Bundestag.
Consequently, Molotov, fearing that the EDC would be directed in the future against the USSR and "seeking to prevent the formation of groups of European States directed against other European States '', made a proposal for a General European Treaty on Collective Security in Europe "open to all European States without regard as to their social systems '' which would have included the unified Germany (thus making the EDC -- perceived by the USSR as a threat -- unusable). But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal.
One month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC but also by Western opponents of the European Defence Community (like French Gaullist leader Palewski) who perceived it as "unacceptable in its present form because it excludes the USA from participation in the collective security system in Europe ''. The Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. And considering that another argument deployed against the Soviet proposal was that it was perceived by Western powers as "directed against the North Atlantic Pact and its liquidation '', the Soviets decided to declare their "readiness to examine jointly with other interested parties the question of the participation of the USSR in the North Atlantic bloc '', specifying that "the admittance of the USA into the General European Agreement should not be conditional on the three Western powers agreeing to the USSR joining the North Atlantic Pact ''.
Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US and French governments shortly after. Emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, a fierce supporter of NATO expansion. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that "the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force ''.
In April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO.
Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too. On 30 August 1954 French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate Germany militarily with the West. The US Department of State started to elaborate alternatives: Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the case of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would be implemented in order to obtain a German rearmament outside NATO.
On 23 October 1954 -- only nine years after Allies (UK, USA and USSR) defeated Nazi Germany ending World War II in Europe -- the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent '' by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time. In November 1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty, in order to make a final attempt to not have a remilitarized West Germany potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success.
On 14 May 1955, the USSR and other seven European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems '' established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO, declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North - Atlantic bloc (...) increase the danger of another war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; (...) in these circumstances the peaceable European states must take the necessary measures to safeguard their security ''.
One of the founding members, East Germany was allowed to re-arm by the Soviet Union and the National People 's Army was established as the armed forces of the country to counter the rearmament of West Germany and vice versa.
The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defence of any member who would be attacked. Relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence. However, almost all governments of those member states were indirectly controlled by the Soviet Union.
The founding signatories to the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance consisted of the following communist governments:
Mongolia: In July 1963 the Mongolian People 's Republic asked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty. Due to the emerging Sino - Soviet split, Mongolia remained on observer status. The Soviet Government agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966.
For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. These included the Korean War, Vietnam War, Bay of Pigs invasion, Dirty War, Cambodian -- Vietnamese War and the others.
In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government. Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.
The multi-national Communist armed forces ' sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. All member countries, with the exception of the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People 's Republic of Albania, participated in the invasion. The German Democratic Republic provided only minimal support, however.
Beginning at the Cold War 's conclusion, in late 1989, popular civil and political public discontent forced the Communist governments of the Warsaw Treaty countries from power, while independent national politics made feasible with the perestroika and glasnost induced institutional collapse of Communist government in the USSR.
Between 1989 and 1991, Communist governments were overthrown in Albania, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania, Bulgaria and the Soviet Union.
As the last acts of the Cold War were playing out, several Warsaw Pact states (Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary) participated in the U.S. - led coalition effort to liberate Kuwait in the Gulf War.
On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary. On 1 July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR. The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.
On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Albania joined on 1 April 2009.
Russia and some other post-USSR states joined the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in 1992, or the Shanghai Five in 1996, which was renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) after Uzbekistan 's addition in 2001.
In November 2005, the Polish government opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to the Institute of National Remembrance, which published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006. Yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret and unpublished. Among the documents published is the Warsaw Treaty 's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine -- a short, swift counter-attack capturing Austria, Denmark, Germany and Netherlands east of River Rhine, using nuclear weapons, in self - defence, after a NATO first strike. The plan originated as a 1979 field training exercise war game and metamorphosed into official Warsaw Treaty battle doctrine, until the late 1980s -- which is why the Polish People 's Republic was a nuclear weapons base, first, to 178, then, to 250 tactical - range rockets, though these numbers may differ. Doctrinally, as a Soviet - style (offensive) battle plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine gave commanders few defensive - war strategies for fighting NATO in Warsaw Treaty territory.
Badge Warsaw Pact. Union of peace and socialism
Badge Warsaw Pact. Brothers in arms (1970)
Badge A participant in joint exercises of Warsaw Pact "STIT '' (1972)
Badge 25 years Warsaw Pact (1980)
Badge Air Forces Warsaw Pact
Badge Warsaw Pact. The participants of the joint exercises in Bulgaria (1982)
Jubilee badge 30 years of the Warsaw Pact (1985)
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the rule of the three rightly guided caliphs was called a | Rashidun - wikipedia
Others
Others:
The Rashidun Caliphs (Rightly Guided Caliphs; Arabic: الخلفاء الراشدون al - Khulafāʾu ar - Rāshidūn), often simply called, collectively, "the Rashidun '', is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the 30 - year reign of the first four caliphs (successors) following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, namely: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali of the Rashidun Caliphate, the first caliphate. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs '' originated with the later Abbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad. It is a reference to the Sunni imperative "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs '' (Ibn Majah, Abu Dawood).
The first four Caliphs who ruled after the death of Muhammad are often described as the "Khulafāʾ Rāshidūn ''. The Rashidun were either elected by a council (see the election of Uthman and Islamic democracy) or chosen based on the wishes of their predecessor. In the order of succession, the Rāshidūn were:
In addition to this, there are several views regarding additional rashidun:
Abu Bakr (Abdullah ibn Abi Qahafa, (Arabic: عبد الله ابن أبي قحافة , translit. ` Abdullāh bin Abī Quhāfah ), c. 573 CE unknown exact date 634 / 13 AH) was a senior companion (Sahabi) and the father - in - law of Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 - 634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad 's death. As caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad, since the religious function and authority of prophethood ended with Muhammad 's death according to Islam. Abu Bakr was called As - Siddiq (Arabic: اَلـصِّـدِّيْـق , "The Truthful ''), and was known by that title among later generations of Muslims. He prevented the recently converted Muslims from dispersing, kept the community united, and consolidated Islamic grip on the region by containing the Ridda, while extending the Dar Al Islam all the way to the Red Sea.
Umar (Arabic: عمر ابن الخطاب , translit. ` Umar ibn al - Khattāb , c. 586 -- 590 -- 644) c. 2 Nov. (Dhu al - Hijjah 26, 23 Hijri) was a leading companion and adviser to Muhammad, and became the second Muslim caliph after Muhammad 's death and ruled for 10 years. He succeeded Abu Bakr on 23 August 634 as the second caliph, and played a significant role in Islam. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years, marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. Among his conquests are Jerusalem, Damascus, and Egypt. He was killed by a Persian captive.
` Uthman (Arabic: عثمان ابن عفان , translit. ` Uthmān ibn ` Affān ) (c. 579 -- 17 July 656) was one of the companions of Muhammad. Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraysh tribe. He became caliph at the age of 70. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars (present - day Iran) in 650 and some areas of Khorasan (present - day Afghanistan) in 651, and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s. His rule ended when he was assassinated.
Uthman is perhaps best known for forming the committee which compiled the basic text of the Quran as it exists today, based on text that had been gathered separately on parchment, bones and rocks during the lifetime of Muhammad and also on a copy of the Quran that had been collated by Abu Bakr and left with Muhammad 's widow after Abu Bakr 's death. The committee members were also reciters of the Quran and had memorised the entire text during the lifetime of Muhammad. This work was undertaken due to the vast expansion of Islam under Uthman 's rule, which encountered many different dialects and languages. This had led to variant readings of the Quran for those converts who were not familiar with the language. After clarifying any possible errors in pronunciation or dialects, Uthman sent copies of the sacred text to each of the Muslim cities and garrison towns, and destroyed variant texts.
Ali (Arabic: علي ابن أبي طالب , translit. ` Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib ) was a cousin of Muhammad. He was the second companion of Muhammad after Khadijah to accept Islam. He was only 10 years old at the time of his conversion. At the age of 21, he married Fatimah, Muhammed 's youngest daughter by Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, and became a son - in - law of Muhammed. He had three sons (Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin) and two daughters (Umm Kulthum and Zaynab) with Fatimah. He was a scribe of the Quran, who kept a written copy of it, and memorized its verses as soon as they were revealed. During the Khilafat (Arabic: خِـلَافَـة , Caliphate) of Uthman, Umar and Abu Bakr, he was part of the Majlis ash - Shura (Arabic: مَـجْـلِـس الـشُّـوْرَى ) and took care of Medina in their absence.
After the death of Uthman, Medina was in political chaos for a number of days. After four days, when the rebels who assassinated Uthman felt that it was necessary that a new Khalifa should be elected before they left Medina, Many of the companions approached Ali to take the role of caliph, which he refused to do initially. The rebels then offered Khilafat to Talha and Zubair, who also refused. The Ansars also declined their offer to choose a new Khalifah. Thus, the rebels threatened to take drastic measures if a new Khalifah was not chosen within 24 hours. To resolve the issue, all Muslim leaders gathered at the mosque of the Prophet. They all agreed that the best person who fit all the qualities of a Caliph was Ali. Therefore, Ali was persuaded into taking the post. Talha and Zubair and some others then performed Bayʿah (Arabic: بَـيْـعَـة , Oath of allegiance, literally a "sale '' or "commercial transaction '') at Ali 's hand, followed by a general Bayʿah on 25th of Dhil - Hijjah, 656 CE.
After his appointment as caliph, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik al - Ashtar. Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, that is Damascus, was governed by Mu'awiyah, who was a kinsman of Uthman, Ali 's slain predecessor.
His caliphate coincided with the First Fitna (civil war when Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate). and which was ended, on the whole, by Mu'awiyah's assumption of the caliphate.
Ali was assassinated, and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661 CE by Abd - al - Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite who was later pardoned and left by Ali 's son and successor, Hasan, according to Ali 's will.
The Rashidun Caliphate greatly expanded Islam beyond Arabia, conquering all of Persia, besides Syria (637), Armenia (639), Egypt (639) and Cyprus (654).
During his reign, Abu Bakr established the Bayt al - Mal (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances.
Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation 's political loyalty.
Civil welfare in Islam started in the form of the construction and purchase of wells. During the caliphate, the Muslims repaired many of the aging wells in the lands they conquered.
In addition to wells, the Muslims built many tanks and canals. Many canals were purchased, and new ones constructed. While some canals were excluded for the use of monks (such as a spring purchased by Talhah), and the needy, most canals were open to general public use. Some canals were constructed between settlements, such as the Saad canal that provided water to Anbar, and the Abi Musa Canal to provide water to Basra.
During a famine, Umar ibn al - Khattab ordered the construction of a canal in Egypt connecting the Nile with the sea. The purpose of the canal was to facilitate the transport of grain to Arabia through a sea - route, hitherto transported only by land. The canal was constructed within a year by ' Amr ibn al - ' As, and Abdus Salam Nadiv writes that "Arabia was rid of famine for all the times to come. ''
After four floods hit Mecca after Muhammad 's death, Umar ordered the construction of two dams to protect the Kaaba. He also constructed a dam near Medina to protect its fountains from flooding.
The area of Basra was very sparsely populated when it was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of Umar, the Muslim army found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected.
Upon the conquest of Madyan, it was settled by Muslims. However, soon the environment was considered harsh, and Umar ordered the resettlement of the 40,000 settlers to Kufa. The new buildings were constructed from mud bricks instead of reeds, a material that was popular in the region, but caught fire easily.
During the conquest of Egypt the area of Fustat was used by the Muslim army as a base. Upon the conquest of Alexandria, the Muslims returned and settled in the same area. Initially the land was primarily used for pasture, but later buildings were constructed.
Other already populated areas were greatly expanded. At Mosul, Arfaja al - Bariqi, at the command of Umar, constructed a fort, a few churches, a mosque and a locality for the Jewish population.
The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. It is prudent to note here that accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs.
They were called the "Rightly - Guided '' because they have been seen as model Muslim leaders by Sunni Muslims. This terminology came into a general use around the world, since Sunni Islam has been the dominant Islamic tradition, and for a long time it has been considered the most authoritative source of information about Islam in the Western world.
They were all close companions of Muhammad, and his relatives: the daughters of Abu Bakr and Umar were married to Muhammad, and three of Muhammad 's daughters were married to Uthman and Ali. Likewise, their succession was not hereditary, something that would become the custom after them, beginning with the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate. Council decision or caliph 's choice determined the successor originally.
Sunnis have long viewed the period of the Rashidun as exemplary and a system of governance -- based upon Islamic righteousness and merit -- they seek to emulate. Sunnis also equate this system with the worldly success that was promised by Allah, in the Quran and hadith, to those Muslims who pursued His pleasure; this spectacular success has further added to the emulatory appeal of the Rashidun era.
According to Shi'ite Islam, the first caliph should have been Ali, followed by other Shi'ite Imams, like his sons Hasan and Husayn. Shi'te Muslims support this claim with ahadith like those of Ghadir Khumm (Arabic: غَـدِيْـر خُـمّ Pond of Khumm), his relationship to Muhammad being similar to that between Hārūn (Arabic: هَـارُوْن , Aaron) and Mūsā (Arabic: مُـوْسَى , Moses).
Note that a caliph 's succession does not necessarily occur on the first day of the new year.
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where did the florida shooter get his gun | Stoneman Douglas High school shooting - wikipedia
On February 14, 2018, a gunman opened fire at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, killing seventeen students and staff members and injuring seventeen others. Witnesses identified nineteen - year - old former student Nikolas Cruz as the assailant, and he was arrested in Coral Springs by the Broward County Sheriff 's Office shortly after he escaped the scene; Cruz had purchased food at Walmart and McDonald 's restaurants after leaving the scene of the shooting. Cruz confessed to being the perpetrator, and he was charged with 17 counts of premeditated murder and 17 counts of attempted murder. Police and prosecutors have not yet offered a motive and are investigating "a pattern of disciplinary issues and unnerving behavior ''.
The sheriff 's office received a number of tips in 2016 and 2017 about Cruz 's threats to carry out a school shooting. The FBI learned that a YouTube user with the username "nikolas cruz '' posted a message in September 2017 about becoming a school shooter, but the agency could not identify the user. In January 2018, someone contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) tip line with a direct complaint that Cruz had made a death threat, but the complaint was not forwarded to the local FBI office.
The shooting sparked unprecedented demands for gun control and spurred the founding of Never Again MSD, a political action committee founded by students from the school to demand legislative action from lawmakers on firearms. On March 9, Governor Rick Scott signed a bill that raised the minimum age for buying rifles in Florida from 18 to 21. The legislation also established waiting periods and background checks for gun buyers. The law also allowed for the arming of teachers who were properly trained and the hiring of school police. Bump stocks would now be banned and some potentially violent or mentally unstable persons would be prohibited from possessing guns. The National Rifle Association (NRA) immediately filed a lawsuit that challenged the federal constitutionality of the age requirement clause.
The shooting took place during the afternoon of February 14, 2018, at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, an affluent suburb about 30 miles (48 km) northwest of Fort Lauderdale. The shooter, former student Nikolas Cruz, was dropped off at the school by an Uber driver at 2: 19 p.m., which was shortly before dismissal time. Carrying a duffel bag and a backpack, he was spotted and recognized by a staff member who radioed a colleague that he was walking "purposefully '' toward Building 12, according to a police report. The first staff member claimed his training called for only reporting threats; his colleague hid in a closet.
Cruz entered Building 12, a three - story structure containing 30 classrooms typically occupied by about 900 students and 30 teachers. Armed with an AR - 15 style semi-automatic rifle and multiple magazines, he activated a fire alarm and began firing indiscriminately at students and teachers. The fire alarm caused confusion because there had been a fire drill earlier in the day.
At about 2: 21 p.m. the same staff member heard gunfire and activated a code red lockdown. An armed school resource officer of the Broward County Sheriff 's Office was on campus when the shooting broke out and took a position between Building 12 and the adjacent Building 7.
The shooting lasted six minutes, after which Cruz dropped his rifle on the 3rd floor of the building and left the scene by blending in with fleeing students. He walked to a Walmart, where he purchased a soda at its Subway restaurant. He then walked to a McDonald 's and lingered before leaving on foot at 3: 01 p.m. At about 3: 40 p.m., he was stopped by police in the Wyndham Lakes neighborhood of Coral Springs, 2 miles (3.2 km) from the school, and arrested without incident. He was taken to a hospital emergency room with "labored breathing ''. After 40 minutes, he was released back into police custody and booked into the Broward County Jail.
School surveillance camera video revealed Cruz as the perpetrator, and he was also recognized by eyewitnesses. While SWAT paramedics were inside the building, additional paramedics from the local Fire - Rescue department repeatedly requested to enter the building. These requests were denied by the Broward Sheriff 's Office, even after the suspect was arrested.
Seventeen people were killed and seventeen people were wounded but survived their gunshot wounds. Three remained in critical condition the day after the shooting and one remained by the second day.
Twelve victims died inside the building, three died just outside the building on school premises, and two died in the hospital.
The fourteen students and three staff members killed were:
Geography teacher Scott Beigel was killed after he unlocked a classroom for students to enter and hide from the gunman. Aaron Feis, an assistant football coach and security guard, was killed as he shielded two students. Chris Hixon, the school 's athletic director, was killed as he ran toward the sound of the gunfire and tried to help fleeing students.
Student Peter Wang was last seen in his Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps (JROTC) uniform, holding doors open so others could get out more quickly; Wang was unable to flee with the students when Cruz appeared and fatally shot him. He sacrificed his life for others and was called a hero. A White House petition was circulated, calling for him to be buried with full military honors. At their respective funerals, Wang, Alaina Petty, and Martin Duque were all posthumously honored by the U.S. Army with the ROTC Medal for Heroism, and Wang was buried in his JROTC Blues uniform. On February 20, he was given a rare posthumous admission to the United States Military Academy.
Victim Alyssa Alhadeff was the captain of a local soccer team in Parkland. On March 7, 2018 -- nearly three weeks after the shooting -- she was honored by the United States women 's national soccer team prior to a game in Orlando. Her teammates and family were invited to the game and presented with official jerseys that featured Alhadeff 's name.
Meadow Pollack was a senior who was shot four times during the shooting. As Cruz shot into other classrooms, she crawled to a classroom door but was unable to get inside. Cara Loughran was alongside Pollack, and Pollack covered Loughran in an attempt to shield her from the bullets. Cruz returned to the classroom and located Pollack and Loughran. He discharged his weapon five more times, killing Pollack and Loughran.
The last victim to remain hospitalized, 15 - year - old Anthony Borges, from Venezuela, was released on April 4. Dubbed "the real Iron Man '', Borges was shot five times after he used his body to barricade the door of a classroom where twenty students were inside. Upon his release, Borges issued a statement that criticized the actions of Broward Sheriff 's deputies, Sheriff Scott Israel and School Superintendent Robert Runcie. His family has filed notice of its intent to sue the school district for personal injury to cover costs related to his recovery.
Nikolas Jacob Cruz (born September 24, 1998) in Margate, Florida was adopted at birth by Lynda and Roger Cruz. Roger died at age 67 in 2004. Lynda died at age 68 in November 2017, three months before the shooting. He had been living with relatives and friends since her death. At the time of the shooting, he was enrolled in a GED program and employed at a local dollar store.
Cruz was a member of the Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps (JROTC) and had received multiple awards "including academic achievement for maintaining an A grade in JROTC and Bs in other subjects '', according to CNN. He was also a member of his school 's varsity air rifle team.
Cruz had behavioral issues since middle school, but a Washington Post writer said he was "entrenched in the process for getting students help rather than referring them to law enforcement '' and he was transferred between schools six times in three years to deal with these problems. In 2014, he was transferred to a school for children with emotional or learning disabilities. There were reports that he made threats against other students. He returned to Stoneman Douglas High School two years later, only to be expelled from the school in 2017 for disciplinary reasons. An email from the school administration had circulated among teachers, warning that he had made threats against other students. This led the school to ban him from wearing a backpack on campus.
Psychiatrists recommended an involuntary admission of Cruz to a residential treatment facility starting in 2013. The Florida Department of Children and Families investigated him in September 2016 for Snapchat posts in which he cut both his arms and said he planned to buy a gun. At this time, a school resource officer suggested to have him undergo an involuntary psychiatric examination under the provisions of the Baker Act. Two guidance counselors agreed, but a mental institution did not. State investigators reported he had depression, autism, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In their assessment, they concluded he "was at low risk of harming himself or others ''. He had previously received mental health treatment, but had not received treatment in the year leading up to the shooting.
Broward County Sheriff Scott Israel described Cruz 's online profiles and accounts as "very, very disturbing ''. They contained pictures and posts of him with a variety of weapons, including long knives, a shotgun, a pistol, and a BB gun. Police said that he held "extremist '' views; social media accounts that were thought to be linked to him contained anti-black and anti-Muslim slurs. YouTube comments linked to him include "I wan na die Fighting (sic) killing shit ton (sic) of people '', threats against police officers and Antifa, and intent to mimic the University of Texas tower shooting. In February 2017, he legally purchased an AR - 15 style semi-automatic rifle from a Coral Springs gun store. As in most states, in Florida persons 18 or older can buy rifles from federally licensed dealers. Cruz passed a background check. A year later, he used this weapon to commit the mass shooting at his former school.
Items recovered by police at the scene included gun magazines with swastikas carved in them. One student reported that Cruz had drawn a swastika and the words "I hate niggers '' on his backpack. CNN reported that Cruz was in a private Instagram group chat where he expressed racist, homophobic, antisemitic, and anti-immigrant (xenophobic) views. He said he wanted to kill gay people and Mexicans, and talked about keeping black people in chains. He said he hated black people "simply because they were black, '' and Jewish people because he believed "they wanted to destroy the world ''. He also referred to white women who engaged in interracial relationships as traitors.
A former classmate said Cruz had anger management issues and often joked about guns and gun violence, which included threats of shooting up establishments. The brother of a 2016 graduate described him as "super stressed out all the time and talked about guns a lot and tried to hide his face ''. A student who was enrolled at the school at the time of the shooting said, "I think everyone had in their minds if anybody was going to do it, it was going to be him ''. A classmate who was assigned to work with him in sophomore year said, "He told me how he got kicked out of two private schools. He was held back twice. He had aspirations to join the military. He enjoyed hunting. '' A student 's mother said that he also bragged about killing animals. A neighbor said his mother would call the police over to the house to try to talk some sense into him.
Sheriff Scott Israel said that his office received 23 calls about Cruz during the previous decade, but this figure is in dispute. CNN used a public records request to obtain a sheriff 's office log, which showed that from 2008 to 2017, at least 45 calls were made in reference to Cruz, his brother, or the family home. The calls included an anonymous tip on February 5, 2016, that Cruz had threatened to shoot up the school, and a tip on November 30, 2017, that he might be a "school shooter in the making '' and that he collected knives and guns. On September 23, 2016, a peer counselor notified the school resource officer of his suicide attempt and intent to buy a gun; the school indicated it would do a "threat assessment ''.
In September 2016, three people -- a sheriff 's deputy who worked as a resource officer at Stoneman Douglas, and two of the school 's counselors -- stated that Cruz should be committed for mental evaluation.
On September 24, 2017, a person with the username "nikolas cruz '' posted a comment to a YouTube video which read, "Im (sic) going to be a professional school shooter ''. The person who uploaded the video to YouTube reported the comment to the FBI. According to agent Robert Lasky, the agency conducted database reviews but was unable to track down the individual who made the threatening comment.
On January 5, 2018, the FBI 's Public Access Line received a tip from a person who was close to Cruz. On February 16, two days after the shooting, the agency released a statement that detailed this information. According to the statement, "The caller provided information about Cruz 's gun ownership, desire to kill people, erratic behavior, and disturbing social media posts, as well as the potential of him conducting a school shooting. '' After conducting an investigation, the FBI said the tip line did not follow protocol when the information was not forwarded to the Miami Field Office, where investigative steps would have been taken. The FBI opened a probe into the tip line 's operations.
The lack of response by Israel and other members of the Broward Country sheriff 's department to the numerous red flags and warnings about Cruz has been the subject of much scrutiny. In the days following the shooting, calls for Israel 's resignation intensified as more information that alluded to the department 's inaction was revealed. Since the shooting, Israel has declined to resign and refused to take responsibility for his role in failing to stop Cruz before the mass shooting took place. In an interview with CNN, Israel described his leadership at the department as "amazing '', a claim that was widely mocked and criticized.
According to a new report released and reviewed by The New York Times and The Daily Beast, a year before the shooting Cruz sought help from education specialists and it was determined that he might be able to be transferred out of Stoneman Douglas to another facility, Cross Creek.
At first Cruz stayed at Stoneman Douglas, but as his grades started to decline, he requested to be transferred to Cross Creek, but this request was never followed up by school officials.
At his initial arraignment the day after the shootings, Cruz was charged with 17 counts of premeditated murder and held without bond. If convicted of first degree murder, he faces either the death penalty or life without parole. According to an affidavit by the sheriff 's office, Cruz confessed to the shooting. He also told officers that he brought additional loaded magazines hidden in a backpack.
The chief public defender said it is not yet known if Cruz 's court - appointed attorneys will seek an insanity defense.
Cruz was placed on suicide watch in an isolation cell (solitary confinement) after the arraignment.
Lead defense counsel Gordon Weekes asked Judge Elizabeth Scherer to recuse herself, claiming that her previous comments and rulings showed favoritism toward the prosecution, which would prevent Cruz from receiving a fair trial. She disagreed and declined the request on February 26.
On March 7, a grand jury indicted Cruz on 34 charges: 17 counts of first - degree murder and 17 counts of attempted first - degree murder. He was arraigned on March 13, and the prosecution filed notice of their intent to seek the death penalty. They said they can prove five of the aggravating factors that qualify a murder for the death penalty in Florida. Cruz declined to enter a plea, so Judge Scherer entered "not guilty '' on his behalf. The defense had earlier offered a guilty plea if the death penalty was taken off the table, and reiterated it immediately before it was refused.
During the week of April 8 -- 12, 2018, Broward Circuit Judge Elizabeth Scherer included a three - page letter from a Minnesotan into the court record of the case. The letter was addressed to the judge and claimed that research into Cruz 's past led the writer to believe that Cruz suffered from a developmental disability and that he was "... fearful of other people and was threatened by bullies. '' The letter ended by claiming that Cruz appeared to be consumed by sadness and depression. This is part of a string of letters that have been sent to the judge, asking for her to show mercy or for God to forgive his actions against his victims.
The same week, a hearing was held to determine if taxpayers will pay for Cruz 's defense. Information was revealed that Cruz 's inheritance from his late mother 's estate could be worth hundreds of thousands of dollars. His attorney, court - appointed public defender Howard Finkelstein, pleaded with the court to wait until the probate case involving Cruz 's late mother 's estate was concluded and his net worth could be determined. There are also lawsuits and claims against his mother 's estate. These liens can complicate the proceedings, although Cruz has reportedly stated he wants the leftover money from his defense to be donated to a cause that promotes healing and education in the community.
On July 26, Judge Scherer ruled that Cruz 's confession, with certain details redacted, would be released to the public. The confession was released on August 6.
On August 3, Judge Scherer ruled that the Broward school district 's report on Cruz would be released to the public. Some portions of the report were redacted to protect Cruz 's privacy rights.
On August 8, a video of Cruz 's confession filmed by the Broward County Sheriff 's Office was released by TMZ. Cruz can be heard crying near the end of the video, and saying "kill me '' to the camera.
The school district provided grief counseling to students and their families. Attorney General Pam Bondi said that the fees of funerals and counseling would be paid for by the state.
On February 15, police presence was increased at schools in at least two counties in Florida in response to the shooting. The building where the shooting took place will be demolished.
On February 28, two weeks after the shooting, Stoneman Douglas reopened to students amid a heavy police presence. School principal Ty Thompson emphasized that the first week back would be focused on healing, with classes ending at 11: 40 a.m. through March 2. He tweeted "... Remember our focus is on emotional readiness and comfort not curriculum: so there is no need for backpacks. Come ready to start the healing process and # RECLAIMTHENEST ''. Extra counseling and emotional support dogs were provided to students upon return.
In early April, the school implemented several new safety rules and regulations. The changes included fewer entrances, law enforcement officers at each entrance, identification badges for students and staff, and the requirement that all book bags must be clear plastic. The use of metal detectors is under consideration. Several students criticized the new safety measures as ineffective and intrusive.
On May 30, 2018, prosecutors released three videos from Cruz 's cellphone that were made before the shooting. Cruz describes his personal feelings, his enthusiasm and plan for the shooting, and how it will make him notorious.
A school resource officer (SRO) -- a sheriff 's deputy -- remained outside Building 12 during the shooting; he was suspended without pay the following day but he immediately retired. Sheriff Israel said "(the deputy) was absolutely on campus for this entire event '' and that he should have "(gone) in, addressed the killer, (and) killed the killer ''. A statement released by the officer 's lawyer said he believed the shooting was happening outside the building, which he said he told the first Coral Springs police officer who arrived on scene. It also pointed to radio transmissions that indicated a gunshot victim near the football field. However, the Miami Herald transcribed radio dispatches that the SRO at 2: 23 said, "possible shots fired -- 1200 building ''. At 2: 25, he radioed that "We also heard it 's by, inside the 1200 ''. At 2: 27, at Building 12, he radioed, "Stay at least 500 feet away at this point. '' On March 15 in compliance with a court order, the sheriff 's office released video footage, captured by school surveillance cameras, showing some of the SRO 's movements during the shooting.
Unnamed sources told CNN that Coral Springs police arrived at the scene and saw three Broward deputies behind their vehicles with pistols drawn. The commanding sheriff 's office captain ordered deputies to form a perimeter instead of immediately confronting the shooter; this tactic was contrary to BSO training regarding active shooters. Based on timestamps of the police logs, the order was given some time after the shooting had stopped. Sheriff Israel said that Coral Springs officers were the first to enter the building, about four minutes after Cruz had left the school. Due to a tape delay in viewing surveillance footage, officers believed that Cruz was still in the building. As of early March, there were three investigations into the timeline of police response.
President Donald Trump criticized the officers who failed to enter the building during the shooting. On February 26, he said that he believed he would have entered "even if I did n't have a weapon, and I think most of the people in this room would have done that, too '', a claim and reaction that was mocked by the media, and considered shameful by survivors. David Hogg criticized the claim as Trump bragging and talking about himself amid tragedy that did not concern him.
President Trump offered his prayers and condolences to the victims ' families, writing, "no child, teacher or anyone else should ever feel unsafe in an American school ''. In a televised address, he mentioned school safety and mental health issues. Florida Governor Rick Scott ordered that flags at state buildings be flown at half - staff, and Trump later ordered flags be flown at half - staff for the entire country. Two days after the shooting, Trump and his wife Melania visited Broward Health North, a hospital where eight of the shooting victims were admitted. They met with two victims and Trump praised doctors and law enforcement officials for their responses to the attack.
On February 22 at the White House, Trump met with students and others for a "listening session ''. He suggested arming up to 20 % of the teachers to stop "maniacs '' from attacking students. The following day, he called a "gun free '' school a "magnet '' for criminals and tweeted, "Highly trained, gun adept, teachers / coaches would solve the problem instantly, before police arrive. ''
BBC News characterized Republican politicians ' reactions as focusing on mental health issues while dodging debate on gun control, with the reasoning that it was either "too political or too soon ''. Republican House Speaker Paul Ryan said that this was the time to "step back and count our blessings '' instead of "taking sides and fighting each other politically ''. Republican Florida Senator Marco Rubio said that "most '' proposals on stricter gun laws "would not have prevented '' this shooting nor "any of those in recent history '' and that lawmakers should take action with "focus on the violence part '' alongside guns. Republican Kentucky Governor Matt Bevin declared that the country should re-evaluate "the things being put in the hands of our young people '', specifically "quote - unquote video games '' that "have desensitized people to the value of human life ''. Republican Senator Pat Roberts of Kansas said he supported age restrictions on the ownership of AR - 15 style rifles, saying "Certainly nobody under 21 should have an AR - 15. '' Republican Senator from Oklahoma James Lankford said on NBC News ' Meet the Press he was open to requiring more comprehensive background checks for firearm purchases, saying "The problem is not owning an AR - 15, it 's the person who owns it. '' Republican governor of Ohio John Kasich called for restrictions on the sales of AR - 15 style rifles, saying on CNN "if all of a sudden, you could n't buy an AR - 15, what would you lose? Would you feel as though your Second Amendment rights would be eroded because you could n't buy a God - darn AR - 15? '' Republican Representative Brian Mast from Florida, a former resident of Parkland and an Army veteran, wrote in an op ed in The New York Times that he supported a ban on the sale of civilian versions of military rifles, writing:
Most nights in Afghanistan, I wielded an M4 carbine... My rifle was very similar to the AR - 15 - style semiautomatic weapon used to kill students, teachers and a coach I knew at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Fla., where I once lived... I can not support the primary weapon I used to defend our people being used to kill children I swore to defend... The AR - 15 is an excellent platform for recreational shooters to learn to be outstanding marksmen. Unfortunately, it is also an excellent platform for those who wish to kill the innocent.
Democratic Senator from Florida Bill Nelson said "I have hunted all my life... but an AR - 15 is not for hunting. It 's for killing. ''
Al Hoffman Jr., a Republican donor in Florida, pledged that he would no longer fund legislative groups or candidates who were not actively working to ban sales of military - style assault weapons to civilians. He said, "For how many years now have we been doing this -- having these experiences of terrorism, mass killings -- and how many years has it been that nothing 's been done? ''
Sheriff Israel called on lawmakers to amend the Baker Act to allow police to detain and hospitalize people who make disturbing posts -- not just clear threats -- on social media. "I 'm talking about being around bombs, possibly talking about ' I want to be a serial killer ', talking about taking people 's lives '', he said. "Just taking a picture with a gun or a knife or a weapon -- that in and of itself is clearly not even remotely something that we 're concerned about. ''
Many student survivors criticized the response from politicians and asked them not to offer condolences but to take action to prevent more students from being killed in school shootings. These students have demanded stricter gun control measures. Survivor Emma González was noted for her speech that rebuked thoughts and prayers from politicians. She later helped lead a protest movement against gun violence in the United States. Broward County Schools Superintendent Rob Runcie said, "now is the time to have a real conversation about gun control legislation ''. Lori Alhadeff, whose daughter was killed in the shooting, implored President Trump to do something to improve school safety.
In the aftermath of the shooting, some of the student survivors organized a group called Never Again MSD. The group was created on social media with the hashtag # NeverAgain, activism inspired in part by the ground broken by the # MeToo movement and the 2018 Women 's March. The group demanded legislative action to prevent similar shootings, and has condemned lawmakers who received political contributions from the National Rifle Association. The group held a rally on February 17 in Fort Lauderdale that was attended by hundreds of supporters.
Since the shooting, several more rallies have been planned to take place with the focus on legislative action. The Women 's March Network organized a 17 - minute school walkout that took place on March 14. A series of demonstrations called "March for Our Lives '' on March 24 included a march in Washington, D.C. On April 20, the anniversary of the Columbine High School massacre, all - day walkouts were planned for teacher groups by educators Diane Ravitch and David Berliner, as well as student groups.
On February 20, dozens of Stoneman Douglas High School students went to the state Capitol in Tallahassee and watched as the Florida House of Representatives rejected a bill that would have banned assault weapons. Students strongly criticized the vote. The bill 's sponsor, Carlos Guillermo Smith, noted the peculiarity of the timing of the rejection both because of the tragedy at Stoneman Douglas High School and because the Florida House of Representatives had just recently passed a bill declaring that pornography is a public health risk.
In mid-March, Lori Alhadeff announced her own nonprofit organization Make Schools Safe, which will be mostly focusing on school campus security.
In May 2018, Cameron Kasky 's father registered a super PAC, Families vs Assault Rifles PAC (FAMSVARPAC), with intentions of going "up against NRA candidates in every meaningful race in the country ''.
In March, the Florida Legislature passed a bill titled the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act. It raised the minimum age for buying rifles to 21, established waiting periods and background checks, provided a program for the arming of some school employees and hiring of school police, banned bump stocks, and barred some potentially violent or mentally unhealthy people arrested under certain laws from possessing guns. In all, it allocated around $400 million. Rick Scott signed the bill into law on March 9. That same day, the NRA challenged the law by filing a lawsuit alleging that the ban on gun sales to people under 21 is unconstitutional because it violates the rights that the Second and Fourteenth Amendments confer to 18 - to 21 - year - olds, who are classified as adults.
On February 20, 2018 President Donald Trump directed the Department of Justice to issue regulations to ban bump stocks.
On March 23, the STOP School Violence Act was signed into law as part of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2018, which increases funding for metal detectors, security training, and similar safety measures. Lawmakers made it clear it was in response to the shooting and the public outcry. However students from the Stoneman Douglas High School who were active in calling for stricter gun control (not just safety measures) felt this was passed because lawmakers "pass something very easy and simple that everyone can get behind. But that 's because it does n't do anything. ''
Following the shooting, a boycott emerged against the U.S. gun rights advocacy group National Rifle Association (NRA) and its business affiliates. Calls for companies to sever their ties to the NRA were heeded when several companies terminated their business relationships with the NRA. Public pressure resulted in major gun sellers like Dick 's, Walmart, and Fred Meyer to voluntarily bump the age requirement on gun purchases from 18 to 21.
In the aftermath of the shooting, over $7.5 million was raised for the victims as of April 2018. Two other funds, Florida 's Crime Victims Compensation Fund, which pays for medical and funeral expenses, and the National Compassion Fund which pays for pain and suffering, are also available to help the victims of the Parkland shooting.
Right - wing conspiracy theories circulated in the wake of the shooting. The speculation included false claims that the shooting did not happen or was staged by "crisis actors ''. In one of the claims, Benjamin A. Kelly, a district secretary for Republican State Representative Shawn Harrison, sent an email to the Tampa Bay Times stating that the children in the picture were not students at the school. The children who were interviewed by CNN were actually students at Stoneman Douglas High School. As a result of the backlash, Kelly was fired hours later. Former Republican congressman and CNN contributor Jack Kingston suggested student demonstrators were paid by billionaire George Soros or were supported by members of Antifa. A video with a description espousing a conspiracy theory that student David Hogg was a "crisis actor '' reached the top of YouTube 's trending page before it was removed by the company.
The Alliance for Securing Democracy showed that Russia - linked accounts on Twitter and other platforms used the shooting 's aftermath to inflame tensions and divide Americans by posting loaded comments that oppose gun control. Other Russia - linked accounts labeled the shooting a false flag operation that the U.S. government would exploit to seize guns from citizens. Hundreds of Russian bots are also suspected of coming to the defense of Laura Ingraham on Twitter following the boycott of her show, The Ingraham Angle that resulted from her public ridicule of Hogg.
Some of the survivors of the massacre and their relatives were targeted by online harassment that included death threats. Cameron Kasky wrote on Twitter that he was quitting Facebook for the time being, because the death threats from "NRA cultists '' were slightly more graphic on a service without a character limit.
On May 23, 2018 the parents of victims Jaime Guttenberg and Alex Schachter sued firearm manufacturer American Outdoor Brands Corporation, formerly known as Smith & Wesson, the manufacturer of the rifle used by Cruz, and distributor Sunrise Tactical Supply, the retailer who sold Cruz the rifle, claiming damages due to the defendents ' "complicity in the entirely foreseeable, deadly use of the assault - style weapons that they place on the market. ''
On June 3, 2018, the school held its graduation ceremony with diploma presentations to the families of Nicholas Dworet, Joaquin Oliver, Meadow Pollack, and Carmen Schentrup. The school 's principal Ty Thompson began by dedicating the ceremony to "those not with us ''. Many graduates wore sashes that were emblazoned with # MSDStrong, or decorated their caps with references to the Never Again movement, while some dedicated their caps to their classmates. Families of the victims also made statements, with the mother of Joaquin Oliver accepting his diploma wearing a shirt saying "This should be my son ''. Talk show host Jimmy Fallon made a surprise appearance and gave a commencement speech to the graduating class, thanking them for their courage and bravery.
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what is the release date for resident evil 2 remake | Resident Evil 2 (2019 video game) - Wikipedia
Resident Evil 2 is an upcoming survival horror game developed and published by Capcom. A remake of Resident Evil 2 (1998), it follows rookie police officer Leon S. Kennedy and college student Claire Redfield as they attempt to escape from Raccoon City during a zombie apocalypse. It is scheduled to be released worldwide for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on January 25, 2019.
Unlike the original Resident Evil 2, which uses tank controls and fixed camera angles, the remake features "over-the - shoulder '' third - person shooter gameplay similar to Resident Evil 4.
The original Resident Evil 2 was released for the PlayStation in 1998. Following the release of the 2002 remake of the first Resident Evil for GameCube, Capcom considered a similar remake of Resident Evil 2 at the time, but series creator Shinji Mikami did not want to divert development away from Resident Evil 4. In August 2015, Capcom announced that the remake was in development. No further details were released until E3 2018, when Capcom revealed a trailer and gameplay footage. Hideki Kamiya, director of the original Resident Evil 2, said that he had tried to push Capcom to create a remake of the game for years.
Producer Yoshiaki Hirabayashi stated that the team was striving to capture the spirit of the original game. He added that feedback received from Resident Evil 6, a game he also produced, was used during development. Resident Evil 2 uses the RE Engine, the same game engine used for Resident Evil 7; the engine allowed Capcom to modernize the gameplay.
To meet modern expectations, the team attempted to make the remake more realistic; for example, Leon no longer wears the large shoulder pads added to distinguish his model using low - polygon graphics. Though they strove to make a "modern, accessible '' game, they focused on horror over action, hoping to preserve a claustrophobic feel. Producer Tsuyoshi Kanda acknowledged the difficulty of making zombies scary, as they had became ubiquitous in entertainment media since the release of the original Resident Evil in 1996. By removing the fixed camera angles, the team had to use different ways to conceal enemies, using elements such as room layout, lighting, and smoke. The new camera system also affected the sound design, as it no longer made sense for sound to come from a fixed source.
Resident Evil 2 is scheduled for worldwide release for PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Windows on January 25, 2019. The game supports enhancements on the PlayStation 4 Pro and Xbox One X, offering either 4K resolution or 60 frames per second.
Following its E3 2018 showing, Resident Evil 2 won the "Best of Show '' award at the 2018 Game Critics Awards.
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when was the british open played at carnoustie | Carnoustie Golf Links - wikipedia
The Carnoustie Golf Links are in Carnoustie, Angus, Scotland. Its historic championship golf course is one of the venues in the Open Championship rotation.
Golf is recorded as having been played at Carnoustie in the early 16th century. In 1890, the 14th Earl of Dalhousie, who owned the land, sold the links to the local authority. It had no funds to acquire the property, and public fundraising was undertaken and donated to the council. The original course was of ten holes, crossing and recrossing the Barry Burn; it was designed by Allan Robertson, assisted by Old Tom Morris, and opened in 1842. The opening of the coastal railway from Dundee to Arbroath in 1838 brought an influx of golfers from as far afield as Edinburgh, anxious to tackle the ancient links. This led to a complete restructuring of the course, extended in 1867 by Old Tom Morris to the 18 holes which had meanwhile become standardized. Young Tom Morris won a major open event there that same year. Two additional courses have since been added: the Burnside Course and the shorter though equally testing Buddon Links.
Carnoustie first played host to The Open Championship in 1931, after modifications to the course by James Braid in 1926. The winner then was Tommy Armour, from Edinburgh.
Later Open winners at Carnoustie include Henry Cotton of England in 1937, Ben Hogan of the USA in 1953, Gary Player of South Africa in 1968, Tom Watson of the USA in 1975, Paul Lawrie of Scotland in 1999, Pádraig Harrington of Ireland in 2007 and Francesco Molinari of Italy in 2018. The 1975, 1999 and 2007 editions were all won in playoffs.
The Championship course was modified significantly (but kept its routing used since 1926) prior to the 1999 Open, with all bunkers being rebuilt, many bunkers both added and eliminated, many green complexes expanded and enhanced, and several new tees being built. A large hotel was also built behind the 18th green of the Championship course.
The Amateur Championship was first hosted by Carnoustie in 1947; the winner was Willie Turnesa. The world 's oldest amateur event has returned three times since: 1966 (won by Bobby Cole), 1971 (won by Steve Melnyk), and 1992 (won by Stephen Dundas).
The British Ladies Amateur was first hosted by Carnoustie in 1973, and also in 2012.
The Senior Open Championship was held at Carnoustie for the first time in 2010, with Germany 's Bernhard Langer winning. The Women 's British Open was held here for the first time in 2011; the winner was Yani Tseng.
Carnoustie is one of the three courses hosting the Alfred Dunhill Links Championship, an autumn event on the European Tour; the others are the Old Course at St Andrews and Kingsbarns.
The Golf Channel 's reality series The Big Break, in which aspiring golfers compete for exemptions on professional tours and other prizes, filmed its fourth season at Carnoustie in 2005. As that year also saw the Ryder Cup at The K Club in Ireland, that year 's show was based around a US vs Europe theme, with the two teams competing for European Tour exemptions.
In North America, the course is nicknamed "Car - nasty, '' due to its famous difficulty, especially under adverse weather conditions. Carnoustie is considered by many to be the most difficult course in the Open rota, and one of the toughest courses in the world.
The term Carnoustie effect dates from the 1999 Open, when the world 's best players, many of whom were reared on manicured and relatively windless courses, were frustrated by the unexpected difficulties of the Carnoustie links, which was compounded by the weather. One much - fancied young favourite, a 19 - year - old Sergio García of Spain, went straight from the course to his mother 's arms crying after shooting 89 and 83 in the first two rounds. The Carnoustie effect is defined as "that degree of mental and psychic shock experienced on collision with reality by those whose expectations are founded on false assumptions. '' This being a psychological term, it can of course apply to disillusionment in any area of activity, not just in golf.
The 1999 Open Championship is best remembered for the collapse of French golfer Jean van de Velde, who needed only a double - bogey six on the 72nd hole to win the Open -- and proceeded to score a triple - bogey seven, tying Paul Lawrie and 1997 champion Justin Leonard at 290 (+ 6). Lawrie won the four - hole aggregate playoff and the championship.
The Open Championship was once again contested at Carnoustie in July 2007. The eight - year absence was far shorter than the lengthy 24 years it took to return to Carnoustie, between 1975 and 1999. Harrington triumphed over García in a four - hole playoff. The 18th hole once again proved itself among the most dramatic and exciting in championship golf. Harrington had a one - shot lead over García as he approached the final hole in the fourth round, but proceeded to put not one but two shots into the Barry Burn, on his way to a double - bogey 6. García, playing in the final pairing of the day, reached the 18th with a one - shot lead over Harrington, but bogeyed the hole after missing a putt from just under ten feet away, setting up the playoff. In the four - hole playoff, which ended on the 18th, Harrington took no chances with a two - shot lead on the 18th; his bogey was enough to defeat García by one shot.
The Open Championship returned to Carnoustie in 2018.
On 17 January 2014, it was announced that Carnoustie Golf Links -- which operates the six publicly owned courses, including the Championship Course -- had appointed its first - ever female chairman, Pat Sawers.
This is a list of The Open Championship champions at Carnoustie Golf Links:
Winner of the Women 's British Open at Carnoustie Golf Links.
Winner of The Senior Open Championship at Carnoustie Golf Links.
Carnoustie Golf Links - Championship Course 2007 Open Championship
Lengths of the course for previous Opens (since 1950):
The 12th hole was played as a par - 5 through 1975.
Length of the course for Women 's British Open
Length of the course for Senior Open Championship
Source:
Source:
Coordinates: 56 ° 29 ′ 49 '' N 2 ° 43 ′ 01 '' W / 56.497 ° N 2.717 ° W / 56.497; - 2.717
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why did the romans change the names of the greek gods | Roman mythology - wikipedia
Roman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Rome 's legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans. "Roman mythology '' may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to the subject matter as represented in the literature and art of other cultures in any period.
The Romans usually treated their traditional narratives as historical, even when these have miraculous or supernatural elements. The stories are often concerned with politics and morality, and how an individual 's personal integrity relates to his or her responsibility to the community or Roman state. Heroism was an important theme. When the stories illuminate Roman religious practices, they are more concerned with ritual, augury, and institutions than with theology or cosmogony.
The study of Roman religion and myth is complicated by the early influence of Greek religion on the Italian peninsula during Rome 's protohistory, and by the later artistic imitation of Greek literary models by Roman authors. In matters of theology, the Romans were curiously eager to identify their own gods with those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), and to reinterpret stories about Greek deities under the names of their Roman counterparts. Rome 's early myths and legends also have a dynamic relationship with Etruscan religion, less documented than that of the Greeks.
While Roman mythology may lack a body of divine narratives as extensive as that found in Greek literature, Romulus and Remus suckling the she - wolf is as famous as any image from Greek mythology except for the Trojan Horse. Because Latin literature was more widely known in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, the interpretations of Greek myths by the Romans often had a greater influence on narrative and pictorial representations of "classical mythology '' than Greek sources. In particular, the versions of Greek myths in Ovid 's Metamorphoses, written during the reign of Augustus, came to be regarded as canonical.
Because ritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of a native mythology. This perception is a product of Romanticism and the classical scholarship of the 19th century, which valued Greek civilization as more "authentically creative. '' From the Renaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly for European painting. The Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities but a pervasive sense of divinely ordered destiny. In Rome 's earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship. As T.P. Wiseman notes:
The Roman stories still matter, as they mattered to Dante in 1300 and Shakespeare in 1600 and the founding fathers of the United States in 1776. What does it take to be a free citizen? Can a superpower still be a republic? How does well - meaning authority turn into murderous tyranny?
Major sources for Roman myth include the Aeneid of Vergil and the first few books of Livy 's history as well as Dionysius ' s Roman Antiquities. Other important sources are the Fasti of Ovid, a six - book poem structured by the Roman religious calendar, and the fourth book of elegies by Propertius. Scenes from Roman myth also appear in Roman wall painting, coins, and sculpture, particularly reliefs.
The Aeneid and Livy 's early history are the best extant sources for Rome 's founding myths. Material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. The Trojan prince Aeneas was cast as husband of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus, patronymical ancestor of the Latini, and therefore through a convoluted revisionist genealogy as forebear of Romulus and Remus. By extension, the Trojans were adopted as the mythical ancestors of the Roman people.
The characteristic myths of Rome are often political or moral, that is, they deal with the development of Roman government in accordance with divine law, as expressed by Roman religion, and with demonstrations of the individual 's adherence to moral expectations (mos maiorum) or failures to do so.
Narratives of divine activity played a more important role in the system of Greek religious belief than among the Romans, for whom ritual and cult were primary. Although Roman religion did not have a basis in scriptures and exegesis, priestly literature was one of the earliest written forms of Latin prose. The books (libri) and commentaries (commentarii) of the College of Pontiffs and of the augurs contained religious procedures, prayers, and rulings and opinions on points of religious law. Although at least some of this archived material was available for consultation by the Roman senate, it was often occultum genus litterarum, an arcane form of literature to which by definition only priests had access. Prophecies pertaining to world history and to Rome 's destiny turn up fortuitously at critical junctures in history, discovered suddenly in the nebulous Sibylline books, which Tarquin the Proud (according to legend) purchased in the late 6th century BC from the Cumaean Sibyl. Some aspects of archaic Roman religion survived in the lost theological works of the 1st - century BC scholar Varro, known through other classical and Christian authors.
The earliest pantheon included Janus, Vesta, and a leading so - called Archaic Triad of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, whose flamens were of the highest order. According to tradition, Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome, founded Roman religion; Numa was believed to have had as his consort and adviser a Roman goddess or nymph of fountains and of prophecy, Egeria. The Etruscan - influenced Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva later became central to official religion, replacing the Archaic Triad -- an unusual example within Indo - European religion of a supreme triad formed of two female deities and only one male. The cult of Diana became established on the Aventine Hill, but the most famous Roman manifestation of this goddess may be Diana Nemorensis, owing to the attention paid to her cult by J.G. Frazer in the mythographical classic The Golden Bough.
The gods represented distinctly the practical needs of daily life, and Ancient Romans scrupulously accorded them the appropriate rites and offerings. Early Roman divinities included a host of "specialist gods '' whose names were invoked in the carrying out of various specific activities. Fragments of old ritual accompanying such acts as plowing or sowing reveal that at every stage of the operation a separate deity was invoked, the name of each deity being regularly derived from the verb for the operation. Tutelary deities were particularly important in ancient Rome.
Thus, Janus and Vesta guarded the door and hearth, the Lares protected the field and house, Pales the pasture, Saturn the sowing, Ceres the growth of the grain, Pomona the fruit, and Consus and Ops the harvest. Even the majestic Jupiter, the ruler of the gods, was honored for the aid his rains might give to the farms and vineyards. In his more encompassing character he was considered, through his weapon of lightning, the director of human activity. Due to his widespread domain, the Romans regarded him as their protector in their military activities beyond the borders of their own community. Prominent in early times were the gods Mars and Quirinus, who were often identified with each other. Mars was a god of war; he was honored in March and October. Modern scholars see Quirinus as the patron of the armed community in time of peace.
The 19th - century scholar Georg Wissowa thought that the Romans distinguished two classes of gods, the di indigetes and the di novensides or novensiles: the indigetes were the original gods of the Roman state, their names and nature indicated by the titles of the earliest priests and by the fixed festivals of the calendar, with 30 such gods honored by special festivals; the novensides were later divinities whose cults were introduced to the city in the historical period, usually at a known date and in response to a specific crisis or felt need. Arnaldo Momigliano and others, however, have argued that this distinction can not be maintained. During the war with Hannibal, any distinction between "indigenous '' and "immigrant '' gods begins to fade, and the Romans embraced diverse gods from various cultures as a sign of strength and universal divine favor.
The absorption of neighboring local gods took place as the Roman state conquered neighboring territories. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of a conquered territory the same honors as the earlier gods of the Roman state religion. In addition to Castor and Pollux, the conquered settlements in Italy seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana, Minerva, Hercules, Venus, and deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italic divinities, others originally derived from the Greek culture of Magna Graecia. In 203 BC, Rome imported the cult object embodying Cybele from Pessinus in Phrygia and welcomed its arrival with due ceremony. Both Lucretius ad Catullus, poets contemporary in the mid-1st century BC, offer disapproving glimpses of Cybele 's wildly ecstatic cult.
In some instances, deities of an enemy power were formally invited through the ritual of evocatio to take up their abode in new sanctuaries at Rome.
Communities of foreigners (peregrini) and former slaves (libertini) continued their own religious practices within the city. In this way Mithras came to Rome and his popularity within the Roman army spread his cult as far afield as Roman Britain. The important Roman deities were eventually identified with the more anthropomorphic Greek gods and goddesses, and assumed many of their attributes and myths.
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when did the british empire take over australia | History of Australia (1788 -- 1850) - wikipedia
The history of Australia from 1788 -- 1850 covers the early colonial period of Australia 's history, from the arrival in 1788 of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney, New South Wales, who established the penal colony, the scientific exploration of the continent and later, establishment of other Australian colonies and the beginnings of representative democratic government. European colonisation would have a devastating effect on the pre-existing population of Indigenous Australians, and debate continues in the 21st century as to whether the colonisation process represented settlement, invasion, or a mixture of both.
It is commonly reported that the colonisation of Australia was driven by the need to address overcrowding in the British prison system, and the fact of the British losing the United States of America from the American Revolution; however, it was simply not economically viable to transport convicts halfway around the world for this reason alone. Many convicts were either skilled tradesmen or farmers who had been convicted for trivial crimes and were sentenced to seven years, the time required to set up the infrastructure for the new colony. Convicts were often given pardons prior to or on completion of their sentences and were allocated parcels of land to farm.
Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site. Banks accepted an offer of assistance made by the American Loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Matra had visited Botany Bay with Banks in 1770 as a junior officer on the Endeavour commanded by James Cook. Under Banks 's guidance, he rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales '' (23 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts).
Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in March 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers. Matra 's plan can be seen to have "provided the original blueprint for settlement in New South Wales ''. A cabinet memorandum December 1784 shows the Government had Matra 's plan in mind when considering the creation of a settlement in New South Wales. The London Chronicle of 12 October 1786 said: "Mr. Matra, an Officer of the Treasury, who, sailing with Capt. Cook, had an opportunity of visiting Botany Bay, is the Gentleman who suggested the plan to Government of transporting convicts to that island ''. The Government also incorporated into the colonisation plan the project for settling Norfolk Island, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks 's Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young.
On 13 May 1787, the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 1530 people (736 convicts, 17 convicts ' children, 211 marines, 27 marines ' wives, 14 marines ' children and about 300 officers and others) under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail for Botany Bay. The Fleet of 11 vessels consisted of over a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. This date later became Australia 's national day, Australia Day. The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip famously described as:
Phillip named the settlement after the Home Secretary, Thomas Townshend, 1st Baron Sydney (Viscount Sydney from 1789). The only people at the flag raising ceremony and the formal taking of possession of the land in the name of King George III were Phillip and a few dozen marines and officers from the Supply, the rest of the ship 's company and the convicts witnessing it from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet were unable to leave Botany Bay until later on 26 January because of a tremendous gale. The new colony was formally proclaimed as the Colony of New South Wales on 7 February.
On 24 January 1788 a French expedition of two ships led by Admiral Jean - François de La Pérouse had arrived off Botany Bay, on the latest leg of a three - year voyage that had taken them from Brest, around Cape Horn, up the coast from Chile to California, north - west to Kamchatka, south - east to Easter Island, north - west to Macao, and on to the Philippines, the Friendly Isles, Hawaii and Norfolk Island. Though amicably received, the French expedition was a troublesome matter for the British, as it showed the interest of France in the new land.
Nevertheless, on 2 February Lieutenant King, at Phillip 's request, paid a courtesy call on the French and offered them any assistance they may need. The French made the same offer to the British, as they were much better provisioned than the British and had enough supplies to last three years. Neither of these offers was accepted. On 10 March the French expedition, having taken on water and wood, left Botany Bay, never to be seen again. Phillip and La Pérouse never met. La Pérouse is remembered in a Sydney suburb of that name. Various other French geographical names along the Australian coast also date from this expedition.
Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. Phillip 's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Phillip and several of his officers -- most notably Watkin Tench -- left behind journals and accounts of which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement. Often Phillip 's officers despaired for the future of New South Wales. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were few and far between. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney -- many "professional criminals '' with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. Many new arrivals were also sick or unfit for work and the conditions of healthy convicts only deteriorated with hard labour and poor sustenance in the settlement. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its "passengers '' through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791 however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.
In 1792, two French ships, La Recherche and L'Espérance anchored in a harbour near Tasmania 's southernmost point they called Recherche Bay. This was at a time when Britain and France were trying to be the first to discover and colonise Australia. The expedition carried scientists and cartographers, gardeners, artists and hydrographers who, variously, planted, identified, mapped, marked, recorded and documented the environment and the people of the new lands that they encountered at the behest of the fledgling Société D'Histoire Naturelle.
White settlement began with a consignment of English convicts, guarded by a detachment of the Royal Marines, a number of whom subsequently stayed in the colony as settlers. Their view of the colony and their place in it was eloquently stated by Captain David Collins: "From the disposition to crimes and the incorrigible character of the major part of the colonists, an odium was, from the first, illiberally thrown upon the settlement; and the word "Botany Bay '' became a term of reproach that was indiscriminately cast upon every one who resided in New South Wales. But let the reproach light upon those who have used it as such... if the honour of having deserved well of one 's country be attainable by sacrificing good name, domestic comforts, and dearest connections in her service, the officers of this settlement have justly merited that distinction ".
When the Bellona transport came to anchor in Sydney Cove on 16 January 1793, she brought with her the first immigrant free settlers. They were: Thomas Rose, a farmer from Dorset, his wife and four children; he was allowed a grant of 120 acres; Frederic Meredith, who had formerly been at Sydney with HMS Sirius; Thomas Webb (who had also been formerly at Sydney with the Sirius), his wife, and his nephew, Joseph Webb; Edward Powell, who had formerly been at Sydney with the Juliana transport, and who married a free woman after his arrival. Thomas Webb and Edward Powell each received a grant of 80 acres; and Joseph Webb and Frederic Meredith received 60 acres each.
The conditions they had come out under were that they should be provided with a free passage, be furnished with agricultural tools and implements by the Government, have two years ' provisions, and have grants of land free of expense. They were likewise to have the labour of a certain number of convicts, who were also to be provided with two years ' rations and one year 's clothing from the public stores. The land assigned to them was some miles to the westward of Sydney, at a place named by the settlers, "Liberty Plains ''. It is now the area covered mainly by the suburbs of Strathfield and Homebush.
One in three convicts transported after 1798 was Irish, about a fifth of whom were transported in connection with the political and agrarian disturbances common in Ireland at the time. While the settlers were reasonably well - equipped, little consideration had been given to the skills required to make the colony self - supporting -- few of the first wave convicts had farming or trade experience (nor the soldiers), and the lack of understanding of Australia 's seasonal patterns saw initial attempts at farming fail, leaving only what animals and birds the soldiers were able to shoot. The colony nearly starved, and Phillip was forced to send a ship to Batavia (Jakarta) for supplies. Some relief arrived with the Second Fleet in 1790, but life was extremely hard for the first few years of the colony.
Convicts were usually sentenced to seven or fourteen years ' penal servitude, or "for the term of their natural lives ''. Often these sentences had been commuted from the death sentence, which was technically the punishment for a wide variety of crimes. Upon arrival in a penal colony, convicts would be assigned to various kinds of work. Those with trades were given tasks to fit their skills (stonemasons, for example, were in very high demand) while the unskilled were assigned to work gangs to build roads and do other such tasks. Female convicts were usually assigned as domestic servants to the free settlers, many being forced into prostitution.
Where possible, convicts were assigned to free settlers who would be responsible for feeding and disciplining them; in return for this, the settlers were granted land. This system reduced the workload on the central administration. Those convicts who were n't assigned to settlers were housed at barracks such as the Hyde Park Barracks or the Parramatta female factory.
Convict discipline was harsh, convicts who would not work or who disobeyed orders were punished by flogging, being put in stricter confinement (e.g. leg - irons), or being transported to a stricter penal colony. The penal colonies at Port Arthur and Moreton Bay, for instance, were stricter than the one at Sydney, and the one at Norfolk Island was strictest of all. Convicts were assigned to work gangs to build roads, buildings, and the like. Female convicts, who made up 20 % of the convict population, were usually assigned as domestic help to soldiers. Those convicts who behaved were eventually issued with ticket of leave, which allowed them a certain degree of freedom. Those who saw out their full sentences or were granted a pardon usually remained in Australia as free settlers, and were able to take on convict servants themselves.
In 1789 former convict James Ruse produced the first successful wheat harvest in NSW. He repeated this success in 1790 and, because of the pressing need for food production in the colony, was rewarded by Governor Phillip with the first land grant made in New South Wales. Ruse 's 30 acre grant at Rose Hill, near Parramatta, was aptly named ' Experiment Farm '. This was the colony 's first successful farming enterprise, and Ruse was soon joined by others. The colony began to grow enough food to support itself, and the standard of living for the residents gradually improved.
In 1804 the Vinegar Hill convict rebellion was led by around 200 escaped, mostly Irish convicts, although it was broken up quickly by the New South Wales Corps. On 26 January 1808, there was a military rebellion against Governor Bligh led by John Macarthur. Following this, Governor Lachlan Macquarie was given a mandate to restore government and discipline in the colony. When he arrived in 1810, he forcibly deported the NSW Corps and brought the 73rd regiment to replace them.
In October 1795 George Bass and Matthew Flinders, accompanied by William Martin sailed the boat Tom Thumb out of Port Jackson to Botany Bay and explored the Georges River further upstream than had been done previously by the colonists. Their reports on their return led to the settlement of Banks ' Town. In March 1796 the same party embarked on a second voyage in a similar small boat, which they also called the Tom Thumb. During this trip they travelled as far down the coast as Lake Illawarra, which they called Tom Thumb Lagoon. They discovered and explored Port Hacking. In 1798 -- 99, Bass and Flinders set out in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania, thus proving it to be an island.
Aboriginal guides and assistance in the European exploration of the colony were common and often vital to the success of missions. In 1801 -- 02 Matthew Flinders in The Investigator lead the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree, of the Sydney district, who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate the Australian continent. Previously, the famous Bennelong and a companion had become the first people born in the area of New South Wales to sail for Europe, when, in 1792 they accompanied Governor Phillip to England and were presented to King George III.
In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth succeeded in crossing the formidable barrier of forested gulleys and sheer cliffs presented by the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, by following the ridges instead of looking for a route through the valleys. At Mount Blaxland they looked out over "enough grass to support the stock of the colony for thirty years '', and expansion of the British settlement into the interior could begin.
In 1824 the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane, commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales 's western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824 -- 25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They made many important discoveries including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Victoria.
Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River. A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a ' broad and noble river ', the Murray River, which he named after Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River, facing two threatening encounters with local Aboriginal people along the way. Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Suffering greatly, the party had to then row back upstream hundreds of kilometres for the return journey.
Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to ' fill in the gaps ' left by these previous expeditions. He was meticulous in seeking to record the original Aboriginal place names around the colony, for which reason the majority of place names to this day retain their Aboriginal titles.
The Polish scientist / explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and became the first European to ascend Australia 's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kosciuszko.
Traditional Aboriginal society had been governed by councils of elders and a corporate decision - making process, but the first European - style governments established after 1788 were autocratic and run by appointed governors -- although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.
The Second Fleet in 1790 brought to Sydney two men who were to play important roles in the colony 's future. One was D'Arcy Wentworth, whose son, William Charles, went on to be an explorer, to found Australia 's first newspaper and to become a leader of the movement to abolish convict transportation and establish representative government. The other was John Macarthur, a Scottish army officer and founder of the Australian wool industry, which laid the foundations of Australia 's future prosperity. Macarthur was a turbulent element: in 1808 he was one of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion against the governor, William Bligh.
From about 1815 the colony, under the governorship of Lachlan Macquarie, began to grow rapidly as free settlers arrived and new lands were opened up for farming. Despite the long and arduous sea voyage, settlers were attracted by the prospect of making a new life on virtually free Crown land. From the late 1820s settlement was only authorised in the limits of location, known as the Nineteen Counties.
Many settlers occupied land without authority and beyond these authorised settlement limits: they were known as squatters and became the basis of a powerful landowning class. As a result of opposition from the labouring and artisan classes, transportation of convicts to Sydney ended in 1840, although it continued in the smaller colonies of Van Diemen 's Land (first settled in 1803, later renamed Tasmania) and Moreton Bay (founded 1824, and later renamed Queensland) for a few years more.
The Swan River Settlement (as Western Australia was originally known), centred on Perth, was founded in 1829. The colony suffered from a long - term shortage of labour, and by 1850 local capitalists had succeeded in persuading London to send convicts. (Transportation did not end until 1868.) New Zealand was part of New South Wales until 1840 when it became a separate colony.
The first governments established after 1788 were autocratic and each colony was governed by a British Governor, appointed by the British monarch. There was considerable unhappiness with the way some of the colonies were run. In most cases the administration of the early colonies was carried out by the British military. The New South Wales Corps, which was in charge of New South Wales, became known as the "Rum Corps '', due to its stranglehold on the distribution of rum, which was used as a makeshift currency at the time. In New South Wales this led to the "Rum Rebellion ''. Although English law was transplanted into the Australian colonies by virtue of the doctrine of reception, thus notions of the rights and processes established by the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 were brought from Britain by the colonists. Agitation for representative government began soon after the settlement of the colonies.
The oldest legislative body in Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 as an appointed body to advise the Governor of New South Wales. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia 's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. The reformist attorney general, John Plunkett, sought to apply Enlightenment principles to governance in the colony, pursuing the establishment of equality before the law, first by extending jury rights to emancipists, then by extending legal protections to convicts, assigned servants and Aborigines. Plunkett twice charged the colonist perpetrators of the Myall Creek massacre of Aborigines with murder, resulting in a conviction and his landmark Church Act of 1836 disestablished the Church of England and established legal equality between Anglicans, Catholics, Presbyterians and later Methodists.
In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were established. Men who possessed 1000 pounds worth of property were able to stand for election and wealthy landowners were permitted up to four votes each in elections. Australia 's first parliamentary elections were conducted for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with voting rights (for males only) tied to property ownership or financial capacity. Voter rights were extended further in New South Wales in 1850 and elections for legislative councils were held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.
By the mid-19th century, there was a strong desire for representative and responsible government in the colonies of Australia, later fed by the democratic spirit of the goldfields and the ideas of the great reform movements sweeping Europe, the United States and the British Empire. The end of convict transportation accelerated reform in the 1840s and 1850s. The Australian Colonies Government Act (1850) was a landmark development which granted representative constitutions to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania and the colonies enthusiastically set about writing constitutions which produced democratically progressive parliaments -- though the constitutions generally maintained the role of the colonial upper houses as representative of social and economic "interests '' and all established constitutional monarchies with the British monarch as the symbolic head of state.
The colonies relied heavily on imports from England for survival. The official currency of the colonies was the British pound, but the unofficial currency and most readily accepted trade good was rum. During this period Australian businessmen began to prosper. For example, the partnership of Berry and Wollstonecraft made enormous profits by means of land grants, convict labour, and exporting native cedar back to England.
Since time immemorial in Australia, indigenous people had performed the rites and rituals of the animist religion of the Dreamtime. The permanent presence of Christianity in Australia however, came with the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788. As a British colony, the predominant Christian denomination was the Church of England, but one - tenth of all the convicts who came to Australia on the First Fleet were Catholic, and at least half of them were born in Ireland.
A small proportion of British marines were also Catholic. Some of the Irish convicts had been Transported to Australia for political crimes or social rebellion in Ireland, so the authorities were suspicious of the minority religion for the first three decades of settlement. It was therefore the crew of the French explorer La Pérouse who conducted the first Catholic ceremony on Australian soil in 1788 -- the burial of Father Louis Receveur, a Franciscan monk, who died while the ships were at anchor at Botany Bay, while on a mission to explore the Pacific.
In early colonial times, Church of England clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson, Anglican chaplain to the First Fleet, was charged by the governor, Arthur Phillip, with improving "public morality '' in the colony, but he was also heavily involved in health and education. The Reverend Samuel Marsden (1765 -- 1838) had magisterial duties, and so was equated with the authorities by the convicts. He became known as the ' floging parson ' for the severity of his punishments
Catholic convicts were compelled to attend Church of England services and their children and orphans were raised by the authorities as Protestant. The first Catholic priest colonists arrived in Australia as convicts in 1800 -- James Harold, James Dixon, and Peter O'Neill, who had been convicted for ' complicity ' in the Irish 1798 Rebellion. Fr Dixon was conditionally emancipated and permitted to celebrate Mass. On 15 May 1803, in vestments made from curtains and with a chalice made of tin he conducted the first Catholic Mass in New South Wales.
The Irish led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804 alarmed the British authorities and Dixon 's permission to celebrate Mass was revoked. Fr Jeremiah Flynn, an Irish Cistercian, was appointed as Prefect Apostolic of New Holland, and set out from Britain for the colony, uninvited. Watched by authorities, Flynn secretly performed priestly duties before being arrested and deported to London. Reaction to the affair in Britain led to two further priests being allowed to travel to the Colony in 1820 -- John Joseph Therry and Philip Connolly. The foundation stone for the first St Mary 's Cathedral, Sydney was laid on 29 October 1821 by Governor Lachlan Macquarie.
The absence of a Catholic mission in Australia before 1818 reflected the legal disabilities of Catholics in Britain and the difficult position of Ireland within the British Empire. The government therefore endorsed the English Benedictines to lead the early Church in the Colony. The Church of England lost its legal privileges in the Colony of New South Wales by the Church Act of 1836. Drafted by the reformist attorney - general John Plunkett, the Act established legal equality for Anglicans, Catholics and Presbyterians and was later extended to Methodists. Catholic missionary William Ullathorne criticised the convict system, publishing a pamphlet, The Horrors of Transportation Briefly Unfolded to the People, in Britain in 1837. Laywoman Caroline Chisolm did ecumenical work to alleviate the suffering of female migrants.
Initially, education was informal, primarily occurring in the home. At the instigation of the then British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, and with the patronage of King William IV, Australia 's oldest surviving independent school, The King 's School, Parramatta, was founded in 1831 as part of an effort to establish grammar schools in the colony. By 1833, there were around ten Catholic schools in the Australian colonies. Today one in five Australian students attend Catholic schools.
Sydney 's first Catholic Bishop, John Bede Polding requested a community of nuns be sent to the colony and five Irish Sisters of Charity arrived in 1838 to set about pastoral care of convict women and work in schools and hospitals before going on to found their own schools and hospitals. At Polding 's request, the Christian Brothers arrived in Sydney in 1843 to assist in schools. Establishing themselves first at Sevenhill, in South Australia in 1848, the Jesuits were the first religious order of priests to enter and establish houses in South Australia, Victoria, Queensland and the Northern Territory -- where they established schools and missions.
Some Australian folksongs date to this period.
Among the first true works of Australian literature produced over this period was the accounts of the settlement of Sydney by Watkin Tench, a captain of the marines on the First Fleet to arrive in 1788. In 1819, poet, explorer, journalist and politician William Wentworth published the first book written by an Australian: A Statistical, Historical, and Political Description of the Colony of New South Wales and Its Dependent Settlements in Van Diemen 's Land, With a Particular Enumeration of the Advantages Which These Colonies Offer for Emigration and Their Superiority in Many Respects Over Those Possessed by the United States of America, in which he advocated an elected assembly for New South Wales, trial by jury and settlement of Australia by free emigrants rather than convicts. In 1838 The Guardian: a tale by Anna Maria Bunn was published in Sydney. It was the first Australian novel printed and published in mainland Australia and the first Australian novel written by a woman. It is a Gothic romance.
European traditions of Australian theatre also came with the First Fleet, with the first production being performed in 1789 by convicts: The Recruiting Officer by George Farquhar. Two centuries later, the extraordinary circumstances of the foundations of Australian theatre were recounted in Our Country 's Good by Timberlake Wertenbaker: the participants were prisoners watched by sadistic guards and the leading lady was under threat of the death penalty. The play is based on Thomas Keneally 's novel The Playmaker. The Theatre Royal, Hobart, opened in 1837 and it remains the oldest theatre in Australia. The Melbourne Athenaeum is one of the oldest public institutions in Australia, founded in 1839 and it served as library, school of arts and dance hall (and later became Australia 's first cinema, screening The Story of the Kelly Gang, the world 's first feature film in 1906). The Queen 's Theatre, Adelaide opened with Shakespeare in 1841 and is today the oldest theatre on the mainland.
Aboriginal reactions to the sudden arrival of British settlers were varied, but often hostile when the presence of the colonisers led to competition over resources, and to the occupation by the British of Aboriginal lands. European diseases decimated Aboriginal populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources led to starvation. By contrast with New Zealand, where the Treaty of Waitangi was seen to legitimise British settlement, no treaty was signed with Aborigines, who never authorised British colonisation.
According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period:
"In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralisation ''.
Since the 1980s, the use of the word "invasion '' to describe the British colonisation of Australia has been highly controversial. According to Australian Henry Reynolds however, government officials and ordinary settlers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries frequently used words such as "invasion '' and "warfare '' to describe their presence and relations with Indigenous Australians. In his book The Other Side of the Frontier, Reynolds described in detail armed resistance by Aboriginal people to white encroachments by means of guerilla warfare, beginning in the eighteenth century and continuing into the early twentieth.
In the early years of colonisation, David Collins, the senior legal officer in the Sydney settlement, wrote of local Aborigines:
While they entertain the idea of our having dispossessed them of their residences, they must always consider us as enemies; and upon this principle they (have) made a point of attacking the white people whenever opportunity and safety concurred.
In 1847, Western Australian barrister E.W. Landor stated: "We have seized upon the country, and shot down the inhabitants, until the survivors have found it expedient to submit to our rule. We have acted as Julius Caesar did when he took possession of Britain. '' In most cases, Reynolds says, Aborigines initially resisted British presence. In a letter to the Launceston Advertiser in 1831, a settler wrote:
We are at war with them: they look upon us as enemies -- as invaders -- as oppressors and persecutors -- they resist our invasion. They have never been subdued, therefore they are not rebellious subjects, but an injured nation, defending in their own way, their rightful possessions which have been torn from them by force.
Reynolds quotes numerous writings by settlers who, in the first half of the nineteenth century, described themselves as living in fear and even in terror due to attacks by Aborigines determined to kill them or drive them off their lands. He argues that Aboriginal resistance was, in some cases at least, temporarily effective; the Aboriginal killings of men, sheep and cattle, and burning of white homes and crops, drove some settlers to ruin. Aboriginal resistance continued well beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, and in 1881 the editor of The Queenslander wrote:
During the last four or five years the human life and property destroyed by the aborigines in the North total up to a serious amount. (...) (S) ettlement on the land, and the development of the mineral and other resources on the country, have been in a great degree prohibited by the hostility of the blacks, which still continues with undiminished spirit.
Reynolds argues that continuous Aboriginal resistance for well over a century belies the "myth '' of peaceful settlement in Australia. Settlers in turn often reacted to Aboriginal resistance with great violence, resulting in numerous indiscriminate massacres by whites of Aboriginal men, women and children. Among the most famous massacres of the early nineteenth century were the Pinjarra massacre and the Myall Creek massacre.
Famous Aborigines who resisted British colonisation in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries include Pemulwuy and Yagan. In Tasmania, the "Black War '' was fought in the first half of the nineteenth century.
History of Australia:
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how many dallas cowboy home games are there | Dallas Cowboys - wikipedia
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The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team based in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Frisco, Texas, and plays its home games at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, which opened for the 2009 season. The stadium took its current name prior to the 2013 season. The Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in 1960. The team 's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell - outs. The Cowboys ' streak of 190 consecutive sold - out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in 2002. The franchise has made it to the Super Bowl eight times, tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and the Denver Broncos for second most Super Bowl appearances in history, just behind the New England Patriots record nine Super Bowl appearances. This has also corresponded to eight NFC championships, most in the NFC. The Cowboys have won five of those Super Bowl appearances, tying them with their NFC rivals, the San Francisco 49ers, and the AFC 's Patriots; all three are second to Pittsburgh 's record six Super Bowl championships. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (1966 -- 85), in which they only missed the playoffs twice (1974 and 1984), an NFL record that remains unchallenged.
In 2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it the most valuable sports team in the world, according to Forbes. The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team.
Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since the Dallas Texans folded in 1952. Oilman Clint Murchison Jr. had been trying to get an NFL expansion team in Dallas (as was Lamar Hunt -- who ended up with an AFL franchise), but George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, had a monopoly in the South.
Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins from Marshall in 1958. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms. This infuriated Murchison and he called off the deal. Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall 's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league.
Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin. Breeskin had written the music to the Redskins fight song "Hail to the Redskins '' and Marshall 's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison 's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison 's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959. Murchison purchased "Hail to the Redskins '' for $2,500. Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he owned the song and Marshall could not play it during games. After a few Marshall expletives, Murchison gave the rights to "Hail to the Redskins '' to Marshall for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and a rivalry was born.
From 1970 through 1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that span. In addition, they appeared in 5 and won two Super Bowls, at the end of the 1971 and 1977 regular seasons.
Danny White became the Cowboys ' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired. Despite going to 12 -- 4 in 1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the 1980 -- 81 NFL playoffs they avenged their elimination from the prior year 's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by the Atlanta Falcons 30 -- 27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rival Philadelphia, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20 -- 7.
1981 brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the 1981 - 82 NFL playoffs as the number 2 seed. Their first game of the postseason saw them blowout and shutout Tampa Bay 38 -- 0. For the Conference Title game they were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27 -- 21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28 -- 27. 49ers quarterback Joe Montana led his team to an 89 - yard game - winning touchdown drive connecting to Dwight Clark in a play known as The Catch.
The 1982 season was shortened after a player strike. With a 6 -- 3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the 1982 -- 83 NFL playoffs they eliminated the Buccaneers 30 -- 17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37 -- 26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. 3 times was not a charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31 -- 17 to division rival and eventual Super Bowl XVII champions Redskins.
For the 1983 season the Cowboys went 12 -- 4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were defeated at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24 -- 17. Prior to the 1984 season, H.R. "Bum '' Bright purchased the Dallas Cowboys from Clint Murchison Jr. Dallas posted a 9 -- 7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons. After going 10 -- 6 in 1985 and winning a division title, the Cowboys were blown out in the Divisional round at home to the Rams 20 -- 0.
Hard times came for the organization as they went 7 -- 9 in 1986, 7 -- 8 in 1987, and 3 -- 13 in 1988. During this time period Bright became disenchanted with the team. During the Savings and Loan crisis, the team and Mr. Bright 's Savings and Loan were taken over by the FSLIC. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was "horrified '' at coach Tom Landry 's play calling. The FSLIC forced Mr. Bright to sell the Cowboys to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989.
Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson, who was also Jerry Jones ' teammate in University of Arkansas as a fellow defensive lineman and Michael Irvin was under his tutelage in college. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman. Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1 -- 15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, "The Trade '' later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team.
Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL 's elite. Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr., and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, defensive lineman Jim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley.
Things started to look up for the franchise in 1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated the San Diego Chargers 17 -- 14. They went 2 -- 7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7 -- 9 record.
Coming into 1991 the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinator Dave Shula with Norv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6 -- 5 start, then defeated the previously - unbeaten Redskins despite injury to Troy Aikman. Backup Steve Beuerlein took over and the Cowboys finished 11 -- 5. In the Wild Card round they defeated the Bears 17 -- 13 for the Cowboys first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38 -- 6 playoff rout by the Lions.
In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular season wins with a 13 -- 3 mark. They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23 -- 10. Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first round bye before facing division rival the Philadelphia Eagles. The Cowboys won that game 34 -- 10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years. They were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. On January 17, 1993 the Cowboys went to Candlestick Park and defeated the 49ers 30 -- 20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978. Dallas defeated the Buffalo Bills 52 -- 17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers. Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football.
Despite starting the 1993 season 0 -- 2, they again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30 -- 13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0 -- 2). Dallas finished the regular season 12 -- 4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27 -- 17 in the divisional round. In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38 -- 21. Dallas sent a then - NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski and Williams.
Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation. Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson. The Cowboys finished 12 -- 4 in 1994. They once again clinched a first round bye and defeated Green Bay 35 -- 9 in the Divisional Round. They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to the 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38 -- 28.
Prior to the start of 1995 season Jerry Jones lured All - Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco. Dallas started the season 4 -- 0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35 -- 0 at Giants Stadium to open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season. They ended the season 12 -- 4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed. In the Divisional round they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30 -- 11 to advance to their 4th consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38 -- 27. In Super Bowl XXX the Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27 -- 17 at Sun Devil Stadium for their fifth Super Bowl championship. Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl.
The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of 1996 following a drug - related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2 -- 3. They finished the regular season with a 10 -- 6 record, won the NFC East title, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC. They defeated Minnesota 40 -- 15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional round of the playoffs 26 -- 17 by the Carolina Panthers.
The Cowboys went 6 -- 10 in 1997 (including losing their last 6 games of the season), with discipline and off - field problems becoming major distractions. As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place.
Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10 -- 6 record in 1998 and an NFC East championship, but the Cowboys were defeated in the playoffs by the Arizona Cardinals 20 -- 7.
In 1999 Dallas went 8 -- 8 (during which Irvin suffered a career - ending spinal injury in a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles) ending in another playoff loss (this time to the Minnesota Vikings 27 -- 10). Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to a Super Bowl.
Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach for the 2000 season. Prior to the season starting cornerback Deion Sanders was released after 5 seasons with the team. He later signed with division rival Washington. In Week 1, they were blown out 41 -- 14 by Philadelphia. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL QB Randall Cunningham filled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at QB. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5 -- 11 record. The only highlights of 2000 were Emmitt Smith having his 10th consecutive 1,000 yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins.
2001 was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received. Jerry Jones signed Tony Banks as a QB. Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for the Super Bowl Champion Baltimore Ravens before being benched. Jones also drafted QB Quincy Carter in the second round of that year 's draft, but Banks was released during the preseason. Ryan Leaf, Anthony Wright, and Clint Stoerner all competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5 -- 11, last place in the NFC East. They did sweep the Redskins for the 4th consecutive season.
Prior to the 2002 season Dallas drafted safety Roy Williams with the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to the expansion Houston Texans 19 -- 10 on Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all - time NFL rushing record previously held by Walter Payton. Their Thanksgiving Day win over the Redskins was their 10th consecutive win against Washington. However, that was their final win of 2002: Dallas lost their next 4 games to finish with another last place 5 -- 11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20 -- 14 loss against Washington. That game was Smith 's last game as a Cowboys player: he was released during the offseason. Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season.
Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season getting off to a hot 7 -- 2 season, but went 3 -- 4 for the rest of the season. They were able to win the division with a 10 -- 6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference champion Carolina Panthers 29 -- 10.
In 2004 Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success, and ended 6 -- 10. Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at QB by Vinny Testaverde.
Dallas got off to a hot 7 -- 3 start for the 2005 season but ended the season in 3rd place with a 9 -- 7 record. Prior to the season starting the Cowboys signed veteran Drew Bledsoe as a quarterback.
2006 was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season Dallas signed free agent wide receiver Terrell Owens who was talented yet controversial. The Cowboys started the season 3 -- 2. During a week 7 matchup against the Giants Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backup Tony Romo. Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 38 -- 22. However, Romo was named the starter for team and went 5 -- 1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9 -- 7 2nd - place finish. They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play Seattle where the Seahawks won 21 -- 20. After the season Parcells retired and was replaced as head coach by Wade Phillips.
Dallas started off the 2007 season with a bang. They began the season with a 12 -- 1 start, including winning their first five games. Their only loss during that time span came against New England, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first round bye and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. The Cowboys lost in the divisional round 21 -- 17 to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.
In the tumultuous 2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3 -- 0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4 -- 1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to the Arizona Cardinals. With Brad Johnson and Brooks Bollinger playing as backups, Dallas went 1 -- 2 during a three - game stretch. Romo 's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3 -- 0. However, injuries mounted during the season with the team losing several starters for the year, such as Kyle Kosier, Felix Jones, safety Roy Williams and punter Mat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries. Entering December, the 8 -- 4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1 -- 3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing at Philadelphia in the final regular season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead.
On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys ' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm. The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team 's 33 - year - old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed.
The 2009 season started on a positive with a road win against Tampa Bay, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2 -- 2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiver Miles Austin got his first start of the season and had a record setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 TDs) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over Kansas City. Following their bye week, Dallas went on a three - game winning streak including wins over Atlanta and NFC East division rival Philadelphia. Despite entering December with a record of 8 -- 3, Dallas lost its slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to the New York Giants and San Diego. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the Dallas team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24 -- 17 victory at the Superdome, ending New Orleans ' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, Dallas posted back - to - back shutouts when they beat division rivals Washington (17 -- 0) and Philadelphia (24 -- 0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs. Six days later, in the wild - card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys ' post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses. Dallas ended their playoff run after a hard divisional playoff loss to the Minnesota Vikings.
After beginning the 2010 season at 1 -- 7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinator Jason Garrett as the interim head coach. The Cowboys finished the season 6 -- 10.
With the 9th pick of the 1st round of the 2011 draft, the Cowboys selected USC tackle Tyron Smith.
To start the 2011 season the Cowboys played the New York Jets on a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11, 2011. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In week 2 Dallas traveled to San Francisco to play the 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10 -- 7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced by Jon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 Touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17 -- 7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes to Miles Austin as the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On the Cowboys opening possession after 49ers punt, Romo found WR Jesse Holley on a 78 - yard pass, which set up the game - winning field goal by rookie kicker Dan Bailey.
Dallas ended the season 8 -- 8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to the Giants in a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game on NBC which allowed New York to win the division. The Giants would go on to win Super Bowl XLVI.
The Cowboys started off the 2012 season on a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl Champion New York Giants 24 -- 17 on the opening night of the season. They would hover around the. 500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventual Super Bowl XXVII Champion Baltimore Ravens 31 -- 29 at M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore.
Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way was the Redskins who had beat them on Thanksgiving at AT&T Stadium and whom were also one win away from their first division title since 1999. Led by Robert Griffin III the Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28 - 18. Dallas once again finished the season 8 -- 8.
In the 2013 season Dallas started off by defeating the Giants for the second straight year this time 36 -- 31. It was the first time since AT&T Stadium had opened back in 2009 that the Cowboys were able to defeat New York at home. The win was punctuated by Brandon Carr returning an Eli Manning interception to a touchdown late in the 4th quarter.
For the third straight year Dallas once again found themselves stuck in the. 500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to eventual AFC Champion Denver Broncos 51 -- 48. They battled it out with Philadelphia for control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back to back games to Chicago and Green Bay. They were very successful in division games having a 5 -- 0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating Washington 24 -- 23 on Week 16 thanks to late game heroics of Tony Romo. However Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup QB Kyle Orton to lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game ending interception to the Eagles which allowed Philly to win 24 -- 22. Dallas ended the year at 8 -- 8 for the third year in a row. The only difference of this 8 -- 8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd - place finishes.
To start off the 2014 season Dallas began by losing to San Francisco 28 -- 17. After that they went on a 6 - game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating the Seahawks at CenturyLink Field 30 -- 23. In Week 8, the Redskins won in overtime 20 -- 17, and Romo 's back became once again injured. He missed next week, a home loss to the Arizona Cardinals 28 -- 17 with backup QB Brandon Weeden. Romo returnedin Week 9 to lead a 31 -- 17 victory of the Jacksonville Jaguars which was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the NFL International Series.
Dallas played into their traditional Thanksgiving home game, this time against division rival Philadelphia. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8 -- 3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33 -- 10. They would rebound the next week where on the road Thursday night game they defeated Chicago 41 -- 28 for their 9th win of the year to clinch their first winning season since 2009. This was the first time that Dallas played on back to back Thursdays. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21 -- 0. Then the Eagles put up 24 answered points but Dallas came back to win 38 -- 27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10 -- 4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against Indianapolis, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts thanks to the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They would not disappoint as they blew out the Colts 42 -- 7 to become the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas would end the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record and an 8 -- 0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44 -- 17. They would also finish December 4 -- 0 which was huge for the Cowboys since they had struggled in the recent years in the month of December.
On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seed Detroit Lions in the wild card round of the NFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14 -- 0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter Romo threw a 76 - yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams. Matt Prater of the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17 -- 7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterback Matthew Stafford on the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas 's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20 -- 7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20 -- 14. A 51 - yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys ' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down - and - 1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17 - yard pass intended for Lions tight end Brandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebacker Anthony Hitchens in the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41 - yard line and had a successful 59 - yard drive which was capped off by an 8 - yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24 -- 20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2: 30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2 minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive end DeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down - and - 3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24 -- 20. This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game. The following week, the Cowboys traveled to Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin to play the Packers in the divisional round. Despite having a 14 -- 7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26 -- 21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the "Calvin Johnson rule. ''
During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running back DeMarco Murray to become a free agent. Murray signed with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles. On July 15 wide receiver Dez Bryant signed a 5 - year, $70 million contract.
At home against the New York Giants, Dallas won 27 -- 26. Dez Bryant left the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against the Philadelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, and Brandon Weeden replaced him. Dallas won 20 -- 10 to begin the season 2 -- 0, but then went on a seven - game losing streak. Dallas finished the season 4 -- 12 and last in their division.
After a preseason injury to Tony Romo, rookie quarterback Dak Prescott was slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6 -- 8 weeks. In game 1 against the New York Giants, Dallas lost 20 -- 19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven - game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott has earned the right to take over as Cowboys quarterback.
In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time this season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated the Baltimore Ravens to win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott breaking Tony Dorsett 's single season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held by Russell Wilson and Dan Marino by throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13 -- 3, tying their best 16 - game regular season record. While Dallas defeated Green Bay at Lambeau Field in week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of the NFL playoffs on a last - second field goal, ending their season.
Dak Prescott was named NFL Rookie of the Year in the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Both Prescott and Elliott made the 2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl.
The Dallas Cowboys ' blue star logo, representative of Texas as "The Lone Star State '', is one of the most well - known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border was added in 1964. The logo has remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones ' AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that have a similar logo based on the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility.
The Dallas Cowboys ' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver - green color (PMS 8280 C) that help bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the "Stars and Stripes '' jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white / gray / white stripe are on each sleeve as well as the collared V - neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A "Cowboys '' chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic - silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates.
The team 's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as "Metallic Silver Blue '' (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue / white / blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown. The Cowboys also include a unique, if subtle, feature on the back of the helmet: a blue strip of Dymo tape with the player 's name embossed, placed on the white portion of the stripe at the back of the helmet.
Front of Dallas Cowboys helmet
Back of Dallas Cowboys helmet
When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team 's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue - white - blue stripe down the center crown. The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games. Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue.
c1960 -- 1963
Blue home uniforms
White away uniforms
In 1964 the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (adopting essentially the team 's current uniform) by changing their jersey / socks to one solid color with three horizontal stripes on the sleeves; the white jersey featured royal blue stripes with a narrow black border, the royal blue jersey white stripes with the same black outline. The star - shouldered jerseys were eliminated; "TV '' numbers appeared just above the jersey stripes. The new helmet was silverblue, with a blue - white - blue tri-stripe down the center (the middle white stripe was thicker). The blue "lone star '' logo was retained, but with a white border setting it off from the silver / blue. The new pants were silverblue, with a blue - white - blue tri-stripe. In 1964 the NFL allowed teams to wear white jerseys at home; several teams did so, and the Cowboys have worn white at home ever since, except on certain "throwback '' days.
In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the "lone star '' helmet decal added a blue outline to the white - bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform has seen little change to the present day.
c1964 -- 1966
White home uniforms
Blue away uniforms
The only notable changes in the last 40 years were:
During the 1976 season, the blue - white - blue stripe on the crown of the helmets were temporarily changed to red - white - blue to commemorate the United States ' bicentennial anniversary.
In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back - to - back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white "Double - Star '' jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994 -- 1995 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960 -- 63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league - wide "throwback '' policy.
During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy "Double - Star '' jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy "Double - Star '' jersey was not seen again until the NFL 's Classic Throwback Weekend on Thanksgiving Day 2001 -- 2003.
In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960 -- 1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team 's alternate or "third jersey '' and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team did n't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007 against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008 against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009 as part of one of the NFL 's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans ' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960 -- 1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasion. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles.
In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players will no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league 's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the Cowboys ' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. The team instead decided to wear their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving, which has since become an annual tradition. For 2017, the team will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis.
In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents ' colors at home games. Since then, a number of other teams have worn their white uniforms at home, including the Miami Dolphins. According to Mike McCord, the Cowboys ' equipment director, one of the reasons why the Cowboys started wearing white at home was because of the intense heat during Cowboys ' home games at Texas Stadium.
Throughout the years, the Cowboys ' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be "jinxed '' because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys. However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue - shirted Cowboys were upset by the Cleveland Browns in what turned out to be Don Meredith 's final game with the Cowboys. Dallas 's lone victory in a conference championship or Super Bowl wearing the blue jerseys was in the 1978 NFC Championship game against the Los Angeles Rams.
Since the 1970 NFL - AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, such as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game, as well as their November 4, 2007 meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s.
Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse. Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys ' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white - jersey - at - home tradition.
With the Cowboys traditionally hosting Thanksgiving Day games, separate uniform practices have been used for these games in recent years. Through the 2000 season, the Cowboys continued the usual practice of wearing white at home. In 2001, the Cowboys wore blue at home for the first time in years, but it was an older design of the blue jersey. Dallas would lose the game, but again wore the older blue jersey at home on Thanksgiving the next year and won. With the 2002 victory, it seems an exception the theory of the blue jersey jinx is invoked on Thanksgiving.
Thus, the Cowboys continued wearing blue at home on Thanksgiving from 2003 -- 2006, however it was always an older - styled blue jersey. In 2007 and 2008, the Cowboys returned to wearing white at home for their Thanksgiving game. Since 2009, the Cowboys returned to wearing blue at home on Thanksgiving only (From 2009 -- 2012, the team again decided to go with an older - styled blue uniform as they had in previous years on Thanksgiving, and since 2013 have worn the newer - styled blue jersey).
In the 2015 season, the Cowboys wore a variation of their 1990s "Double Star '' jerseys for Thanksgiving, but with white pants and socks, as part of the NFL 's "Color Rush '' design initiated during select Thursday games.
The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as "The House That Doak Built '' due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annual Cotton Bowl Classic college football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team 's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallas city limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the 1966 NFL Championship at the Cotton Bowl.
For the majority of the franchise 's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located in Irving, Texas. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with a seating capacity of 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole - in - the - roof dome. The roof 's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to the Baltimore Ravens, 33 -- 24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving.
In 2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys by Cowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009 in Arlington, Texas. Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010.
AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington, Texas. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones along with the city of Arlington, Texas a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion. The stadium is located in Tarrant County, the first time the Cowboys will call a stadium home outside of Dallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009 and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is the largest domed stadium in the world.
A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center - hung high - definition television screen, the largest in the world. The 160 by 72 feet (49 by 22 m), 11,520 - square - foot (1,070 m) scoreboard surpasses the 8,736 sq ft (812 m) screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri as the world 's largest.
At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker, A.J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in - play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines -- hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet.
The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record - setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional "blue star '' at the 50 - yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33 -- 31.
The Cowboys got their first regular season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21 -- 7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN 's Monday Night Football and marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys on Monday Night Football.
On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced that AT&T will take over the naming rights for the stadium.
Dallas Cowboys training camp locations:
The NFC East, composed of the Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, Washington Redskins and New York Giants, is one of the least - changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of the NFL - AFL merger (its only major changes being the relocation of the Cardinals franchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to the NFC West in the league 's 2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys ' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport.
The Redskins and Dallas Cowboys enjoy what has been called by Sports Illustrated the top NFL rivalry of all time and "one of the greatest in sports. '' Some sources trace the enmity to before the Cowboys were even formed, due to a longstanding disagreement between Redskins owner George Preston Marshall and Cowboys founder Clint Murchison Jr. over the creation of a new football team in the South, due to Preston 's TV monopoly in that region. The two teams ' storied on - field rivalry goes back to 1960 when the two clubs first played each other, resulting in a 26 -- 14 Washington victory. Since that time, the two teams have met in 100 regular season contests and two NFC Championships. Dallas leads the regular season all - time series 67 -- 44 -- 2, and the Redskins lead the all - time playoff series 2 -- 0. The Cowboys currently have a 13 -- 5 advantage over the Redskins at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington 's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter 's 1989 win over the Redskins for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, the Redskins have struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings.
The competition with Philadelphia has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long - moribund Eagles returned to contention. In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20 -- 7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989 "Bounty Bowls '', in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. A 1999 game at Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless and possibly paralyzed on the field. In 2008 the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44 -- 6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild - card playoff game by a combined score of 78 -- 30, including a 24 -- 0 shutout in week 17. That three game sweep was Dallas ' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992 -- 1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia. During the 2013 season Dallas won the first meeting 17 -- 3 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. They would meet again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterback Tony Romo out with a season ending back injury which put backup Kyle Orton as the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24 -- 22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road, with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33 -- 10 win on Thanksgiving Day in Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38 -- 27 in Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clenched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the regular season all - time series 63 -- 50.
The first game ever played between the Giants and Cowboys was a 31 -- 31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961 and New York 's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants ' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory in Super Bowl XLII and winning the first regular season game played at Cowboys Stadium in 2009. Dallas currently leads the all - time series 62 -- 45 -- 2.
The two teams met in the first regular season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35 -- 28 loss to the Steelers), the first - ever regular season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers - Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last - second throw by Roger Staubach, then as a fourth - quarter rally by Dallas fell short on an onside kick. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in January 1996. It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a "flashy '' team with Roger Staubach 's aerial attack and the "flex '' Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a "blue - collar '' team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today. In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all - time series 16 -- 15 including the playoffs.
The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers has been going on since the 1970s. The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers ' Joe Montana complete a game - winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992 -- 1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match - ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match - ups, the game 's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are second all time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers with five each. The 49ers - Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The all - time series is tied with a record of 17 -- 17 -- 1.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 11, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 5 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
Although the Cowboys are tied with the 49ers for the second most Super Bowl victories (Steelers have 6), Dallas actually holds the record, with Pittsburgh, for the most Super Bowl games played (8) and solely holds the record the most Super Bowl MVPs with 7:
Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a "Ring of Honor '', which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display at AT&T Stadium in Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager / president. Although the team does not officially retire jersey numbers, some are kept "unofficially inactive '', so it is uncommon to find any current players wearing the number of one of the "Ring of Honor '' inductees. For instance, the jersey numbers of inductees Aikman (8), Staubach (12), Hayes and Smith (22), Irvin (88), and Lilly (74) were not worn during the 2008 season. For the 2010 season, number 88 was issued to rookie Dez Bryant.
The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a "one - man committee '' in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan 's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm 's Ring of Honor "power '' and immediately inducted Jordan.
Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the "Ring of Honor ''. For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm 's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year 's Cowboys - Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones finally chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys - Eagles game that fall.
Some of the more recent inductees were Troy Aikman, all - time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as "The Triplets ''. The Cowboys waited until Smith had retired as a player before inducting Aikman and Irvin, so all three could be inducted together, which occurred during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the arch - rival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005.
The most recent inductees are defensive end Charles Haley, offensive lineman Larry Allen, and wide receiver Drew Pearson, who were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys ' game vs. the Seattle Seahawks on November 6, 2011, and safety Darren Woodson, who was inducted on November 1, 2015.
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As of 2010, the Cowboys ' flagship radio station is KRLD - FM. Brad Sham is the team 's longtime play - by - play voice. Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one - year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters. The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg 's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the "Blue Star Network '', which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL - FM, KRLD, and KLUV - FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts.
During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach 's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham. Landry 's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for he and his co-host making their NFL "predictions '' at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the Ice Bowl of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of World Class Championship Wrestling in the 1980s. Upon Mercer 's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play - by - play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill - in for Lundquist.
Longtime WFAA - TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play - by - play announcer from 1985 -- 1996.
Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys ' play - by - play announcer from 1995 -- 97, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers ' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One.
Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five - year partnership with Compass Media Networks on February 2, 2011. The result was the America 's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise 's regional one. Beginning with the 2011 season, Kevin Burkhardt and Danny White handled the broadcasts, with Jerry Recco as the studio host.
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music we gotta get out of this place | We Gotta Get out of This Place - wikipedia
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '', occasionally written "We 've Gotta Get out of This Place '', is a rock song written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil and recorded as a 1965 hit single by The Animals. It has become an iconic song of its type and was immensely popular with United States Armed Forces GIs during the Vietnam War.
In 2004 it was ranked number 233 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list; it is also in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll list.
Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil were husband and wife (and future Hall of Fame) songwriters associated with the 1960s Brill Building scene in New York City.
Mann and Weil wrote and recorded "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' as a demo, with Mann singing and playing piano. It was intended for The Righteous Brothers, for whom they had written the number one hit "You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' '' but then Mann gained a recording contract for himself, and his label Red Bird Records wanted him to release it instead. Meanwhile, record executive Allen Klein had heard it and gave the demo to Mickie Most, The Animals ' producer. Most already had a call out to Brill Building songwriters for material for the group 's next recording session (The Animals hits "It 's My Life '' and "Do n't Bring Me Down '' came from the same call), and The Animals recorded it before Mann could.
In The Animals ' rendition, the lyrics were slightly reordered and reworded from the demo and opened with a locational allusion -- although different from that in the songwriters ' minds -- that was often taken as fitting the group 's industrial, working class Newcastle - upon - Tyne origins:
In this dirty old part of the city Where the sun refused to shine People tell me, there ai n't no use in tryin '
Next came a verse about the singer 's father in his deathbed after a lifetime of working his life away, followed by a call - and - response buildup, leading to the start of the chorus:
We got ta get out of this place! If it 's the last thing we ever do...
The arrangement featured a distinctive bass lead by group member Chas Chandler. This was the first single not to be recorded by the original line - up, following as it did the departure of keyboard player Alan Price and his replacement by Dave Rowberry. It featured one of singer Eric Burdon 's typically raw, fierce vocals. Rolling Stone described the overall effect as a "harsh white - blues treatment from The Animals. As (Burdon) put it, ' Whatever suited our attitude, we just bent to our own shape. ' ''
The song reached number 2 on the UK pop singles chart on August 14, 1965 (held out of the top slot by The Beatles ' "Help! ''). The following month, it reached number 13 on the U.S. pop singles chart, its highest placement there. In Canada, the song also reached number 2, on September 20, 1965.
The UK and US single releases were different versions from the same recording sessions. The take that EMI, The Animals ' parent record company, sent to MGM Records, the group 's American label, was mistakenly one that had not been selected for release elsewhere. The two versions are most easily differentiated by the lyric at the beginning of the second verse: in the US version the lyric is, "See my daddy in bed a-dyin ' '', while the UK version uses, "Watch my daddy in bed a-dyin ' '' (as a result of an error by the music labels, certain online retailers sell the UK version but incorrectly identify it as the US version).
In the US the song (in its "mistaken '' take) was included on the album Animal Tracks, released in the fall 1965, and again on the popular compilation The Best of The Animals released in 1966 and re-released with an expanded track list on the ABKCO label in 1973. The song was not on any British Animals album during the group 's lifetime.
Once Animals reissues began occurring during the compact disc era, Allen Klein, by now owner of ABKCO and the rights to this material, dictated that the "correct '' British version be used on all reissues and compilations everywhere. Thus, as US radio stations converted from vinyl records to CDs, gradually only the British version became heard. Some collectors and fans in the US wrote letters of complaint to Goldmine magazine, saying they believed the US version featured an angrier and more powerful vocal from Burdon, and in any case wanted to hear the song in the form they had grown up with. The 2004 remastered SACD Retrospective compilation from ABKCO included the US version.
At the time, the title and simple emotional appeal of "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' lent itself to some obvious self - identifications -- for instance, it was a very popular number to be played at high school senior proms and graduation parties. In music writer Dave Marsh 's view, it was one of a wave of songs in 1965, by artists such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan, that ushered in a new role for rock music as a vehicle for common perception and as a force for social consciousness. Writer Craig Werner sees the song as reflecting the desire of people to take a hard look at their own lives and the community they come from. Burdon later said, "The song became an anthem for different people -- everybody at some time wants to get out of the situation they 're in. ''
The song was very popular with United States Armed Forces members stationed in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. It was frequently requested of, and played by, American Forces Vietnam Network disc jockeys. During 2006 two University of Wisconsin -- Madison employees, one a Vietnam veteran, began an in - depth survey of hundreds of Vietnam veterans, and found that "We Gotta Get out of This Place '' had resonated the strongest among all the music popular then: "We had absolute unanimity is this song being the touchstone. This was the Vietnam anthem. Every bad band that ever played in an armed forces club had to play this song. '' Just such a band played the song in an episode ("USO Down '', by Vietnam veteran Jim Beaver) of the American television series about the war, Tour of Duty, and the song is reprised in the episode 's final scene.
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '' was also used in Dennis Potter 's 1965 television play Stand Up, Nigel Barton and the BBC 's 1996 Newcastle - set Our Friends in the North, which partially took place in the 1960s. In America it was used as the title credits song in some episodes of the Vietnam War - set television series China Beach. It was then applied to the Bin Laden family, having to leave the United States in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks, in Michael Moore 's 2004 Fahrenheit 9 / 11. It also was featured in the soundtrack to the 1987 movie Hamburger Hill. It was used in a third - season episode of the 2000s television series Heroes. It was used as the theme song for 2002 BBC comedy TLC and the 2013 BBC series Privates. The song was also featured humorously in the Kong: Skull Island trailer
In a 2012 keynote speech to an audience at the South by Southwest music festival, Bruce Springsteen performed an abbreviated version of The Animals ' version on acoustic guitar and then said, "That 's every song I 've ever written. That 's all of them. I 'm not kidding, either. That 's ' Born to Run ', ' Born in the U.S.A. ' ''
The song 's title and theme have become a common cultural phrase over the years.
It formed the basis for the title of academician Lawrence Grossberg 's We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (1992), detailing the conflict between American conservatism and rock culture. Similarly, it formed the title basis for Gerri Hirshey 's 2002 account, We Gotta Get out of This Place: The True, Tough Story of Women in Rock.
It has also been used as the title of editorials by American Journalism Review and other publications. The title was even used to name an art exhibit, curated by Stefan Kalmar at the Cubitt Gallery in London in 1997.
We Gotta Get Out of This Place is the twenty eighth single by Australian Hard rock band The Angels, released in 1986. It is the third single to be released from The Angels eighth studio album Howling. The song peaked at number 7 on the ARIA Charts and number 13 on the Recorded Music NZ,
Production
"We Gotta Get out of This Place '' has been recorded or performed in concert by numerous artists, including The Cryan ' Shames (1966), The American Breed (1967), The Frost (1970), The Partridge Family (1972), Bruce Springsteen (performed only a handful of times in his career, but acknowledged by him as one of his primary influences in the 1970s), Udo Lindenberg (in a German language adaption in the 1970s for which commercial success was small), Blue Öyster Cult (1978), Steve Bender (1978), Gilla (1979), Angelic Upstarts (1980), Gardens & Villa, Grand Funk Railroad (1981), David Johansen (1982, and a hit on album oriented rock radio and MTV as part of an Animals medley), Fear (1982), The Angels (1986), Richard Thompson (1988), Jello Biafra and D.O.A. (1989), Randy Stonehill (1990), Bon Jovi (1992, again as part of an Animals medley for an MTV special), Midnight Oil (1993, for MTV Unplugged), Space (1998), Southside Johnny (concerts in the 2000s), Overkill (2000), Widespread Panic (2005), Ann Wilson with Wynonna Judd (2007), Alice Cooper (2011), and many others.
In 1990 Eric Burdon joined Katrina and the Waves for a recording of it for use on China Beach. In 2000 Barry Mann revisited the song, performing it with Bryan Adams on Mann 's retrospective solo album Soul & Inspiration. When Suzi Quatro was on a German tour in 2008 she came on stage and played bass on the song during an Eric Burdon concert at the Porsche Arena in Stuttgart. Burdon also performed it in 2010 at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, when songwriters Mann and Weil were inducted. Later in 2010, Mann and Weil were at The Grammy Museum in Los Angeles -- to open a gallery for the Songwriter 's Hall of Fame -- and performed their original version of the song, including previously - unheard lyrics like "What are we waiting for? '' (which was supposed to occur before the familiar lyrics in the chorus).
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who beat someone with a cane in congress | Caning of Charles Sumner - wikipedia
The Caning of Charles Sumner, or the Brooks -- Sumner Affair, occurred on May 22, 1856, in the United States Senate when Representative Preston Brooks (D - SC) attacked Senator Charles Sumner (R - MA), an abolitionist, with a walking cane in retaliation for a speech given by Sumner two days earlier in which he fiercely criticized slaveholders including a relative of Brooks. The beating nearly killed Sumner and it drew a sharply polarized response from the American public on the subject of the expansion of slavery in the United States. It has been considered symbolic of the "breakdown of reasoned discourse '' that eventually led to the American Civil War.
In 1856, during the "Bleeding Kansas '' crisis, Sumner denounced the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in his "Crime against Kansas '' speech, delivered on May 19 and May 20. The long speech argued for the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state and went on to denounce the "Slave Power '' -- the political arm of the slave owners:
Not in any common lust for power did this uncommon tragedy have its origin. It is the rape of a virgin Territory, compelling it to the hateful embrace of slavery; and it may be clearly traced to a depraved desire for a new Slave State, hideous offspring of such a crime, in the hope of adding to the power of slavery in the National Government.
Sumner then attacked the authors of the Act, Senators Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois and Andrew Butler of South Carolina, saying,
The senator from South Carolina has read many books of chivalry, and believes himself a chivalrous knight with sentiments of honor and courage. Of course he has chosen a mistress to whom he has made his vows, and who, though ugly to others, is always lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his sight -- I mean the harlot, slavery. For her his tongue is always profuse in words. Let her be impeached in character, or any proposition made to shut her out from the extension of her wantonness, and no extravagance of manner or hardihood of assertion is then too great for this senator.
In addition, Sumner mocked Butler 's speaking ability, which had been impeded by a recent stroke:
(He) touches nothing which he does not disfigure with error, sometimes of principle, sometimes of fact. He can not open his mouth, but out there flies a blunder.
According to Manisha Sinha (2003), Sumner had been ridiculed and insulted by both Douglas and Butler for his opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law and the Kansas - Nebraska Act earlier, with Butler crudely race - baiting Sumner by making sexual allusions to black women, like many slaveholders who accused abolitionists of promoting interracial marriage.
According to Hoffer (2010), "It is also important to note the sexual imagery that recurred throughout the oration, which was neither accidental nor without precedent. Abolitionists routinely accused slaveholders of maintaining slavery so that they could engage in forcible sexual relations with their slaves. '' Douglas said during the speech that "this damn fool is going to get himself killed by some other damn fool. ''
Representative Preston Brooks, Butler 's cousin, was infuriated. He later said that he intended to challenge Sumner to a duel, and consulted with fellow South Carolina Representative Laurence M. Keitt on dueling etiquette. Keitt told him that dueling was for gentlemen of equal social standing, and that Sumner was no better than a drunkard, due to the supposedly coarse language he had used during his speech. Brooks said that he concluded that since Sumner was no gentleman, he did not merit honorable treatment; to Keitt and Brooks, it was more appropriate to humiliate Sumner by beating him with a cane in a public setting.
Two days later, on the afternoon of May 22, Brooks entered the Senate chamber with Keitt and another ally, Congressman Henry A. Edmundson. They waited for the galleries to clear, especially concerned that there be no ladies present to witness what Brooks intended to do. He confronted Sumner as he sat writing at his desk in the almost empty Senate chamber. "Mr. Sumner, I have read your speech twice over carefully. It is a libel on South Carolina, and Mr. Butler, who is a relative of mine, '' Brooks calmly announced in a low voice. As Sumner began to stand up, Brooks beat Sumner severely on the head before he could reach his feet, using a thick gutta - percha cane with a gold head. The force of the blows so shocked Sumner that he lost his sight immediately. "I no longer saw my assailant, nor any other person or object in the room. What I did afterwards was done almost unconsciously, acting under the instincts of self - defense, '' he recalled later.
Sumner was knocked down and trapped under the heavy desk, which was bolted to the floor. His chair, which was pulled up to his desk, moved back and forth on a track; Sumner either could not or did not think to slide his chair back to escape, so it pinned him under his desk. Brooks continued to strike Sumner until Sumner rose to his feet and ripped the desk from the floor in an effort to get away from Brooks. By this time, Sumner was blinded by his own blood. He staggered up the aisle and, arms outstretched, vainly attempted to defend himself. But then he was an even larger and easier target for Brooks, who continued to beat him across the head, face, and shoulders "to the full extent of (my) power. '' Brooks did n't stop when his cane snapped; he continued thrashing Sumner with the piece which held the gold head. Sumner stumbled and reeled convulsively, "Oh Lord, '' he gasped "Oh! Oh! '' Near the end of the attack, Sumner collapsed unconscious, although shortly before he succumbed he "bellowed like a calf '' according to Brooks. Brooks grabbed the falling Sumner, held him up by the lapel with one hand, and continued to lash out at him with the cane in the other. Several other Senators and Representatives attempted to help Sumner, but were blocked by Edmundson, who yelled at the spectators to leave Brooks and Sumner alone, and Keitt, who brandished his own cane and a pistol, and shouted, "Let them be! '' and "Let them alone, God damn you, let them alone! ''
Senator John J. Crittenden attempted to intervene, and pleaded with Brooks not to kill Sumner. Senator Robert Toombs then interceded for Crittenden, telling Keitt not to attack someone who was not a party to the dispute, though Toombs also indicated later that he had no issue with Brooks beating Sumner, and in fact approved of it.
Representatives Ambrose S. Murray and Edwin B. Morgan were finally able to intervene and restrain Brooks, at which point he quietly left the chamber. Murray obtained the aid of a Senate page and the Sergeant at Arms, Dunning R. McNair. As Sumner regained consciousness they were able to assist him to walk to a cloakroom. Sumner received medical attention, including several stitches. With the aid of Nathaniel P. Banks, the Speaker of the House, and Senator Henry Wilson, Sumner was able to travel by carriage to his lodgings, where he received further medical treatment.
Brooks also required medical attention before leaving the Capitol; he had hit himself above his right eye with one of his backswings. Brooks was arrested for the assault.
The cane Brooks used was broken into several pieces, which he left on the blood soaked floor of the Senate chamber. Some, including the cane 's gold head, were recovered by Edmundson, who gave the portion with the head to Adam John Glossbrenner, the House Sergeant at Arms. This portion of the cane eventually ended up at the Old State House Museum in Boston; it was worked to smooth the edges and finish, and then put on display. Southern lawmakers made rings out of the other pieces Edmundson recovered from the Senate floor, which they wore on neck chains to show their solidarity with Brooks, who boasted "(The pieces of my cane) are begged for as sacred relics. ''
The episode revealed the polarization in America, as Sumner became a martyr in the North and Brooks a hero in the South. Northerners were outraged. The Cincinnati Gazette said, "The South can not tolerate free speech anywhere, and would stifle it in Washington with the bludgeon and the bowie - knife, as they are now trying to stifle it in Kansas by massacre, rapine, and murder. '' William Cullen Bryant of the New York Evening Post, asked, "Has it come to this, that we must speak with bated breath in the presence of our Southern masters?... Are we to be chastised as they chastise their slaves? Are we too, slaves, slaves for life, a target for their brutal blows, when we do not comport ourselves to please them? '' Thousands attended rallies in support of Sumner in Boston, Albany, Cleveland, Detroit, New Haven, New York, and Providence. More than a million copies of Sumner 's speech were distributed. Two weeks after the caning, Ralph Waldo Emerson described the divide the incident represented: "I do not see how a barbarous community and a civilized community can constitute one state. I think we must get rid of slavery, or we must get rid of freedom. ''
Conversely, Brooks was praised by Southern newspapers. The Richmond Enquirer editorialized that Sumner should be caned "every morning '', praising the attack as "good in conception, better in execution, and best of all in consequences '' and denounced "these vulgar abolitionists in the Senate '' who "have been suffered to run too long without collars. They must be lashed into submission. '' Southerners sent Brooks hundreds of new canes in endorsement of his assault. One was inscribed "Hit him again. ''
Representative Anson Burlingame publicly humiliated Brooks by goading him into challenging Burlingame to a duel, only to set conditions designed to intimidate Brooks into backing down. (As the challenged party, Burlingame, who was a crack shot, had the choice of weapons and dueling ground. He selected rifles on the Canada side of Niagara Falls, where U.S. anti-dueling laws would not apply. Brooks withdrew his challenge, claiming that he did not want to expose himself to the risk of violence by traveling through northern states to get to Niagara Falls.)
Brooks also threatened Senator Henry Wilson, Sumner 's colleague from Massachusetts. Wilson called the beating by Brooks "brutal, murderous, and cowardly, '' and in response Brooks challenged Wilson to a duel. Wilson declined, saying that he could not legally or by personal conviction participate, and calling dueling "the lingering relic of a barbarous civilization. '' In reference to a rumor that Brooks might attack him in the Senate, Wilson told the press "I have sought no controversy, and I seek none, but I shall go where duty requires, uninfluenced by threats of any kind. '' Wilson continued to perform his Senate duties, and Brooks did not make good on his threat.
Historian William Gienapp has concluded that Brooks ' "assault was of critical importance in transforming the struggling Republican party into a major political force. ''
Southerners mocked Sumner, claiming he was faking his injuries. They argued that the cane Brooks used was not heavy enough to inflict severe injuries. They also claimed that Brooks had not hit Sumner more than a few times, and had not hit him hard enough to cause serious health concerns. In fact, Sumner suffered head trauma that caused him chronic, debilitating pain for the rest of his life and symptoms consistent with what is now called traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder; he spent three years convalescing before returning to his Senate seat.
Brooks claimed that he had not intended to kill Sumner, or else he would have used a different weapon. In a speech to the House defending his actions, Brooks stated that he "meant no disrespect to the Senate of the United States '' or the House by his attack on Sumner. He was tried in a District of Columbia court, convicted for assault, and fined $300 ($8,000 in today 's dollars), but received no prison sentence. A motion to expel Brooks from the House failed, but he resigned on July 15 in order to permit his constituents to ratify or condemn his conduct via a special election. They approved; Brooks was quickly returned to office in the August 1 special election, and then re-elected to a new term of office later in 1856, but he died of croup before the new term began.
Keitt, who facilitated Brooks ' attack, was censured by the House. He resigned in protest, but his constituents ratified his conduct by overwhelmingly reelecting him to his seat within a month. In 1858, he attempted to choke Representative Galusha Grow of Pennsylvania (Republican) for calling him a "negro driver '' during an argument on the House floor.
An effort to censure Edmundson failed to obtain a majority of votes in the House.
During the 1856 lame duck session of Congress, Brooks made a speech calling for the admission of Kansas "even with a constitution rejecting slavery ''. His conciliatory tone impressed Northerners and disappointed slavery 's supporters.
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how did the blue whale get its name | Blue whale - wikipedia
The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal belonging to the baleen whales (Mysticeti). At up to 29.9 metres (98 ft) in length and with a maximum recorded weight of 173 tonnes (190 short tons) and probably reaching over 181 tonnes (200 short tons), it is the largest animal known to have ever existed.
Long and slender, the blue whale 's body can be various shades of bluish - grey dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath. There are at least three distinct subspecies: B. m. musculus of the North Atlantic and North Pacific, B. m. intermedia of the Southern Ocean and B. m. brevicauda (also known as the pygmy blue whale) found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. B. m. indica, found in the Indian Ocean, may be another subspecies. As with other baleen whales, its diet consists almost exclusively of small crustaceans known as krill.
Blue whales were abundant in nearly all the oceans on Earth until the beginning of the twentieth century. For over a century, they were hunted almost to extinction by whalers until protected by the international community in 1966. A 2002 report estimated there were 5,000 to 12,000 blue whales worldwide, in at least five groups. The IUCN estimates that there are probably between 10,000 and 25,000 blue whales worldwide today. Before whaling, the largest population was in the Antarctic, numbering approximately 239,000 (range 202,000 to 311,000). There remain only much smaller (around 2,000) concentrations in each of the eastern North Pacific, Antarctic, and Indian Ocean groups. There are two more groups in the North Atlantic, and at least two in the Southern Hemisphere. As of 2014, the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population had rebounded to nearly its pre-hunting population.
Blue whales are rorquals (family Balaenopteridae), a family that includes the humpback whale, the fin whale, Bryde 's whale, the sei whale, and the minke whale. The family Balaenopteridae is believed to have diverged from the other families of the suborder Mysticeti as long ago as the middle Oligocene (28 Ma ago). It is not known when the members of those families diverged from each other.
The blue whale is usually classified as one of eight species in the genus Balaenoptera; one authority places it in a separate monotypic genus, Sibbaldus, but this is not accepted elsewhere. DNA sequencing analysis indicates that the blue whale is phylogenetically closer to the sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis) and Bryde 's whale (Balaenoptera brydei) than to other Balaenoptera species, and closer to the humpback whale (Megaptera) and the gray whale (Eschrichtius) than to the minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata and Balaenoptera bonaerensis). If further research confirms these relationships, it will be necessary to reclassify the rorquals.
There have been at least 11 documented cases of blue whale - fin whale hybrid adults in the wild. Arnason and Gullberg describe the genetic distance between a blue and a fin as about the same as that between a human and a gorilla. Researchers working off Fiji believe they photographed a hybrid humpback - blue whale including the discovery through DNA analysis from a meat sample found in a Japanese market.
The first published description of the blue whale comes from Robert Sibbald 's Phalainologia Nova (1694). In September 1692, Sibbald found a blue whale that had stranded in the Firth of Forth -- a male 24 m (78 ft) long -- that had "black, horny plates '' and "two large apertures approaching a pyramid in shape ''.
The specific name musculus is Latin and could mean "muscle '', but it can also be interpreted as "little mouse ''. Carl Linnaeus, who named the species in his seminal Systema Naturae of 1758, would have known this and may have intended the ironic double meaning. Herman Melville called this species "sulphur - bottom '' in his novel Moby - Dick (1851) due to an orange - brown or yellow tinge on the underparts from diatom films on the skin. Other common names for the blue whale have included "Sibbald 's rorqual '' (after Sibbald, who first described the species), the "great blue whale '' and the "great northern rorqual ''. These names have now fallen into disuse. The first known usage of the term "blue whale '' was in Melville 's Moby - Dick, which only mentions it in passing and does not specifically attribute it to the species in question. The name was really derived from the Norwegian blåhval, coined by Svend Foyn shortly after he had perfected the harpoon gun; the Norwegian scientist G.O. Sars adopted it as the Norwegian common name in 1874.
Authorities classify the species into three or four subspecies: B. m. musculus, the northern blue whale consisting of the North Atlantic and North Pacific populations, B. m. intermedia, the southern blue whale of the Southern Ocean, B. m. brevicauda, the pygmy blue whale found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, and the more problematic B. m. indica, the great Indian rorqual, which is also found in the Indian Ocean and, although described earlier, may be the same subspecies as B. m. brevicauda.
The pygmy blue whale formed from a founder group of Antarctic blue whales about 20,000 years ago, around the Last Glacial Maximum. This is likely because blue whales were driven north by expanding ice, and some have stayed there ever since. The pygmy blue whale 's evolutionarily recent origins cause it to have a relatively low genetic diversity.
The blue whale has a long tapering body that appears stretched in comparison with the stockier build of other whales. The head is flat, U-shaped and has a prominent ridge running from the blowhole to the top of the upper lip. The front part of the mouth is thick with baleen plates; around 300 plates, each around one metre (3.3 feet) long, hang from the upper jaw, running 0.5 m (20 in) back into the mouth. Between 70 and 118 grooves (called ventral pleats) run along the throat parallel to the body length. These pleats assist with evacuating water from the mouth after lunge feeding (see feeding below).
The dorsal fin is small; its height averages about 28 centimetres (11 in), and usually ranges between 20 and 40 cm (7.9 and 15.7 in), though it can be as small as 8 cm (3.1 in) or as large as 70 cm (28 in). It is visible only briefly during the dive sequence. Located around three - quarters of the way along the length of the body, it varies in shape from one individual to another; some only have a barely perceptible lump, but others may have prominent and falcate (sickle - shaped) dorsals. When surfacing to breathe, the blue whale raises its shoulder and blowhole out of the water to a greater extent than other large whales, such as the fin or sei whales. Observers can use this trait to differentiate between species at sea. Some blue whales in the North Atlantic and North Pacific raise their tail fluke when diving. When breathing, the whale emits a vertical single - column spout, typically 9 metres (30 ft) high, but reaching up to 12 metres (39 ft). Its lung capacity is 5,000 litres (1,300 US gal). Blue whales have twin blowholes shielded by a large splashguard.
The flippers are 3 -- 4 metres (9.8 -- 13.1 ft) long. The upper sides are grey with a thin white border; the lower sides are white. The head and tail fluke are generally uniformly grey. The whale 's upper parts, and sometimes the flippers, are usually mottled. The degree of mottling varies substantially from individual to individual. Some may have a uniform slate - grey color, but others demonstrate a considerable variation of dark blues, greys and blacks, all tightly mottled.
Blue whales can reach speeds of 50 kilometres per hour (31 mph) over short bursts, usually when interacting with other whales, but 20 kilometres per hour (12 mph) is a more typical traveling speed. Satellite telemetry of Australian pygmy blue whales migrating to Indonesia has shown that they cover between 0.09 and 455.8 kilometers (0.056 and 283.221 miles) per day. When feeding, they slow down to 5 kilometres per hour (3.1 mph).
Blue whales typically swim at a depth of about 13 meters (43 feet) when migrating in order to eliminate drag from surface waves. The deepest confirmed dive is 506 meters (1,660 feet).
Blue whales most commonly live alone or with one other individual. It is not known how long traveling pairs stay together. In locations where there is a high concentration of food, as many as 50 blue whales have been seen scattered over a small area. They do not form the large, close - knit groups seen in other baleen species.
The blue whale is the largest animal known to have ever lived.
Blue whales are difficult to weigh because of their size. They were never weighed whole, but cut into blocks 0.5 -- 0.6 meters (1.6 -- 2.0 ft) across and weighed by parts. This caused a considerable loss of blood and body fluids, estimated to be about 6 % of the total weight. As a whole, blue whales from the Northern Atlantic and Pacific are smaller on average than those from Antarctic waters. Adult weights typically range from 45 -- 136 tonnes (50 -- 150 short tons). There is some uncertainty about the biggest blue whale ever found, as most data came from blue whales killed in Antarctic waters during the first half of the twentieth century, which were collected by whalers not well - versed in standard zoological measurement techniques. The standard measuring technique is to measure in a straight line from the upper jaw to the notch in the tail flukes. This came about because the edges of the tail flukes were typically cut off, and the lower jaw often falls open upon death. Many of the larger whales in the whaling records (especially those over 100 ft (30.5 m)) were probably measured incorrectly or even deliberately exaggerated. The heaviest weight ever reported was 173 metric tons (190 short tons); for a southern hemisphere female in 1947, it is likely that the largest blue whales would have weighed over 200 short tons (181 t). The longest whales ever recorded were two females measuring 33.6 and 33.3 metres (110 and 109 ft), but in neither of these cases was the piecemeal weight gathered. Possibly the largest recorded male was killed near the South Shetland Islands in 1926 and was measured at 31.7 m (104 ft).
Females are generally a few feet longer than males. However, males may be slightly heavier on average than females of the same length, owing to heavier muscles and bones. Verified measurements rarely exceed 28 metres (92 ft). The longest measured by Macintosh and Wheeler (1929) was a female 28.5 metres (94 ft), while the largest male was 26.45 metres (86.8 ft); one of the same authors later found a male of 26.65 metres (87.4 ft) and stated that those lengths may be exceeded. The longest whale measured by scientists was 29.9 metres (98 ft) long. Lieut. Quentin R. Walsh, USCG, while acting as whaling inspector of the factory ship Ulysses, verified the measurement of a 29.9 m (98 ft) pregnant blue whale caught in the Antarctic in the 1937 -- 38 season. A 26.8 metres (88 ft) male was verified by Japanese scientists in the 1947 -- 48 whaling season. The longest reported in the North Pacific was a 27.1 metres (89 ft) female taken by Japanese whalers in 1959, and the longest reported in the North Atlantic was a 28 metres (92 ft) female caught in the Davis Strait. The average weight of the longest scientifically verified specimens (29.9 metres (98 ft)) would be calculated to be 176.5 tonnes (194.6 tons), varying from 141 tonnes (155.4 tons) to 211.5 tonnes (233.1 tons) depending on fat condition. One study found that a hypothetical 33 metres (108 ft) blue whale would be too large to exist in real life, due to metabolic and energy constraints.
Due to its large size, several organs of the blue whale are the largest in the animal kingdom. A blue whale 's tongue weighs around 2.7 tonnes (3.0 short tons) and, when fully expanded, its mouth is large enough to hold up to 90 tonnes (99 short tons) of food and water. Despite the size of its mouth, the dimensions of its throat are such that a blue whale can not swallow an object wider than a beach ball. The heart of an average sized blue whale weighs 400 pounds (180 kg) and is the largest known in any animal. During the first seven months of its life, a blue whale calf drinks approximately 380 litres (100 US gal) of milk every day. Blue whale calves gain weight quickly, as much as 90 kilograms (200 lb) every 24 hours. Even at birth, they weigh up to 2,700 kilograms (5,950 lb) -- the same as a fully grown hippopotamus. Blue whales have proportionally small brains, only about 6.92 kilograms (15.26 lb), about 0.007 % of its body weight, although with a highly convoluted cerebral cortex. The blue whale penis is the largest penis of any living organism and also set the Guinness World Record as the longest of any animal 's. The reported average length varies but is usually mentioned to have an average length of 2.4 to 3.0 m (8 to 10 ft).
Blue whales feed almost exclusively on krill, though they also take small numbers of copepods. The species of this zooplankton eaten by blue whales varies from ocean to ocean. In the North Atlantic, Meganyctiphanes norvegica, Thysanoessa raschii, Thysanoessa inermis and Thysanoessa longicaudata are the usual food; in the North Pacific, Euphausia pacifica, Thysanoessa inermis, Thysanoessa longipes, Thysanoessa spinifera, Nyctiphanes symplex and Nematoscelis megalops; and in the Southern Hemisphere, Euphausia superba, Euphausia crystallorophias, Euphausia valentini, and Nyctiphanes australis.
An adult blue whale can eat up to 40 million krill in a day. The whales always feed in the areas with the highest concentration of krill, sometimes eating up to 3,600 kilograms (7,900 lb) of krill in a single day. The daily energy requirement of an adult blue whale is in the region of 1.5 million kilocalories (6.3 GJ). Their feeding habits are seasonal. Blue whales gorge on krill in the rich waters of the Antarctic before migrating to their breeding grounds in the warmer, less - rich waters nearer the equator. The blue whale can take in up to 90 times as much energy as it expends, allowing it to build up considerable energy reserves.
Because krill move, blue whales typically feed at depths of more than 100 metres (330 ft) during the day and only surface - feed at night. Dive times are typically 10 minutes when feeding, though dives of up to 21 minutes are possible. The whale feeds by lunging forward at groups of krill, taking the animals and a large quantity of water into its mouth. The water is then squeezed out through the baleen plates by pressure from the ventral pouch and tongue. Once the mouth is clear of water, the remaining krill, unable to pass through the plates, are swallowed. The blue whale also incidentally consumes small fish, crustaceans and squid caught up with krill.
Mating starts in late autumn and continues to the end of winter. Little is known about mating behaviour or breeding grounds. In the fall, males will follow females for prolonged periods of time. Occasionally, a second male will attempt to displace the first, and the whales will race each other at high speed, ranging from 17 miles per hour (27 km / h) to 20 miles per hour (32 km / h) in New Zealand. This often causes the racing whales to breach, which is rare in blue whales. This racing behavior may even escalate to physical violence between the males. Scientists have observed this behavior in multiple parts of the world, including the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada and the South Taranaki Bight in New Zealand.
Females typically give birth once every two to three years at the start of the winter after a gestation period of 10 to 12 months. The calf weighs about 2.5 tonnes (2.8 short tons) and is around 7 metres (23 ft) in length. Blue whale calves drink 380 -- 570 litres (100 -- 150 U.S. gallons) of milk a day. Blue whale milk has an energy content of about 18,300 kJ / kg (4,370 kcal / kg). The calf is weaned after six months, by which time it has doubled in length. The first video of a calf thought to be nursing was filmed on 5 February 2016.
Sexual maturity is typically reached at five to ten years of age. In the Northern Hemisphere, whaling records show that males averaged 20 -- 21 m (66 -- 69 ft) and females 21 -- 23 m (69 -- 75 ft) at sexual maturity, while in the Southern Hemisphere it was 22.6 and 24 m (74 and 79 ft), respectively. In the Northern Hemisphere, as adults, males averaged 24 m (79 ft) and females 25 m (82 ft) with average calculated weights of 90.5 and 101.5 tonnes (100 and 112 tons), respectively. Blue whales in the eastern North Pacific population were found to be on average 0.91 meters (3.0 feet) shorter, therefore with males averaging 23.3 meters (76 feet) and 80.5 tonnes (88.5 tons) and females 24 meters (79 feet) and 90.5 tonnes (100 tons). Antarctic males averaged 25 m (82 ft) and females 26.2 m (86 ft), averaging 101.5 and 118 tonnes (112 and 130 tons). Pygmy blue whales average 19.2 meters (63 feet) at sexual maturity, with males averaging 21 meters and females 22 meters (69 and 72 feet) when fully grown, averaging 76 and 90 tonnes (83.5 and 99 tons).
In the eastern North Pacific, photogrammetric studies have shown sexually mature (but not necessarily fully grown) blue whales today average 21.7 m (71 ft), and about 65.5 tonnes (72 tons) with the largest found being about 24.5 m (80 ft). A 26.5 m (87 ft) female washed ashore near Pescadero, California in 1979.
The weight of individual blue whales varies significantly according to fat condition. Antarctic blue whales gain 50 % of their lean body weight in the summer feeding season, i.e. a blue whale entering the Antarctic weighing 100 tons would leave weighing 150 tons. Pregnant females probably gain 60 -- 65 %. The fattened weight is 120 % the average weight and the lean weight is 80 %.
Scientists estimate that blue whales can live for at least 80 years, but since individual records do not date back into the whaling era, this will not be known with certainty for many years. The longest recorded study of a single individual is 34 years, in the eastern North Pacific.
The whales ' only natural predator is the orca. Studies report that as many as 25 % of mature blue whales have scars resulting from orca attacks. The mortality rate of such attacks is unknown.
Blue whale strandings are extremely uncommon, and, because of the species ' social structure, mass strandings are unheard of. When strandings do occur, they can become the focus of public interest. In 1920, a blue whale washed up near Bragar on the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland. It had been shot by whalers, but the harpoon had failed to explode. As with other mammals, the fundamental instinct of the whale was to try to carry on breathing at all costs, even though this meant beaching to prevent itself from drowning. Two of the whale 's bones were erected just off a main road on Lewis and remain a tourist attraction.
In June 2015, a female blue whale estimated at 12.2 meters (40 feet) and 20 tonnes (22 tons) was stranded on a beach in Maharashtra, India, the first live stranding in the region. Despite efforts by the Albaug forest department and local fishermen, the whale died 10 hours after being stranded. In August 2009, a wounded blue whale was stranded in a bay in Steingrímsfjördur, Iceland. The first rescue attempt failed, as the whale (thought to be over 20 meters long) towed the > 20 ton boat back to shore at speeds of up to 7 miles per hour (11 km / h). The whale was towed to sea after 7 hours by a stronger boat. It is unknown whether it survived. In December 2015, a live blue whale thought to be over 20 metres (66 feet) long was rescued from a beach in Chile. Another stranded blue whale, thought to be about 12.2 metres (40 feet) long, was rescued in India in February 2016. Boats were used in all successful cases.
Estimates made by Cummings and Thompson (1971) suggest the source level of sounds made by blue whales are between 155 and 188 decibels when measured relative to a reference pressure of one micropascal at one metre. All blue whale groups make calls at a fundamental frequency between 10 and 40 Hz; the lowest frequency sound a human can typically perceive is 20 Hz. Blue whale calls last between ten and thirty seconds. Blue whales off the coast of Sri Lanka have been repeatedly recorded making "songs '' of four notes, lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well - known humpback whale songs. As this phenomenon has not been seen in any other populations, researchers believe it may be unique to the B. m. brevicauda (pygmy) subspecies. The loudest sustained noise from a blue whale was at 188 dB.
The purpose of vocalization is unknown. Richardson et al. (1995) discuss six possible reasons:
Blue whales are not easy to catch or kill. Their speed and power meant that they were rarely pursued by early whalers, who instead targeted sperm and right whales. In 1864, the Norwegian Svend Foyn equipped a steamboat with harpoons specifically designed for catching large whales. The harpoon gun was initially cumbersome and had a low success rate, but Foyn perfected it, and soon several whaling stations were established on the coast of Finnmark in northern Norway. Because of disputes with the local fishermen, the last whaling station in Finnmark was closed down in 1904.
Soon, blue whales were being hunted off Iceland (1883), the Faroe Islands (1894), Newfoundland (1898), and Spitsbergen (1903). In 1904 -- 05 the first blue whales were taken off South Georgia. By 1925, with the advent of the stern slipway in factory ships and the use of steam - driven whale catchers, the catch of blue whales, and baleen whales as a whole, in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic began to increase dramatically. In the 1930 -- 31 season, these ships caught 29,400 blue whales in the Antarctic alone. By the end of World War II, populations had been significantly depleted, and, in 1946, the first quotas restricting international trade in whales were introduced, but they were ineffective because of the lack of differentiation between species. Rare species could be hunted on an equal footing with those found in relative abundance.
Arthur C. Clarke, in his 1962 book Profiles of the Future, was the first prominent intellectual to call attention to the plight of the blue whale. He mentioned its large brain and said, "we do not know the true nature of the entity we are destroying. ''
All of the historical coastal Asian groups were driven to near - extinction in short order by Japanese industrial hunts. Those groups that once migrated along western Japan to the East China Sea were likely wiped out much earlier, as the last catches on Amami Oshima were between the 1910s and the 1930s, and the last known stranding records on the Japanese archipelago, excluding the Ryukyu Islands, were over a half - century ago. Commercial catches were continued until 1965 and whaling stations targeting blues were mainly placed along the Hokkaido and Sanriku coasts.
Blue whale hunting was banned in 1966 by the International Whaling Commission, and illegal whaling by the Soviet Union finally halted in the 1970s, by which time 330,000 blue whales had been caught in the Antarctic, 33,000 in the rest of the Southern Hemisphere, 8,200 in the North Pacific, and 7,000 in the North Atlantic. The largest original population, in the Antarctic, had been reduced to a mere 360 individuals, about 0.15 % of their initial numbers.
Since the introduction of the whaling ban, studies have examined whether the conservation reliant global blue whale population is increasing or remaining stable. In the Antarctic, best estimates show an increase of 7.3 % per year since the end of illegal Soviet whaling, but numbers remain at under 1 % of their original levels. Recovery varies regionally, and the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population (historically a relatively small proportion of the global total) has rebounded to about 2,200 individuals, an estimated 97 % of its pre-hunting population.
The total world population was estimated to be between 5,000 and 12,000 in 2002; there are high levels of uncertainty in available estimates for many areas. A more recent estimate by the IUCN puts the global population at 10,000 -- 25,000.
The IUCN Red List counts the blue whale as "endangered '', as it has since the list 's inception. In the United States, the National Marine Fisheries Service lists them as endangered under the Endangered Species Act. The largest known concentration, consisting of about 2,800 individuals, is the northeast Pacific population of the northern blue whale (B. m. musculus) subspecies that ranges from Alaska to Costa Rica, but is most commonly seen from California in summer. Infrequently, this population visits the northwest Pacific between Kamchatka and the northern tip of Japan.
In the North Atlantic, two stocks of B. m. musculus are recognised. The first is found off Greenland, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. This group is estimated to total about 500. The second, more easterly group is spotted from the Azores in spring to Iceland in July and August; it is presumed the whales follow the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between the two volcanic islands. Beyond Iceland, blue whales have been spotted as far north as Spitsbergen and Jan Mayen, though such sightings are rare. Scientists do not know where these whales spend their winters. The total North Atlantic population is estimated to be between 600 and 1,500. Off Ireland, the first confirmed sightings were made in 2008, since then Porcupine Seabight has been regarded as a prominent habitat for the species along with fin whales. One was sighted along Galicia, Spain, in 2017.
Five or more subpopulations have been suggested, and several of these mainly in the western North Pacific have been considered either functionally or virtually extinct. Of the populations that once existed off coastal Japan, the last recorded confirmed stranding was in the 1910s. Today, call types suggest only two populations in the North Pacific. Some scientists regard that historical populations off Japan were driven to extinction by whaling activities, mostly from the Kumanonada Sea off Wakayama, in the Gulf of Tosa, and in the Sea of Hyūga. Nowadays, possible vagrants from either eastern or offshore populations are observed on very rare occasions off Kushiro. There were also small, but constant catch records around the Korean Peninsula and in the coastal waters of the Sea of Japan; this species is normally considered not to frequent into marginal seas, such as the Sea of Okhotsk, on usual migrations. Whales were known to migrate further north to eastern Kamchatka, the Gulf of Anadyr, off Abashiri or the southern Sea of Okhotsk, and the Commander Islands. Only three sightings were made between 1994 and 2004 in Russia with one sighted off east coast of the peninsula in 2009, and the last known occurrence in the eastern Sea of Okhotsk was in 1948. In addition, whales have not been confirmed off the Commander Islands for over past 80 years. In 2017, 13 or more whales were observed off Kamchatka and Commander Islands. Historically, wintering grounds existed off the Hawaiian Archipelago, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Bonin Islands and Ryukyu Islands, the Philippines, Taiwan, the Zhoushan Archipelago, and the South China Sea such as in Daya Bay, off the Leizhou Peninsula, and off Hainan Island, and further south to the Paracel Islands. Archaeological records suggest blue whales once migrated into the Sea of Japan, along the Korean Peninsula and northwestern Kyushu, and to the Yellow and Bohai Sea as well. A stranding was recorded in Wanning in 2005. One whale was sighted off Weizhou Island in 2017. For further status in Chinese and Korean waters, see Wildlife of China.
As of 2014, the eastern North Pacific blue whale population had rebounded to an estimated 2,200 individuals, which is thought to be about 97 % of its pre-whaling numbers.
In the Southern Hemisphere, there appear to be two distinct subspecies, B. m. intermedia, the Antarctic blue whale, and the little - studied pygmy blue whale, B. m. brevicauda, found in Indian Ocean waters. The most recent surveys (midpoint 1998) provided an estimate of 2,280 blue whales in the Antarctic (of which fewer than 1 % are likely to be pygmy blue whales). Estimates from a 1996 survey show that 424 pygmy blue whales were in a small area south of Madagascar (the Madagascar Plateau) alone, thus it is likely that numbers in the entire Indian Ocean are in the thousands. If this is true, the global numbers would be much higher than estimates predict. However, slower reproduction rate of the species, along with the impacts of whaling, may affect population recoveries as the total population size is predicted to be at less than 50 % of its pre-whaling state by 2100.
Several congregating grounds are recently confirmed in Oceania, such as Perth Canyon off Rottnest Island, the Great Australian Bight off Portland, and in South Taranaki Bight and off Kahurangi Point which was discovered just in 2007 and was confirmed in 2014, representing possibly a unique population based on haplotypes. Southern blue and pygmy blue females use waters off Western Australia, and coastal areas of eastern North Island of New Zealand, from Northland waters such as the Bay of Islands and Hauraki Gulf to the Bay of Plenty in the south, as breeding and calving grounds. Whales off southern and western Australia are known to migrate into tropical coastal waters in Indonesia, Philippines, and off East Timor. (Animals in the Philippines may or may not originate from North Pacific populations or from a pygmy blue population in the northern Indian Ocean as whales regularly appear off Bohol, north of the Equator.) At least on occasions, whales also migrate through remote islands such as Cook Islands, and Chilean pelagic waters adjacent to Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez, where possibilities of undiscovered wintering grounds have been considered.
Blue whales also migrate through western African waters such as off Angola and Mauritania, and at least whales around Iceland are known to migrate to Mauritania.
A fourth subspecies, B. m. indica, was identified by Blyth in 1859 in the northern Indian Ocean, but is now thought to be the same subspecies as B. m. brevicauda, the pygmy blue whale. Records for Soviet catches seem to indicate that the female adult size is closer to that of the pygmy blue than B. m. musculus; the populations of B. m. indica and B. m. brevicauda appear to be discrete, and the breeding seasons differ by almost six months. Along mainland Indian coasts, appearances of whales had been scarce excluding unconfirmed record (s), the first blue whale since after the last stranding record in Maharashtra in 1914, was sighted off Kunkeshwar along with several Bryde 's whales in May 2015.
Migratory patterns of these subspecies are not well known. For example, pygmy blue whales have been recorded in the northern Indian Ocean (Oman, Maldives and Sri Lanka), where they may form a distinct resident population. Furthermore, sightings have been recorded from elsewhere in and adjacent to Arabian Sea, including from Gulf of Aden, Persian Gulf, coasts of Bay of Bengal including Bangladesh to Myanmar, and within the Strait of Malacca. The first official confirmation within Thailand 's EEZ occurred at Trang in 2013.
In addition, the population of blue whales occurring off Chile and Peru may also be a distinct subspecies. Some Antarctic blue whales approach the eastern South Atlantic coast in winter, and occasionally, their vocalizations are heard off Peru, Western Australia, and in the northern Indian Ocean. In Chile, the Cetacean Conservation Center, with support from the Chilean Navy, is undertaking extensive research and conservation work on a recently discovered feeding aggregation of the species off the coast of Chiloe Island in the Gulf of Corcovado (Chiloé National Park), where 326 blue whales were spotted in 2007. In this regions, it is normal for blue whales to enter Fiords. Whales also reach southern Los Lagos, such as off Caleta Zorra, live along with other rorquals.
Efforts to calculate the blue whale population more accurately are supported by marine mammologists at Duke University, who maintain the Ocean Biogeographic Information System -- Spatial Ecological Analysis of Megavertebrate Populations (OBIS - SEAMAP), a collation of marine mammal sighting data from around 130 sources.
Due to their enormous size, power and speed, adult blue whales have virtually no natural predators. There is one documented case in National Geographic Magazine of a blue whale being attacked by orcas off the Baja California Peninsula; the orcas were unable to kill the animal outright during their attack, but the blue whale sustained serious wounds and probably died as a result of them shortly after the attack. In March 2014, a pack of orcas harassed a blue whale off California, with one of them biting the tip of the blue whale 's tail fluke. The blue whale attempted to tail slap the orca and fled at high speed. A similar incident happened on May 18, 2017 in Monterey Bay, with the orcas swimming in a line up to the blue whale 's side. The blue whale fled and escaped. Orcas have virtually no chance against an adult blue whale, but may attack them on occasion anyway for their own enjoyment. Up to a quarter of the blue whales identified in Baja bear scars from orca attacks.
Blue whales may be wounded, sometimes fatally, after colliding with ocean vessels, as well as becoming trapped or entangled in fishing gear. Ship strikes in particular have killed many blue whales in California. In September 2007, three dead blue whales washed up in southern California after being killed by ship strikes. Ship strikes are also a serious problem in Sri Lanka, and scientists believe this problem could be nearly eliminated by moving the shipping lanes 15 nautical miles to the south. The ever - increasing amount of ocean noise, including sonar, drowns out the vocalizations produced by whales, which makes it harder for them to communicate. Blue whales stop producing foraging D calls once a mid-frequency sonar is activated, even though the sonar frequency range (1 -- 8 kHz) far exceeds their sound production range (25 -- 100 Hz). Research on blue whales in the Southern California Bight has shown that mid-frequency sonar use interferes with foraging behavior, sometimes causing the whales to abandon their feeding. Human threats to the potential recovery of blue whale populations also include accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) chemicals within the whale 's body.
With global warming causing glaciers and permafrost to melt rapidly and allowing a large amount of fresh water to flow into the oceans, there are concerns that if the amount of fresh water in the oceans reaches a critical point, there will be a disruption in the thermohaline circulation. Considering the blue whale 's migratory patterns are based on ocean temperature, a disruption in this circulation, which moves warm and cold water around the world, would be likely to have an effect on their migration. The whales summer in the cool, high latitudes, where they feed in krill - abundant waters; they winter in warmer, low latitudes, where they mate and give birth.
The change in ocean temperature would also affect the blue whale 's food supply. The warming trend and decreased salinity levels would cause a significant shift in krill location and abundance.
Before modern whaling began in the late 19th century, blue whales were obscure and very poorly understood. They, along with other large whales were mythologized and indistinguishable from sea monsters. Even after the first specimens were described, the blue whale went by many names and scientists often described their specimens as new species. Descriptions and illustrations were inaccurate. The taxonomy was eventually resolved, but many mysteries remained.
The blue whale rose from relative obscurity in the 1970s, after the release of the Songs of the Humpback Whale. The difference between the humpback and the blue whale was not well known to most people, who conflated the species in their minds. To many listeners, the haunting songs seemed like a cry for help. Environmentalists developed the image of a lonely blue whale singing out in an empty ocean, since whalers had nearly hunted the species to extinction.
Today, the blue whale is renowned for being the largest animal ever to have lived. In part because of its legendary status, many misconceptions still exist. For example, its size is often exaggerated. Many popular sources give the maximum length as 110 feet (34 meters) or more. While such lengths were reported in the whaling records, they were not scientifically verified and were probably exaggerated. Virtually all books and articles that mention the blue whale claim that it can reach 100 feet (30 meters). This is probably true (the largest verified specimen was 29.9 meters, 98 feet but is highly misleading as the average size is much smaller.
The global population was reduced by more than 99 % during the 20th century. Most of this was in the Antarctic, which had been reduced to 360 individuals or about 0.15 % of their original numbers; other populations were not as badly depleted. The Antarctic blue whale population is growing at the relatively rapid rate of about 7.3 % per year, but it was hunted to such a low level that it remains at a tiny fraction of pre-whaling numbers. The global population still requires protection, but it is not in immediate danger of extinction.
Other myths and misconceptions include that the blue whale 's arteries can be swum through, that the heartbeat can be heard from 19 miles away, and that the blue whale penis is 16 feet long.
The Natural History Museum in London contains a famous mounted skeleton and life - size model of a blue whale, which were both the first of their kind in the world, but have since been replicated at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Similarly, the American Museum of Natural History in New York City has a full - size model in its Milstein Family Hall of Ocean Life. A juvenile blue whale skeleton named KOBO is installed at the New Bedford Whaling Museum in New Bedford, Massachusetts.
The Aquarium of the Pacific in Long Beach, California, features a life - size model of a mother blue whale with her calf suspended from the ceiling of its main hall. The Beaty Biodiversity Museum at the University of British Columbia, Canada, houses a display of a blue whale skeleton (skull is cast replica) directly on the main campus boulevard. A real skeleton of a blue whale at the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa was also unveiled in May 2010. The Royal Ontario Museum obtained a blue whale, which died in Newfoundland and Labrador in 2014, and began an exhibition in 2016 to display its skeleton in Toronto.
The Museum of Natural History in Gothenburg, Sweden, contains the only stuffed blue whale in the world, with its skeleton mounted beside it. Two skeletons are held in Ukraine: in Odessa and Kherson.
The Melbourne Museum and Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa both feature a skeleton of the pygmy blue whale. The North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences in Raleigh, North Carolina, has a mounted skeleton of a blue whale.
The South African Museum in Cape Town features a hall devoted to whales and natural history known as the Whale Well. The centrepiece of the exhibit is a suspended mounted blue whale skeleton, from the carcass of a partially mature specimen that washed ashore in the mid 1980s. The skeleton 's jaw bones are mounted on the floor of Whale Well to permit visitors direct contact with them, and to walk between them so as to appreciate the size of the animal. Other mounted skeletons include that of a humpback whale and a right whale, together with in - scale composite models of other whales, dolphins and porpoises.
The Tokyo National Museum in Ueno Park displays a life - sized model of a blue whale in the front. Several other institutions such as Tokai University and Taiji Whale Museum hold skeletons or skeleton models of Pygmy blue whales, while several churches and buildings in western Japan including Nagasaki Prefecture display the jawbone of captured animals as a gate.
Blue whales may be encountered (but rarely) on whale - watching cruises in the Gulf of Maine and are the main attractions along the north shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and in the Saint Lawrence estuary. Blue whales can also be seen off Southern California, starting as early as March and April, with the peak between July and September. More whales have been observed close to shore along with fin whales.
In Chile, the Alfaguara project combines conservation measures for the population of blue whales feeding off Chiloé Island with whale watching and other ecotourism activities that bring economic benefits to the local people. Whale - watching, principally blue whales, is also carried out south of Sri Lanka. Whales are widely seen along the coast of Chile and Peru near the coast, occasionally making mixed groups with fin, sei, and Bryde 's whales.
In Australia, pygmy blue and Antarctic blue whales have been observed from various tours in almost all the coastlines of the continent. Among these, tours with sightings likely the highest rate are on west coast such as in Geographe Bay and in southern bight off Portland. For later, special tours to observe pygmy blues by helicopters are organized.
In New Zealand, whales have been seen in many areas close to shore, most notably around the Northland coast, in the Hauraki Gulf and the Bay of Plenty.
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what size is jupiter compared to other planets | Jupiter - wikipedia
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Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a giant planet with a mass one - thousandth that of the Sun, but two - and - a-half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants; the other two giant planets, Uranus and Neptune are ice giants. Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity. The Romans named it after their god Jupiter. When viewed from Earth, Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94, bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows, and making it on average the third - brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.
Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium, though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules. It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements, but like the other giant planets, Jupiter lacks a well - defined solid surface. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid (it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator). The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope. Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere. Jupiter has at least 69 moons, including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.
Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft, most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter. In late February 2007, Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe, which used Jupiter 's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto. The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno, which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4, 2016. Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice - covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa.
Earth and its neighbor planets may have formed from fragments of planets after collisions with Jupiter destroyed those super-Earths near the Sun. As Jupiter came toward the inner Solar System, in what theorists call the Grand Tack Hypothesis, gravitational tugs and pulls occurred causing a series of collisions between the super-Earths as their orbits began to overlap.
Astronomers have discovered nearly 500 planetary systems with multiple planets. Regularly these systems include a few planets with masses several times greater than Earth 's (super-Earths), orbiting closer to their star than Mercury is to the Sun, and sometimes also Jupiter - mass gas giants close to their star.
Jupiter moving out of the inner Solar System would have allowed the formation of inner planets, including Earth.
Jupiter is composed primarily of gaseous and liquid matter. It is the largest of the four giant planets in the Solar System and hence its largest planet. It has a diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator. The average density of Jupiter, 1.326 g / cm, is the second highest of the giant planets, but lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.
Jupiter 's upper atmosphere is about 88 -- 92 % hydrogen and 8 -- 12 % helium by percent volume of gas molecules. A helium atom has about four times as much mass as a hydrogen atom, so the composition changes when described as the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms. Thus, Jupiter 's atmosphere is approximately 75 % hydrogen and 24 % helium by mass, with the remaining one percent of the mass consisting of other elements. The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane, water vapor, ammonia, and silicon - based compounds. There are also traces of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. The interior contains denser materials - by mass it is roughly 71 % hydrogen, 24 % helium, and 5 % other elements. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found.
The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun. Helium is also depleted to about 80 % of the Sun 's helium composition. This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet.
Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and relatively more ices and are thus now termed ice giants.
Jupiter 's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined -- this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun 's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun 's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. Jupiter 's radius is about 1 / 10 the radius of the Sun, and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of the Sun, so the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "Jupiter mass '' (M or M) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. So, for example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 M, while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of 12.8 M.
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at present, it would shrink. For small changes in mass, the radius would not change appreciably, and above about 500 M (1.6 Jupiter masses) the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter. As a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved, as in high - mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses.
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star, the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter. Despite this, Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun; the amount of heat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation it receives. This additional heat is generated by the Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism through contraction. This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm each year. When it was first formed, Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter.
Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixture of elements, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen with some helium, and an outer layer predominantly of molecular hydrogen. Beyond this basic outline, there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is often described as rocky, but its detailed composition is unknown, as are the properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of those depths (see below). In 1997, the existence of the core was suggested by gravitational measurements, indicating a mass of from 12 to 45 times that of Earth, or roughly 4 % -- 14 % of the total mass of Jupiter. The presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter 's history is suggested by models of planetary formation that require the formation of a rocky or icy core massive enough to collect its bulk of hydrogen and helium from the protosolar nebula. Assuming it did exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher levels in the planetary interior. A core may now be entirely absent, as gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that possibility out entirely.
The uncertainty of the models is tied to the error margin in hitherto measured parameters: one of the rotational coefficients (J) used to describe the planet 's gravitational moment, Jupiter 's equatorial radius, and its temperature at 1 bar pressure. The Juno mission, which arrived in July 2016, is expected to further constrain the values of these parameters for better models of the core.
The core region may be surrounded by dense metallic hydrogen, which extends outward to about 78 % of the radius of the planet. Rain - like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through this layer, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere. Rainfalls of diamonds have been suggested to occur on Jupiter, as well as on Saturn and ice giants Uranus and Neptune.
Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen 's critical pressure of 1.2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32.938 K. In this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases -- hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state. It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas in the upper layer extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km, and as liquid in deeper layers. Physically, there is no clear boundary -- the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends.
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily toward the core, due to the Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism. At the pressure level of 10 bars (1 MPa), the temperature is around 340 K (67 ° C; 152 ° F). At the phase transition region where hydrogen -- heated beyond its critical point -- becomes metallic, it is calculated the temperature is 10,000 K (9,700 ° C; 17,500 ° F) and the pressure is 200 GPa. The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36,000 K (35,700 ° C; 64,300 ° F) and the interior pressure is roughly 3,000 -- 4,500 GPa.
Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, spanning over 5,000 km (3,000 mi) in altitude. Because Jupiter has no surface, the base of its atmosphere is usually considered to be the point at which atmospheric pressure is equal to 100 kPa (1.0 bar).
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter - hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 m / s (360 km / h) are common in zonal jets. The zones have been observed to vary in width, color and intensity from year to year, but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to give them identifying designations.
The cloud layer is only about 50 km (31 mi) deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer. Supporting the idea of water clouds are the flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds are assumed to generate thunderstorms in the same way as terrestrial thunderstorms, driven by the heat rising from the interior.
The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun. The exact makeup remains uncertain, but the substances are thought to be phosphorus, sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons. These colorful compounds, known as chromophores, mix with the warmer, lower deck of clouds. The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view.
Jupiter 's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet 's equatorial region. Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles, balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer.
The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth, located 22 ° south of the equator. It is known to have been in existence since at least 1831, and possibly since 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two "red spots '' adjacent to the Great Red Spot. The storm is large enough to be visible through Earth - based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger. The oval object rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about six days. The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km (5 mi) above the surrounding cloudtops.
The Great Red Spot is large enough to accommodate Earth within its boundaries. Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and may be a permanent feature of the planet. However, it has significantly decreased in size since its discovery. Initial observations in the late 1800s showed it to be approximately 41,000 km (25,500 mi) across. By the time of the Voyager flybys in 1979, the storm had a length of 23,300 km (14,500 mi) and a width of approximately 13,000 km (8,000 mi). Hubble observations in 1995 showed it had decreased in size again to 20,950 km (13,020 mi), and observations in 2009 showed the size to be 17,910 km (11,130 mi). As of 2015, the storm was measured at approximately 16,500 by 10,940 km (10,250 by 6,800 mi), and is decreasing in length by about 930 km (580 mi) per year.
Storms such as this are common within the turbulent atmospheres of giant planets. Jupiter also has white ovals and brown ovals, which are lesser unnamed storms. White ovals tend to consist of relatively cool clouds within the upper atmosphere. Brown ovals are warmer and located within the "normal cloud layer ''. Such storms can last as little as a few hours or stretch on for centuries.
Even before Voyager proved that the feature was a storm, there was strong evidence that the spot could not be associated with any deeper feature on the planet 's surface, as the Spot rotates differentially with respect to the rest of the atmosphere, sometimes faster and sometimes more slowly.
In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller. This was created when several smaller, white oval - shaped storms merged to form a single feature -- these three smaller white ovals were first observed in 1938. The merged feature was named Oval BA, and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior. It has since increased in intensity and changed color from white to red.
In April 2017, scientists reported the discovery of a "Great Cold Spot '' in Jupiter 's thermosphere at its north pole that is 24,000 km (15,000 mi) across, 12,000 km (7,500 mi) wide, and 200 ° C (360 ° F) cooler than surrounding material. The feature was discovered by researchers at the Very Large Telescope in Chile, who then searched archived data from the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility between 1995 and 2000. They found that, while the Spot changes size, shape and intensity over the short term, it has maintained its general position in the atmosphere across more than 15 years of available data. Scientists believe the Spot is a giant vortex similar to the Great Red Spot and also appears to be quasi-stable like the vortices in Earth 's thermosphere. Interactions between charged particles generated from Io and the planet 's strong magnetic field likely resulted in redistribution of heat flow, forming the Spot.
Jupiter 's magnetic field is fourteen times as strong as that of Earth, ranging from 4.2 gauss (0.42 mT) at the equator to 10 -- 14 gauss (1.0 -- 1.4 mT) at the poles, making it the strongest in the Solar System (except for sunspots). This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents -- swirling movements of conducting materials -- within the liquid metallic hydrogen core. The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide forming a gas torus along the moon 's orbit. The gas is ionized in the magnetosphere producing sulfur and oxygen ions. They, together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter, form a plasma sheet in Jupiter 's equatorial plane. The plasma in the sheet co-rotates with the planet causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of magnetodisk. Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature that produces bursts in the range of 0.6 -- 30 MHz.
At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet, the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock. Surrounding Jupiter 's magnetosphere is a magnetopause, located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath -- a region between it and the bow shock. The solar wind interacts with these regions, elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter 's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn. The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere, which protects them from the solar wind.
The magnetosphere of Jupiter is responsible for intense episodes of radio emission from the planet 's polar regions. Volcanic activity on Jupiter 's moon Io (see below) injects gas into Jupiter 's magnetosphere, producing a torus of particles about the planet. As Io moves through this torus, the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter. As a result, radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism, and the energy is transmitted out along a cone - shaped surface. When Earth intersects this cone, the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the solar radio output.
Jupiter is the only planet whose barycenter with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun, though by only 7 % of the Sun 's radius. The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km (about 5.2 times the average distance between Earth and the Sun, or 5.2 AU) and it completes an orbit every 11.86 years. This is approximately two - fifths the orbital period of Saturn, forming a near orbital resonance between the two largest planets in the Solar System. The elliptical orbit of Jupiter is inclined 1.31 ° compared to Earth. Because the eccentricity of its orbit is 0.048, Jupiter 's distance from the Sun varies by 75 million km between its nearest approach (perihelion) and furthest distance (aphelion).
The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small: only 3.13 °. As a result, it does not experience significant seasonal changes, in contrast to, for example, Earth and Mars.
Jupiter 's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System 's planets, completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an Earth - based amateur telescope. The planet is shaped as an oblate spheroid, meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles. On Jupiter, the equatorial diameter is 9,275 km (5,763 mi) longer than the diameter measured through the poles.
Because Jupiter is not a solid body, its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The rotation of Jupiter 's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere; three systems are used as frames of reference, particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features. System I applies from the latitudes 10 ° N to 10 ° S; its period is the planet 's shortest, at 9h 50m 30.0 s. System II applies at all latitudes north and south of these; its period is 9h 55m 40.6 s. System III was first defined by radio astronomers, and corresponds to the rotation of the planet 's magnetosphere; its period is Jupiter 's official rotation.
Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus); at times Mars appears brighter than Jupiter. Depending on Jupiter 's position with respect to the Earth, it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as − 2.9 at opposition down to − 1.6 during conjunction with the Sun. The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50.1 to 29.8 arc seconds. Favorable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through perihelion, an event that occurs once per orbit.
Earth overtakes Jupiter every 398.9 days as it orbits the Sun, a duration called the synodic period. As it does so, Jupiter appears to undergo retrograde motion with respect to the background stars. That is, for a period Jupiter seems to move backward in the night sky, performing a looping motion.
Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth, the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11.5 °. That is, the planet always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth - based telescopes. It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained. A small telescope will usually show Jupiter 's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter 's atmosphere. A large telescope will show Jupiter 's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth.
The planet Jupiter has been known since ancient times. It is visible to the naked eye in the night sky and can occasionally be seen in the daytime when the Sun is low. To the Babylonians, this object represented their god Marduk. They used Jupiter 's roughly 12 - year orbit along the ecliptic to define the constellations of their zodiac.
The Romans named it after Jupiter (Latin: Iuppiter, Iūpiter) (also called Jove), the principal god of Roman mythology, whose name comes from the Proto - Indo - European vocative compound * Dyēu - pəter (nominative: * Dyēus - pətēr, meaning "Father Sky - God '', or "Father Day - God ''). In turn, Jupiter was the counterpart to the mythical Greek Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek.
The astronomical symbol for the planet,, is a stylized representation of the god 's lightning bolt. The original Greek deity Zeus supplies the root zeno -, used to form some Jupiter - related words, such as zenographic.
Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter. The older adjectival form jovial, employed by astrologers in the Middle Ages, has come to mean "happy '' or "merry '', moods ascribed to Jupiter 's astrological influence.
The Chinese, Koreans and Japanese called it the "wood star '' (Chinese: 木星; pinyin: mùxīng), based on the Chinese Five Elements. Chinese Taoism personified it as the Fu star. The Greeks called it Φαέθων (Phaethon, meaning "blazing ''). In Vedic astrology, Hindu astrologers named the planet after Brihaspati, the religious teacher of the gods, and often called it "Guru '', which literally means the "Heavy One ''.
In Germanic mythology, Jupiter is equated to Thor, whence the English name Thursday for the Roman dies Jovis.
In the Central Asian - Turkic myths, Jupiter is called Erendiz or Erentüz, from eren (of uncertain meaning) and yultuz ("star ''). There are many theories about the meaning of eren. These peoples calculated the period of the orbit of Jupiter as 11 years and 300 days. They believed that some social and natural events connected to Erentüz 's movements on the sky.
The observation of Jupiter dates back to at least the Babylonian astronomers of the 7th or 8th century BC. The ancient Chinese also observed the orbit of Suìxīng (歲星) and established their cycle of 12 earthly branches based on its approximate number of years; the Chinese language still uses its name (simplified as 岁) when referring to years of age. By the 4th century BC, these observations had developed into the Chinese zodiac, with each year associated with a Tai Sui star and god controlling the region of the heavens opposite Jupiter 's position in the night sky; these beliefs survive in some Taoist religious practices and in the East Asian zodiac 's twelve animals, now often popularly assumed to be related to the arrival of the animals before Buddha. The Chinese historian Xi Zezong has claimed that Gan De, an ancient Chinese astronomer, discovered one of Jupiter 's moons in 362 BC with the unaided eye. If accurate, this would predate Galileo 's discovery by nearly two millennia. In his 2nd century work the Almagest, the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus constructed a geocentric planetary model based on deferents and epicycles to explain Jupiter 's motion relative to Earth, giving its orbital period around Earth as 4332.38 days, or 11.86 years. In 499, Aryabhata, a mathematician -- astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and astronomy, also used a geocentric model to estimate Jupiter 's period as 4332.2722 days, or 11.86 years.
In 1610, Galileo Galilei discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons) using a telescope; thought to be the first telescopic observation of moons other than Earth 's. One day after Galileo, Simon Marius independently discovered moons around Jupiter, though he did not publish his discovery in a book until 1614. It was Marius 's names for the four major moons, however, that stuck -- Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. These findings were also the first discovery of celestial motion not apparently centered on Earth. The discovery was a major point in favor of Copernicus ' heliocentric theory of the motions of the planets; Galileo 's outspoken support of the Copernican theory placed him under the threat of the Inquisition.
During the 1660s, Giovanni Cassini used a new telescope to discover spots and colorful bands on Jupiter and observed that the planet appeared oblate; that is, flattened at the poles. He was also able to estimate the rotation period of the planet. In 1690 Cassini noticed that the atmosphere undergoes differential rotation.
The Great Red Spot, a prominent oval - shaped feature in the southern hemisphere of Jupiter, may have been observed as early as 1664 by Robert Hooke and in 1665 by Cassini, although this is disputed. The pharmacist Heinrich Schwabe produced the earliest known drawing to show details of the Great Red Spot in 1831.
The Red Spot was reportedly lost from sight on several occasions between 1665 and 1708 before becoming quite conspicuous in 1878. It was recorded as fading again in 1883 and at the start of the 20th century.
Both Giovanni Borelli and Cassini made careful tables of the motions of Jupiter 's moons, allowing predictions of the times when the moons would pass before or behind the planet. By the 1670s, it was observed that when Jupiter was on the opposite side of the Sun from Earth, these events would occur about 17 minutes later than expected. Ole Rømer deduced that light does not travel instantaneously (a conclusion that Cassini had earlier rejected), and this timing discrepancy was used to estimate the speed of light.
In 1892, E.E. Barnard observed a fifth satellite of Jupiter with the 36 - inch (910 mm) refractor at Lick Observatory in California. The discovery of this relatively small object, a testament to his keen eyesight, quickly made him famous. This moon was later named Amalthea. It was the last planetary moon to be discovered directly by visual observation.
In 1932, Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter.
Three long - lived anticyclonic features termed white ovals were observed in 1938. For several decades they remained as separate features in the atmosphere, sometimes approaching each other but never merging. Finally, two of the ovals merged in 1998, then absorbed the third in 2000, becoming Oval BA.
In 1955, Bernard Burke and Kenneth Franklin detected bursts of radio signals coming from Jupiter at 22.2 MHz. The period of these bursts matched the rotation of the planet, and they were also able to use this information to refine the rotation rate. Radio bursts from Jupiter were found to come in two forms: long bursts (or L - bursts) lasting up to several seconds, and short bursts (or S - bursts) that had a duration of less than a hundredth of a second.
Scientists discovered that there were three forms of radio signals transmitted from Jupiter.
Since 1973 a number of automated spacecraft have visited Jupiter, most notably the Pioneer 10 space probe, the first spacecraft to get close enough to Jupiter to send back revelations about the properties and phenomena of the Solar System 's largest planet. Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta - v. Entering a Hohmann transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter from low Earth orbit requires a delta - v of 6.3 km / s which is comparable to the 9.7 km / s delta - v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.
Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft have performed planetary flyby maneuvers that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close - up images of Jupiter 's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter 's diameter and the amount of polar flattening.
Six years later, the Voyager missions vastly improved the understanding of the Galilean moons and discovered Jupiter 's rings. They also confirmed that the Great Red Spot was anticyclonic. Comparison of images showed that the Red Spot had changed hue since the Pioneer missions, turning from orange to dark brown. A torus of ionized atoms was discovered along Io 's orbital path, and volcanoes were found on the moon 's surface, some in the process of erupting. As the spacecraft passed behind the planet, it observed flashes of lightning in the night side atmosphere.
The next mission to encounter Jupiter was the Ulysses solar probe. It performed a flyby maneuver to attain a polar orbit around the Sun. During this pass, the spacecraft conducted studies on Jupiter 's magnetosphere. Ulysses has no cameras so no images were taken. A second flyby six years later was at a much greater distance.
In 2000, the Cassini probe flew by Jupiter on its way to Saturn, and provided some of the highest - resolution images ever made of the planet.
The New Horizons probe flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist en route to Pluto. Its closest approach was on February 28, 2007. The probe 's cameras measured plasma output from volcanoes on Io and studied all four Galilean moons in detail, as well as making long - distance observations of the outer moons Himalia and Elara. Imaging of the Jovian system began September 4, 2006.
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo probe, which entered orbit on December 7, 1995. It orbited the planet for over seven years, conducting multiple flybys of all the Galilean moons and Amalthea. The spacecraft also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker -- Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994, giving a unique vantage point for the event. Its originally designed capacity was limited by the failed deployment of its high - gain radio antenna, although extensive information was still gained about the Jovian system from Galileo.
A 340 - kilogram titanium atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995, entering Jupiter 's atmosphere on December 7. It parachuted through 150 km (93 mi) of the atmosphere at a speed of about 2,575 km / h (1600 mph) and collected data for 57.6 minutes before the signal was lost at a pressure of about 23 atmospheres at a temperature of 153 ° C. It melted thereafter, and possibly vaporized. The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21, 2003 at a speed of over 50 km / s to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and possibly contaminating Europa, a moon which has been hypothesized to have the possibility of harboring life.
Data from this mission revealed that hydrogen composes up to 90 % of Jupiter 's atmosphere. The recorded temperature was more than 300 ° C (> 570 ° F) and the windspeed measured more than 644 km / h (> 400 mph) before the probes vapourised.
NASA 's Juno mission arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, and is expected to complete 37 orbits over the next 20 months. The mission plan called for Juno to study the planet in detail from a polar orbit. On August 27, 2016, the spacecraft completed its first fly - by of Jupiter and sent back the first - ever images of Jupiter 's north pole.
The next planned mission to the Jovian system will be the European Space Agency 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), due to launch in 2022, followed by NASA 's Europa Clipper mission in 2025.
There has been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter 's moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Funding difficulties have delayed progress. NASA 's JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was cancelled in 2005. A subsequent proposal was developed for a joint NASA / ESA mission called EJSM / Laplace, with a provisional launch date around 2020. EJSM / Laplace would have consisted of the NASA - led Jupiter Europa Orbiter and the ESA - led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. However, ESA had formally ended the partnership by April 2011, citing budget issues at NASA and the consequences on the mission timetable. Instead, ESA planned to go ahead with a European - only mission to compete in its L1 Cosmic Vision selection.
Jupiter has 69 known natural satellites. Of these, 53 are less than 10 kilometres in diameter and have only been discovered since 1975. The four largest moons, visible from Earth with binoculars on a clear night, known as the "Galilean moons '', are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
The moons discovered by Galileo -- Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto -- are among the largest satellites in the Solar System. The orbits of three of them (Io, Europa, and Ganymede) form a pattern known as a Laplace resonance; for every four orbits that Io makes around Jupiter, Europa makes exactly two orbits and Ganymede makes exactly one. This resonance causes the gravitational effects of the three large moons to distort their orbits into elliptical shapes, because each moon receives an extra tug from its neighbors at the same point in every orbit it makes. The tidal force from Jupiter, on the other hand, works to circularize their orbits.
The eccentricity of their orbits causes regular flexing of the three moons ' shapes, with Jupiter 's gravity stretching them out as they approach it and allowing them to spring back to more spherical shapes as they swing away. This tidal flexing heats the moons ' interiors by friction. This is seen most dramatically in the extraordinary volcanic activity of innermost Io (which is subject to the strongest tidal forces), and to a lesser degree in the geological youth of Europa 's surface (indicating recent resurfacing of the moon 's exterior).
Before the discoveries of the Voyager missions, Jupiter 's moons were arranged neatly into four groups of four, based on commonality of their orbital elements. Since then, the large number of new small outer moons has complicated this picture. There are now thought to be six main groups, although some are more distinct than others.
A basic sub-division is a grouping of the eight inner regular moons, which have nearly circular orbits near the plane of Jupiter 's equator and are thought to have formed with Jupiter. The remainder of the moons consist of an unknown number of small irregular moons with elliptical and inclined orbits, which are thought to be captured asteroids or fragments of captured asteroids. Irregular moons that belong to a group share similar orbital elements and thus may have a common origin, perhaps as a larger moon or captured body that broke up.
Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring. These rings appear to be made of dust, rather than ice as with Saturn 's rings. The main ring is probably made of material ejected from the satellites Adrastea and Metis. Material that would normally fall back to the moon is pulled into Jupiter because of its strong gravitational influence. The orbit of the material veers towards Jupiter and new material is added by additional impacts. In a similar way, the moons Thebe and Amalthea probably produce the two distinct components of the dusty gossamer ring. There is also evidence of a rocky ring strung along Amalthea 's orbit which may consist of collisional debris from that moon.
Along with the Sun, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of the system 's planets lie closer to Jupiter 's orbital plane than the Sun 's equatorial plane (Mercury is the only planet that is closer to the Sun 's equator in orbital tilt), the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System 's history.
Along with its moons, Jupiter 's gravitational field controls numerous asteroids that have settled into the regions of the Lagrangian points preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the Sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, and are divided into Greek and Trojan "camps '' to commemorate the Iliad. The first of these, 588 Achilles, was discovered by Max Wolf in 1906; since then more than two thousand have been discovered. The largest is 624 Hektor.
Most short - period comets belong to the Jupiter family -- defined as comets with semi-major axes smaller than Jupiter 's. Jupiter family comets are thought to form in the Kuiper belt outside the orbit of Neptune. During close encounters with Jupiter their orbits are perturbed into a smaller period and then circularized by regular gravitational interaction with the Sun and Jupiter.
Due to the magnitude of Jupiter 's mass, the center of gravity between it and the Sun lies just above the Sun 's surface. Jupiter is the only body in the Solar System for which this is true.
Jupiter has been called the Solar System 's vacuum cleaner, because of its immense gravity well and location near the inner Solar System. It receives the most frequent comet impacts of the Solar System 's planets. It was thought that the planet served to partially shield the inner system from cometary bombardment. However, recent computer simulations suggest that Jupiter does not cause a net decrease in the number of comets that pass through the inner Solar System, as its gravity perturbs their orbits inward roughly as often as it accretes or ejects them. This topic remains controversial among scientists, as some think it draws comets towards Earth from the Kuiper belt while others think that Jupiter protects Earth from the alleged Oort cloud. Jupiter experiences about 200 times more asteroid and comet impacts than Earth.
A 1997 survey of early astronomical records and drawings suggested that a certain dark surface feature discovered by astronomer Giovanni Cassini in 1690 may have been an impact scar. The survey initially produced eight more candidate sites as potential impact observations that he and others had recorded between 1664 and 1839. It was later determined, however, that these candidate sites had little or no possibility of being the results of the proposed impacts.
More recent discoveries include the following:
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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when is the release of got season 7 episode 8 | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 % approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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the big 5 international building and construction show | The Big 5 - wikipedia
The Big 5 is a series of construction trade fairs originating in Dubai connecting international suppliers of construction products and services with buyers from the MENA region.
The Big 5 is held annually in Dubai in late November and attracted 78,579 participants in 2016, according to figures from media auditing firm BPA Worldwide, making The Big 5 in Dubai the largest construction event in the Middle East.
Organised by dmg events Middle East, Asia & Africa, there are seven annual editions of the exhibition that take place in the UAE, Saudi Arabia, India, Indonesia, East Africa (Kenya), North Africa (Morocco) and Egypt (to be launched in September 2018). Moreover, the first Big 5 Solar (dedicated to drive a solar powered world and to build the solar community of tomorrow) and The Big 5 Heavy (dedicated to the infrastructure industry) are set to debut in Dubai in November 2017 and March 2018 respectively.
The Big 5 has its origins in an event known as Arab Water and came about from an amalgamation of five separate product - focused events that all had a link to the construction sector - such as HVAC and building materials. With the building of the Dubai World Trade Centre, which began to develop in the late 1970s, the event found a permanent home and has expanded in size along with the venue. When dmg events Middle East, Asia & Africa acquired the exhibition in 2000, the event covered some 12,000 m2: this has risen to a current figure of 114,720 2 in gross floor space and 47,584 m2 in net exhibiting area. State support for the event has come from both international and local institutions. In 2007, the event was one of the first in the region to welcome a prime minister when the then Italian leader Romano Prodi visited the exhibition with his minister for international trade. In 2012, British prime minister David Cameron also visited the event in support of his nation 's export businesses. The visits reflected both the value of bilateral trade with the UAE but also the rise in importance of the Persian Gulf region as a whole to European export manufacturers, with EU exports to the GCC valued at $125 bn in 2015.
The Big 5 has spawned six geo - adapted events, where core elements of the exhibition have been exported to new markets. This has resulted in the creation of:
Focused on the construction sector and its products in the geographies where they take place, the events draw influences and content from across the spectrum of built environment interests. Sector specific events have also developed out of the growth of The Big 5. The largest of these is The Big 5 Heavy. Other spin off events are The Big 5 Solar, Gulf Glass, FM Expo, Elevators & Access Control, Middle East Waste & Recycling, HVAC R Expo Saudi, FM Expo Saudi, Outdoor Design & Build Show, Windows Doors & Facades, Wood Tech & Design Expo, and Building Services Qatar.
The launch of these additional events reflects dmg events Middle East, Asia & Africa 's declared strategy of using geo - adaptation as it pursues regional expansion.
Since 2010 there has also been an increasing emphasis on education within the events - in the form of conferences, seminars and workshops - to support continued professional development among audiences. DEC backs key Dubai construction summit The educational programmes are presented by a wide - selection of the industry 's architects, consultants, contractors and sub-contractors who volunteer their time and expertise to further the development of the construction sector. These free education components also include certification, overseen by the UK - based CPD Certification Service, so attendance can contribute to a person 's membership standing in organisations such as RICS or the CIOB.
The Big 5 has sought to promote the development of sustainable construction practices, a policy which resulted in the launch of its Gaia Awards in 2008. The awards programme reflected the event 's increased focus on sustainable technologies and supported government directives in the UAE that mandated companies in the construction sector to build green. The awards programme highlights the work of companies in the construction sector whose products and services can demonstrate a reduced environmental impact. The programme is open to all construction related businesses operating in the MENA region and typically includes a collection of category awards and an overall winner. Past winners have included Basalt Rock Composite (2015), and SageGlass (2016), an electronically tintable, dynamic glass that prevents heat and glare, increases occupants ' comfort, optimizes daylight while maintaining the view to the outdoor. Introduced for the first time in 2016, the Gaia Award 's public vote awarded ASSA ABLOY 's Low Energy Lock at Big 5 the same year.
Additional services include the creation of a Platinum Club, an invite - only collection of key buyers and other industry influencers who are given access to additional support services at the events. Live demonstrations have also become a staple of the event formats, offering participating exhibitors the chance to show how their products and services work in a practical setting to an audience who can participate directly
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what was the date of the end of world war 2 | End of World war II in Europe - wikipedia
The final battles of the European Theatre of World War II as well as the German surrender to the Allies took place in late April and early May 1945.
Allied forces begin to take large numbers of Axis prisoners: The total number of prisoners taken on the Western Front in April 1945 by the Western Allies was 1,500,000. April also witnessed the capture of at least 120,000 German troops by the Western Allies in the last campaign of the war in Italy. In the three to four months up to the end of April, over 800,000 German soldiers surrendered on the Eastern Front. In early April, the first Allied - governed Rheinwiesenlagers were established in western Germany to hold hundreds of thousands of captured or surrendered Axis Forces personnel. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) reclassified all prisoners as Disarmed Enemy Forces, not POWs (prisoners of war). The legal fiction circumvented provisions under the Geneva Convention of 1929 on the treatment of former combatants. By October, thousands had died in the camps from starvation, exposure and disease.
Liberation of Nazi Concentration Camps and refugees: Allied forces began to discover the scale of the Holocaust. The advance into Germany uncovered numerous Nazi concentration camps and forced labor facilities. Up to 60,000 prisoners were at Bergen - Belsen when it was liberated on 15 April 1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division. Four days later troops from the American 42nd Infantry Division found Dachau. Allied troops forced the remaining SS guards to gather up the corpses and place them in mass graves. Due to the prisoners ' poor physical condition, thousands continued to die after liberation. Captured SS guards were subsequently tried at Allied war crimes tribunals where many were sentenced to death. However, up to 10,000 Nazi war criminals eventually fled Europe using ratlines such as ODESSA.
German forces leave Finland: On 25 April 1945, the last German formations withdrew from Finnish Lapland into occupied Norway. On 27 April 1945, the Raising the Flag on the Three - Country Cairn photograph was taken.
Mussolini 's death: On 25 April 1945, Italian partisans liberated Milan and Turin. On 27 April 1945, as Allied forces closed in on Milan, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans. It is disputed whether he was trying to flee from Italy to Switzerland (through the Splügen Pass), and was traveling with a German anti-aircraft battalion. On 28 April, Mussolini was executed in Giulino (a civil parish of Mezzegra); the other Fascists captured with him were taken to Dongo and executed there. The bodies were then taken to Milan and hung up on the Piazzale Loreto of the city. On 29 April, Rodolfo Graziani surrendered all Fascist Italian armed forces at Caserta. This included Army Group Liguria. Graziani was the Minister of Defence for Mussolini 's Italian Social Republic.
Hitler 's death: On 30 April, as the Battle of Nuremberg and the Battle of Hamburg ended with American and British occupation, in addition to the Battle of Berlin raging above him with the Soviets surrounding the city, along with his escape route cut off by the Americans, realizing that all was lost and not wishing to suffer Mussolini 's fate, German dictator Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his Führerbunker along with Eva Braun, his long - term partner whom he had married less than 40 hours before their joint suicide. In his will, Hitler dismissed Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, his second - in - command and Interior minister Heinrich Himmler after each of them separately tried to seize control of the crumbling Third Reich. Hitler appointed his successors as follows; Großadmiral Karl Dönitz as the new Reichspräsident ("President of Germany '') and Joseph Goebbels as the new Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany). However, Goebbels committed suicide the following day, leaving Dönitz as the sole leader of Germany.
German forces in Italy surrender: On 29 April, the day before Hitler died, Oberstleutnant Schweinitz and Sturmbannführer Wenner, plenipotentiaries for Generaloberst Heinrich von Vietinghoff and SS Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff, signed a surrender document at Caserta after prolonged unauthorised secret negotiations with the Western Allies, which were viewed with great suspicion by the Soviet Union as trying to reach a separate peace. In the document, the Germans agreed to a ceasefire and surrender of all the forces under the command of Vietinghoff at 2pm on 2 May. Accordingly, after some bitter wrangling between Wolff and Albert Kesselring in the early hours of 2 May, nearly 1,000,000 men in Italy and Austria surrendered unconditionally to British Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander at 2pm on 2 May.
German forces in Berlin surrender: The Battle of Berlin ended on 2 May. On that date, General der Artillerie Helmuth Weidling, the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, unconditionally surrendered the city to General Vasily Chuikov of the Soviet army. On the same day the officers commanding the two armies of Army Group Vistula north of Berlin, (General Kurt von Tippelskirch, commander of the German 21st Army and General Hasso von Manteuffel, commander of Third Panzer Army), surrendered to the Western Allies. 2 May is also believed to have been the day when Hitler 's deputy Martin Bormann died, from the account of Artur Axmann who saw Bormann 's corpse in Berlin near the Lehrter Bahnhof railway station after encountering a Soviet Red Army patrol. Lehrter Bahnhof is close to where the remains of Bormann, confirmed as his by a DNA test in 1998, were unearthed on 7 December 1972.
German forces in North West Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands surrender: On 4 May 1945, the British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery took the unconditional military surrender at Lüneburg from Generaladmiral Hans - Georg von Friedeburg, and General Eberhard Kinzel, of all German forces "in Holland (sic), in northwest Germany including the Frisian Islands and Heligoland and all other islands, in Schleswig - Holstein, and in Denmark... includ (ing) all naval ships in these areas '', at the Timeloberg on Lüneburg Heath; an area between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen. The number of German land, sea and air forces involved in this surrender amounted to 1,000,000 men. On 5 May, Großadmiral Dönitz ordered all U-boats to cease offensive operations and return to their bases. At 16: 00, General Johannes Blaskowitz, the German commander - in - chief in the Netherlands, surrendered to Canadian General Charles Foulkes in the Dutch town of Wageningen in the presence of Prince Bernhard (acting as commander - in - chief of the Dutch Interior Forces).
German forces in Bavaria surrender: At 14: 30 on 4 May 1945, General Hermann Foertsch surrendered all forces between the Bohemian mountains and the Upper Inn river to the American General Jacob L. Devers, commander of the American 6th Army Group.
Central Europe: On 5 May 1945, the Czech resistance started the Prague uprising. The following day, the Soviets launched the Prague Offensive. In Dresden, Gauleiter Martin Mutschmann let it be known that a large - scale German offensive on the Eastern Front was about to be launched. Within two days, Mutschmann abandoned the city, but was captured by Soviet troops while trying to escape.
Hermann Göring 's surrender: On 6 May, Reichsmarshall and Hitler 's second - in - command, Hermann Göring, surrendered to General Carl Spaatz, who was the commander of the operational United States Air Forces in Europe, along with his wife and daughter at the Germany - Austria border. He was by this time the most powerful Nazi official still alive.
German forces in Breslau surrender: At 18: 00 on 6 May, General Hermann Niehoff, the commandant of Breslau, a ' fortress ' city surrounded and besieged for months, surrendered to the Soviets.
Jodl and Keitel surrender all German armed forces unconditionally: Thirty minutes after the fall of "Festung Breslau '' (Fortress Breslau), General Alfred Jodl arrived in Reims and, following Dönitz 's instructions, offered to surrender all forces fighting the Western Allies. This was exactly the same negotiating position that von Friedeburg had initially made to Montgomery, and like Montgomery the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, threatened to break off all negotiations unless the Germans agreed to a complete unconditional surrender to all the Allies on all fronts. Eisenhower explicitly told Jodl that he would order western lines closed to German soldiers, thus forcing them to surrender to the Soviets. Jodl sent a signal to Dönitz, who was in Flensburg, informing him of Eisenhower 's declaration. Shortly after midnight, Dönitz, accepting the inevitable, sent a signal to Jodl authorizing the complete and total surrender of all German forces.
At 02: 41 on the morning of 7 May, at SHAEF headquarters in Reims, France, the Chief - of - Staff of the German Armed Forces High Command, General Alfred Jodl, signed an unconditional surrender document for all German forces to the Allies, committing representatives of the German High Command to attend a definitive signing ceremony in Berlin. General Franz Böhme announced the unconditional surrender of German troops in Norway on 7 May. It included the phrase "All forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European Time on May 8, 1945. '' The next day, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and other German OKW representatives travelled to Berlin, and shortly before midnight signed an amended and definitive document of unconditional surrender, explicitly surrendering to all the Allied forces in the presence of Marshal Georgi Zhukov and representatives of SHAEF. The signing ceremony took place in a former German Army Engineering School in the Berlin district of Karlshorst; it now houses the German - Russian Museum Berlin - Karlshorst.
German forces on the Channel Islands surrender: At 10: 00 on 8 May, the Channel Islanders were informed by the German authorities that the war was over. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made a radio broadcast at 15: 00 during which he announced: "Hostilities will end officially at one minute after midnight tonight, but in the interests of saving lives the ' Cease fire ' began yesterday to be sounded all along the front, and our dear Channel Islands are also to be freed today. ''
VE - Day: News of the imminent surrender broke in the West on 8 May, and celebrations erupted throughout Europe and parts of the British Empire. In the US, Americans awoke to the news and declared 8 May V-E Day. As the Soviet Union was to the east of Germany it was 9 May Moscow Time when the German military surrender became effective, which is why Russia and many other European countries east of Germany commemorate Victory Day on 9 May.
German units cease fire: Although the military commanders of most German forces obeyed the order to surrender issued by the (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) -- the German Armed Forces High Command), not all commanders did so. The largest contingent were Army Group Centre under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Ferdinand Schörner who had been promoted to Commander - in - Chief of the Army on 30 April in Hitler 's last will and testament. On 8 May, Schörner deserted his command and flew to Austria; the Soviet Army sent overwhelming force against Army Group Centre in the Prague Offensive, forcing German units in Army Group Centre to capitulate by 11 May. The other forces which did not surrender on 8 May surrendered piecemeal:
Dönitz government ordered dissolved by Eisenhower: Karl Dönitz continued to act as if he were the German head of state, but his Flensburg government (so - called because it was based at Flensburg in northern Germany and controlled only a small area around the town), was not recognized by the Allies. On 12 May an Allied liaison team arrived in Flensburg and took quarters aboard the passenger ship Patria. The liaison officers and the Supreme Allied Headquarters soon realized that they had no need to act through the Flensburg government and that its members should be arrested. On 23 May, acting on SHAEF 's orders and with the approval of the Soviets, American Major General Rooks summoned Dönitz aboard the Patria and communicated to him that he and all the members of his Government were under arrest, and that their government was dissolved. The Allies had a problem, because they realized that although the German armed forces had surrendered unconditionally, SHAEF had failed to use the document created by the "European Advisory Commission '' (EAC) and so there had been no formal surrender by the civilian German government. This was considered a very important issue, because just as the civilian, but not military, surrender in 1918 had been used by Hitler to create the "stab in the back '' argument, the Allies did not want to give any future hostile German regime a legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel.
Order JCS 1067 was signed into effect by President Harry S. Truman on 10 May 1945. This was part of the post-war economic plan that advocated how the Allied occupation would include measures to prevent Germany from waging further war by eliminating its armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries required for military strength. This included the removal or destruction of all industrial plants and equipment in the Ruhr. In 1947, JCS 1067 was replaced by JCS 1779 that aimed at restoring a "stable and productive Germany ''; this led to the introduction of the Marshall Plan.
Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany and the Assumption of Supreme Authority by Allied Powers was signed by the four Allies on 5 June. It included the following:
The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom and the Provisional Government of the French Republic, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not effect the annexation of Germany.
It is disputed whether this assumption of power constituted debellation -- the end of a war caused by the complete destruction of a hostile state.
The Potsdam Agreement was signed on 12 August 1945. In connection with this, the leaders of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union planned the new postwar German government, resettled war territory boundaries, de facto annexed a quarter of pre-war Germany situated east of the Oder - Neisse line, and mandated and organized the expulsion of the millions of Germans who remained in the annexed territories and elsewhere in the east. They also ordered German demilitarization, denazification, industrial disarmament and settlements of war reparations. But, as France (at American insistence) had not been invited to the Potsdam Conference, so the French representatives on the Allied Control Council subsequently refused to recognise any obligation to implement the Potsdam Agreement; with the consequence that much of the programme envisaged at Potsdam, for the establishment of a German government and state adequate for accepting a peace settlement, remained a dead letter.
Allied Control Council created to effect the Allies assumed supreme authority over Germany, specifically to implement their assumed joint authority over Germany. On 30 August, the Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the Council 's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the Commanders - in - Chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of the Council. Cessation of hostilities between the United States and Germany was proclaimed on 13 December 1946 by US President Truman.
Paris Peace Conference ended on 10 February 1947 with the signing of peace treaties by the wartime Allies with the minor European Axis powers (Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland; although Italy by some was considered a major power).
The Federal Republic of Germany, that had been founded on 23 May 1949 (when its Basic Law was promulgated) had its first government formed on 20 September 1949 while the German Democratic Republic was formed on 7 October.
End of state of war with Germany was declared by many former Western Allies in 1950. In the Petersberg Agreement of 22 November 1949, it was noted that the West German government wanted an end to the state of war, but the request could not be granted. The US state of war with Germany was being maintained for legal reasons, and though it was softened somewhat it was not suspended since "the US wants to retain a legal basis for keeping a US force in Western Germany ''. At a meeting for the Foreign Ministers of France, the UK, and the US in New York from 12 September -- 19 December 1950, it was stated that among other measures to strengthen West Germany 's position in the Cold War that the western allies would "end by legislation the state of war with Germany ''. In 1951, many former Western Allies did end their state of war with Germany: Australia (9 July), Canada, Italy, New Zealand, the Netherlands (26 July), South Africa, the United Kingdom (9 July), and the United States (19 October). The state of war between Germany and the Soviet Union was ended in early 1955.
"The full authority of a sovereign state '' was granted to the Federal Republic of Germany on 5 May 1955 under the terms of the Bonn -- Paris conventions. The treaty ended the military occupation of West German territory, but the three occupying powers retained some special rights, e.g. vis - à - vis West Berlin.
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany: Under the terms of this peace treaty, the Four Powers renounced all rights they formerly held in Germany, including Berlin. As a result, Germany became fully sovereign on 15 March 1991. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Allies were allowed to keep troops in Berlin until the end of 1994 (articles 4 and 5). In accordance with the Treaty, occupying troops were withdrawn by that deadline.
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who is look what you made me do is about | Look What You Made Me Do - wikipedia
"Look What You Made Me Do '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift from her sixth studio album Reputation (2017). It was first released on August 24, 2017 as the lead single from the album. Swift wrote it with producer Jack Antonoff. It samples the melody of the 1991 song "I 'm Too Sexy '' by the band Right Said Fred; therefore, Fred Fairbrass, Richard Fairbrass, and Rob Manzoli of the band are credited as songwriters. The song topped the US and UK charts and became Swift 's fifth biggest song of all time.
The song received a mixed response from music critics, with division over Swift 's stylistic change. The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and became the most - watched music video within 24 hours. The song broke a string of records, including the record for the most plays in a single day on Spotify. Commercially, "Look What You Made Me Do '' has topped the charts in Australia, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Lebanon, Malaysia, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Slovakia, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It has received a Double Platinum certification in Canada and Platinum certifications in the United States and Australia.
On August 23, 2017, Swift announced that the first single of her upcoming sixth album, titled Reputation, would come out the following night. The song was released to streaming services on August 24, and earned over eight million streams within twenty - four hours of its Spotify release, breaking the record for the highest first - day streaming for a single track. "Look What You Made Me Do '' was then released the next day onto iTunes for digital download through Big Machine Records and onto Italian contemporary hit radio before a United Kingdom radio release on August 26, 2017. It impacted American contemporary hit radio three days afterwards. A CD single release followed in Germany, Austria and Switzerland on October 27, 2017.
A lyric video heavily based on the Saul Bass imagery used in the film Vertigo was released through Swift 's official Vevo account on August 25, 2017. The video was produced by Swift and Joseph Kahn. It gained more than 19 million views during its first 24 hours on YouTube, surpassing "Something Just like This '' by The Chainsmokers and Coldplay as the most viewed lyric video within that time period. As of November 2017, the lyric video on YouTube has amassed over 85 million views.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' runs for 3 minutes and 31 seconds. Music critics have described the track as a hybrid of electroclash and pop, as well as a dance - pop and an electro - pop song. It emphasizes the blame that is placed on an enemy, in particular the line "I 've got a list of names and yours is in red, underlined ''. The middle eight of the song features Swift saying, "I 'm sorry, the old Taylor ca n't come to the phone right now / Why? / Oh, ' cause she 's dead! ''
"Look What You Made Me Do '' is performed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute. Swift 's vocals span from G to F.
Critic Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone noted a "nightmarish aesthetic '' present in the song, and believed it to be a continuation of the "antagonistic persona '' from "Bad Blood ''.
Richard Fairbrass, Fred Fairbrass and Rob Manzoli, the members of the British dance - pop group Right Said Fred, are credited as songwriters because the song interpolates the melody of their song "I 'm Too Sexy ''. According to Fred Fairbrass, he and his brother were contacted one week before the release of "Look What You Made Me Do '' and were asked whether a "big, contemporary female artist who has n't released anything for a while '' -- whose identity they were not told -- would be able to use a portion of their song for her latest single. Although the brothers agreed to a deal, they did not officially find out that the artist in question was Swift until the morning after the song was released, but had deduced that it was her based on the description they were given. Both of the Fairbrass brothers said that they enjoyed "Look What You Made Me Do ''; Fred Fairbrass told Rolling Stone, "I like the cynical aspect of the lyric, because ' I 'm Too Sexy ' is a cynical song, and I think she channeled that quite well. '' A representative for Swift confirmed that the song interpolated the melody from "I 'm Too Sexy '', but did not include sampled audio from the earlier song.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' received polarized reviews from critics. USA Today said that the polarizing reaction to the song illustrated Swift 's position as a "ubiquitous cultural force ''. The Telegraph Randy Lewis praised the song, deeming Swift and Antonoff 's work as "blow (ing) past the production clichés of clap tracks and hiccuped syllabic hooks that have proliferated across Top 40 fare in recent years with boldly inventive textures and fresh melodic, rhythmic and sonic accents ''. He also added how the track musically and sonically shifted alongside the lyrics. Sarah Carson of the Los Angeles Times wrote a positive review of the song, saying: "The reverberating crescendo builds and ever more delicious is the wickedness of Swift 's menacing protagonist '', praising Swift for her successful embrace of the villain character the media has portrayed her as previous to the song 's release. Variety 's Chris Willman also praised Swift 's embrace of a darker - styled pop music and the stylistic conflict between the song 's pre-chorus and chorus. Mark Harris, in New York magazine 's pop culture blog, thought of Swift 's song as a pop art anthem for the Trump era in how she reappropriates her public feuds as empowering badges of honor without acknowledging her own responsibility or blame.
However, Maura Johnston of The Guardian wrote a negative review of the song, faulting the "sloppy '' lyrics and blaming Swift for not giving a clear context in the lyrics. Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone believed that the song marked a continuation of the feud between Swift and rapper Kanye West; the latter had previously name - dropped Swift in his song "Famous '' by using the line, "I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex / Why? / I made that bitch famous ''. The single was noted as being a darker, angrier work than what Swift had done before. Hugh McIntye of Forbes was critical of the change in style, saying that it "did n't sound like (Swift) '' and that it "may have some kinks to work out ''. Meaghan Garvey from Pitchfork referred to it in a review as "a hardcore self - own '' track.
In the United States, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number seventy - seven on the Billboard Hot 100, powered by its first three days of airplay. It also sold slightly under 200,000 digital copies within its first day of sales in the country, where it became the fastest selling download since Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You ''. One week later, the song ascended from # 77 to # 1 on the Hot 100 after its first full week of tracking, becoming the fifth largest rise to the top position and Swift 's fifth number - one single in the United States. It also topped the nation 's Streaming Songs chart with 84.4 million streams, becoming its most streamed song within a week by a female artist and second overall behind the 103 million that Baauer 's "Harlem Shake '' gained in 2013. The track also had more weekly streams in the US than any other song in 2017. With 353,000 copies sold in its first week, "Look What You Made Me Do '' opened atop the US Digital Songs chart and had the country 's biggest sales opening since Justin Timberlake 's "Ca n't Stop the Feeling! '' in 2016 as well as the best weekly sales for a song by a female artist since Adele 's "Hello '' in 2015. The track also became the country 's first number - one song with a female artist since Halsey was featured on "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers and the first song with a female lead artist since Sia 's "Cheap Thrills '' with Sean Paul (both in 2016). It additionally was the first solo song by a female to top the US charts since Adele 's "Hello ''. It remained atop the Hot 100 and Streaming Songs charts for a second week with 114,000 copies sold and 61.2 million streams, though descended to number two on the Digital Songs chart when another Reputation track titled "... Ready for It? '' debuted at number one with 135,000 digital copies sold and opened at number four on the Hot 100. As a result, Swift became the first artist to have two tracks sell over 100,000 digital copies in the nation within a week since Sheeran with "Shape of You '' and "Castle on the Hill ''. It also became the first time a female had two songs within the top five of the Hot 100 since 2015 when Swift 's previous tracks "Blank Space '' and "Shake It Off '' respectively were at numbers four and five on the chart. The single also topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart, becoming Swift 's eighth single to do so.
In the United Kingdom, "Look What You Made Me Do '' sold 20,000 copies and was streamed 2.4 million times in less than a week. The song debuted at the top the UK Singles Chart on September 1, 2017 - for the week ending date September 7, 2017 - with opening sales of 30,000 copies and 5.3 million streams within the week and becoming Swift 's first chart - topping song in Britain. After two weeks at the top spot, it was displaced by Sam Smith 's "Too Good at Goodbyes ''.
"Look What You Made Me Do '' also debuted at number one in the Republic of Ireland on September 1, 2017 and became Swift 's first song to top the Irish Singles Chart. In doing so, it surpassed the number three peaks of her singles "Love Story '' (in 2009) and "Shake It Off '' (in 2014).
"Look What You Made Me Do '' opened at number one in Australia on September 2, 2017, becoming her fifth track to top the ARIA Charts. It spent another week at the nation 's summit before "Too Good at Goodbyes '' took the top position there as well. The song has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units. After debuting at number one on the Canadian Hot 100, "Look What You Made Me Do '' was also certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 units on September 14, 2017.
In New Zealand, "Look What You Made Me Do '' entered at the number one spot on September 1, 2017, becoming Swift 's fourth chart - topping single there.
In the Philippines, "Look What You Made Me Do '' debuted at number 7 spot on the BillboardPH Hot 100 on its first week. A week later, it soared to the number 1 spot, ending the 10 - week reign of "Despacito '' by Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber. It descended to the runner - up position the following week, as the latter song reclaimed the top spot for an 11th week.
The official music video premiered on August 27, 2017 at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. The song 's music video broke the record for most - watched video within 24 hours by achieving 43.2 million views on YouTube in its first day. It topped the 27.7 million Vevo views Adele 's "Hello '' attracted in that timeframe, as well as the 36 million YouTube views of Psy 's "Gentleman '' video. It was viewed at an average 30,000 times per minute in its first 24 hours, with views reaching over 3 million views per hour.
Preparation for the music video began in January, while the shooting took place in May. The dance was choreographed by Tyce Diorio, who had worked with Swift on "Shake It Off '' before. Swift 's make - up as a zombie was done by Bill Corso. Post-production of the video lasted until the morning of its release. A 20 - second music video teaser was released on Good Morning America on August 25.
It was also revealed that the diamonds used in a scene were authentic. The diamonds, loaned from celebrity jeweler Neil Lane, were said to be worth over $10 million, hence triggering tight security measures. As of November 5, 2017, the video has over 675 million views and broke the record for the fastest video to reach 200, 300 and 400 million views on YouTube. It is the 20th most liked video on YouTube with over 6.43 million likes.
Swift has said that part of the premise of the video is rooted in the idea that, "If everything you write about me was true, this is how ridiculous it would look. '' The video begins with a zombie Swift crawling out of a grave, where the headstone reads "Here Lies Taylor Swift 's reputation '', and digging another grave for her Met Gala 2014 self. The next scene shows Swift in a bathtub filled with diamonds. She is then seen seated on a throne while snakes surround her and serve tea. Swift later crashes her golden Bugatti Veyron on a post and sings the song 's chorus holding a Grammy as the paparazzi take photos. She is also seen swinging inside a cage, robbing a streaming company in a cat mask, and leading a motorcycle gang. Afterwards, she gathers a group of women at "Squad U '' and dances with a group of men in another room. At the end of the video, various iterations of Swift 's public image bicker with one another, describing each other as "so fake '' and "playing the victim '', ending with one saying "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative '' after which the other iterations yell at her to "shut up! '' in unison, while the version of Swift in the background watches in silence.
The video contains numerous hidden meanings and references. In the opening scene, there is a subtle "Nils Sjöberg '' tombstone shown when Swift is digging up a grave, referencing the pseudonym she used for a songwriting credit on Calvin Harris ' 2016 single "This Is What You Came For ''. Similarly, Swift -- masked as a cadaveric version of herself in the "Out of the Woods '' music video -- was shown digging a grave for herself in a 2014 Met Gala gown, an event that characterized her first public appearance with short hair. A single dollar bill in the bathtub full of diamonds that she bathes in was also speculated to symbolize the dollar she was awarded for winning a sexual assault trial earlier in 2017. Interpretations for the bathtub scene were contrasting. Some believe that it is a response to media statement teasing that she "cries in a marble bathtub surrounded by pearls '', while others viewed it as a mockery to Kim Kardashian 's 2016 gunpoint robbery.
In a separate scene, Swift is shown sitting atop a golden throne, where a carving of a phrase "Et tu, Brute? '' could be seen on the armrest, a reference to Shakespeare 's drama Julius Caesar. Swift 's infamous title as a "snake '' during her hiatus was also represented when a snake slithers onto the throne to serve Swift some tea. When Swift 's car crashes, some speculated that it may be a jab at Katy Perry as Swift 's hairdo is similar to Perry 's in the scene. The sports car is also reminiscent of a car in Perry 's "Waking Up in Vegas '' video. She is also holding a Grammy Award in the scene, a possible reference to the fact that Perry has never won any Grammys despite multiple nominations. Swift 's withdrawal of her entire music catalog from streaming services were hinted when Swift and her crew walked out of a streaming company in the video.
Swift gathering at "Squad U '' was also said to be a reply to the media dubbing her close friends as a "squad ''. During the second chorus, Swift can be seen with eight men, each of which revealed an "I Heart TS '' crop top after unbuttoning a jacket. This scene is an apparent tribute to her ex-boyfriend Tom Hiddleston, who was seen wearing an "I Heart TS '' tank top when they were a couple. The eight backup dancers may also have been a possible reference to the idea that Swift has had eight ex-boyfriends during her career. Swift was also seen standing on a pile of her other iterations, reiterating the idea that she is leaving her past self behind. The shirt that an iteration of Swift wore in the "You Belong with Me '' video was also different, with her close friends ' names scribbled on it this time.
In June 2016, discussing the relationship between her and Kanye West after West 's song "Famous '', Swift wrote on Instagram, "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative. '' The same line is spoken by one of Swift 's iterations at the end of the video. She is wearing the same outfit Swift had worn during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, when West interrupted her award - winning speech for Best Female Video.
The song is nominated for "Best Music Video '' at the 2017 MTV Europe Music Awards. It was also nominated for "Best Music Video '' at the NRJ Music Awards.
ABC used the song in a promotional video for its Shonda Rhimes ' Thursday line - up an hour after its release. Sister network ESPN used it in its college football telecast advertisements for the season opening game between Alabama and Florida State, which was aired on ABC on September 2.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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history of environmental policy in the united states | Environmental policy of the United States - wikipedia
The environmental policy of the United States is a federal governmental action to regulate activities that have an environmental impact in the United States. The goal of environmental policy is to protect the environment for future generations while interfering as little as possible with the efficiency of commerce or the liberty of the people and to limit inequity in who is burdened with environmental costs. As his first official act bringing in the 1970s, President Richard Nixon signed the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) into law on New Years Day, 1970. Also in the same year, American starts to celebrate the first earth day, which is "the big bang of U.S. environmental politics, launching the country on a sweeping social learning curve about ecological management never before experienced or attempted in any other nation '' (RosenBaum, 2016, p. 9). NEPA established a comprehensive US national environmental policy and created the requirement to prepare an environmental impact statement for "major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the environment. '' Eccleston has called NEPA, the world 's "environmental Magna Carta ''.
As a result of the environmental movement in the United States, it continued to mature in the 1970s during which several environmental laws were passed, regulating air and water pollution and forming the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Partially due to the high costs associated with these regulations, there has been a backlash from business and politically conservative interests, limiting increases to environmental regulatory budgets and slowing efforts to protect the environment. Since the 1970s, despite frequent legislative gridlock, there have been significant achievements in environmental regulation, including increases in air and water quality and, to a lesser degree, control of hazardous waste. Due to increasing scientific consensus on global warming and political pressure from environmental groups, modifications to the United States energy policy and limits on greenhouse gas have been suggested.
As established under NEPA, the US was the first nation in the world to introduce the concept of preparing an environmental impact statement (EIS) to evaluate the alternatives and impacts of proposed federal actions. The EIS is designed to forge federal policies, programs, projects, and plans. A large percentage of nations around the world have adopted provisions that emulate the American EIS process.
The two major policy tools for protecting the environment are rules and inducements. The United States has chosen to use rules, primarily through regulation. Such regulations can come in the form of design standards and performance standards. Performance standards specify emission levels and let those covered by the rules decide how those levels will be met. Design standards specify exactly how performance standards will be met.
Alternatively, the government can use inducements, or "market reform ''. Inducements are rewards and punishments used to influence people or groups. The two major types of market reforms are charge systems, such as emissions taxes, and "tradable permit systems ''. One type of tradable permit system is an "auction of pollution rights '' in which the amount of allowed pollution is set and divided into units, which are then auctioned, giving environmental organizations the opportunity to buy the units to create a cleaner environment than originally planned. Such a plan was implemented for SO emissions in the 1990 Acid Rain Program and has been undertaken for greenhouse gases on a regional scale as a way to mitigate global warming.
Governmental authority on environmental issues in the United States is highly fragmented. While the EPA is the most comprehensive environmental agency, its authority on these matters is not absolute. Virtually all of the executive branch 's departments have some area of environmental authority. This contributes somewhat to the cost and questionable efficacy of the United States ' environmental regulation.
Fragmentation within the executive branch is duplicated in Congress and within the states. The EPA is the concern of almost two - thirds of the House of Representatives ' standing committees and subcommittees and a similar percentage in the Senate. Some seventy committees and subcommittees control water quality policy, for example. Such fragmentation creates both opportunities and problems. While such a variety of committees provide enormous access for environmentalist and industry groups to lobby, the division of tasks means that no one committee or agency looks at environmental problems as a whole.
There are many more environmental laws in the United States, both at the federal and state levels. The common law of property and takings also play an important role in environmental issues. In addition, the law of standing, relating to who has a right to bring a lawsuit, is an important issue in environmental law in the United States.
The history of environmental law in the United States can be traced back to early roots in common law doctrines, for example, the law of nuisance and the public trust doctrine. The first statutory environmental law was the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, which has been largely superseded by the Clean Water Act. However, most current major environmental statutes, such as the federal statutes listed above, were passed during the modern environmental movement spanning the late 1960s through the early 1980s. Prior to the passage of these statutes, most federal environmental laws were not nearly as comprehensive.
The precursor of the modern environmental movement in the United States was the early 20th century conservation movement, associated with President Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot. During this period, the U.S. Forest Service was formed and public concern for consumer protection began, epitomized by the publication of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair. The origins of the modern environmental movement were in the publication of Rachel Carson 's controversial Silent Spring, which pointed out the perils of pesticide use and rallied concern for the environment in general. Carson argued that nature deserved human protection and referred to pesticides as the atomic bomb for insects. She stated that these pesticides would cycle through the environment hurting humans and nature and thought they should be used wisely. Carson played a big role in environment activism that was later to come. Along with critiques of the misuse of technology from figures such as William Ophuls, Barry Commoner and Garrett Hardin, the ineffectiveness and criticism of the 1960s Clean Air and Clean Water acts gave a burgeoning momentum to the environmental movement.
In addition to growing public support, structural changes such as Congressional reform and new access to the courts gave environmentalists new power to enact change. The movement that formed held three key values: ecology, health, and sustainability. These values - that we depend and are interconnected with the environment, that insults to the environment can affect our health, and that we should limit our dependence on non-renewable resources - along with a uniquely sympathetic president and Congress, led to great environmental policy change in the 1970s. In 1972 the Club of Rome report came out which was a scholarly effort to gauge the severity of the environmental problem. A team of researchers concluded with one of the most alarming appraisals of the time and set off widespread debates over the findings, it 's methods, and policy implications. The model was built mainly to investigate major trends of global concerns such as accelerating industrialization, rapid population growth, widespread malnutrition, depletion of nonrenewable resources and a deteriorating environment. They concluded that if the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion remains unchanged than the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years.
One lawsuit that has been widely recognized as one of the earliest environmental cases is Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, decided in 1965 by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, prior to passage of the major federal environmental statutes. The case helped halt the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain in New York State. The case has been described as giving birth to environmental litigation and helping create the legal doctrine of standing to bring environmental claims. The Scenic Hudson case also is said to have helped inspire the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act, and the creation of such environmental advocacy groups as the Natural Resources Defense Council.
On January 1, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), beginning the 1970s as the environmental decade. NEPA created the Council on Environmental Quality which oversaw the environmental impact of federal actions. Later in the year, Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which consolidated environmental programs from other agencies into a single entity. The legislation during this period concerned primarily first - generation pollutants in the air, surface water, groundwater, and solid waste disposal. Air pollutants such as particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone were put under regulation, and issues such as acid rain, visibility, and global warming were also concerns. In surface water, the contaminants of concern were dissolved oxygen, bacteria, suspended and dissolved solids, nutrients, and toxic substances such as metals. For groundwater, the pollutants included biological contaminants, inorganic and organic substances, and radionuclides. Finally, solid waste contaminants from agriculture, industry, mining, municipalities, and others were put under control.
The Clean Air Act amendments of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972 moved environmental concerns in a new direction. The standards that they put in place were unattainable with existing technology -- they were technology forcing. The standards that the EPA put into place called mainly for state implementation. Each state prepared state implementation plans (SIPs), requiring EPA approval, and each state had to request permits from the EPA to emit pollution into any surface water. Congress also provided for a massive public works program to assist in the construction of water and waste treatment plants for municipalities. The 1970 Clean Air Act also enacted deadlines and penalties for automobile emission standards in new cars, resulting in the development and adoption of catalytic converters and greatly reducing automobile pollution.
Ronald Reagan entered office skeptical of environmental protection laws and campaigned against harsh government regulation with the environmental arena in mind. As Reagan entered office, he was given two transition reports -- one called "Mandate for Leadership '' from the Heritage Foundation and one called "Avoiding a GOP Economic Dunkirk '' from conservative Congressman David Stockman (R - MI) -- that called for drastic changes in environmental regulation, primarily through administrative changes. In pursuit of this strategy, Reagan gradually reduced the EPA 's budget by 30 % through the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981, cut the number of EPA employees, and appointed people at key agency positions who would enthusiastically follow the administration line. Appointees such as Anne Burford at the EPA and James G. Watt at the Department of the Interior were overtly hostile to environmental protection. Through his appointments, Reagan changed the operations of environmental protection from stiff regulation to "cooperative regulation. ''
Under this administrative strategy of regulatory relief, environmental laws were written and interpreted more favorably for industry interests. The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) was also given new powers to write regulations. During the first Reagan administration, the OMB was given the power to require a favorable cost - benefit analysis of any regulation before it could be implemented. This was used to delay new regulations, and changes that resulted in regulatory relief often had this requirement waived. At the beginning of the second Reagan administration, the OMB was given more power - all regulatory agencies were required to submit proposals each year for all major environmental regulation - allowing it to reduce regulatory efforts before such proposed regulations became public.
Within few months from entering the White House, Reagan removed the solar panels that his predecessor Carter had installed on the roof of the White House 's West Wing. "Reagan 's political philosophy viewed the free market as the best arbiter of what was good for the country. Corporate self - interest, he felt, would steer the country in the right direction, '' the author Natalie Goldstein wrote in "Global Warming. ''. In October 2010, president Obama planned to reintroduce the solar panels on the White House roofs, after 31 years.
Environmental policy during the first Bush administration contained a mixture of innovation and restriction. George H.W. Bush appointed the first environmentalist, William Reilly, to head the EPA, along with others with strong environmental inclinations. Before accepting the appointment, Reilly secured the president 's agreement to support his pro-environment agenda and his access to the White House, but competing interests ensured conflicts. In other departments with environmental responsibilities and in White House offices, however, he appointed people who were more developmentally oriented, such as John H. Sununu, Richard Darman, and Dan Quayle. While considerable regulation was initially passed, during his last two years in office he severely restricted regulation, and in 1992, a total freeze was put on new regulations.
President H.W Bush, on July 21, 1989, sent a draft bill to congress proposing amendments to the Clean Air Act. The core of the amendments were meant to reduce acid rain by limiting sulfur dioxide emissions from coal burning plants, to bring eighty urban areas up to current air quality standards and to lower emissions from over two - hundred airborne toxic chemicals. Bush originally supported a cap and trade system to reduce chemical emissions but eventually adopted a more Republican stance.
The private - sector Council on Competitiveness (distinct from the federal Competitiveness Policy Council) was formed in 1989 to play the same role as the previous Task Force on Regulatory Relief that Bush had served on in the Reagan administration, which was to negotiate on behalf of the president for regulatory relief with the heads of federal agencies. This executive branch agency negotiated with EPA director Reilly, leading to industry - favorable rulings such as the redefinition of wetlands and the allowance of untreated toxic chemicals in local landfills (this was later reversed). While previous regulatory - relief efforts, such as Reagan 's use of the Office of Budget Management, were subject to congressional oversight, the Council on Competitiveness was independent and was n't required to keep records of its proceedings. The Council on Competitiveness received its authority from a White House memoranda and its members included; Vice President Dan Quayle, Treasury Secretary Nicholas Brady, Commerce Secretary Robert Mosbacher, and White House Chief of Staff John Sununu.
In 1992, Bush opposed international efforts at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil by refusing to sign the biodiversity treaty and lobbying to remove all binding targets from the proposal on limiting global carbon dioxide emissions.
The Clinton Administration promised a change in the direction of environmental policy. Al Gore, the vice president, and appointees such as Carol Browner in EPA and Bruce Babbitt were all encouraging from an environmental standpoint. Clinton eliminated the Council on Competitiveness, returning regulatory authority to agency heads, and Clinton and Gore argued that environmental protection and economic growth were not incompatible.
Clinton 's record as the governor of Arkansas however, suggested that Clinton would be willing to make compromises. Through a number of middle - of - the - road positions, on issues such as grazing fees in the West and clean - up of the Everglades, and through his support of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1993 and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1994, Clinton dissatisfied some environmentalists. Specifically, the Green Party and its candidate Ralph Nader were outspoken in their criticism of Clinton 's environmental record.
Despite criticism from environmental purists, the Clinton administration had several notable environmental accomplishments. Clinton created the President 's Council on Sustainable Development, signed the Kyoto Protocol (although he did not submit the treaty to the Senate), and stood firm against Republican attempts after the 1994 elections to roll back environmental laws and regulations through the appropriations process. During the Clinton administration, the EPA 's budget was increased, and much of the country 's natural resources were put under greater protection, such as the restoration of the Everglades and the increase in size of the Everglades National Park. Important U.S. Supreme Court cases from this period included United States v. Weitzenhoff, et al.
In 2002 President George W. Bush announced an environment legislative initiative titled Clear Skies. The Clear Skies proposal 's stated goals were to reduce three pollutants: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and mercury. Clear Skies was to use a market based system by allowing energy companies to buy and trade pollution credits. The president argued that since Clear Skies would use a market based system, millions of tons of pollution would be eliminated when compared to the Clean Air Act. However, the president 's critics argued that the Clear Skies policy would weaken provisions in the Clean Air Act.
The Clean Air Act was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Richard Nixon in 1970. The main provisions of the Clean Air Act were to control air pollution on a national level and an initiative program called New Source Review (NSR). The NSR initiative would require power plants to upgrade to anti-pollution technologies before they can expand existing facilities and add new technologies. The Clear Skies initiative proposed by the Bush administration main intention was to remove the New Source Review provision and deregulate some of the standards that the Clean Air Act required energy facilities to meet. The proposed removal of the NSR prompted nine northeastern states to file suit in federal court to prevent the new ruling. Advocates against Clear Skies viewed the removal of NSR as a weakening of existing laws and an "assault on the Clean Air Act ''. Environmental advocates and their political allies would eventually prevail in defeating the Clear Skies initiative.
President Bush refused to sign the Kyoto Protocol, citing fears of negative consequences for the U.S. economy. Bush also cited the fact that developing countries like India and China were exempt from Kyoto 's requirements as a reason for his opposition. When President Bush withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol, many of his critics alleged that he made his decision on ideology rather than on science. Suzanne Goldenberg from the Guardian wrote the Bush years are seen "as concerted assault, from the administration 's undermining of the science ''. Bush 's own Environmental Protection Agency head Christine Todd Whitman said the decision to walk away from Kyoto was "the equivalent to ' flipping the bird, ' frankly, to the rest of the world ''. And Eileen Claussen, president of the Pew Center on Global Climate Change said the idea of a head of state putting the science question on the table was horrifying. Bush 's critics included Jonathon Dorm, Earth Policy Institute and NASA scientist James Hansen. Dorm contended that the administration made a "covert attempt to silence the science '' while Hansen alleged the administration was "trying to block data showing an acceleration in global warming ''.
President Bush 's refusal to seek ratification from the Senate was widely criticized by his opponents in the United States Congress and in the media. Some of President Bush 's harshest critics claim his decision taken on the Kyoto Protocol was due to his close relationship with big oil companies. Greenpeace obtained briefing papers that revealed the administration thanked Exxon for their "active involvement '' on climate change. The Guardian reported documents revealed Under - secretary Paula Dobriansky "sound out Exxon executives and other anti-Kyoto business groups on potential alternatives to Kyoto ''. However, in 2003, Exxon head of public affairs Nick Thomas denied taking any position on Kyoto.
In 2001, President Bush broke a campaign environment promise by reversing a promise he had made during his presidential campaign to regulate carbon dioxide emissions from coal - burning power plants. Governor Bush pledged power plants would have to meet clean - air standards while promising to enact tougher policies to protect the environment. The broken campaign promise was seen as a betrayal by environmental groups. The president 's reversal on regulating carbon dioxide emissions was one of a series of controversial stands on environmental issues. For example, the Bush administration ruled that factory farms can claim they do not discharge animal waste to avoid oversight from the Clean Air Act.
The actions taken during the Bush administration were seen by environmentalists as ideological rather than scientifically based. The criticism stemmed from the president 's shifting views while he was a candidate for president and executive action taken as president. The Bush presidency was viewed as being weak on the environment due to ideology and close ties with big oil. However, Eli Lehrer from the Competitive Enterprise Institute contended that the Bush administration issued more regulations than any other administration in U.S. history.
During President Bush 's eight years in office he utilized his executive powers for a number of issues. In an effort to bypass NSR requirements, the president took executive action to "curb plant - by - plant permit reviews ''. He also ordered the EPA to develop a regional regulation using a market - based system. The EPA came - up with the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). CAIR was aimed at reducing 70 percent of pollution from coal burning plants. However, CAIR would later be struck down by U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in 2008. Additionally, The Clean Air Mercury Rule (CAMR) was also introduced. CAMR was created for the purpose of establishing a permanent national cap on mercury emissions.
In the later years of the Bush administration, the president engaged in a series of environmental proposals. He called on countries with the largest greenhouse gases to establish a global goal to control emissions and in 2008 initiated the U.S to join the United Nations to negotiate a post-2012 global climate plan after Kyoto expires. The plan calls for inclusion of both developed and developing nations to address greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, during the later years, President Bush 's position on climate changed. The president had taken steps in the later years of his presidency to address environmental criticism of his broken campaign promises, and argued that the Kyoto protocol was a plan to cripple the US economy. This stern position caused him serious credibility challenges on environmental issues both nationally and globally.
Environmental issues were prominent in the 2008 presidential election, and Barack Obama obtained a clear lead above his rival, John McCain, on the environment, winning the backing of ' all mainstream environmental groups ' and public confidence on the issue. Upon election, appointments such as that of the Nobel prize - winning physicist Steven Chu were seen as a confirmation that his presidency was serious about environmental issues.
One example of a new initiative by the Obama Administration is the America 's Great Outdoors Initiative, which preserves and highlights numerous natural features, and also raises public awareness.
The environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration represents a shift from the policy priorities and goals of his predecessor, Barack Obama. While Obama 's environmental agenda prioritized the reduction of carbon emissions through the use of clean renewable energy, the Trump administration has sought to increase fossil fuel use and scrap environmental regulations, which he has often referred to as an impediment to business. Trump has announced plans to pull the United States out of the 191 nation Paris agreement. At a presidential debate in March 2016, Trump said he would eliminate the EPA as a part of his plan to balance the budget.
Trump 's "America First Energy Plan '', focuses on increasing the use of fossil fuels without mentioning renewable energy. It would repeal many Obama policies including the Climate Action Plan and the Clean Water Rule, and limit the EPA 's mission to protecting air and water quality. Within days of taking office he signed executive orders to approve two controversial oil pipelines and to require federal review of the Clean Water Rule and the Clean Power Plan. He also invited American manufacturers to suggest which regulations should be eliminated; industry leaders submitted 168 comments, of which nearly half targeted Environmental Protection Agency rules. Trump 's appointments to key agencies dealing in energy and environmental policy reflected his commitment to deregulation, particularly of the fossil fuel industry. Several of his cabinet picks, such as Rick Perry as Secretary of Energy and Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, were people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named to head.
Since the environmental movement of the 1970s, the nature of environmental issues has changed. While the initial emphasis was on conventional air and water pollutants, which were the most obvious and easily measurable problems, newer issues are long - term problems that are not easily discernible and can be surrounded by controversy.
Acid deposition, in the form of acid rain and dry deposition, is the result of sulfur and nitrogen dioxide being emitted into the air, traveling and landing in a different place, and changing the acidity of the water or land on which the chemicals fall. Acid deposition in the Northeast United States from the burning of coal and in the West United States from utilities and motor vehicles caused a number of problems, and was partially exacerbated by the Clean Air Act, which forced coal power plants to use taller smoke stacks, resulting in farther transmission of sulfur dioxide in the air.
During the Carter administration, the United States undertook a risk - averse policy, acting through the EPA and Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) to research and control the pollutants suspected to cause acid deposition even in the face of scientific uncertainty. The Reagan administration was more risk tolerant. It argued that, given the scientific uncertainties about harm and exposure levels, new expenditures should not be undertaken that would curtail energy security and economic growth. During George H.W. Bush 's presidential campaign, he called for new Clean Air Act legislation to curtail sulfur - and nitrogen - dioxide emissions. In 1990, after he was elected, amendments to the Clean Air Act were finally passed that cut emissions by over 12 million tons per year, set up a market - like system of emissions trading, and set a cap on emissions for the year 2000. These goals were achieved to some degree by the installation of industrial scrubbers.
While the initial costs in cutting emissions levels were expected to be over $4.6 billion for utilities and a 40 % rise in electricity costs, the impact ended up being only about $1 billion and a 2 -- 4 % rise in electricity costs. Part of the reason for the relatively low costs is the availability of low - sulfur coal.
Ozone depletion is the reduced concentration of ozone in the Earth 's stratosphere (called the ozone layer), where it serves to block much of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were used beginning in the 1930s in a number of important areas, were determined in 1974 to be responsible for much of the depletion of the ozone layer. Four years later, the EPA and FDA banned CFCs in aerosol cans. As research in the 1980s indicated that the problem was worse than before, and revealed a controversial massive hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, three international agreements were made to reduce the ozone - damaging substances - the Vienna Convention, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and a third agreement in 1990 in London. In the United States, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments phased out production of CFCs and required recycling of CFC products.
Although the phase - out of CFCs took almost two decades, the policy is generally seen as a success. While a crisis seems to be averted, due to the longevity of CFC particles in the atmosphere, the ozone layer is only expected to start showing sign of recovery by 2024.
Hazardous waste regulations began in the United States in 1976 with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) to govern hazardous waste from its initial generation to final disposition (cradle - to - grave regulation) and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) to anticipate possible hazards from chemicals. Following the events at Love Canal, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, or Superfund) was enacted in 1980 to assist in the cleanup of abandoned hazardous waste disposal sites. In the mid-1980s, the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (1984) and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (1986) were passed.
The aim of hazardous waste regulation is to prevent harm from occurring due to hazardous waste and to pass the burdens of cleanup of hazardous waste on to the original producers of the waste. Some of the problems of hazardous waste regulation are that the negative effects of hazardous waste can be difficult to detect and controversial and that, due mainly to the large amount of hazardous waste that is generated (214 million tons in 1995), regulation can be difficult and costly.
Implementation has been difficult, with years sometimes passing between legislation passage and initial regulations. Superfund was passed in December 1980, just before Reagan took office. The first administrator of Superfund was Rita Lavelle who had worked for a major hazardous waste generator. The result was that her implementation of Superfund was designed mainly to delay regulation, and the subsequent controversy resulted in the resignation of Lavelle, EPA administrator Anne Burford, and several other top EPA personnel. In 1986, Congress passed the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act, increasing funding to $9 billion and providing for studies and new technologies. By 1995, Superfund cleanup still took an average of twelve years per site, and costs for each site can range in the billions of dollars. Superfund, while showing improvements, has been probably the most criticized of environmental programs based on costs of remediation, implementation problems, and the questionable seriousness of the problems it addresses.
Underlying the policy decisions made by the United States is the concept of risk control, consisting of two parts: risk assessment and risk management. The science behind risk assessment varies greatly in uncertainty and tends to be the focus of political controversy. For example, animal testing is often used to determine the toxicity of various substances for humans. But assumptions made about expected dosage and exposure to chemicals are often disputed, and the dosage given to animals is typically much larger than what humans normally consume. While industry groups tend to take a risk - tolerant position, environmentalists take a risk - averse position, following the precautionary principle.
Another issue is the effect that chemicals can have relative to lifestyle choices. Cancer, for example, typically surface decades after first exposure to a carcinogen, and lifestyle choices are frequently more important in causing cancer than exposure to chemicals. While the governmental role in mitigating lifestyle - choice risks can be very controversial (see Smoking in the United States), chemical exposure through lifestyle choices can also occur involuntarily if the public is not properly educated (see Endocrine disruptors).
Finally, the way that threats are presented to the public plays a large role in how those threats are addressed. The threat of nuclear power and the environmental effects of pesticides are overstated, some have claimed, while many high - priority threats go unpublicized. In order to combat this discrepancy, the EPA published a Relative Risk Report in 1987, and a follow - up report published by the Relative Risk Reduction Strategies Committee in 1990 suggested that the EPA should adopt a more pro-active posture, educating the public and assigning budgetary priorities for objectively assessed high - risk threats.
Since the major environmental legislation of the 1970s was enacted, great progress has been made in some areas, but the environmental protection has come at a high price. Between 1970 and 1996, air pollutants dropped 32 % while the population grew by 29 %. Other pollutants have been more difficult to track, especially water pollutants. While air and water standards have been slowly improving, in 1996 70 million people still lived in counties that did n't meet EPA ozone standards. 36 % of rivers and 39 % of lakes did n't meet minimum standards for all uses (swimming, fishing, drinking, supporting aquatic life). In the same period, the size of the National Park Service grew from 26,000,000 acres (110,000 km) to 83,000,000 acres (340,000 km), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service expanded by over three times to manage over 92,000,000 acres (370,000 km). In 1995, 41 % of the 960 endangered species were stable or improving.
Critics of environmental legislation argue that the gains made in environmental protection come at too great a cost. The overall cost of environmental regulation in the United States is estimated to be about 2 % of the gross domestic product - similar to many other countries, but calculating the cost is challenging both conceptually (deciding what costs are included) and practically (with data from a broad range of sources). In 1994, almost $122 billion was spent on pollution abatement and control. $35 billion of that has been in direct government spending, $65 billion was spent by business, and $22 billion was spent by individuals.
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what is mission san gabriel used for today | Mission San Gabriel Arcángel - wikipedia
Mission San Gabriel Arcángel is a fully functioning Roman Catholic mission and a historic landmark in San Gabriel, California. The settlement was founded by Spaniards of the Franciscan order on "The Feast of the Birth of Mary, '' September 8, 1771, as the fourth of what would become 21 Spanish missions in California. San Gabriel Arcángel, named after the Archangel Gabriel and often referred to as the "Godmother of the Pueblo of Los Angeles '', was designed by Antonio Cruzado, who hailed from Córdoba, Spain. Cruzado gave the building its strong Moorish architectural influence. The capped buttresses and the tall, narrow windows are unique among the missions of the California chain.
Mission San Gabriel was founded on September 8, 1771 by Fray Angel Francisico de Sonera and Fray Pedro Benito Cambon. The planned site for the Mission was along the banks of the Río de los Temblores (the River of the Earthquakes -- the Santa Ana River). The priests chose an alternate site on a fertile plain located directly alongside the Rio Hondo in the Whittier Narrows. The site of the Misión Vieja (or "Old Mission '') is located near the intersection of San Gabriel Boulevard and Lincoln Avenue. In 1776, a flash flood destroyed much of the crops and ruined the Mission complex, which was subsequently relocated five miles closer to the mountains in present - day San Gabriel (the native settlement of ' Iisanchanga). The Mission is the base from which the pueblo that became the city of Los Angeles was sent. On December 9, 1812 (the "Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin ''), a series of massive earthquakes shook Southern California. The 1812 Wrightwood earthquake caused the three - bell campanario, located adjacent to the chapel 's east façade, to collapse. A larger, six - bell structure was subsequently constructed at the far end of the capilla. While no pictorial record exists to document what the original structure looked like, architectural historian Rexford Newcomb deduced the design and published a depiction in his 1916 work The Franciscan Mission Architecture of Alta (upper) California.
Legend has it that the founding expedition was confronted by a large group of native Tongva peoples whose intention was to drive the strangers away. One of the priests laid a painting of "Our Lady of Sorrows '' on the ground for all to see, whereupon the natives, designated by the settlers as the Gabrieliños, immediately made peace with the missionaries, because they were so moved by the painting 's beauty. Today the 300 year old work hangs in front of and slightly to the left of the old high altar and reredos in the Mission 's sanctuary.
A large stone cross stands in the center of the campo santo (cemetery), first consecrated in 1778 and then again on January 29, 1939 by the Los Angeles Archbishop John Cantwell. It serves as the final resting place for some 6,000 "neophytes; '' a small stone marker denotes the gravesite of José de Los Santos, the last American Indian to be buried on the grounds, at the age of 101 in February 1921. Also interred at the Mission are the bodies of numerous Franciscan priests who died during their time of service, as well as the remains of Reverend Raymond Catalan, C.M.F., who undertook the restoration of the Mission 's gardens. Entombed at the foot of the altar are the remains of eight Franciscan priests (listed in order of interment): Miguel Sánchez, Antonio Cruzado, Francisco Dumetz, Roman Ulibarri, Joaquin P. Nuez, Gerónimo Boscana, José Bernardo Sánchez, and Blas Ordaz. Buried among the priests is centenarian Eulalia Perez de Guillén Mariné, the "keeper of the keys '' under Spanish rule; her grave is marked by a bench dedicated in her memory.
Well over 25,000 baptisms were conducted at San Gabriel between 1771 and 1834, making it the most prolific in the mission chain. In its heyday it furnished food and supplies to settlements and other missions throughout California. A majority of the Mission structures fell into ruins after it was secularized in November 1834. The once - extensive vineyards were falling to decay, with fences broken down and animals roaming freely through it.
The Mission 's chapel functioned as a parish church for the City of San Gabriel from 1862 until 1908, when the Claretian Missionaries came to San Gabriel and began the job of rebuilding and restoring the Mission. In 1874, tracks were laid for Southern Pacific Railroad near the mission. In 2012, artifacts from the mission era were found when the tracks were lowered into a trench known as the Alameda Corridor - East. On October 1, 1987 the Whittier Narrows earthquake damaged the property. A significant portion of the original complex has since been restored.
The goal of the missions was to become self - sufficient in relatively short order. Farming was the most important industry of any mission. Prior to the missions, the native - Americans had developed a complex, self - sufficient culture. The missionaries believed the native Tongva people were inferior and in need of conversion to Christianity. The mission priests established what they thought of as a manual training school: to teach the Indians their style of agriculture, the mechanical arts, and the raising and care of livestock. The missions, utilizing the labor of the neophytes, produced everything they used and consumed. After 1811, the mission Indians could be said to sustain the entire military and civil government of California.
"The names of the rancherias associated with San Gabriel Mission were: Acuragna, Alyeupkigna, Awigna, Azucsagna, Cahuenga, Chokishgna, Chowigna, Cucomogna, Hahaulogna, Harasgna, Houtgna, Hutucgna, Isanthcogna, Maugna, Nacaugna, Pascegna, Pasinogna, Pimocagna, Pubugna, Sibagna, Sisitcanogna, Sonagna, Suangna, Tibahagna, Toviscanga, Toybipet, Yangna. ''
To efficiently manage its extensive lands, Mission San Gabriel established several outlying sub-missions, known as asistencias. Several of these became or were included in land grants following the Mexican secularization of the missions in the 1830s, including:
In 1816, the Mission built a grist mill on a nearby creek. El Molino Viejo still stands, now preserved as a museum and historic landmark. Other mission industries included cowhide tanning / exporting and tallow - rendering (for making soap and for export), lime kilns, tile making, cloth weaving for blankets and clothing, and adobe bricks.
Bells were important to daily life at any mission. They were rung to mark mealtimes, to call the Mission residents to work and to religious services, to mark births and funerals, to signal the approach of a ship or returning missionary, and at other times; novices were instructed in the intricate rituals associated with the ringing of the mission bells. The mission bells were also used to tell time.
Today visitors can tour the church, museum and grounds. The adobe museum building was built in 1812 and was originally used for sleeping quarters and book storage. Exhibits include mission relics, books and religious artifacts. The grounds feature operations from the original mission complex, including indoor and outdoor kitchens, winery, water cisterns, soap and candle vats, tanning vats for preparing cattle hides, and a cemetery. There is also a gift shop.
As part of the William McPherson Collection in the Special Collections at Claremont Colleges ' Honnold / Mudd Library, the Matrimonial Investigation Records of the San Gabriel Mission are a valuable resource for research on the pre-statehood activities of the Mission. William McPherson was a rancher, scholar, and collector from Orange County, California who donated his extensive collection of mission documents, primarily from the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, to Special Collections in 1964. The matrimonial records span 1788 -- 1861 and are notarized interviews with couples wanting to marry in the Roman Catholic Church, performed to establish the couples ' freedom to marry. The collection includes 165 investigations, with 173 men and 170 women. Because the donated records are fragile, they are no longer available to be photocopied. The California Digital Library has an online guide available to search the collection.
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what are the greek letters of the alphabet | Greek alphabet - wikipedia
The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC. It was derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the first alphabetic script to have distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants. It is the ancestor of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts. Apart from its use in writing the Greek language, in both its ancient and its modern forms, the Greek alphabet today also serves as a source of technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics, science and other fields.
In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 24 letters, ordered from alpha to omega. Like Latin and Cyrillic, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter; it developed the letter case distinction between upper - case and lower - case forms in parallel with Latin during the modern era.
Sound values and conventional transcriptions for some of the letters differ between Ancient Greek and Modern Greek usage, because the pronunciation of Greek has changed significantly between the 5th century BC and today. Modern and Ancient Greek use different diacritics. The traditional orthography, which is used for Ancient Greek and sometimes for Modern Greek, has many diacritics, such as accent marks for pitch accent ("polytonic ''), the breathing marks for the presence and absence of the initial / h / sound, and the iota subscript for the final historical / i / sound. In standard Modern Greek spelling, orthography has been simplified to a monotonic system, which uses only two diacritics: the acute accent and diaeresis.
In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol - to - sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near - phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.
Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/ b, d, g /) and aspirated plosives (/ ph, th, kh /) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:
Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.
The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:
Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol -- sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.
Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (⟨ ει, αι, οι, υι ⟩), there is also ⟨ ου ⟩, pronounced / u /. The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨ αυ ⟩, ⟨ ευ ⟩ and ⟨ ηυ ⟩ are pronounced (av), (ev) and (iv) in Modern Greek. In some environments they are devoiced to (af), (ef) and (if) respectively. The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨ μπ ⟩ and ⟨ ντ ⟩ stand for (b) and (d) (or (mb) and (nd)) respectively; ⟨ τζ ⟩ stands for (dz) and ⟨ τσ ⟩ stands for (t͡s). In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨ γ ⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal (ŋ); thus ⟨ γγ ⟩ and ⟨ γκ ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ ng ⟩. In analogy to ⟨ μπ ⟩ and ⟨ ντ ⟩, ⟨ γκ ⟩ is also used to stand for (g). There are also the combinations ⟨ γχ ⟩ and ⟨ γξ ⟩.
In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (ά), the grave accent (ὰ), or the circumflex accent (α̃ or α̑). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word - initial vowel must carry either of two so - called "breathing marks '': the rough breathing (ἁ), marking an / h / sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (ἀ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word - initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transiliteration rrh.
The vowel letters ⟨ α, η, ω ⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so - called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ ι ⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ ᾱι, ηι, ωι ⟩ (i.e. / aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi /), which became monophthongized during antiquity.
Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (_̈), indicating a hiatus.
In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic '', was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. simply "accent ''), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.
Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό, τι (ó, ti, "whatever '') from ότι (óti, "that '').
There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨ κ ⟩ is replaced with ⟨ c ⟩, the diphthongs ⟨ αι ⟩ and ⟨ οι ⟩ are rendered as ⟨ ae ⟩ and ⟨ oe ⟩ (or ⟨ æ, œ ⟩) respectively; and ⟨ ει ⟩ and ⟨ ου ⟩ are simplified to ⟨ i ⟩ and ⟨ u ⟩ respectively. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨ κ ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨ k ⟩, and the vowel combinations ⟨ αι, οι, ει, ου ⟩ as ⟨ ai, oi, ei, ou ⟩ respectively. The letters ⟨ θ ⟩ and ⟨ φ ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨ th ⟩ and ⟨ ph ⟩; ⟨ χ ⟩ as either ⟨ ch ⟩ or ⟨ kh ⟩; and word - initial ⟨ ρ ⟩ as ⟨ rh ⟩.
For Modern Greek, there are multiple different transcription conventions. They differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek - based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter - by - letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, by the Library of Congress, and others.
During the Mycenaean period, from around the 16th century to the 12th century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the 13th century BC. In the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged. The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense, as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.
Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants / j / (yodh) and / w / (waw) were used for (i) (Ι, iota) and (u) (Υ, upsilon) respectively; the glottal stop consonant / ʔ / (aleph) was used for (a) (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal / ʕ / (ʿayin) was turned into (o) (Ο, omicron); and the letter for / h / (he) was turned into (e) (Ε, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for (w) (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal / ħ / (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for / h / (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long / ɛː / (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long / ɔː / (Ω, omega) was introduced.
Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for / ph /, Χ (chi) for / kh / and Ψ (psi) for / ps /. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for / ks / and Ψ for / kh /. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.
Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ (san), which had been in competition with Σ (sigma) denoting the same phoneme / s /; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with Κ (kappa) for / k /, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value / w / dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.
Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right - to - left and left - to - right lines (called boustrophedon, literally "ox - turning '', after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left - to - right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.
There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. A form of western Greek native to Euboea, which among other things had Χ for / ks /, was transplanted to Italy by early Greek colonists, and became the ancestor of the Old Italic alphabets and ultimately, through Etruscan, of the Latin alphabet. Athens used a local form of the alphabet until the 5th century BC; it lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. The classical 24 - letter alphabet that became the norm later was originally the local alphabet of Ionia; this was adopted by Athens in 403 BC under archon Eucleides and in most other parts of the Greek - speaking world during the 4th century BC.
When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox '', was used as the name for the glottal stop / ʔ /, bet, or "house '', for the / b / sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.
The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient / b / regularly changed to modern / v /, and ancient / ɛː / to modern / i /, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα; in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ((ʝ) is conventionally transcribed ⟨ γ (ι, η, υ, ει, οι) ⟩ word - initially and intervocalically before back vowels and / a /). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.
In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.
In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with - εῖ, indicating an original pronunciation with - ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with - ι.
The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ ο ⟩ and ⟨ ω ⟩, pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o '') and o mega ("big o '') respectively. The letter ⟨ ε ⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e '') to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨ αι ⟩, while, similarly, ⟨ υ ⟩, which at this time was pronounced (y), was called y psilon ("plain y '') to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨ οι ⟩.
Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce (ˈɣamːa) and (ˈkapha); also, ήτα has come to be pronounced (ˈitha) in Cypriot.
Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.
The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes. The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.
In the 9th and 10th century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive. This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.
The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:
It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, which in turn influenced the development of the Georgian alphabet.
Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages. For some of them, additional letters were introduced.
Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.
Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty - eight constellations. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.
Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin - based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:
On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin - based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.
The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda ⟨ λ ⟩, but ⟨ ɬ ⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is ⟨ ʎ ⟩, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.
Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma ⟨ Ϝ ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨ Ϙ ⟩ for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for (ss), today called sampi ⟨ Ͳ ⟩, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as ⟨ ϛ ⟩, ⟨ ϟ ⟩ and ⟨ ϡ ⟩ respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.
In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations ''. This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, in 1776.
Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.
For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.
The two principal ones still used today are ISO / IEC 8859 - 7 and Unicode. ISO 8859 - 7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.
For the range A0 -- FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370 -- 3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, 1⁄2, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO - 8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00 -- 7F (hex).
Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U + 03B1 U + 0304 U + 0301, this rarely renders well: ᾱ́.
There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic '' (U + 0370 to U + 03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859 - 7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek - based technical symbols.
This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar - looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U + 03E2 to U + 03EF).
To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended '' block (U + 1F00 to U + 1FFF).
Combining and spacing (letter - free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:
IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for ß).
Not to be confused with the Greek - letter acronyms for the names of entire fraternities (or sororities), different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) named using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A Chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B Chapter, a Γ Chapter, and so on and so forth.
In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω Chapter is AA Chapter, followed by AB Chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "Chapter Letter, '' albeit a double - digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double - digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double - digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.
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what episode is abel found in sons of anarchy | Sons of Anarchy (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the American television drama series Sons of Anarchy created by Kurt Sutter about the lives of a close - knit outlaw motorcycle club operating in Charming, a fictional town in California 's Central Valley. The show centers on protagonist Jackson "Jax '' Teller (Charlie Hunnam), the then -- vice president of the club, who begins questioning the club and himself.
Sons of Anarchy premiered on September 7, 2010, on cable network FX. Season three attracted an average of 4.9 million viewers per week, making it FX 's highest rated series ever at the time, surpassing FX 's other hits The Shield, Nip / Tuck, and Rescue Me.
Gemma has been hiding in Rogue River, Oregon with Tig at the home of Gemma 's father, Nate (Hal Holbrook), who suffers from dementia. Gemma struggles when she takes Nate to his new assisted living home, and he pleads to be taken back to his house. She returns to Charming to reunite with her grandson, unaware he has been kidnapped. The return of A.T.F. agent Stahl twists the facts about the murder of Donna, Stahl attempts to make a deal with Jax behind the club 's back. Father Kellan Ashby 's sister, Maureen, contacts Gemma at Ashby 's request and tells her Abel is safe in Belfast. Upon learning of her grandson 's abduction, Gemma suffers a cardiac arrhythmia and collapses in the Teller - Morrow lot. After the club returns from Ireland and brings home Abel, agent Stahl double crosses Jax and tells the club about the side deal Jax made with her, unaware that Jax and the club had it planned all along knowing Stahl would back out of the deal. Jax, Clay, Bobby, Tig, Juice and Happy are hauled away to jail. While Opie, Chibbs, and the Prospects are all en route following Stahl. Opie kills Stahl to avenge the death of his wife, Donna.
Sons of Anarchy is the story of the Teller - Morrow family of Charming, California, as well as the other members of Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, Redwood Original (SAMCRO), their families, various Charming townspeople, allied and rival gangs, associates, and law agencies that undermine or support SAMCRO 's legal and illegal enterprises.
Although Sons of Anarchy is set in Northern California 's Central Valley, it is filmed primarily at Occidental Studios Stage 5A in North Hollywood. Main sets located there include the clubhouse, St. Thomas Hospital and Jax 's house. The production rooms at the studio used by the writing staff also double as the Charming police station. External scenes are often filmed nearby in Sun Valley and Tujunga. Interior and exterior scenes set in Northern Ireland during season 3 were also filmed at Occidental Studios and surrounding areas. A second unit shot footage in Northern Ireland used in the third season.
Some critics felt the third season was dragged down by the previous season 's cliffhanger. James Poniewozik of TIME called the season three premiere "breathtaking '' and praised Sagal 's performance with Holbrook. He later stated that Abel 's disappearance helped return the show to its central problem: Jax 's allegiance to the club. Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker agreed that Holbrook and Sagal 's scenes were "beautiful ''. He also commented that the series handled themes of loyalty and family especially well. Maureen Ryan commented that the third season divided critics and fans alike, suggesting the expanded Belfast cast made it harder for the audience to invest in the characters ' journeys. Ryan later questioned the credibility of Hector Salazar 's story, noting that he was inferior to other villainous characters such as Stahl, Zobelle and Weston. However, she praised Ally Walker 's performance, comparing her character to The Shield 's Vic Mackey. Critic Alan Sepinwall said the season was "interesting but uneven '', noting that the plot gained traction in later episodes. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said "Sutter should be applauded for shaking things up '', calling the slower pace a "creative necessity ''.
The third season was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on August 30, 2011.
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no escape movie where does it take place | No Escape (2015 film) - wikipedia
No Escape is a 2015 American action thriller film directed by John Erick Dowdle, who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother, Drew Dowdle. The film stars Owen Wilson, Lake Bell, and Pierce Brosnan, and tells the story of an expat engineer trapped with his family in an unnamed South - East Asian country during a violent uprising.
The film was released on August 26, 2015. It had special sneak previews in the Philippines on August 16 and 17, 2015, as well as multiple pre-screenings throughout the United States before its official release on August 26, 2015 by The Weinstein Company.
In an unnamed South - East Asian country, the Prime Minister closes a deal with a representative of Cardiff, an American company specializing in water systems. After the representative leaves, a group of armed rebels initiate a coup d'état and assassinate the Prime Minister.
Seventeen hours earlier, Jack Dwyer (Owen Wilson), a new Cardiff employee, is flying to the country with his wife Annie (Lake Bell) and their daughters Lucy (Sterling Jerins) and Briegel "Beeze '' Dwyer (Claire Geare). After landing, they run into a Briton named Hammond (Pierce Brosnan) who offers them a ride with him and his friend "Kenny Rogers '' (Sahajak Boonthanakit), to the Imperial Lotus hotel, where many foreigners are staying. At the hotel, Jack learns that the phone lines, television and internet are down all over the city. He stops by the bar and chats with Hammond. Later that night Jack awakens and finds his wife in the bathroom crying.
The next morning, Jack goes out to buy a newspaper, and inadvertently finds himself in the middle of a confrontation between armed protesters and riot police with riot shields. The two forces clash violently as Jack makes his escape. Eventually, the protesters gain the upper hand and begin killing the police. Jack runs back to the hotel and witnesses the rebels executing an American Cardiff employee out front. A rebel soldier spots Jack, forcing Jack to quickly climb up a fire escape and enter the hotel through a window. The rebels break through the main hotel entrance and begin indiscriminately slaughtering the staff and guests.
Jack makes it back to his family 's room, but learns that Lucy is swimming in the pool downstairs. Jack barely gets to Lucy in time before rebels pour onto the pool area. Meanwhile, a horrified Annie sees the rebels going from room to room, killing the occupants. She barely manages to keep them out of their room. As Jack returns with Lucy, he encounters a rebel in the stairwell, but Hammond saves him and tells him to get to the roof. Jack 's family go up there and join some of the hotel 's guests and staff, who have gathered and blocked the door. On the roof, other hotel tourists warn Jack away from leaning over the edge of the roof, as the rebels below will take a shot at whoever they can see. Jack looks over the roof anyway and sees that hundreds of rebels are gathering at the base of the hotel, and that they have seized most of the city. A French hotel occupant interprets what they are chanting ("Do n't resist. There will be no prisoners, because (they 're) going to kill (us) anyway. '', "Blood for water! '') Upon questioning an injured hotel worker, they learn that the rebels are protesting the foreign corporations ' control of the water supply. An approaching helicopter is then heard. Everyone 's relief turns to horror as they realize it belongs to the rebels, who open fire on the people below. As Jack 's family runs for cover, the helicopter becomes entangled in electrical wires and crashes. Another band of rebels breaks through the blocked door and shoot most of the survivors as Jack and his family jump onto the roof of an office building next to the hotel. Jack looks back and sees the rebels holding up the "Welcome '' banner from Cardiff with his photo on it, realizing he is a high - value target.
A tank targets the office building and fires into it indiscriminately. Jack 's family hides under some debris as the rebels swarm the building and murder the employees. The family remains there for the rest of the day, until nightfall with a corpse hiding them. As Jack leaves their hiding place, he is spotted by a looting rebel whom Jack then kills, much to his, and Annie 's, horror. They find a map, take clothes from the dead office workers to disguise themselves as locals, and make their way to the American embassy on a stolen moped. On the way, they manage to ride through a crowd of rebel demonstrators; one man notices they are foreigners, but says nothing, upon seeing the two young children riding with him. Upon arriving at the embassy, they find it overrun and deserted, and have to flee, but not before being seen by a group of rebels, including the leader from the hotel massacre.
The family takes shelter in a Buddhist shrine garden nearby, and are protected by the old property caretaker. The rebels enter the compound and start searching for them. Jack attempts to steal a gun, and Annie comes out from hiding in order to draw attention away from Jack, while Lucy and Beeze hide. After discovering the gun is unloaded, Jack is beaten and restrained. As the group 's leader is about to rape Annie, Hammond and Kenny enter the garden and shoot most of the rebels except for the leader, who escapes. The two men take the family to a nearby brothel, which they pass through on their way to the large tower on the roof. As they eat, Hammond explains that he and Kenny work for the British government. He and other agents talked the former government into making deals with companies like Cardiff. As these deals allowed the companies to "own '' the government through debt, they angered the people, which led to the uprising. Hammond explains that their plan is to get to the nearby river, commandeer a boat, and sail across the border to Vietnam, where they hope to receive asylum.
As their children sleep, Annie and Jack tearfully tell each other that they have no regrets on their life together, preparing themselves for the fact that they could likely die the next morning. Before they can enact their plan, the group is attacked by rebels, who kill Kenny and wound Hammond. Hammond sacrifices himself to disable a rebel truck following them. Near the riverbank, Annie and the kids hide as Jack finds a fisherman and trades his watch and shoes for a boat. The fisherman hears the rebels approaching, and hides Jack beneath an old boat. Not long after, the leader who escaped earlier comes back with another group, captures Jack, and prepares to execute him. Lucy leaves her hiding place, distracting the group leader, whose shot hits Jack 's shoulder. The leader then catches Lucy, puts a gun in her hand and one to her head and orders her to kill Jack. She refuses, but Jack encourages her to shoot him (to potentially save herself). Before Lucy can make a choice, Annie intervenes and hits the leader in the head, and bludgeons him to death with an oar while Jack grabs the man 's gun and kills the remaining rebels.
The family board a boat and paddle downriver toward the Vietnamese border. They are spotted by a group of rebels, but keep paddling. Although the Vietnamese border patrol warns the family, at gunpoint, not to enter Vietnam, they take no action to actually stop them, and as soon as the boat crosses the border marker, the border patrol warn the rebels against attacking the family as they are now in Vietnamese waters and if the rebels shoot, they will consider it as an act of war, and would use fatal force against the rebels. As the family is retrieved by the border guards, they embrace each other, having finally reached the end of their ordeal. Later, in a hospital, Jack and Annie narrate to the kids the story of how Lucy was born, a story the two daughters asked to hear about earlier in the movie.
In 2012, it was reported that Owen Wilson would star in an action film called The Coup, and the tone of the film was described as akin to Taken (2009), centering on an American family that moves to Southeast Asia and finds themselves "embroiled in a violent coup where rebels mercilessly attack the city ''. Later, during the Cannes Film Festival, it was reported that Pierce Brosnan had joined the project, with his role being a "mysterious and ultimately heroic government operative '', a nod to his role as James Bond. John Erick Dowdle, known for several horror films, and who wrote the script with his brother, Drew Dowdle, was set to direct the film. The two brothers based the script on a near - miss of political upheaval when the Dowdle brothers and their father were going on a trip to Thailand. John explains, "Right before we got to Thailand, a coup overthrew the prime minister. There 'd been no previous warning. There was a feeling of anxiety in the air. So I started thinking about that. If it went badly, what would I do? '' Michelle Monaghan had joined the cast, playing the wife of Wilson 's character.
In August 2013, it was reported that Bold Films would finance the film, replacing Crime Scene Pictures. Later that year, it was reported that Lake Bell had replaced Monaghan, and her character was said to be named Annie Dwyer, and described as a beloved woman appearing to have the perfect family life. Principal photography began on October 31, 2013 in Thailand.
No Escape was filmed in Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Principal photography began on October 31, 2013, with Thai - based production company Living Films facilitating the shoot. "The producers of the film had a wide choice of countries in which they could have based this production, '' said Living Films founder and executive director Chris Lowenstein. "The fact that they chose Thailand is a great testament to the skills of the Thai crews and the resources that Thailand offers. We are delighted to help bring this project to the screen. '' Sierra / Affinity handled international sales of the film. Brosnan joined the crew in December after finishing off his work on How to Make Love Like an Englishman, moving to Cambodia where production was held, with his character reportedly called "Hammond ''.
On June 10, 2014, it was announced that the film would be released on March 6, 2015. On February 6, 2015, it was announced that the film was retitled to No Escape, and its release was delayed to September 2, 2015. It then again changed, this time to August 26, 2015.
The film was approved for release in Thailand after the film - makers agreed not to identify the country where it was filmed or to portray it negatively. In an interview for the Straits Times, co-writer Drew Dowdle explained "We were very careful not to make it Thailand in the movie, so there was no Thai language used... None of the signage is Thai and most of the language that the native population is speaking is a combination of Laotian, hill - tribe languages and other languages. '' The film - makers were also instructed not to use images of the Thai monarchy and to "never show the king or the colour yellow because that 's the colour of the king ''. Director John Dowdle added that they were also told "no Buddhas... do n't do anything bad in front of a Buddha. '' However, during the second half of the film, the Thai language was spoken by the actor portraying the caretaker of the Buddhist Shrine garden and the actors portraying the rebels..
No Escape grossed $27.3 million in North America and $27.1 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $54.4 million, against a budget of $5 million.
The film grossed $1.2 million on its opening day and $8.1 million in its opening weekend, finishing 4th at the box office.
No Escape received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the action sequences and the acting performances, especially Wilson 's dramatic role, but others criticized the lack of character development and anti-climactic ending. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 45 %, based on 142 reviews, with an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "No Escape 's talented cast and taut B - movie thrills are unfortunately offset by its one - dimensional characters and uncomfortably retrograde worldview. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 38 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. The film received an average "B + '' CinemaScore from audiences, on an A+ to F scale.
Movie Rehab said, "No Escape is a bright star in a sky of dumbed down, carbon - copy action - thrillers. '' Toronto Star 's Peter Howell questioned the film for its "lack of moral considerations '', but overall praised it as being suspenseful and "great entertainment. ''
Many of the negative reviews for No Escape have labelled the film as xenophobic for its depiction of Southeast Asians. One such review, written by Washington Post 's Stephanie Merry, made the claim that "every Asian character is either a ruthless murderer or anonymous collateral damage. '' Similarly, Seattle Times ' Moira Macdonald criticized No Escape as offensive, and concluded: "Just like the Dwyer family, I found myself looking for escape; you might, too. '' Rogerebert. com 's Peter Sobczynski also blasted No Escape for its "borderline xenophobia '', but ultimately panned the film for John Erick Dowdle 's film direction and "unintentionally comedic '' slow motion scenes, summarizing: "Why (Wilson and Brosnan) would choose to appear in something so pandering, mean - spirited and manipulative is beyond my ability to compute but for whatever reason, the end result is that they have landed in one of the most unpleasant films of the year. ''
After trailers for the film were released a social uproar occurred in Cambodia over the use of upside down Khmer lettering on the police shields. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts has since prohibited the film from being shown in Cambodia. Sin Chanchaya, director of the Department of Film said that the decision to ban the film had come solely based on the trailer and was also informed that in order to receive permission to shoot in Thailand, where several coups d'état had just taken place, the production team had to arrange that no scenes would directly identify Thailand as the setting. Chanchaya also said that the Cambodian Ministry had approached the film producers to edit the Khmer lettering out of the film but they had not replied by the time of the decision.
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the city of jianye was located next to which body of water | Nanjing - wikipedia
Nanjing (listen), formerly romanized as Nanking and Nankin, is a city situated in the heartland of the lower Yangtze River region in China, which has long been a major centre of culture, education, research, politics, economy, transport networks and tourism. It is the capital city of Jiangsu province of People 's Republic of China and the second largest city in the east China region, with an area of 6,600 km (2,500 sq mi) and a total population of 10,230,000. The inner area of Nanjing enclosed by the city wall is Nanjing City (南京 城), with an area of 55 km, while the Nanjing Metropolitan Region includes surrounding cities and areas, covering over 60 thousand square kilometres, with a population of over 30 million.
Nanjing has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having served as the capital of various Chinese dynasties, kingdoms and republican governments dating from the 3rd century CE to 1949. The city has a number of other names, and some historical names are now used as names of districts of the city; among them there is the name Jiangning or Kiangning (江寧, literally "Yangtze 's Peace ''), whose former character Jiang (江, River) is the former part of the name Jiangsu and latter character Ning (寧, simplified form 宁, Peace) is the short name of Nanjing. When it was the capital of a state, for instance during the ROC, Jing (京) was adopted as the abbreviation of Nanjing. It first became a Chinese national capital as early as the Jin dynasty, and the name Nanjing was officially designated for the city during the Ming dynasty, about a thousand years later. Nanjing is particularly known as Jinling or Ginling (金陵, literally "Gold Mausoleum '') and the old name has been used since the Warring States period in the Zhou Dynasty.
Located in Yangtze River Delta area and the center of east China, Nanjing is home to one of the world 's largest inland ports. The city is also one of the fifteen sub-provincial cities in the People 's Republic of China 's administrative structure, enjoying jurisdictional and economic autonomy only slightly less than that of a province. Nanjing has been ranked seventh in the evaluation of "Cities with Strongest Comprehensive Strength '' issued by the National Statistics Bureau, and second in the evaluation of cities with most sustainable development potential in the Yangtze River Delta. It has also been awarded the title of 2008 Habitat Scroll of Honour of China, Special UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award and National Civilized City. Nanjing boasts many high - quality universities and research institutes, with the number of universities listed in 100 National Key Universities ranking third, including Nanjing University and Southeast University. The ratio of college students to total population ranks No. 1 among large cities nationwide. Nanjing is one of the top three Chinese scientific research centers, especially in the chemical sciences, according to the Nature Index.
Nanjing, one of the nation 's most important cities for over a thousand years, is recognized as one of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China. It has been one of the world 's largest cities, enjoying peace and prosperity despite wars and disasters. Nanjing served as the capital of Eastern Wu, one of the three major states in the Three Kingdoms period (211 -- 280); the Eastern Jin and each of the Southern Dynasties (Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and Chen), which successively ruled southern China from 317 -- 589; the Southern Tang, one of the Ten Kingdoms (937 -- 76); the Ming dynasty when, for the first time, all of China was ruled from the city (1368 -- 1421); and the Republic of China (1927 -- 37, 1945 -- 49) prior to its flight to Taiwan during the Chinese Civil War. The city also served as the seat of the rebel Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851 -- 64) and the Japanese puppet regime of Wang Jingwei (1940 -- 45) during the Second Sino - Japanese War. It suffered appalling atrocities in both conflicts, including the Nanjing Massacre.
Nanjing has served as the capital city of Jiangsu province since the establishment of the People 's Republic of China. It boasts many important heritage sites, including the Presidential Palace and Sun Yat - sen Mausoleum. Nanjing is famous for human historical landscapes, mountains and waters such as Fuzimiao, Ming Palace, Chaotian Palace, Porcelain Tower, Drum Tower, Stone City, City Wall, Qinhuai River, Xuanwu Lake and Purple Mountain. Key cultural facilities include Nanjing Library, Nanjing Museum and Art Museum.
Ming dynasty, 1368 -- 1644 Qing dynasty, 1644 -- 1912 Republic of China, 1912 -- 1937 Empire of Japan, 1937 -- 1945 Republic of China, 1945 -- 1949
Archaeological discovery shows that "Nanjing Man '' lived in more than 500 thousand years ago. Zun, a kind of wine vessel, was found to exist in Beiyinyangying culture of Nanjing in about 5000 years ago. In the late period of Shang dynasty, Taibo of Zhou came to Jiangnan and established Wu state, and the first stop is in Nanjing area according to some historians based on discoveries in Taowu and Hushu culture. According to a legend quoted by an artist in Ming dynasty, Chen Yi, Fuchai, King of the State of Wu, founded a fort named Yecheng in today 's Nanjing area in 495 BCE. Later in 473 BCE, the State of Yue conquered Wu and constructed the fort of Yuecheng (越 城) on the outskirts of the present - day Zhonghua Gate. In 333 BCE, after eliminating the State of Yue, the State of Chu built Jinling Yi (金陵 邑) in the western part of present - day Nanjing. It was renamed Moling (秣陵) during reign of Qin Shi Huang. Since then, the city experienced destruction and renewal many times. The area was successively part of Kuaiji, Zhang and Danyang prefectures in Qin and Han dynasty, and part of Yangzhou region which was established as the nation 's 13 supervisory and administrative regions in the 5th year of Yuanfeng in Han dynasty (106 BCE). Nanjing was later the capital city of Danyang Prefecture, and had been the capital city of Yangzhou for about 400 years from late Han to early Tang.
Nanjing first became a state capital in 229 CE, when the state of Eastern Wu founded by Sun Quan during the Three Kingdoms period relocated its capital to Jianye (建 業), the city extended on the basis of Jinling Yi in 211 CE. Although conquered by the Western Jin dynasty in 280, Nanjing and its neighbouring areas had been well cultivated and developed into one of the commercial, cultural and political centers of China during the rule of East Wu. This city would soon play a vital role in the following centuries.
Shortly after the unification of the region, the Western Jin dynasty collapsed. First the rebellions by eight Jin princes for the throne and later rebellions and invasion from Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples that destroyed the rule of the Jin dynasty in the north. In 317, remnants of the Jin court, as well as nobles and wealthy families, fled from the north to the south and reestablished the Jin court in Nanjing, which was then called Jiankang (建 康), replacing Luoyang. It 's the first time that the capital of the nation moved to southern part.
During the period of North -- South division, Nanjing remained the capital of the Southern dynasties for more than two and a half centuries. During this time, Nanjing was the international hub of East Asia. Based on historical documents, the city had 280,000 registered households. Assuming an average Nanjing household consisted of about 5.1 people, the city had more than 1.4 million residents.
A number of sculptural ensembles of that era, erected at the tombs of royals and other dignitaries, have survived (in various degrees of preservation) in Nanjing 's northeastern and eastern suburbs, primarily in Qixia and Jiangning District. Possibly the best preserved of them is the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu (475 -- 518), a brother of Emperor Wu of Liang. The period of division ended when the Sui Dynasty reunified China and almost destroyed the entire city, turning it into a small town.
The city of Nanjing was razed after the Sui dynasty took over it. It renamed Shengzhou (昇 州) in Tang dynasty and resuscitated during the late Tang. It was chosen as the capital and called Jinling (金陵) during the Southern Tang (937 -- 976), a state that succeeded Wu state. It renamed Jiangning (江寧) in Northern Song dynasty and renamed Jiankang in Southern Song dynasty. Jiankang 's textile industry burgeoned and thrived during the Song dynasty despite the constant threat of foreign invasions from the north by the Jurchen - led Jin dynasty. The court of Da Chu, a short - lived puppet state established by the Jurchens, and the court of Song were once in the city. Song was eventually exterminated by the Mongol empire under the name Yuan and in Yuan dynasty the city 's status as a hub of the textile industry was further consolidated.
The first emperor of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who overthrew the Yuan dynasty, renamed the city Yingtian, rebuilt it, and made it the dynastic capital in 1368. He constructed a 48 km (30 mi) long city wall around Yingtian, as well as a new Ming Palace complex, and government halls. It took 200,000 laborers 21 years to finish the project. The present - day City Wall of Nanjing was mainly built during that time and today it remains in good condition and has been well preserved. It is among the longest surviving city walls in China. The Jianwen Emperor ruled from 1398 to 1402.
It is believed that Nanjing was the largest city in the world from 1358 to 1425 with a population of 487,000 in 1400. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor persisted in relocating the capital to Beijing, however he had to withdrew his order before his death. Although Beijing was the de facto capital after that, Nanjing remained the official one of the Ming Empire until 1441, when Emperor Yingzong ordered to not to prefix the words "行 在 '' ("provisional '') on the Beijing Government seals any longer, while Nanjing 's need to prefix "Nanjing '' for distinguishing. Hence, Nanjing still had itself imperial government with extremely limit power before 1644.
Besides the city wall, other famous Ming - era structures in the city included the famous Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum and Porcelain Tower, although the latter was destroyed by the Taipings in the 19th century either in order to prevent a hostile faction from using it to observe and shell the city or from superstitious fear of its geomantic properties.
A monument to the huge human cost of some of the gigantic construction projects of the early Ming dynasty is the Yangshan Quarry (located some 15 -- 20 km (9 -- 12 mi) east of the walled city and Ming Xiaoling mausoleum), where a gigantic stele, cut on the orders of the Yongle Emperor, lies abandoned, just as it was left 600 years ago when it was understood it was impossible to move or complete it.
As the center of the empire, early - Ming Nanjing had worldwide connections. It was home of the admiral Zheng He, who went to sail the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and it was visited by foreign dignitaries, such as a king from Borneo (Boni 渤 泥), who died during his visit to China in 1408. The Tomb of the King of Boni, with a spirit way and a tortoise stele, was discovered in Yuhuatai District (south of the walled city) in 1958, and has been restored.
Over two centuries after the removal of the capital to Beijing, Nanjing was destined to become the capital of a Ming emperor one more time. After the fall of Beijing to Li Zicheng 's rebel forces and then to the Manchu - led Qing dynasty in the spring of 1644, the Ming prince Zhu Yousong was enthroned in Nanjing in June 1644 as the Hongguang Emperor. His short reign was described by later historians as the first reign of the so - called Southern Ming dynasty.
Zhu Yousong, however, fared a lot worse than his ancestor Zhu Yuanzhang three centuries earlier. Beset by factional conflicts, his regime could not offer effective resistance to Qing forces, when the Qing army, led by the Manchu prince Dodo approached Jiangnan the next spring. Days after Yangzhou fell to the Manchus in late May 1645, the Hongguang Emperor fled Nanjing, and the imperial Ming Palace was looted by local residents. On June 6, Dodo 's troops approached Nanjing, and the commander of the city 's garrison, Zhao the Earl of Xincheng, promptly surrendered the city to them. The Manchus soon ordered all male residents of the city to shave their heads in the Manchu queue way. They requisitioned a large section of the city for the bannermen 's cantonment, and destroyed the former imperial Ming Palace, but otherwise the city was spared the mass murders and destruction that befell Yangzhou.
Under the Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1911), the Nanjing area was known as Jiangning (江寧) and served as the seat of government for the Viceroy of Liangjiang. It was the site of a Qing army garrison. It had been visited by the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors a number of times on their tours of the southern provinces. Nanjing was invaded by British troops during the close of the First Opium War, which was ended by the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. As the capital of the brief - lived rebel Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (founded by the Taiping rebels in the mid-19th century, Nanjing was known as Tianjing (天 京, "Heavenly Capital '' or "Capital of Heaven '').
Both the Qing viceroy and the Taiping king resided in buildings that would later be known as the Presidential Palace. When Qing forces led by Zeng Guofan retook the city in 1864, a massive slaughter occurred in the city with over 100,000 estimated to have committed suicide or fought to the death. Since the Taiping Rebellion began, Qing forces allowed no rebels speaking its dialect to surrender. This systematic mass murder of civilians occurred in Nanjing.
The Xinhai Revolution led to the founding of the Republic of China in January 1912 with Sun Yat - sen as the first provisional president and Nanking was selected as its new capital. However, the Qing Empire controlled large regions to the north, so revolutionaries asked Yuan Shikai to replace Sun as president in exchange for the abdication of Puyi, the Last Emperor. Yuan demanded the capital be Beijing (closer to his power base).
In 1927, the Kuomintang (KMT; Nationalist Party) under Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek again established Nanjing as the capital of the Republic of China, and this became internationally recognized once KMT forces took Beijing in 1928. The following decade is known as the Nanking decade.
In 1937, the Empire of Japan started a full - scale invasion of China after invading Manchuria in 1931, beginning the Second Sino - Japanese War (often considered a theatre of World War II). Their troops occupied Nanjing in December and carried out the systematic and brutal Nanking Massacre (the "Rape of Nanking ''). Even children, the elderly, and nuns are reported to have suffered at the hands of the Imperial Japanese Army. The total death toll, including estimates made by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal after the atomic bombings, was between 300,000 and 350,000. The city itself was also severely damaged during the massacre. The Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall was built in 1985 to commemorate this event.
A few days before the fall of the city, the National Government of China was relocated to the southwestern city Chungking (Chongqing) and resumed Chinese resistance. In 1940, a Japanese - collaborationist government known as the "Nanjing Regime '' or "Reorganized National Government of China '' led by Wang Jingwei was established in Nanjing as a rival to Chiang Kai - shek 's government in Chongqing. In 1946, after the Surrender of Japan, the KMT relocated its central government back to Nanjing.
On 21 April 1949, Communist forces crossed the Yangtze River. On April 23, the Communist People 's Liberation Army (PLA) captured Nanjing. The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until October 15, Chongqing until November 25, and then Chengdu before retreating to the island of Taiwan on December 10 where Taipei was proclaimed the temporary capital of the Republic of China. By late 1949, the PLA was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet and Hainan Island were left. After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in October 1949, Nanjing was initially a province - level municipality, but it was soon merged into Jiangsu province and again became the provincial capital by replacing Zhenjiang which was transferred in 1928, and retains that status to this day.
Nanjing, with a total land area of 6,598 square kilometres (2,548 sq mi), is situated in the heartland of the drainage area of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and in the Yangtze River Delta, one of the largest economic zones of China. The Yangtze River flows past the west side and then the north side of Nanjing City, while the Ningzheng Ridge surrounds the north, east and south sides of the city. The city is 650 kilometres (400 mi) southeast of Luoyang, 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) south - southeast of Beijing, 300 kilometres (190 mi) west - northwest of Shanghai, and 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) east - northeast of Chongqing. The Yangtze River flows downstream from Jiujiang, Jiangxi, through Anhui and Jiangsu to the East China Sea. The northern part of the lower Yangtze drainage basin is the Huai River basin and the southern part is the Zhe River basin; they are connected by the Grand Canal east of Nanjing. The area around Nanjing is called Hsiajiang (下 江, Downstream River) region, with Jianghuai dominant in the northern part and Jiangzhe dominant in the southern part. The region is also well known as Dongnan (東南, South East, the Southeast) and Jiangnan (江南, and River South, South of Yangtze).
Nanjing borders Yangzhou to the northeast (one town downstream when following the north bank of the Yangtze); Zhenjiang to the east (one town downstream when following the south bank of the Yangtze); and Changzhou to the southeast. On its western boundary is Anhui province, where Nanjing borders five prefecture - level cities: Chuzhou to the northwest, Wuhu, Chaohu and Maanshan to the west and Xuancheng to the southwest.
Nanjing is at the intersection of the Yangtze River, an east - west water transport artery, and the Nanjing -- Beijing railway, a north - south land transport artery, hence the name "door of the east and west, throat of the south and north ''. Furthermore, the west part of the Ningzhen range is in Nanjing; the Loong - like Zhong Mountain curls round the east side of the city, while the tiger - like Stone Mountain crouches in the west of the city, hence the name "the Zhong Mountain, a dragon curling, and the Stone Mountain, a tiger crouching ''.
Nanjing has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) and is under the influence of the East Asian monsoon. The four seasons are distinct, with damp conditions seen throughout the year, very hot and muggy summers, cold, damp winters, and in between, spring and autumn are of reasonable length. Along with Chongqing and Wuhan, Nanjing is traditionally referred to as one of the "Three Furnacelike Cities '' along the Yangtze River (长江 流域 三 大 火炉) for the perennially high temperatures in the summertime. However, the time from mid-June to the end of July is the plum blossom blooming season in which the meiyu (rainy season of East Asia; literally "plum rain '') occurs, during which the city experiences a period of mild rain as well as dampness. Typhoons are uncommon but possible in the late stages of summer and early part of autumn. The annual mean temperature is around 15.91 ° C (60.6 ° F), with the monthly 24 - hour average temperature ranging from 2.7 ° C (36.9 ° F) in January to 28.1 ° C (82.6 ° F) in July. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from − 14.0 ° C (7 ° F) on 6 January 1955 to 40.7 ° C (105 ° F) on 22 August 1959. On average precipitation falls 115 days out of the year, and the average annual rainfall is 1,090 millimetres (43 in). With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 37 percent in March to 52 percent in August, the city receives 1,926 hours of bright sunshine annually.
Nanjing is endowed with rich natural resources, which include more than 40 kinds of minerals. Among them, iron and sulfur reserves make up 40 percent of those of Jiangsu province. Its reserves of strontium rank first in East Asia and the South East Asia region. Nanjing also possesses abundant water resources, both from the Yangtze River and groundwater. In addition, it has several natural hot springs such as Tangshan Hot Spring in Jiangning and Tangquan Hot Spring in Pukou.
Sun Yat - sen once summarized and lauded the feature of Nanjing in his book The International Development of China (建國 方略):
Nanking was the old capital of China before Peking, and is situated in a fine locality which comprises high mountains, deep water and a vast level plain -- a rare site to be found in any part of the world. It also lies at the center of a very rich country on both sides of the lower Yangtze. (南京 為 中國 古都, 在 北京 之前, 而 其 位置 乃 在 一 美 善之 地區. 其 地 有 高山, 有 深水, 有 平原, 此 三種 天 工, 鐘 毓 一 處, 在 世界 中 之 大 都市 誠 難 覓 如此 佳境 也. 而 又 恰 居 長江 下游 兩岸 最 豐富 區域 之 中心...)
To be more exact, surrounded by the Yangtze River and mountains, the urban area of the city enjoys its scenic natural environment. Xuanwu Lake and Mochou Lake are located in the centre of the city and are easily accessible to the public, while Purple Mountain are covered with deciduous and coniferous forests preserving various historical and cultural sites. Meanwhile, a Yangtze River deep - water channel is constructing to enable Nanjing to be capable of navigation of the 50,000 DWT vessels form the estuary.
A dense wave of smog began in the central and east parts of China on 2 December 2013 across a distance of around 1,200 kilometres (750 mi), including Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shanghai and Zhejiang. A lack of cold air flow, combined with slow - moving air masses carrying industrial emissions, collected airborne pollutants to form a thick layer of smog over the region. The heavy smog heavily polluted central and southern Jiangsu Province, especially in and around Nanjing, with its AQI pollution Index at "severely polluted '' for five straight days and "heavily polluted '' for nine. On 3 December 2013, levels of PM particulate matter average over 943 micrograms per cubic metre, falling to over 338 micrograms per cubic metre on 4 December 2013. Between 3: 00 pm, 3 December and 2: 00pm, 4 December local time, several expressways from Nanjing to other Jiangsu cities were closed, stranding dozens of passenger buses in Zhongyangmen bus station. From 5 to 6 December, Nanjing issued a red alert for air pollution and closed down all kindergarten through middle schools. Children 's Hospital outpatient services increased by 33 percent; general incidence of bronchitis, pneumonia, upper respiratory tract infections significantly increased. The smog dissipated 12 December. Officials blamed the dense pollution on lack of wind, automobile exhaust emissions under low air pressure, and coal - powered district heating system in north China. Prevailing winds blew low - hanging air masses of factory emissions (mostly SO) towards China 's east coast.
At present, the full name of the government of Nanjing is "People 's Government of Nanjing City '' and the city is under the one - party rule of the CPC, with the CPC Nanjing Committee Secretary as the de facto governor of the city and the mayor as the executive head of the government working under the secretary.
The sub-provincial city of Nanjing is divided into 11 districts.
According to the Sixth China Census, the total population of the City of Nanjing reached 8.005 million in 2010. The statistics in 2011 estimated the total population to be 8.11 million. The birth rate was 8.86 percent and the death rate was 6.88 percent. The urban area had a population of 6.47 million people. The sex ratio of the city population was 107.31 males to 100 females.
As in most of eastern China the ethnic makeup of Nanjing is predominantly Han nationality (98.56 percent), with 50 other minority nationalities. In 1999, 77,394 residents belonged to minority nationalities, among which the vast majority (64,832) were Hui nationalities, contributing 83.76 percent to the minority population. The second and third largest minority groups were Manchu (2,311) and Zhuang (533) nationalities. Most of the minority nationalities resided in Jianye District, comprising 9.13 percent of the district 's population.
There was a massive cultivating in the area of Nanjing from the Three Kingdoms period to Southern dynasties. The sparse population led to land as royal rewards were granted for rules ' people. At first, the landless peasants benefited from it, then the senior officials and aristocratic families. Since large numbers of immigrants flooded into the area, reclamation was quite common in its remote parts, which promoted its agricultural development.
The craft industries, by contrast, had a faster growth. Especially the textiles section, there were about 200,000 craftsmen by the late Qing. Several dynasties established their imperial textiles bureaus in Nanjing. The Nanjing Brocade (南京 云锦) is their exquisite product as the cloth for the royal garments such as dragon robes. Meanwhile, the satins from Nanjing were called "tribute satins '' ("贡缎 ''), because they were usually paid as tribute to the monarchy. Besides, minting, papermaking, shipbuilding grew initially since the Three Kingdoms period. As Nanjing was the capital of the Ming dynasty, the industries further expanded, where both state - owned and numerous private businesses served the imperial court. Several place names in Nanjing remains witnessed them, such as Wangjinshi (网 巾 市, the market sells wangjin), Guyilang (估 衣 廊, the corridor for garments bargain), Youfangqiao (油坊 桥, the bridge near an oil mill).
Moreover, the trade in Nanjing was also flourishing. The Ming dynasty drawing Nandu fanhui tujuan (南都 繁 会 图 卷, Prosperous Nanjing) vividly depicts a high street at that time bustling with people; all sorts of shops could be found on it. However, the economic developments were almost wiped out by the Taiping Rebellion 's catastrophe.
Into the first half of the twentieth century after the establishment of ROC, Nanjing gradually shifted from being a production hub towards being a heavy consumption city, mainly because of the rapid expansion of its wealthy population after Nanjing once again regained the political spotlight of China. A number of huge department stores such as Zhongyang Shangchang sprouted up, attracting merchants from all over China to sell their products in Nanjing. In 1933, the revenue generated by the food and entertainment industry in the city exceeded the sum of the output of the manufacturing and agriculture industry. One third of the city population worked in the service industry,.
In the 1950s after PRC was established by CPC, the government invested heavily in the city to build a series of state - owned heavy industries, as part of the national plan of rapid industrialization, converting it into a heavy industry production center of east China. Overenthusiastic in building a "world - class '' industrial city, the government also made many disastrous mistakes during development, such as spending hundreds of millions of yuan to mine for non-existent coal, resulting in negative economic growth in the late 1960s. From 1960s to 1980s there were Five Pillar Industries, namely, electronics, cars, petrochemical, iron and steel, and power, each with big state - owned firms. After the Reform and Opening recovering market economy, the state - owned enterprises found themselves incapable of competing with efficient multinational firms and local private firms, hence were either mired in heavy debt or forced into bankruptcy or privatization and this resulted in large numbers of layoff workers who were technically not unemployed but effectively jobless.
The current economy of the city is basically newly developed based on the past. Service industries are dominating, accounting for about 60 percent of the GDP of the city, and financial industry, culture industry and tourism industry are top 3 of them. Industries of information technology, energy saving and environmental protection, new energy, smart power grid and intelligent equipment manufacturing have become pillar industries. Big civilian - run enterprise include Suning Commerce, Yurun, Sanpower, Fuzhong, Hiteker, 5stars, Jinpu, Tiandi, CTTQ Pharmaceutical, Nanjing Iron and Steel Company and Simcere Pharmaceutical. Big state - owned firms include Panda Electronics, Yangzi Petrochemical, Jinling Petrochemical, Nanjing Chemical, Jincheng Motors, Jinling Pharmaceutical, Chenguang and NARI. The city has also attracted foreign investment, multinational firms such as Siemens, Ericsson, Volkswagen, Iveco, A.O. Smith, and Sharp have established their lines, and a number of multinationals such as Ford, IBM, Lucent, Samsung and SAP established research center there. Many China - based leading firms such as Huawei, ZTE and Lenovo have key R & D institutes in the city. Nanjing is an industrial technology research and development hub, hosting many R & D centers and institutions, especially in areas of electronics technology, information technology, computer software, biotechnology and pharmaceutical technology and new material technology.
In recent years, Nanjing has been developing its economy, commerce, industry, as well as city construction. In 2013 the city 's GDP was RMB 801 billion (3rd in Jiangsu), and GDP per capita (current price) was RMB 98,174 (US $16041), a 11 percent increase from 2012. The average urban resident 's disposable income was RMB 36,200, while the average rural resident 's net income was RMB 14,513. The registered urban unemployment rate was 3.02 percent, lower than the national average (4.3 percent). Nanjing 's Gross Domestic Product ranked 12th in 2013 in China, and its overall competence ranked 6th in mainland and 8th including Taiwan and Hong Kong in 2009.
There are a number of industrial zones in Nanjing.
Nanjing is the transportation hub in eastern China and the downstream Yangtze River area. Different means of transportation constitute a three - dimensional transport system that includes land, water and air. As in most other Chinese cities, public transportation is the dominant mode of travel of the majority of the citizens. As of October 2014, Nanjing had four bridges and two tunnels over the Yangtze River, which are tying districts north of the river with the city center on the south bank.
Nanjing is an important railway hub in eastern China. It serves as rail junction for the Beijing - Shanghai (Jinghu) (which is itself composed of the old Jinpu and Huning Railways), Nanjing -- Tongling Railway (Ningtong), Nanjing -- Qidong (Ningqi), and the Nanjing - Xian (Ningxi) which encompasses the Hefei -- Nanjing Railway. Nanjing is connected to the national high - speed railway network by Beijing -- Shanghai High - Speed Railway and Shanghai -- Wuhan -- Chengdu Passenger Dedicated Line, with several more high - speed rail lines under construction.
Among all 17 railway stations in Nanjing, passenger rail service is mainly provided by Nanjing Railway Station and Nanjing South Railway Station, while other stations like Nanjing West Railway Station, Zhonghuamen Railway Station and Xianlin Railway Station serve minor roles. Nanjing Railway Station was first built in 1968. On November 12, 1999, the station was burnt in a serious fire. Reconstruction of the station was finished on September 1, 2005. Nanjing South Railway Station, which is one of the 5 hub stations on Beijing -- Shanghai High - Speed Railway, has officially been claimed as the largest railway station in Asia and the second largest in the world in terms of GFA (Gross Floor Area). Construction of Nanjing South Station began on 10 January 2008. The station was opened for public service in 2011.
As an important regional hub in the Yangtze River Delta, Nanjing is well - connected by over 60 state and provincial highways to all parts of China.
Express highways such as Hu -- Ning, Ning -- He, Ning -- Hang enable commuters to travel to Shanghai, Hefei, Hangzhou, and other important cities quickly and conveniently. Inside the city of Nanjing, there are 230 km (140 mi) of highways, with a highway coverage density of 3.38 kilometres per hundred square kilometrs (5.44 mi / 100 sq mi). The total road coverage density of the city is 112.56 kilometres per hundred square kilometres (181.15 mi / 100 sq mi). The two artery roads in Nanjing are Zhongshan Road and Hanzhong. The two roads cross in the city center, Xinjiekou.
Expressways:
National Highway (GXXX):
The city also boasts an efficient network of public transportation, which mainly consists of bus, taxi and metro systems. The bus network, which is currently run by three companies since 2011, provides more than 370 routes covering all parts of the city and suburban areas. Nanjing Metro Line 1, started service on September 3, 2005, with 16 stations and a length of 21.72 kilometres (13.50 miles). Line 2 and the 24.5 km - long south extension of Line 1 officially opened to passenger service on May 28, 2010. At present, Nanjing has a metro system with a grand total of 256 kilometers (159 mi) of route and 136 stations. They are Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 4, Line 10, Line S1 and Line S8. The city is planning to complete a 17 - line Metro and light - rail system by 2030. The expansion of the Metro network will greatly facilitate the intracity transportation and reduce the currently heavy traffic congestion.
Nanjing 's airport, Lukou International Airport, serves both national and international flights. In 2013, Nanjing airport handled 15,011,792 passengers and 255,788.6 tonnes of freight. The airport currently has 85 routes to national and international destinations, which include Japan, Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, United States and Germany. The airport is connected by a 29 - kilometre (18 mi) highway directly to the city center, and is also linked to various intercity highways, making it accessible to the passengers from the surrounding cities. A railway Ninggao Intercity Line has been built to link the airport with Nanjing South Railway Station. Lukou Airport was opened on 28 June 1997, replacing Nanjing Dajiaochang Airport as the main airport serving Nanjing. Dajiaochang Airport is still used as a military air base.
Port of Nanjing is the largest inland port in China, with annual cargo tonnage reached 191,970,000 t in 2012. The port area is 98 kilometres (61 mi) in length and has 64 berths including 16 berths for ships with a tonnage of more than 10,000. Nanjing is also the biggest container port along the Yangtze River; in March 2004, the one million container - capacity base, Longtan Containers Port Area opened, further consolidating Nanjing as the leading port in the region. As of 2010, it operated six public ports and three industrial ports. The Yangtze River 's 12.5 - meter - deep waterway enables 50,000 - ton - class ocean ships directly arrive at the Nanjing Port, and the ocean ships with the capacities of 100,000 tons or above can also reach the port after load reduction in the Yangtze River 's high - tide period.
In the 1960s, the first Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge was completed, and served as the only bridge crossing over the Lower Yangtze in eastern China at that time. The bridge was a source of pride and an important symbol of modern China, having been built and designed by the Chinese themselves following failed surveys by other nations and the reliance on and then rejection of Soviet expertise. Begun in 1960 and opened to traffic in 1968, the bridge is a two - tiered road and rail design spanning 4,600 metres on the upper deck, with approximately 1,580 metres spanning the river itself. Since then four more bridges and two tunnels have been built. Going in the downstream direction, the Yangtze crossings in Nanjing are: Dashengguan Bridge, Line 10 Metro Tunnel, Third Bridge, Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel, First Bridge, Second Bridge and Fourth Bridge.
Being one of the four ancient capitals of China, Nanjing has always been a cultural center attracting intellectuals from all over the country. In the Tang and Song dynasties, Nanjing was a place where poets gathered and composed poems reminiscent of its luxurious past; during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the city was the official imperial examination center (Jiangnan Examination Hall) for the Jiangnan region, again acting as a hub where different thoughts and opinions converged and thrived.
Today, with a long cultural tradition and strong support from local educational institutions, Nanjing is commonly viewed as a "city of culture '' and one of the more pleasant cities to live in China.
Some of the leading art groups of China are based in Nanjing; they include the Qianxian Dance Company, Nanjing Dance Company, Jiangsu Peking Opera Institute and Nanjing Xiaohonghua Art Company among others.
Jiangsu Province Kun Opera is one of the best theatres for Kunqu, China 's oldest stage art. It is considered a conservative and traditional troupe. Nanjing also has professional opera troupes for the Yang, Yue (shaoxing), Xi and Jing (Chinese opera varieties) as well as Suzhou pingtan, spoken theatre and puppet theatre.
Jiangsu Art Gallery is the largest gallery in Jiangsu Province, presenting some of the best traditional and contemporary art pieces of China; many other smaller - scale galleries, such as Red Chamber Art Garden and Jinling Stone Gallery, also have their own special exhibitions.
Many traditional festivals and customs were observed in the old times, which included climbing the City Wall on January 16, bathing in Qing Xi on March 3, hill hiking on September 9 and others (the dates are in Chinese lunar calendar). Almost none of them, however, are still celebrated by modern Nanjingese.
Instead, Nanjing, as a popular tourist destination, hosts a series of government - organised events throughout the year. The annual International Plum Blossom Festival held in Plum Blossom Hill, the largest plum collection in China, attracts thousands of tourists both domestically and internationally. Other events include Nanjing Baima Peach Blossom and Kite Festival, Jiangxin Zhou Fruit Festival and Linggu Temple Sweet Osmanthus Festival.
Nanjing Library, founded in 1907, houses more than 10 million volumes of printed materials and is the third largest library in China, after the National Library in Beijing and Shanghai Library. Other libraries, such as city - owned Jinling Library and various district libraries, also provide considerable amount of information to citizens. Nanjing University Library is the second largest university libraries in China after Peking University Library, and the fifth largest nationwide, especially in the number of precious collections.
Nanjing has some of the oldest and finest museums in China. Nanjing Museum, formerly known as National Central Museum during ROC period, is the first modern museum and remains as one of the leading museums in China having 400,000 items in its permanent collection,. The museum is notable for enormous collections of Ming and Qing imperial porcelain, which is among the largest in the world. Other museums include the City Museum of Nanjing in the Chaotian Palace, the Oriental Metropolitan Museum, the China Modern History Museum in the Presidential Palace, the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall, the Taiping Kingdom History Museum, Jiangning Imperial Silk Manufacturing Museum, Nanjing Yunjin Museum, Nanjing City Wall Cultural Museum, Nanjing Customs Museum in Ganxi House, Nanjing Astronomical History Museum, Nanjing Paleontological Museum, Nanjing Geological Museum, Nanjing Riverstones Museum, and other museums and memorials such Zheng He Memorial, Jinling Four Modern Calligraphers Memorial.
Most of Nanjing 's major theatres are multi-purpose, used as convention halls, cinemas, musical halls and theatres on different occasions. The major theatres include the People 's Convention Hall and the Nanjing Arts and Culture Center. The Capital Theatre well known in the past is now a museum in theatre / film.
Traditionally Nanjing 's nightlife was mostly centered around Nanjing Fuzimiao (Confucius Temple) area along the Qinhuai River, where night markets, restaurants and pubs thrived. Boating at night in the river was a main attraction of the city. Thus, one can see the statues of the famous teachers and educators of the past not too far from those of the courtesans who educated the young men in the other arts.
In the past 20 years, several commercial streets have been developed, hence the nightlife has become more diverse: there are shopping malls opening late in the Xinjiekou CBD and Hunan Road. The well - established "Nanjing 1912 '' district hosts a wide variety of recreational facilities ranging from traditional restaurants and western pubs to dance clubs. There are two major areas where bars are densely located; one is in 1912 block; the other is along Shanghai road and its neighbourhood. Both are popular with international residents of the city.
Local people still very much enjoy street food, such as Turkish Kebab. As elsewhere in Asia, Karaoke is popular with both young and old crowds.
Many of the city 's local favorite dishes are based on ducks, including Nanjing salted duck, duck blood and vermicelli soup, and duck oil pancake.
The radish is also a typical food representing people of Nanjing, which has been spread through word of mouth as an interesting fact for many years in China. According to Nanjing.GOV.cn, "There is a long history of growing radish in Nanjing especially the southern suburb. In the spring, the radish tastes very juicy and sweet. It is well - known that people in Nanjing like eating radish. And the people are even addressed as ' Nanjing big radish ', which means they are unsophisticated, passionate and conservative. From health perspective, eating radish can help to offset the stodgy food that people take during the Spring Festival ''.
Nanjing 's planned 20,000 seat Youth Olympic Sports Park Gymnasium will be one of the venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.
As a major Chinese city, Nanjing is home to many professional sports teams. Jiangsu Suning F.C., the football club currently staying in Chinese Super League, is a long - term tenant of Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre. Jiangsu Nangang Basketball Club is a competitive team which has long been one of the major clubs fighting for the title in China top level league, CBA. Jiangsu Volleyball men and women teams are also traditionally considered as at top level in China volleyball league.
There are two major sports centers in Nanjing, Wutaishan Sports Center and Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre. Both of these two are comprehensive sports centers, including stadium, gymnasium, natatorium, tennis court, etc. Wutaishan Sports Center was established in 1952 and it was one of the oldest and most advanced stadiums in early time of People 's Republic of China.
Nanjing hosted the 10th National Games of P.R.C. in 2005 and hosted the 2nd summer Youth Olympic Games in 2014.
In 2005, in order to host The 10th National Game of People 's Republic of China, there was a new stadium, Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre, constructed in Nanjing. Compared to Wutaishan Sports Center, which the major stadium 's capacity is 18,500, Nanjing Olympic Sports Center has a more advanced stadium which is big enough to seat 60,000 spectators. Its gymnasium has capacity of 13,000, and natatorium of capacity 3,000.
On 10 February 2010, the 122nd IOC session at Vancouver announced Nanjing as the host city for the 2nd Summer Youth Olympic Games. The slogan of the 2014 Youth Olympic Games was "Share the Games, Share our Dreams ''. The Nanjing 2014 Youth Olympic Games featured all 28 sports on the Olympic programme and were held from 16 to 28 August. The Nanjing Youth Olympic Games Organising Committee (NYOGOC) worked together with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to attract the best young athletes from around the world to compete at the highest level. Off the competition fields, an integrated culture and education programme focused on discussions about education, Olympic values, social challenges, and cultural diversity. The YOG aims to spread the Olympic spirit and encourage sports participation.
Nanjing is one of the most beautiful cities of mainland China with lush green parks, natural scenic lakes, small mountains, historical buildings and monuments, relics and much more, which attracts thousands of tourists every year.
Tower of Linggu Temple
Classical buildings in the Mochou Lake
Zhonghua Gate
Spirit Way of Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum
Because it was designated as the national capital, many structures were built around that time. Even today, some of them still remain which are open to tourists.
Hall of Sun Yat - sen Mausoleum
Main entrance of the Presidential Palace
Former site of Executive Yuan
Former site of Lizhishe (Society of Encouragement)
Hot Spring Villa of Chiang Kai - shek
Auditorium of National Central University (noe Southeast University)
Former US Embassy
Former residence of Wang Jingwei
A mansion in Yihe Road
Zifeng Tower ranks among the tallest buildings in the world, opened for commercial operations in 2010.
Yangtze River Bridge
Nanjing Youth Olympic Towers
New Nanjing Library
Nanjing has been the educational center in southern China for more than 1700 years. There are 75 institutions of higher learning till 2013. The number of National key laboratories, National key disciplines and the academicians of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering all rank third in the nation. It boasts some of the most prominent educational institutions in the region, some of which are listed as follows:
Operated by Ministry of Education
Operated by Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Operated by the joint Commission of the State Forest Administration and Public Order Ministry
Operated by the general sport Administration
Direct - controlled Municipalities. Sub-provincial cities as provincial capitals. Separate state - planning cities. Special Economic Zone Cities. Coastal development cities. Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs. Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner, Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia as part of it. Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China. The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC, due to lack of actual jurisdiction. See Template: Administrative divisions of the Republic of China instead.
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where is dense fibrous connective tissue found on a long bone | Dense connective tissue - Wikipedia
Dense connective tissue, also called dense fibrous tissue, is a type of connective tissue with fibers as its main matrix element. The fibers are mainly composed of type I collagen. Crowded between the collagen fibers are rows of fibroblasts, fiber - forming cells, that generate the fibers. Dense connective tissue forms strong, rope - like structures such as tendons and ligaments. Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones; ligaments connect bones to bones at joints. Ligaments are more stretchy and contain more elastic fibers than tendons. Dense connective tissue also make up the lower layers of the skin (dermis), where it is arranged in sheets.
It is often divided into "Dense regular connective tissue '' and "Dense irregular connective tissue ''.
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who plays hades in wrath of the titans | Wrath of the Titans - wikipedia
Wrath of the Titans is a 2012 3D epic action adventure fantasy film that is a sequel to the 2010 film Clash of the Titans. The film stars Sam Worthington, Rosamund Pike, Bill Nighy, Édgar Ramírez, Toby Kebbell, Danny Huston, Ralph Fiennes, and Liam Neeson, with Jonathan Liebesman directing a screenplay by Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson. Wrath of the Titans takes place a decade after the events of the preceding film as the gods lose control over the imprisoned Titans (thanks to humanity 's lack of prayers which also is draining their immortality) and Perseus is called, this time to rescue his father Zeus, overthrow the Titans, and save mankind.
Talk of a sequel began with the release of Clash of the Titans in March 2010. Scribes Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson were hired in June 2010 and director Jonathan Liebesman was brought on board in August 2010. The majority of the casting took place between January and February 2011. Principal photography began in London in March 2011. Like its predecessor, the film was converted to 3D in post-production. Wrath of the Titans was released in 2D and 3D on March 30, 2012 in the United States. The film received widespread negative reception from critics and grossed $305 million worldwide. A sequel entitled Revenge of the Titans was planned for a 2013 release, but was cancelled due to the two films ' critical failures and too few ideas for the script.
Perseus (Sam Worthington), a son of Zeus (Liam Neeson), lives as a fisherman after the death of his wife, Io (portrayed by Gemma Arterton in the previous film), with his young son, Helius (John Bell). Zeus visits Perseus and asks for his help, saying that humans are not praying to the gods and as a result the gods are losing their power and becoming mortal. They can no longer sustain the walls of Tartarus which are crumbling, and the imprisoned Titan Kronos will soon be free. Perseus, valuing his family 's safety, refuses to get involved.
Zeus meets his brothers Hades (Ralph Fiennes) and Poseidon (Danny Huston), and his son Ares (Édgar Ramírez) in Tartarus. He asks Hades 's help in rebuilding Tartarus 's walls, but Hades rejects the offer and attacks Zeus. Ares betrays Zeus, imprisoning him and stealing his thunderbolt. Hades and Ares plan to make a deal with Kronos: in exchange for remaining immortal, they will drain Zeus 's divine power to revive Kronos. The walls of Tartarus break, unleashing monsters onto the world.
After killing a Chimera that attacked his village, Perseus travels to meet his father. He instead finds a dying Poseidon who informs him of the circumstances and tells him to find his Demigod son Agenor (Toby Kebbell) who will lead him to Hephaestus, who knows the way into Tartarus. Poseidon then gives Perseus his trident and succumbs to the injuries he sustained when meeting Hades. Perseus, Andromeda (Rosamund Pike), and Agenor set out to find Hephaestus on a hidden island. Agenor explains that Hephaestus created three weapons which Zeus, Hades, and Poseidon wield: Zeus 's thunderbolt, Hades 's pitchfork, and Poseidon 's trident, and that these weapons can jointly form the Spear of Trium, the only weapon that can defeat Kronos. After an encounter with Cyclopes, the travelers eventually meet the now mortal Hephaestus (Bill Nighy) and reach the entrance of a labyrinth leading to Tartarus. Hephaestus sacrifices himself during an attack by Ares to enable Perseus, Andromeda, and Agenor to enter the labyrinth.
The group eventually enters Tartarus. Meanwhile, Zeus has been almost entirely drained of power as Kronos awakens. Zeus apologizes to Hades for banishing him to the underworld and asks his forgiveness, as he has forgiven Hades for his actions. Hades decides to help Zeus and stop Kronos in contrast to Ares, who still wants to proceed to the former 's revival. Perseus arrives and frees Zeus. Ares wounds Zeus with Hades ' pitchfork, allowing Perseus to obtain it before he and the others escape Tartarus with Zeus.
Aiming to retrieve Zeus ' thunderbolt from Ares in order to defeat Kronos, Perseus challenges him to a duel. Ares accepts. Meanwhile, Andromeda 's army is overwhelmed by the Makhai. Hades revives Zeus and together they defeat the creatures. Kronos appears and begins to attack Andromeda 's army. Zeus and Hades hold off Kronos while Perseus duels Ares eventually killing him with the thunderbolt. Combining the gods ' weapons into the Spear of Trium, Perseus destroys Kronos, traveling to his heart and throwing the spear into it.
Zeus reconciles with Perseus and then dies of his wounds. Hades tells Perseus that now he is powerless and leaves. Perseus kisses Andromeda. Helius tells his father that he wants to return to his life as a fisherman, but Perseus tells him they ca n't. Perseus encourages Helius to be proud of himself, as his son and the grandson of Zeus. The film ends with Perseus giving his sword to Helius.
Talks of a sequel to Clash of the Titans began as early as March 2010. Tamer Hassan, who played Ares in the first film, stated at the film 's world premiere that, "They want this one to do well so they can go ahead with the sequel, Return of the Gods ''. In April 2010 it was reported that director Louis Leterrier would not return to direct, but would be an executive producer on the second installment. The report also stated that Sam Worthington was on board and that Greg Berlanti would write the story.
In June 2010, Warner Bros. hired screenwriters David Leslie Johnson and Dan Mazeau to write the screenplay, with Basil Iwanyk returning as the producer. Rather than being converted to 3D, it was announced that the sequel would be filmed in 3D. In August 2010, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Jonathan Liebesman had signed a deal to direct the sequel.
In September 2010, director Jonathan Liebesman confirmed that Sam Worthington, Gemma Arterton, Ralph Fiennes, and Liam Neeson would be returning. However, Arterton did not reprise her role for unknown reasons, leaving her character, Io, dead in the film. In December 2010, Neeson revealed that the film would be titled Wrath of the Titans and that filming was expected to begin next March.
In January 2011, it was reported that Édgar Ramírez and Toby Kebbell were in negotiations to play Ares and Agenor respectively. It was also reported that Bill Nighy was being courted to play Hephaestus. Additionally, Hayley Atwell was on the shortlist of actresses screen testing for the role of Andromeda, played in the previous film by Alexa Davalos who left due to a scheduling conflict. Other actresses being considered for Andromeda included Georgina Haig, Janet Montgomery, Dominique McElligott, and Clémence Poésy.
In February 2011, it was reported that Rosamund Pike was near a deal for the part. Also in February, Liebesman announced that Wrath of the Titans would be converted to 3D rather than shot in 3D as previously reported despite the negative criticism the first Clash of the Titans received for its use of post-conversion 3D. Liebesman explained, "I think what you have to remember is the first film was neither shot nor edited with 3D in mind. It was shot as a 2D movie and edited as a 2D film, and they decided to convert it with six or seven weeks to go until release, which is insane; the technology was not there. That 's why we 're conceiving it from the start, from the ground up, in 3D, editing in 3D for 3D. '' Liebesman also stated the reason behind the conversion was because he wants to shoot on film, which will give the film 's imagery better texture than he would get shooting digitally.
Principal photography began on March 23, 2011. Filming took place in studios outside London and later shot on location in Surrey, South Wales and in the Canary Islands on the island of Tenerife and Torres del Paine National Park in Chilean Patagonia.
Wrath of the Titans premiered on Monday, March 26, 2012 at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City.
Wrath of the Titans was released on Blu - ray, 3D Blu - ray, DVD and digital download on June 26, 2012.
-- Robert Levin of The Atlantic regarding the film 's box office prospects and results.
Wrath of the Titans earned $83.6 million in North America and $221.6 million internationally for a worldwide total of $305.2 million, less than the $493 million grossed by its predecessor. The film was co-financed by Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures for $150 million, about $25 million more than it cost to produce the original. It debuted day - and - date in 61 markets worldwide sans Japan and delivered a global opening of $110.3 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released in a total of 3,545 theaters with 2,900 3D locations (4,400 3D screens), and 290 IMAX locations. Initially, it was projected open around with $35 -- 40 million. It opened Friday, March 30, 2012 with $1 million from midnight screenings in 1,490 theaters. The film went on to earn $34.2 million in North America over the weekend, finishing in second place behind The Hunger Games which was playing its second weekend. The opening is over half of the original 's $61.2 million debut. It played well in IMAX representing $4.7 million of the total weekend 's gross. Not surprisingly, the follow - up attracted a large male contingent on its opening weekend with 66 %. Roughly 65 % of the moviegoers -- about 55 % of whom were over the age of 25 -- saw the film in 3D.
Dan Fellman, Warner Bros. president of domestic distribution, said the comparison between the opening of the first and second film was not fair because the original opened on Good Friday, when more teenagers were out on spring break. He lamented on the film 's poor box office performance saying, "we made a decision to open a week before the holiday this time and generate positive word - of - mouth since we had issues with the last one regarding the 3 - D conversion, we 're gon na get there -- we 're just gon na get there in a different way. '' However, despite not opening on a holiday weekend, the film had the advantage of playing a week before Easter in which the company could avail the spring break, which was staggered over the next two weeks. However, all this did n't necessarily aid the film 's further box office performance. Warner Bros. said they did n't expect the sequel to reach the same level.
Outside North America, the film had a more successful opening but this success later dwindled due to poor word of mouth and eventually was unable to topple the first film 's final $332 million international gross. It opened in first place -- dethroning The Hunger Games -- with $76.1 million from 14,600 screens (9,766 of which were in 3D) in 60 territories. It debuted in first place in 46 markets, notably in nine of the top 12 international territories including Korea ($4.3 million), France ($3.1 million) and Italy ($1.8 million). Its biggest opening territories were Russia and the CIS ($12.8 million, representing 18 % of the total weekend foreign take), Mexico ($5.2 millio) and Brazil ($4.1 million). The film was ranked No. 1 in 11 markets across Latin America. Also internationally, it had an IMAX opening of $4 million from 176 screens -- or $22,000 per site -- with Russia contributing about $55,000 per - screen at 19 IMAX locations.
Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 26 % of 166 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 4.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Its 3D effects are an improvement over its predecessor 's, but in nearly every other respect, Wrath of the Titans fails to improve upon the stilted acting, wooden dialogue, and chaos - driven plot of the franchise 's first installment ''. Metacritic assigned the film an average score of 37 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, slightly better than the first film 's "B '' grade.
The film earned a Razzie Award nomination for Neeson as Worst Supporting Actor. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter called it, "A relentlessly mechanical piece of work that will not or can not take the imaginative leaps to yield even fleeting moments of awe, wonder or charm ''. Roger Ebert, who gave the first film three stars, awarded Wrath with only two, remarking "It lacks a comprehensible story, and you wo n't need your CliffsNotes on the Greek myths. You get an idea of who the major players are, and then they spend a modest amount of time shouting laughable dialogue at one another while being all but forced off the screen by special effects. ''. Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times criticized, "Directed this time out by Jonathan Liebesman, the film lacks inspiration or zest in storytelling, performance or action. This is pure product, a movie desperately without energy or enthusiasm of any kind ''. However, there have been some positive reviews. Andrew Barker of Variety noted that, "The (Clash of the Titans) franchise has matured ever so slightly with Wrath of the Titans, hewing incrementally more faithfully to its Greek origins and trimming the fat in essential places ''. Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote, "Wrath (of the Titans) radiates the straight - forward, straight - faced pleasures of the mytho - muscular epics, like Hercules and Jason and the Argonauts, produced in Europe a half - century ago ''. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly commented, "For a movie that 's basically all warmed - over pseudo-mythology and special effects, Wrath of the Titans is certainly more fun, in its solemnly junky way, than John Carter. It may also be a little more fun than its cheeseball predecessor, the 2010 remake of Clash of the Titans ''.
Following the film 's release, a second sequel, called Revenge of the Titans, was in the pipeline. However, due to Wrath 's disappointing critical reception and box office returns, the project was later shelved. In May 2013, Worthington stated he did not think a third film would be made. In December 2013, producer Basil Iwanyk confirmed the sequel was not happening due to a lack of fresh ideas for the script.
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l carnitine what is it made out of | Carnitine - Wikipedia
Carnitine (β - hydroxy - γ - N - trimethylaminobutyric acid, 3 - hydroxy - 4 - N, N, N - trimethylaminobutyrate) is a quaternary ammonium compound involved in metabolism in most mammals, plants and some bacteria. Carnitine may exist in two isomers, labeled D - carnitine and L - carnitine, as they are optically active. At room temperature, pure carnitine is a white powder, and a water - soluble zwitterion with low toxicity. Carnitine only exists in animals as the L - enantiomer, and D - carnitine is toxic because it inhibits the activity of L - carnitine. Carnitine was discovered in 1905 as a result of its high concentration in muscle tissue. It was originally labeled vitamin B; however, because carnitine is synthesized in the human body, it is no longer considered a vitamin. Carnitine can be synthesized by most humans; about 1 in 350 males is unable to synthesize it due to genetic causes on the X chromosome. Carnitine is involved in the oxidation of fatty acids, and involved in systemic primary carnitine deficiency. It has been studied for preventing and treating other conditions, and is used as a purported performance enhancing drug.
Many eukaryotes have the ability to synthesize carnitine, including humans. Humans synthesize carnitine from the substrate TML (6 - N - trimethyllysine), which is in turn derived from the methylation of the amino acid lysine. TML is then hydroxylated into hydroxytrimethyllysine (HTML) by trimethyllysine dioxygenase, requiring the presence of ascorbic acid. HTML is then cleaved by HTML aldose, yielding 4 - trimethylaminobutyraldehyde (TMABA) and glycine. TMABA is then dehydrogenated into gamma - butyrobetaine, in an NAD - dependent reaction, catalyzed by TMABA dehydrogenase. Gamma - butyrobetaine is then hydroxylated by gamma butyrobetaine hydroxylase into L - carnitine, requiring iron in the form of Fe.
Carnitine is involved in transporting fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane, by forming a long chain acetylcarnitine ester and being transported by carnitine palmitoyltransferase I and carnitine palmitoyltransferase II. Carnitine also plays a role in stabilizing Acetyl - CoA and coenzyme A levels through the ability to receive or give an acetyl group.
Carnitine deficiency caused by a genetic defect in carnitine transport occurs in roughly 1 in 50,000 in the US. Systemic primary carnitine deficiency (SPDC) is characterized by various cardiological, metabolic and musculoskeletal symptoms that vary widely in age of onset and presentation. Prognosis is generally good with carnitine supplementation.
Secondary carnitine deficiency may occur due to conditions such as malnutrition, poor absorption or access to only vegetables.
Some research has been carried out on carnitine supplementation in athletes, given its role in fatty acid metabolism; however, individual responses varied significantly in the 300 people involved in one study. Carnitine has been studied in various cardiometabolic conditions, with a bit of evidence pointing towards efficacy as an adjunct in heart disease and diabetes. However, there are insufficient trials to determine its efficacy. Carnitine has no effect on preventing mortality associated with cardiovascular conditions. Carnitine has no effect on serum lipids, except a possible lowering of LDL Carnitine has no effect on most parameters in end stage kidney disease, however it possibly has an effect on c - reactive protein. The effects on mortality and disease outcome are unknown.
Male infertility
The carnitine content of seminal fluid is directly related to sperm count and motility, suggesting that the compound might be of value in treating male infertility. Several studies indicate that carnitine supplementation (2 -- 3 grams / day for 3 -- 4 months) may improve sperm quality, and one randomized, double - blind crossover trial found that 2 grams / day of carnitine taken for 2 months by 100 infertile men increased the concentration and both total and forward motility of their sperm. The reported benefits may relate to increased mitochondrial fatty - acid oxidation (providing more energy for sperm) and reduced cell death in the testes.
An important interaction between diet and the intestinal microbiome brings into play additional metabolic factors that aggravate atherosclerosis beyond dietary cholesterol. This may help to explain some benefits of the Mediterranean diet. Hazen 's group from the Cleveland Clinic reported that carnitine from animal flesh (four times as much in red meat as in fish or chicken), as well as phosphatidylcholine from egg yolk, are converted by intestinal bacteria to trimethylamine (the compound that causes uremic breath to smell fishy). Trimethylamine is oxidized in the liver to trimethylamine N - oxide (TMAO), which causes atherosclerosis in animal models. Patients in the top quartile of TMAO had a 2.5-fold increase in the 3 - year risk of stroke, death, or myocardial infarction.
A key issue is that vegans who consumed L - carnitine did not produce TMAO because they did not have the intestinal bacteria that produce TMA from carnitine.
Animal products like meat, fish, poultry, and milk are the best sources. In general, the redder the meat, the higher its carnitine content. Dairy products contain carnitine primarily in the whey fraction, in small amounts relative to red meat. The carnitine content of several foods is listed in Table 1.
Carnitine occurs in two forms, known as D and L, that are mirror images (isomers) of each other. Only L - carnitine is active in the body and is the form found in food (1, 6). However, even strict vegetarians (vegans) show no signs of carnitine deficiency, despite the fact that most dietary carnitine is derived from animal sources. No advantage appears to exist in giving an oral dose greater than 2 g at one time, since absorption studies indicate saturation at this dose.
Other sources may be found in over-the - counter vitamins, energy drinks and various other products. Products containing L - carnitine can now be marketed as "natural health products '' in Canada. As of 2012, Parliament has allowed carnitine products and supplements to be imported into Canada (Health Canada). The Canadian government did issue an amendment in December 2011 allowing the sale of L - carnitine without a prescription.
Levocarnitine was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a new molecular entity under the brand name Carnitor on December 27, 1985.
The following are good secondary sources on the subject of this article.
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where did the syracuse orangemen name come from | Otto the Orange - wikipedia
Otto the Orange is the mascot for the Syracuse Orange, the athletic teams of Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York, USA. Otto is an anthropomorphic orange, wearing a large blue hat and blue pants. Otto can usually be seen at Syracuse sporting events in the Carrier Dome and other university sporting events.
The Syracuse mascot was originally a Native American character named "The Saltine Warrior '' (Syracuse 's unofficial nickname is the Salt City) and "Big Chief Bill Orange ''. The character was born out of a hoax in which it was claimed that a 16th - century Onondogan Indian chief was unearthed while digging the foundation for the women 's gymnasium in 1928.
In the mid-1950s, the father of a Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity brother owned a cheerleading camp. He made a Saltine Warrior costume for his son to wear at SU football games. Thus began a nearly forty - year tradition of Lambda Chi brothers serving as SU 's mascot. In 1990 however the University opened up the mascot traditions to the entire student body (Daily Orange, February 22, 1990).
In 1978, Native American students successfully petitioned the University to discontinue the Saltine Warrior, citing the mascot 's stereotypical portrayal of Native Americans. During the 1978 season, the University introduced a Roman gladiator dressed in orange armor, but the idea proved largely unpopular among fans, who regularly booed the mascot.
In the summer of 1990, the cheerleaders and mascots were at a UCA Cheerleading Camp in Tennessee and the students who were chosen to suit up in the costume narrowed the field down to two potential names -- "Opie '' and "Otto '' -- as a new orange costume was made. It was concluded that the name "Opie '' would lead to the inevitable rhyme with ' dopey ', and settled on "Otto. '' Later that fall, word got out that the cheerleaders were calling the latest mascot costume Otto, and the name stuck.
For 17 years the university did not settle on an "official '' mascot until the chancellor appointed a group of students and faculty to create a mascot and logo. University administration considered introducing a new mascot (a wolf or lion were likely candidates), but the student body supported Otto. He was recognized as the official mascot of Syracuse University by 1995.
In general, most of Otto 's social media activity happens through pictures and videos. Additionally, he frequently retweets or shares other University pages in order to promote sports games, events such as the career fair, and instilling pride in SU fans.
Otto the Orange is also verified across all of his platforms, meaning the companies of the social networks have acknowledged his accounts as genuine.
The first picture posted by Otto was added January 13, 2014. The photo was a picture of a cupcake with a frosting version of Otto sitting on top. The instagram page is regularly updated with photos of Otto with fans, playing out in snow, and places around campus.
Created in 2014, the account posts updates that promotes events going on around campus such as football and basketball games.
Otto posts often celebrating holidays, adding pictures with fans, and shares other Syracuse University pages.
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who has the power to declare war in the constitution | Declaration of war by the United States - wikipedia
A declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national government indicating that a state of war exists between that nation and another. The document Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications gives an extensive listing and summary of statutes which are automatically engaged upon the US declaring war.
For the United States, Article One, Section Eight of the Constitution says "Congress shall have power to... declare War. '' However, that passage provides no specific format for what form legislation must have in order to be considered a "declaration of war '' nor does the Constitution itself use this term. In the courts, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, in Doe v. Bush, said: "(T) he text of the October Resolution itself spells out justifications for a war and frames itself as an ' authorization ' of such a war. '' in effect saying an authorization suffices for declaration and what some may view as a formal Congressional "Declaration of War '' was not required by the Constitution.
The last time the United States formally declared war, using specific terminology, on any nation was in 1942, when war was declared against Axis - allied Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania, because President Franklin Roosevelt thought it was improper to engage in hostilities against a country without a formal declaration of war. Since then, every American president has used military force without a declaration of war.
This article will use the term "formal declaration of war '' to mean Congressional legislation that uses the phrase "declaration of war '' in the title. Elsewhere, this article will use the terms "authorized by Congress, '' "funded by Congress '' or "undeclared war '' to describe other such conflicts.
The United States has formally declared war against foreign nations five separate times, each upon prior request by the President of the United States. Four of those five declarations came after hostilities had begun. James Madison reported that in the Federal Convention of 1787, the phrase "make war '' was changed to "declare war '' in order to leave to the Executive the power to repel sudden attacks but not to commence war without the explicit approval of Congress. Debate continues as to the legal extent of the President 's authority in this regard. Public opposition to American involvement in foreign wars, particularly during the 1930s, was expressed as support for a Constitutional Amendment that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war. Several Constitutional Amendments, such as the Ludlow Amendment, have been proposed that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.
After Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in January 1971 and President Richard Nixon continued to wage war in Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution (Pub. L. 93 -- 148) over the veto of Nixon in an attempt to rein in some of the president 's claimed powers. The War Powers Resolution proscribes the only power of the president to wage war which is recognized by Congress.
The table below lists the five wars in which the United States has formally declared war against eleven foreign nations. The only country against which the United States has declared war more than once is Germany, against which the United States has declared war twice (though a case could be made for Hungary as a successor state to Austria - Hungary).
In World War II, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Germany and Italy, led respectively by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, declared war on the United States, and the U.S. Congress responded in kind.
In other instances, the United States has engaged in extended military combat that was authorized by Congress.
Tripolitania
Commune of Estonia Far Eastern Republic Latvia Mongolian People 's Party Russia Ukraine
Laotian Civil War
Cambodian Civil War
China National United Front of Kampuchea
North Korea North Vietnam Pathet Lao South Vietnam
al - Qaeda insurgency in Yemen
Somali Civil War
War in North - West Pakistan
Moro conflict
Iraqi Civil War
Syrian Civil War
Second Libyan Civil War
al - Qaeda
Harakat Ahrar al - Sham al - Islamiyya Hezb - e Islami Gulbuddin Islamic Jihad Union Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Jamaat - ul - Ahrar Jundallah Lashkar - e-Islam Lashkar - e-Jhangvi Tehreek - e-Nafaz - e-Shariat - e-Mohammadi Turkistan Islamic Party Tehrik - i - Taliban Pakistan
High Council of the Islamic Emirate Fidai Mahaz
al - Itihaad al - Islamiya Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia Harakat al - Shabaab Mujahedeen Hizbul Islam Islamic Courts Union Jabhatul Islamiya Mu'askar Anole Ras Kamboni Brigades
Abu Sayyaf Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters Islamic State Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Maute group Khalifa Islamiyah Mindanao
In many instances, the United States has engaged in extended military engagements that were authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by appropriations from Congress.
North Korea Soviet Union
UNSCR 426, 1978
UNSCR 1542, 2004
German auxiliaries
Native Americans
On at least 125 occasions, the President has acted without prior express military authorization from Congress. These include instances in which the United States fought in the Philippine -- American War from 1898 -- 1903, in Nicaragua in 1927, as well as the NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999, and the 2017 missile strikes on Syria.
The United States ' longest war was fought between 2001 and 2016 against the Taliban in Afghanistan.
The Indian Wars comprise at least 28 conflicts and engagements. These localized conflicts, with Native Americans, began with European colonists coming to North America, long before the establishment of the United States. For the purpose of this discussion, the Indian Wars are defined as conflicts with the United States of America. They begin as one front in the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and had concluded by 1918. The United States Army still maintains a campaign streamer for Pine Ridge 1890 -- 1891 despite opposition from certain Native American groups.
The American Civil War was not an international conflict under the laws of war, because the Confederate States of America was not a government that had been granted full diplomatic recognition as a sovereign nation by other sovereign states. The CSA was recognized by the United States government as a belligerent power, a different status of recognition that authorized Confederate warships to visit non-U.S. ports. This recognition of the CSA 's status as a belligerent power did not impose any duty upon the United States to recognize the sovereignty of the Confederacy, and the United States never did so.
In 1973, following the withdrawal of most American troops from the Vietnam War, a debate emerged about the extent of presidential power in deploying troops without a declaration of war. A compromise in the debate was reached with the War Powers Resolution. This act clearly defined how many soldiers could be deployed by the President of the United States and for how long. It also required formal reports by the President to Congress regarding the status of such deployments, and limited the total amount of time that American forces could be deployed without a formal declaration of war.
Although the constitutionality of the act has never been tested, it is usually followed, most notably during the Grenada Conflict, the Panamanian Conflict, the Somalia Conflict, the Persian Gulf War, and the Iraq War. The only exception was President Clinton 's use of U.S. troops in the 78 - day NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. In all other cases, the President asserted the constitutional authority to commit troops without the necessity of Congressional approval, but in each case the President received Congressional authorization that satisfied the provisions of the War Powers Act.
On March 21, 2011, a number of lawmakers expressed concern that the decision of President Barack Obama to order the U.S. military to join in attacks of Libyan air defenses and government forces exceeded his constitutional authority because the decision to authorize the attack was made without Congressional permission. Obama explained his rationale in a two - page letter, stating that as commander in chief, he had constitutional authority to authorize the strikes, which would be limited in scope and duration, and necessary to prevent a humanitarian disaster in Libya.
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what is the most liked photo on insta | List of most - liked Instagram pictures - wikipedia
This list contains the top 20 pictures with the most likes on the social photo - sharing platform Instagram. As of August 2018, the most liked picture is of Kylie Jenner 's daughter Stormi Webster with 18 million likes. Cristiano Ronaldo has the most pictures in the top 20, with seven.
The following table lists the last seven pictures that were once the most - liked picture on Instagram.
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the articles of confederation who what when where | Articles of Confederation - wikipedia
The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution. It was approved, after much debate (between July 1776 and November 1777), by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and sent to the states for ratification. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The federal government received only those powers which the colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.
The Articles formed a war - time confederation of states, with an extremely limited central government. While unratified, the document was used by the Congress to conduct business, direct the American Revolutionary War, conduct diplomacy with foreign nations, and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. The adoption of the Articles made few perceptible changes in the federal government, because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same.
As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government 's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays ' Rebellion, individuals began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger national government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly realized that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers.
The political push to increase cooperation among the then - loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin 's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With civil disobedience resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as intolerable acts of Parliament, and armed conflict resulting in dissidents being proclaimed rebels and outside the King 's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government that would run the American Revolutionary War and gain the colonies their collective independence.
It was an era of constitution writing -- most states were busy at the task -- and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.
To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations '' demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto '' which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "(t) he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations. ''
Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances '' and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league '' among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.
On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures. The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate. In practice, the Articles were in use beginning in 1777; the final draft of the Articles served as the de facto system of government used by the Congress ("the United States in Congress assembled '') until it became de jure by final ratification on March 1, 1781; at which point Congress became the Congress of the Confederation. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national government. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the United States government. It was made capable of making war and peace, negotiating diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and deciding disputes between the states, including their additional and contested western territories. Article XIII stipulated that "their provisions shall be inviolably observed by every state '' and "the Union shall be perpetual ''.
John Dickinson 's and Benjamin Franklin 's handwritten drafts of the Articles of Confederation are housed at the National Archives in Washington, DC.
The Articles were created by delegates from the states in the Second Continental Congress out of a need to have "a plan of confederacy for securing the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the United States. '' After the war, nationalists, especially those who had been active in the Continental Army, complained that the Articles were too weak for an effective government. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived.
In 1788, with the approval of Congress, the Articles were replaced by the United States Constitution and the new government began operations in 1789.
Congress began to move for ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1777:
Permit us, then, earnestly to recommend these articles to the immediate and dispassionate attention of the legislatures of the respective states. Let them be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...
The document could not become officially effective until it was ratified by all 13 states. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; the thirteenth state to ratify was Maryland on February 2, 1781. A ceremonial confirmation of this thirteenth, final ratification took place in the Congress on March 1, 1781, at high noon. Twelve states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. Maryland, however, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland legislature became satisfied that they would follow through, and voted to ratify. The various states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:
The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The preamble declares that the states "agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. '' What follows here summarizes the purpose and content of each of the thirteen articles.
While still at war with Britain, the revolution 's leaders were divided between forming a national government with powers either strong and centralized (the "federalists ''), or strictly limited (the "anti federalists ''). The Continental Congress compromised by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. It empowered Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, but provided no mechanism to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, or even food.
The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because several state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature to ratify it. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. In September 1783, George Washington complained that Congress was paralyzed. Many revolutionaries had gone to their respective home countries after the war, and local government and self - rule seemed quite satisfactory.
The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the Continental Army, and allowed the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. As a tool to build a centralized war - making government, they were largely a failure: Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:
George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.
The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783 -- 84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote:
The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel '' or "Cement to the Union ''.
As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution. ''
Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had Navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.
The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state 's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States ' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.
Even after peace had been achieved in 1783, the weakness of the Confederation government frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1789, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote to James Monroe, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. The states must see the rod. ''
Furthermore, the Jay -- Gardoqui Treaty with Spain in 1789 also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty -- which was never ratified due to its immense unpopularity -- the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation 's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil -- forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris (1783) was superseded by the implementation of Jay 's Treaty in 1795 under the new U.S. Constitution.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government 's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.
Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions. '' Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity. '' He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent '' or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith. '' The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.
Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states ' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.
Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long - lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now - familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler - farmers.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it did n't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in said territory would never be slave states.
No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada '' in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.
The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress -- the only federal institution -- little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no national court. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast - growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786 -- 87, Shays ' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.
The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental ''. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.
When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington 's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like - minded nationalists, won Washington 's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long - term crisis.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.
The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.
On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also did n't sign that day, since their delegations were absent.
After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina 's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.
The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims.
On February 2, 1781, the much - awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills '' was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation '' and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next. '' The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.
Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.
The signers and the states they represented were:
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts Bay
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
South Carolina
Virginia
Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).
The following list is of those who led the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation as the Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled. Under the Articles, the president was the presiding officer of Congress, chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the successor President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.
For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see President of the Continental Congress.
Images of an original draft of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States National Archive.
Preamble through Article V, ¶ 1
Article V, ¶ 2 through Article VI
Article VII through Article IX, ¶ 2
Article IX, ¶ 2 through ¶ 5
Article IX, ¶ 5 through Article XIII, ¶ 2
Article XIII, ¶ 2 through signatures
On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following James Madison 's recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the Annapolis Convention, the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention. '' Although the states ' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed - door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, describes the change this way:
The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.
In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays ' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.
Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:
Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government '' proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire '' that, in the time - honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.
Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.
Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war - weary populace. '' The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation 's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.
When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state, '' much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.
Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges. ''
According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:
(T) he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.
On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection... has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation. '' Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.
Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states - parties did not have to comply with the Articles ' unanimous consent rule ''. In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.
On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire 's all - important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable '' to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation '' only, but not "under the Constitution ''.
By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.
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when does the 2018 mn legislative session end | 90th Minnesota Legislature - wikipedia
The Ninetieth Minnesota Legislature is the current legislature of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It is composed of the Minnesota Senate and the Minnesota House of Representatives, based on the results of the 2016 Senate election and the 2016 House election. It convened in Saint Paul on January 3, 2017 and will end its biennial session on January 7, 2019. The legislature 's 2017 session ended on May 22, 2017, and reconvened on February 20, 2018. The legislature will adjourn no later than May 21, 2018, as mandated by the Minnesota Constitution. A special session to complete unfinished budget - related business was held from May 23 to 26, 2017.
In this Legislature, all acts have been approved (signed) by Governor Mark Dayton, with the notable exceptions of H.F. No. 809, an act that would prohibit public funding of abortion; H.F. No. 812, an act that would require facilities that perform abortions to be licensed; a first set of acts appropriating money for the state budget; H.F. No. 4, the first omnibus tax act; H.F. No. 140, an act that would change how public school teachers are licensed; and 2017, First Special Session S.F. No. 3, an act that would most notably prohibit local governments from setting a higher minimum wage and requiring benefits for private sector employees than what is required by law, all of which were vetoed. In Laws 2017, First Special Session chapter 4, the omnibus state government appropriations act, two appropriations for the Senate and the House of Representatives were line - item vetoed. Chapter 13, the reinsurance act, became law without the governor 's signature.
In total, 18 acts have been vetoed -- including one from the 2017, First Special Session, two items of appropriation in one act from the 2017, First Special Session have been line - item vetoed, and two acts have become law without the governor 's signature. No acts or items have been enacted by the Legislature over the governor 's veto. After the adjournment of the First Special Session, legislative leaders sued Governor Dayton over the validity of his line - item vetoes for legislative appropriations. The ensuing court case, Ninetieth Minnesota State Senate v. Dayton, proceeded to the Minnesota Supreme Court; the Court upheld the Governor 's vetoes.
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how many seasons are there for army wives | List of Army Wives episodes - wikipedia
Army Wives is an American drama television series that aired Lifetime from June 3, 2007 to June 9, 2013 for a total of seven seasons and 117 episodes.
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what year was the mustang in the movie bullitt | Bullitt - wikipedia
Bullitt is a 1968 American thriller film directed by Peter Yates and produced by Philip D'Antoni. The picture stars Steve McQueen, Robert Vaughn, and Jacqueline Bisset. The screenplay by Alan R. Trustman and Harry Kleiner was based on the 1963 novel, Mute Witness, by Robert L. Fish, writing under the pseudonym Robert L. Pike. Lalo Schifrin wrote the original jazz - inspired score, arranged for brass and percussion. Robert Duvall has a small part as a cab driver who provides information to McQueen.
The film was made by McQueen 's Solar Productions company, with his partner Robert E. Relyea as executive producer. Released by Warner Bros. - Seven Arts on October 17, 1968, the film was a critical and box - office smash, later winning the Academy Award for Best Film Editing (Frank P. Keller) and receiving a nomination for Best Sound. Writers Trustman and Kleiner won a 1969 Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for Best Motion Picture Screenplay. Bullitt is also notable for its car chase scene through the streets of San Francisco, which is regarded as one of the most influential in movie history.
In 2007, Bullitt was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
Ambitious San Francisco politician Walter Chalmers is about to present a surprise star witness in a Senate subcommittee hearing on organized crime. Johnny Ross, the alleged defector from the Organization in Chicago, is supposed to be surprise; and he requires protective custody over the weekend until his Monday morning appearance. Chalmers (and his committee staff) believes that every detail has been covered in advance; including where Ross should be held incognito; and by whom, until the hearings.
Seeking to associate himself and his grandstanding mob - busting effort with a high - visibility, and highly successful SFPD detective, Chalmers requests that Lieutenant Frank Bullitt be put in charge of Ross ' physical security and of the security detail of SFPD officers. Bullitt and his team, Sgt Delgetti and Inspector Stanton, take up their protective custody of Ross with around - the - clock protection in a cheap hotel selected by Chalmers. Upon arriving at the hotel, Bullitt is immediately concerned by the "insecurity '' of the preparations, when he enters the hotel room (Ross is already there). The room is on an outside face of the hotel building. It is on an upper floor, however it 's windows are at the exact level of an intercity expressway, close enough for someone in a moving vehicle to recognize the room 's occupants and to fire into the room, with or without a sniper - scope.
Too late to change anything, however, Bullitt deploys his protective team. Delgetti takes the first shift and Stanton takes the second shift. Delgetti calls Bullitt at home from the hotel room to give him the all - clear at the shift change to Stanton, and Bullitt reconfirms he will personally be relieving Stanton for the third shift; all seems quite as Delgetti leaves. A few minutes later, Stanton calls Bullitt (at 1: 00 am) to advise the desk clerk has unexpectedly called, to announce that "Chalmers '' and an unidentified man are downstairs and want to come up. While Stanton is talking to Bullitt, Ross unchains the hotel room door. Bullitt tells Stanton to call Delgetti to tell him to return, and Bullitt advises that he is also on his way. As Ross backs up from the hotel room door, two hitmen burst in and shoot, wounding Stanton, and executing Ross. Stanton is seriously injured; Ross is critically injured.
At the hospital, Chalmers holds Bullitt responsible. Later, Bullitt thwarts a second assassination attempt on Ross before it can materialize, but Ross soon dies of his original wounds. Helped by a sympathetic Dr. Willard, who had been snubbed by Chalmers, Bullitt delays news of the death by spiriting the body out of the hospital by private ambulance service, registering it as a John Doe at the city morgue. Bullitt finds the cab driver who drove Ross to the hotel, and recreates Ross ' movements upon arriving in town, learning that he made a long distance call from a phone booth. Bullitt 's confidential informant, Eddy, reveals that Ross was caught stealing $2 million ($14.1 million today) from the Chicago mob and fled to San Francisco after escaping an attempted hit in Chicago. Meanwhile, Chalmers serves Bullitt 's captain with a writ of habeas corpus to force Bullitt to produce Ross.
While driving in San Francisco, Bullitt is pursued by the hitmen in a 1968 Dodge Charger R / T. He flips the chase, turning the hunters into the hunted. They attempt to escape, and a high - speed chase ensues through the steep streets of Russian Hill (actually a composite location combined with Potrero Hill) and out onto the highway, ending when Bullitt 's 1968 Ford Mustang GT forces the Charger off the road and into a gas station, where it explodes in a huge fireball.
Bullitt and Delgetti face their superiors on Sunday morning. They reveal that Ross is dead and their only leads are phone records showing Ross 's call was to a Dorothy Simmons in a hotel in nearby San Mateo. The detectives are given until Monday to deliver results. With his car out of commission, Bullitt gets a ride from his girlfriend Cathy in her Porsche 356. The detectives find Simmons strangled in her hotel room. Cathy sees police rushing in and follows, fearing for Bullitt. Horrified by the crime scene, she later confronts him about his violent world, wondering whether she really understands him and where the life he leads will take them.
Back at San Francisco 's police headquarters, Bullitt and Delgetti receive the luggage that the police had retrieved, from the cartage service which Simmons had used to transport her luggage from San Mateo to San Francisco International Airport. Simmons ' luggage turned out to be baggage of two (2) travelers not one (1); and that of a male and female. The luggage contained each of two sets of brand new of clothing (and personal toilet articles), and two airline ticket and passport folders (contents missing). There were also two travel brochures for from a Chicago Travel Agency; which each identically described the agencies ' Rome vacation package. The key pieces of evidence from the luggage were however; two sets of traveler 's checks (hidden in the clothing of each set of luggage) in the amount of many tens of thousands of dollars each; all properly prepared; signed, and and issued to an Albert and Dorothy Renick.
Bullitt seeing the significance to this self identifying clue (the travelers checks were obviously genuine; and had been signed in the presence of their issuer); concluded that the names on the checks were therefore most likely genuine; having been verified prior to the issuance of the checks by the express company. So he directed Delgetti to obtain the passport information for the Renicks from Chicago 's US Immigration office; as well as a fingerprint check for the "dead '' Johnny Ross; to be compared to the passport application of Albert Renick. In the meantime, Chalmers again confronts Bullitt, demanding a signed admission that Ross died while in his custody.
Bullitt refuses to comply, his suspicions, near fully confirmed. When the facsimile of Albert Renick 's passport application arrives, it confirms that the man Chalmers had believed (and told the SFPD) was Ross; was actually Albert Renick, a used car salesman from Chicago with no criminal record. His only significance was that he bore a startling resemblance to Ross. Bullitt gives the full picture to Chalmers; pointing out that he was duped by the real Johnny Ross; who somehow, convinced Albert Renick to allow himself to be used to fake Ross 's death; by allowing himself to being set - up as Johnny Ross (Renick), under police protection at the hotel Daniels; and, unknowingly to be killed in Ross ' place; by a professional hit team; Ross ' brother Peter; had been directed to hire; to kill Johnny, by the Chicago branch of the Mob.
After "Ross ' '' death, Johnny himself had murdered Dorthy Renick; to complete the cover - up. Ross did this because, after her husband 's death, Dorthy Renick was the only person (other than the Ross ') who knew the real identity of the man who died from multiple gunshot wounds received at the hotel Daniels.
Delgetti discovers reservations for the Renicks on an evening flight to Rome. He and Bullitt go to San Francisco International Airport to look for Ross, traveling as Renick. They stake out the Rome flight gate, only to find that Ross has switched to a slightly earlier flight to London that is already taxiing toward takeoff. Chalmers shows up to lay claim to his witness, even though he is now wanted for murder, and is again rebuffed by Bullitt. Bullitt has the plane stopped, but Ross escapes by jumping out the rear cabin door. Bullitt jumps as well, and a foot chase across the busy runways ends in a tense pursuit inside the crowded passenger terminal. When Ross bolts and shoots a security guard, Bullitt shoots and kills Ross. The empty - handed Chalmers skulks away, and is driven off in his limousine bearing a "Support Your Local Police '' bumper sticker.
Early the next morning, Bullitt walks home and observes Cathy 's car upon approaching his apartment. He looks in and sees her sleeping in his bedroom, but does not wake her. He takes off his shoulder holster and balances it on a banister. As he begins to wash up at the bathroom sink, he looks up into his own reflection and contemplates himself for a long moment.
Bullitt was co-produced by McQueen 's Solar Productions and Warner Bros. - Seven Arts, the film pitched to Jack L. Warner as "doing authority differently. ''
Bullitt was director Yates ' first American film. He was hired after McQueen saw his 1967 UK feature, Robbery, with its extended car chase. Joe Levine, whose Embassy Pictures had distributed Robbery, did n't much like it, but Alan Trustman, who saw the picture the very week he was writing the Bullitt chase, insisted that McQueen, Relyea and D'Antoni (none of whom had ever heard of Yates) see Robbery and consider Yates as director for Bullitt.
McQueen based the character of Frank Bullitt on San Francisco Inspector Dave Toschi, with whom he worked prior to filming. McQueen even copied Toschi 's unique "fast draw '' shoulder holster. Toschi later became famous, along with Inspector Bill Armstrong, as the lead San Francisco investigators of the Zodiac Killer murders that began shortly after the release of Bullitt. Toschi is played by Mark Ruffalo in the film Zodiac, in which Paul Avery (Robert Downey Jr.) mentions that "McQueen got the idea for the holster from Toschi ''.
Bullitt is notable for its extensive use of actual locations rather than studio sets, and its attention to procedural detail, from police evidence processing to emergency room procedures. Director Yates ' use of the new lightweight Arriflex cameras allowed for greater flexibility in location shooting.
At the time of the film 's release, the car chase scene generated prodigious excitement. Leonard Maltin has called it a "now - classic car chase, one of the screen 's all - time best. '' Emanuel Levy wrote in 2003 that, "Bullitt contains one of the most exciting car chases in film history, a sequence that revolutionized Hollywood 's standards. '' In his obituary for Peter Yates, Bruce Weber wrote, "Mr. Yates ' reputation probably rests most securely on Bullitt (1968), his first American film -- and indeed, on one particular scene, an extended car chase that instantly became a classic. ''
The chase scene starts at 1h: 05m into the film. The total time of the scene is 10 minutes and 53 seconds, beginning in the Fisherman 's Wharf area of San Francisco, at Columbus and Chestnut (although Bullitt first notices the hitmen following his car while driving west on Army, now Cesar Chavez, just after passing under Highway 101), followed by Midtown shooting on Hyde and Laguna Streets, with shots of Coit Tower and locations around and on Filbert and University Streets. The scene ends outside the city at the Guadalupe Canyon Parkway in Brisbane. The route is geographically impossible to take place in real time.
Two 1968 390 V8 Ford Mustang GT Fastbacks (325 hp) with four - speed manual transmissions were used for the chase scene, both lent by the Ford Motor Company to Warner Bros. as part of a promotional agreement. The Mustangs ' engines, brakes and suspensions were heavily modified for the chase by veteran car racer Max Balchowsky. Ford also originally lent two Galaxie sedans for the chase scenes, but the producers found the cars too heavy for the jumps over the hills of San Francisco. They were replaced with two 1968 375 hp 440 Magnum V8 - powered Dodge Chargers. The engines in both Charger models were left largely unmodified, but the suspensions were mildly upgraded to cope with the demands of the stunt work.
The director called for maximum speeds of about 75 -- 80 miles per hour (121 -- 129 km / h), but the cars (including the chase cars filming) at times reached speeds of over 110 miles per hour (180 km / h). Driver 's point - of - view shots were used to give the audience a participant 's feel of the chase. Filming took three weeks, resulting in nine minutes and 42 seconds of pursuit. Multiple takes were spliced into a single end product resulting in discontinuity: heavy damage on the passenger side of Bullitt 's car can be seen much earlier than the incident producing it, and the Charger appears to lose five wheel covers, with different ones missing in different shots. Shooting from multiple angles simultaneously and creating a montage from the footage to give the illusion of different streets also resulted in the speeding cars passing the same vehicles at several different times, including, widely noted, a green Volkswagen Beetle. At one point the Charger crashes into the camera in one scene and the damaged front fender is noticeable in later scenes. Local authorities did not allow the car chase to be filmed on the Golden Gate Bridge, but did permit it in Midtown locations including Bernal Heights and the Mission District, and on the outskirts of neighboring Brisbane.
McQueen, an accomplished driver, drove in the close - up scenes, while stunt coordinator Carey Loftin, stuntman and motorcycle racer Bud Ekins, and McQueen 's usual stunt driver, Loren Janes, drove for the high - speed part of the chase and performed other dangerous stunts. Ekins, who doubled for McQueen in The Great Escape sequence where McQueen 's character jumps over a barbed wire fence on a motorcycle, lays one down in front of a skidding truck during the Bullitt chase. The Mustang 's interior rear view mirror goes up and down depending on who is driving: when the mirror is up, McQueen is visible behind the wheel, when it is down, a stunt man is driving.
The black Dodge Charger was driven by veteran stunt driver Bill Hickman, who played one of the hitmen and helped with the chase scene choreography. The other hitman was played by Paul Genge, who played a character who had ridden a Dodge off the road to his death in an episode of Perry Mason ("The Case of the Sausalito Sunrise '') two years earlier. In a magazine article many years later, one of the drivers involved in the chase sequence remarked that the Charger -- with a larger engine (big - block 440 cu. in. versus the 390 cu. in.) and greater horsepower (375 versus 325) -- were so much faster than the Mustang that the drivers had to keep backing off the accelerator to prevent the Charger pulling away from the Mustang.
The editing of the car chase likely won Frank P. Keller the editing Oscar for 1968, and has been included in lists of the "Best Editing Sequences of All - Time ''. Paul Monaco has written, "The most compelling street footage of 1968, however, appeared in an entirely contrived sequence, with nary a hint of documentary feel about it -- the car chase through the streets of San Francisco in Bullitt, created from footage shot over nearly five weeks. Billy Fraker, the cinematographer for the film, attributed the success of the chase sequence primarily to the work of the editor, Frank P. Keller. At the time, Keller was credited with cutting the piece in such a superb manner that he made the city of San Francisco a "character '' in the film. '' The editing of the scene was not without difficulties; Ralph Rosenblum wrote in 1979 that "those who care about such things may know that during the filming of the climactic chase scene in Bullitt, an out - of - control car filled with dummies tripped a wire which prematurely sent a costly set up in flames, and that editor Frank Keller salvaged the near - catastrophe with a clever and unusual juxtaposition of images that made the explosion appear to go off on time. '' This chase scene has also been cited by critics as groundbreaking in its realism and originality. In the release print and the print shown for many years, a scene in which the Charger actually hits the camera causing a red flare on screen, which many feel added to the realism, was edited out on DVD prints to the disappointment of many fans.
The original score was composed by Lalo Schifrin. The tracks on the soundtrack album are alternative versions of those heard in the film, re-recorded by Schifrin with leading jazz musicians, including Bud Shank (flute), Ray Brown (bass), Howard Roberts (guitar) and Larry Bunker (drums).
In 2000, the original arrangements as heard in the movie were recreated by Schifrin in a recording session with the WDR Big Band in Cologne, Germany, and released on the Aleph label. This release also includes re-recordings of the 1968 soundtrack album arrangements for some tracks.
In 2009, the never - before - released original recording of the score heard in the movie, recorded by Schifrin on the Warner Bros. scoring stage with engineer Dan Wallin, was made available by Film Score Monthly. Some score passages and cues are virtually identical to the official soundtrack album, while many softer, moodier cues from the film were not chosen or had been rewritten for the soundtrack release. Also included are additional cues that did n't make it into the film. In addition, the two - CD set features the official soundtrack album, newly mixed from the 1 '' master tape.
In the restaurant scene with McQueen and Bissett, the live band playing in the background is Meridian West, a jazz quartet that McQueen had seen performing at famous Sausalito restaurant, The Trident.
Bullitt garnered both critical acclaim and box office success.
Produced on a $5.5 million budget, the film grossed over $42.3 million in the US, making it the 5th highest - grossing film of 1968.
Bullitt was well received by critics and is considered by some to be one of the best films of 1968. At the time, Renata Adler made the film a New York Times Critics ' Pick, calling it a "terrific movie, just right for Steve McQueen -- - fast, well acted, written the way people talk. '' According to Adler, "the ending should satisfy fans from Dragnet to Camus. ''
In 2004, The New York Times placed the film on its list of The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made. In 2011, Time magazine listed it among "The 15 Greatest Movie Car Chases of All Time, '' describing it as "the one, the first, the granddaddy, the chase on the top of almost every list, '' and saying "Bullitt 's car chase is a reminder that every great such scene is a triumph of editing as much as it is stunt work. Naturally, it won that year 's Academy Award for Best Editing ''. Among 21st - century critics, it holds a 97 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, representing positive reviews from 34 of 35 critics with an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads: "Steve McQueen is cool as ice in this thrilling police procedural that also happens to contain the arguably greatest car chase ever. ''
The film was nominated for and won several critical awards. Frank P. Keller won the 1969 Academy Award for Best Film Editing, and it was also nominated for Best Sound. Five nominations at the BAFTA Film Awards for 1969 included Best Director for Peter Yates, Best Supporting Actor for Robert Vaughn, Best Cinematography for William A. Fraker, Best Film Editing for Frank P. Keller, and Best Sound Track. Robert Fish, Harry Kleiner, and Alan Trustman won the 1969 Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture. Keller won the American Cinema Editors Eddie Award for Best Edited Feature Film. The film also received the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Cinematography (William A. Fraker) and the Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing -- Feature Film. It was successful at the 1970 Laurel Awards, winning Golden Laurel awards for Best Action Drama, Best Action Performance (Steve McQueen) and Best Female New Face (Jacqueline Bisset). In 2000, the Society of Camera Operators awarded Bullitt its "Historical Shot '' award to David M. Walsh.
The famous car chase was later spoofed in Peter Bogdanovich 's screwball comedy film, What 's Up, Doc?, the Clint Eastwood film, The Dead Pool, in the Futurama episode, "Bendin ' in the Wind, '' and in the Archer season six episode, "The Kanes. '' Bullitt producer Philip D'Antoni went on to film two more car chases, for The French Connection and The Seven - Ups, both set and shot in New York City.
The Ford Mustang name has been closely associated with the film. In 2001, the Ford Motor Company released the Bullitt edition Ford Mustang GT. Another version of the Ford Mustang Bullitt, which is closer to resembling the original film Mustang, was released in 2008, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the film. A third version is planned for 2019. In 2009, Bud Brutsman of Overhaulin ' built an authentic - looking replica of the Bullitt Mustang, fully loaded with modern components, for the five - episode 2009 TV series, Celebrity Rides: Hollywood 's Speeding Bullitt, hosted by Chad McQueen, son of Steve McQueen.
Steve McQueen 's likeness as Frank Bullitt was used in two Ford commercials. The first was for the Europe - only 1997 Ford Puma, which featured a special effects montage of McQueen (who died in 1980) driving a new Puma around San Francisco before parking it in a studio apartment garage beside the film Mustang and the motorcycle from The Great Escape. In a 2004 commercial for the 2005 Mustang, special effects are again used to create the illusion of McQueen driving the new Mustang, after a man receives a Field of Dreams - style epiphany and constructs a racetrack in the middle of a cornfield.
The Mustang is featured in the 2003 video game, Ford Racing 2, in a Drafting challenge, on a course named Port Side. It appears in the Movie Stars category, along with other famous cars like the Ford Torino from Starsky & Hutch and the Ford Mustang Mach 1 from Diamonds Are Forever. In the 2011 video game, Driver: San Francisco, the "Bite the Bullet '' mission is based on the famous chase scene, with licensed versions of the Mustang and Charger from the film.
In the opening scene of 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003), the main protagonist, Brian O'Conner (Paul Walker), is called "Bullitt '' by his friends Suki (Devon Aoki) and Tej Parker (Chris Bridges).
During the only season of the 2012 TV series Alcatraz, Det. Rebecca Madsen (Sarah Jones) drives a green 1968 390 V8 Ford Mustang fastback like Bullitt 's. In the series finale, she finds herself in a 2013 Ford Mustang GT, the modern equivalent of the 1968 fastback, giving chase to a black LX Dodge Charger driven by series antagonist Thomas "Tommy '' Madsen (David Hoflin). The sequence pays homage to Bullitt 's car chase, including Madsen buckling the seatbelt in his Charger before starting, and two passes by a green Volkswagen Beetle.
The Blue Bloods TV series 2015 episode "The Bullitt Mustang '' centers around the reported theft of one of the Mustangs used in the film, valued at a half million dollars, a case which detectives Danny Reagan and Maria Baez pick up.
Several items of clothing worn by McQueen 's Bullitt received a boost in popularity thanks to the film: desert boots, a trench coat, a blue turtleneck sweater and, most famously, a brown tweed jacket with elbow patches.
The last remaining Charger and one of the two Mustangs were scrapped after filming because of damage and liability concerns, while the other was sold to an employee of Warner Bros. The car changed hands several times, with McQueen at one point making an unsuccessful attempt to buy it in late 1977. The car is currently owned by Sean Kiernan in Tennessee whose father bought the car for $6,000 in 1974 after responding to a listing in Road & Track. The stunt Mustang used for filming was found in 2016 at a junkyard in Mexico. The car was verified by an automobile authentication expert who conclusively determined from the vehicle 's VIN and other identifying information.
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mama going to buy you a mockingbird lyrics | Hush, Little Baby - wikipedia
"Hush, Little Baby '' is a traditional lullaby, thought to have been written in the Southern United States. Like most folk songs, the author and date of origin are unknown. The lyrics promise all kinds of rewards to the child if he or she is quiet. The simple structure allows more verses to be added ad lib.
The song has been performed and recorded by many artists including Joan Baez, Regina Spektor, Nina Simone, The Weavers and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Additionally, the song has been adapted into pop songs such as Maurice King 's "Hambone, '' Inez and Charlie Foxx 's "Mockingbird '' and Bo Diddley 's eponymous song "Bo Diddley '', as well as Eminem 's "Mockingbird. ''
Aretha Franklin, Carly Simon, James Taylor, Etta James, Taj Mahal and Dusty Springfield have each recorded "Mockingbird '', which is an R&B variant of the song. "Mockingbird '' was featured humorously as a car travel song in the films National Lampoon 's Vacation (1983) and Dumb & Dumber (1994).
"Hush Little Baby '' has also been used in the play The Miracle Worker, about Helen Keller and Annie Sullivan.
2016 saw this song recorded by violinist Vov Dylan for the album "World Lullabies '' which is acting as a fundraiser for Starlight Foundation.
There are several versions of the song, but the most common lyrics are:
Hush, little Baby, do n't say a word, Mama 's gon na buy you a Mockingbird. And if that mockingbird do n't sing, Mama 's gon na buy you a diamond ring. And if that diamond ring turns brass, Mama 's gon na buy you a looking glass. And if that looking glass is broke, Mama 's gon na buy you a billy goat, And if that billy goat wo n't pull, Mama 's gon na buy you a cart and a bull. And if that cart and bull turn over, Mama 's gon na buy you a dog named Rover. And if that dog named Rover wo n't bark, Mama 's gon na buy you a horse and a cart. And if that horse and cart fall down, You 'll still be the sweetest little baby in town.
An Armenian language version exists in the 2017 album My First Armenian Songbook. Lyrics under copyright.
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who was the original singer of knocking on heavens door | Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door - wikipedia
"Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' is a song written and sung by Bob Dylan, for the soundtrack of the 1973 film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid. Released as a single, it reached No. 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. Described by Dylan biographer Clinton Heylin as "an exercise in splendid simplicity, '' the song, in terms of the number of other artists who have covered it, is one of Dylan 's most popular post-1960s compositions.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
In January 1975 Eric Clapton played on Jamaican singer Arthur Louis ' recording of "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' arranged in a reggae style. Subsequently, Clapton recorded his own reggae - style version of the song which was released in August 1975, two weeks after Louis 's version was released as a single in July 1975. Clapton 's single peaked at No. 38 in the UK Singles Chart. The single was less successful in the US, only reaching No. 109 in Cash Box. Clapton 's 1996 boxed set Crossroads 2: Live in the Seventies features a performance recorded in London in April 1977. The song was also performed during the Journeyman and One More Car, One More Rider world tours in 1990 and 2003. Additionally, the song has been included on several Clapton compilation albums, such as Time Pieces: The Best of Eric Clapton, Backtrackin ', The Cream of Clapton and Complete Clapton.
In 1987, Guns N ' Roses started including the song in their live sets. A live version of the song was released on the maxi - single of "Welcome to the Jungle '' the same year. They recorded a studio version in 1990 for the soundtrack of the film Days of Thunder which reached No. 18 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart in 1990. This version was later slightly modified for the 1991 album Use Your Illusion II (basically discarding the responses in the second verse). Released as the fourth single from the album, it reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart as well as No. 12 in Australia and No. 1 in Ireland. Their performance of the song at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 was used as the B - side for the single release and was also included on their Live Era: ' 87 -- ' 93 album, released in 1999. The music video for this version of the song was directed by Andy Morahan.
In 1996 and with the consent of Dylan, Scottish musician Ted Christopher wrote a new verse for "Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door '' in memory of the schoolchildren and teacher killed in the Dunblane school massacre. This has been, according to some sources, one of the few times Dylan has officially authorized anybody to add or change the lyrics to one of his songs. This version of the song, including children from the village singing the chorus with guitarist and producer of Dylan 's album Infidels (1983), Mark Knopfler, was released on December 9 in the UK and reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart. The proceeds went to charities for children. The song was featured on the compilation album Hits 97, where all royalties from the song were given to three separate charities.
Gabrielle 's single "Rise '' (2000) sampled from this song.
Nick Talevski used the title for his book, Knocking On Heaven 's Door: Rock Obituaries. A version of this song was performed by Raign for the TV show "The 100 ''
The title is used as a name of a Stand, "Heaven 's Door '', in the fourth part of the manga "Jojo 's Bizarre Adventure '', Diamond is Unbreakable.
The title was used for the 12th episode of Angel Beats! and Bob Dylan along with the song was mentioned in the episode by T.K. and Hinata
Covered by The Jenerators, the song was used during a tribute to the death of cast member Miguel Ferrer of NCIS: Los Angeles at the end of the Season 8 Episode 16 "New Tricks '', broadcast on March 5, 2017. Ferrer was a member of The Jenerators.
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what street is the capital on in washington dc | United States Capitol - Wikipedia
The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U.S. federal government. It is located on Capitol Hill at the eastern end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Though no longer at the geographic center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the District 's street - numbering system and the District 's four quadrants.
The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, particularly with the addition of the massive dome, and expanded chambers for the bicameral legislature, the House of Representatives in the south wing and the Senate in the north wing. Like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are formally referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors and dignitaries.
Prior to establishing the nation 's capital in Washington, D.C., the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia (Independence Hall and Congress Hall), New York City (Federal Hall), and a number of other locations (York, Pennsylvania; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Maryland State House in Annapolis, Maryland; and Nassau Hall in Princeton, New Jersey). In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, which met from May 1775 to March 1781.
After adopting the Articles of Confederation in York, Pennsylvania, the Congress of the Confederation was formed and convened in Philadelphia from March 1781 until June 1783, when a mob of angry soldiers converged upon Independence Hall, demanding payment for their service during the American Revolutionary War. Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21, 1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, and Trenton, New Jersey, before ending up in New York City.
The United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4, 1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. The decision to locate the capital was contentious, but Alexander Hamilton helped broker a compromise in which the federal government would take on war debt incurred during the American Revolutionary War, in exchange for support from northern states for locating the capital along the Potomac River. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a temporary capital for ten years (until December 1800), until the nation 's capital in Washington, D.C., would be ready.
Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city. L'Enfant chose Jenkin 's Hill as the site for the "Congress House '', with a "grand avenue '' (now Pennsylvania Avenue, NW) connecting it with the President 's House, and a public space containing a broader "grand avenue '' (now the National Mall) stretching westward to the Potomac River (see: L'Enfant Plan).
In reviewing L'Enfant's plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the "Capitol '' rather than "Congress House ''. The word "Capitol '' comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome. The connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In addition to coming up with a city plan, L'Enfant had been tasked with designing the Capitol and President 's House; however, he was dismissed in February 1792 over disagreements with President George Washington and the commissioners, and there were no plans at that point for the Capitol.
In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a design competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the "President 's House '', and set a four - month deadline. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City. At least ten individuals submitted designs for the Capitol; however the drawings were regarded as crude and amateurish, reflecting the level of architectural skill present in the United States at the time. The most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallet 's designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, and were deemed too costly.
A late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31, 1793, to much praise for its "Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty '' by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the center portion of the design. Thornton 's design was officially approved in a letter dated April 5, 1793, from Washington, and Thornton served as the first Architect of the Capitol (and later first Superintendent of the United States Patent Office). In an effort to console Hallet, the commissioners appointed him to review Thornton 's plans, develop cost estimates, and serve as superintendent of construction. Hallet proceeded to pick apart and make drastic changes to Thornton 's design, which he saw as costly to build and problematic. In July 1793, Jefferson convened a five - member commission, bringing Hallet and Thornton together, along with James Hoban (winning architect of the "President 's Palace '') to address problems with and revise Thornton 's plan. Hallet suggested changes to the floor plan, which could be fitted within the exterior design by Thornton. The revised plan was accepted, except that Secretary Jefferson and President Washington insisted on an open recess in the center of the East front, which was part of Thornton 's original plan.
The original design by Thornton was later modified by the famous British - American architects Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Sr., and then Charles Bulfinch. The current cast - iron dome and the House 's new southern extension and Senate new northern wing were designed by Thomas U. Walter and August Schoenborn, a German immigrant, in the 1850s, and were completed under the supervision of Edward Clark.
L'Enfant secured the lease of quarries at Wigginton Island and along Aquia Creek in Virginia for use in the foundations and outer walls of the Capitol in November 1791. Surveying was under way soon after the Jefferson conference plan for the Capitol was accepted. On September 18, 1793, President George Washington, along with eight other Freemasons dressed in masonic regalia, laid the cornerstone, which was made by silversmith Caleb Bentley.
Construction proceeded with Hallet working under supervision of James Hoban, who was also busy working on construction of the "President 's House '' (also later known as the "Executive Mansion ''). Despite the wishes of Jefferson and the President, Hallet went ahead anyway and modified Thornton 's design for the East Front and created a square central court that projected from the center, with flanking wings which would house the legislative bodies. Hallet was dismissed by Secretary Jefferson on November 15, 1794. George Hadfield was hired on October 15, 1795, as Superintendent of Construction, but resigned three years later in May 1798, because of his dissatisfaction with Thornton 's plan and quality of work done thus far.
The Senate (north) wing was completed in 1800. The Senate and House shared quarters in the north wing until a temporary wooden pavilion was erected on the future site of the House wing which served for a few years for the Representatives to meet in, until the House of Representatives (south) wing was finally completed in 1811, with a covered wooden temporary walkway connecting the two wings with the Congressional chambers where the future center section with rotunda and dome would eventually be. However, the House of Representatives moved early into their House wing in 1807. Though the Senate wing building was incomplete, the Capitol held its first session of the United States Congress with both chambers in session on November 17, 1800. The National Legislature was moved to Washington prematurely, at the urging of President John Adams, in hopes of securing enough Southern votes in the Electoral College to be re-elected for a second term as President.
For several decades, beginning when the federal government moved to Washington in the fall of 1800, the Capitol building was used for Sunday religious services as well as for governmental functions. The first services were conducted in the "hall '' of the House in the north wing of the building. In 1801 the House moved to temporary quarters in the south wing, called the "Oven '', which it vacated in 1804, returning to the north wing for three years. Then, from 1807 to 1857, they were held in the then - House Chamber (now called Statuary Hall). When held in the House chamber, the Speaker 's podium was used as the preacher 's pulpit. According to the U.S. Library of Congress exhibit Religion and the Founding of the American Republic:
It is no exaggeration to say that on Sundays in Washington during the administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1801 -- 1809) and of James Madison (1809 -- 1817) the state became the church. Within a year of his inauguration, Jefferson began attending church services in the chamber of the House of Representatives. Madison followed Jefferson 's example, although unlike Jefferson, who rode on horseback to church in the Capitol, Madison came in a coach and four. Worship services in the House -- a practice that continued until after the Civil War -- were acceptable to Jefferson because they were nondiscriminatory and voluntary. Preachers of every Protestant denomination appeared. (Catholic priests began officiating in 1826.) As early as January 1806 a female evangelist, Dorothy Ripley, delivered a camp meeting - style exhortation in the House to Jefferson, Vice President Aaron Burr, and a "crowded audience ''.
Not long after the completion of both wings, the Capitol was partially burned by the British on August 24, 1814, during the War of 1812. George Bomford and Joseph Gardner Swift, both military engineers, were called upon to help rebuild the Capitol. Reconstruction began in 1815 and included redesigned chambers for both Senate and House wings (now sides), which were completed by 1819. During the reconstruction, Congress met in the Old Brick Capitol, a temporary structure financed by local investors. Construction continued through to 1826, with the addition of the center section with front steps and columned portico and an interior Rotunda, rising above the first low dome of the Capitol. Latrobe is principally connected with the original construction and many innovative interior features; his successor, Bulfinch, also played a major role, such as the design of the first low dome covered in copper.
By 1850, it became clear that the Capitol could not accommodate the growing number of legislators arriving from newly admitted states. A new design competition was held, and President Millard Fillmore appointed Philadelphia architect Thomas U. Walter to carry out the expansion. Two new wings were added -- a new chamber for the House of Representatives on the south side, and a new chamber for the Senate on the north.
When the Capitol was expanded in the 1850s, some of the construction labor was carried out by slaves "who cut the logs, laid the stones and baked the bricks ''. The original plan was to use workers brought in from Europe; however, there was a poor response to recruitment efforts, and African Americans, some free and some enslaved, composed the majority of the work force.
The 1850 expansion more than doubled the length of the Capitol, dwarfing the original, timber - framed, copper - sheeted, low dome of 1818, designed by Charles Bulfinch and no longer in proportion with the increased size of the building. In 1855, the decision was made to tear it down and replace it with the "wedding - cake style '' cast - iron dome that stands today. Also designed by Thomas U. Walter, the new dome would stand three times the height of the original dome and 100 feet (30 m) in diameter, yet had to be supported on the existing masonry piers. Like Mansart 's dome at "Les Invalides '' (which he had visited in 1838), Walter 's dome is double, with a large oculus in the inner dome, through which is seen "The Apotheosis of Washington '' painted on a shell suspended from the supporting ribs, which also support the visible exterior structure and the tholos that supports The "Statue of Freedom '', a colossal statue that was raised to the top of the dome in 1863. This statue was cast by a slave named Philip Reid. The weight of the cast iron for the dome has been published as 8,909,200 pounds (4,041,100 kg).
When the Capitol 's new dome was finally completed, its massive visual weight, in turn, overpowered the proportions of the columns of the East Portico, built in 1828. The East Front of the Capitol building was rebuilt in 1904, following a design of the architects Carrère and Hastings, who also designed the Russell Senate and Cannon House office buildings.
The next major expansion to the Capitol started in 1958, with a 33.5 feet (10.2 m) extension of the East Portico. During this project, in 1960 the dome underwent a restoration. A marble duplicate of the sandstone East Front was built 33.5 feet (10.2 m) from the old Front. (In 1962, a connecting extension incorporated what had been an outside wall as an inside wall.) In the process, the Corinthian columns were removed. It was not until 1984 that landscape designer Russell Page created a suitable setting for them in a large meadow at the U.S. National Arboretum in northeast Washington as the National Capitol Columns, where they are combined with a reflecting pool in an ensemble that reminds some visitors of the ruins of Persepolis, in Persia. Besides the columns, hundreds of blocks of the original stone were removed and are stored behind a National Park Service maintenance yard in Rock Creek Park.
On December 19, 1960, the Capitol was declared a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. The building was ranked # 6 in a 2007 survey conducted for the American Institute of Architects ' "America 's Favorite Architecture '' list. The Capitol draws heavily from other notable buildings, especially churches and landmarks in Europe, including the dome of St. Peter 's Basilica in the Vatican and St. Paul 's Cathedral in London. On the roofs of the Senate and House Chambers are flagpoles that fly the U.S. flag when either is in session. On September 18, 1993, to commemorate the Capitol 's bicentennial, the Masonic ritual cornerstone laying with George Washington was reenacted. U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond was one of the Freemason politicians who took part in the ceremony.
On June 20, 2000, ground was broken for the Capitol Visitor Center, which opened on December 2, 2008. From 2001 through 2008, the East Front of the Capitol (site of most presidential inaugurations until Ronald Reagan began a new tradition in 1981) was the site of construction for this massive underground complex, designed to facilitate a more orderly entrance for visitors to the Capitol. Prior to the center being built, visitors to the Capitol had to line up in the basement of the Cannon House Office Building or the Russell Senate Office Building. The new underground facility provides a grand entrance hall, a visitors theater, room for exhibits, and dining and restroom facilities, in addition to space for building necessities such as an underground service tunnel.
A large - scale Capitol dome restoration project, the first extensive such work since 1959 -- 1960, began in 2014, with completion scheduled before the 2017 presidential inauguration. As of 2012, $20 million in work around the skirt of the dome had been completed, but other deterioration, including at least 1,300 cracks in the brittle iron that have led to rusting and seepage inside, needed to be addressed. Before the August 2012 recess, the Senate Appropriations Committee voted to spend $61 million to repair the exterior of the dome. The House wanted to spend less on government operations, but in late 2013, it was announced that renovations would take place over two years, starting in spring 2014. Extensive scaffolding was erected in 2014, enclosing and obscuring the dome. All exterior scaffolding was removed by mid-September 2016.
With the increased use of technologies such as the internet, a bid tendering process was approved in 2001 / 2002 for a contract to install the multidirectional radio communication network for wifi and mobile - phone within the Capitol Building and annexes, followed by the new Capitol Visitor Center. The winning bidder was an Israeli company called Foxcom which has since changed its name and been acquired by Corning Incorporated.
The Capitol building is marked by its central dome above a rotunda in the central section of the structure (which also includes, the older original smaller center flanked by the two original (designed 1793, occupied 1800) smaller two wings (inner north) and inner south) containing the two original smaller meeting chambers for the Senate and the House of Representatives (between 1800 and late 1850s) and then flanked by two further extended (newer) wings, one also for each chamber of the larger, more populous Congress: the new north wing is the Senate chamber and the new south wing is the House of Representatives chamber. Above these newer chambers are galleries where visitors can watch the Senate and House of Representatives. It is an example of the neoclassical architecture style.
Underground tunnels and internal subways connect the Capitol building with the Congressional office buildings in the Capitol Complex. All rooms in the Capitol are designated as either S (for Senate) or H (for House), depending on whether they are in the Senate or House wing of the Capitol.
The Capitol has a long history in art of the United States, beginning in 1856 with Italian / Greek American artist Constantino Brumidi and his murals in the hallways of the first floor of the Senate side of the Capitol. The murals, known as the Brumidi Corridors, reflect great moments and people in United States history. Among the original works are those depicting Benjamin Franklin, John Fitch, Robert Fulton, and events such as the Cession of Louisiana. Also decorating the walls are animals, insects and natural flora indigenous to the United States. Brumidi 's design left many spaces open so that future events in United States history could be added. Among those added are the Spirit of St. Louis, the Moon landing, and the Space Shuttle Challenger shuttle crew.
Brumidi also worked within the Rotunda. He is responsible for the painting of The Apotheosis of Washington beneath the top of the dome, and also the famous Frieze of American History. The Apotheosis of Washington was completed in 11 months and painted by Brumidi while suspended nearly 180 feet (55 m) in the air. It is said to be the first attempt by the United States to deify a founding father. Washington is depicted surrounded by 13 maidens in an inner ring with many Greek and Roman gods and goddesses below him in a second ring. The frieze is located around the inside of the base of the dome and is a chronological, pictorial history of the United States from the landing of Christopher Columbus to the Wright Brothers 's flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The frieze was started in 1878 and was not completed until 1953. The frieze was therefore painted by four different artists: Brumidi, Filippo Costaggini, Charles Ayer Whipple, and Allyn Cox. The final scenes depicted in the fresco had not yet occurred when Brumidi began his Frieze of the United States History.
Within the Rotunda there are eight large paintings about the development of the United States as a nation. On the east side are four paintings depicting major events in the discovery of America. On the west are four paintings depicting the founding of the United States. The east side paintings include The Baptism of Pocahontas by John Gadsby Chapman, The Embarkation of the Pilgrims by Robert Walter Weir, The Discovery of the Mississippi by William Henry Powell, and The Landing of Columbus by John Vanderlyn. The paintings on the west side are by John Trumbull: Declaration of Independence, Surrender of General Burgoyne, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, and General George Washington Resigning His Commission. Trumbull was a contemporary of the United States ' founding fathers and a participant in the American Revolutionary War; he painted a self - portrait into Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.
First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln hangs over the west staircase in the Senate wing.
The Capitol also houses the National Statuary Hall Collection, comprising two statues donated by each of the fifty states to honor persons notable in their histories. One of the most notable statues in the National Statuary Hall is a bronze statue of King Kamehameha donated by the state of Hawaii upon its accession to the union in 1959. The statue 's extraordinary weight of 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg) raised concerns that it might come crashing through the floor, so it was moved to Emancipation Hall of the new Capitol Visitor Center. The 100th, and last statue for the collection, that of Po'pay from the state of New Mexico, was added on September 22, 2005. It was the first statue moved into the Emancipation Hall.
On the ground floor is an area known as the Crypt. It was intended to be the burial place of George Washington, with a ringed balustrade at the center of the Rotunda above looking down to his tomb. However, under the stipulations of his last will, Washington was buried at Mount Vernon. The Crypt houses exhibits on the history of the Capitol. A compass star inlaid in the floor marks the point at which Washington, D.C. is divided into its four quadrants and is the basis for how addresses in Washington, D.C., are designated (NE, NW, SE, or SW).
Within the Crypt is Gutzon Borglum 's massive Abraham Lincoln Bust. The sculptor had a fascination with large - scale art and themes of heroic nationalism, and carved the piece from a six - ton block of marble. Borglum carved the bust in 1908, and it was donated to the Congress by Eugene Meyer, Jr., and accepted by the Joint Committee on the Library, in the same year. The pedestal was specially designed by the sculptor and installed in 1911. The bust and pedestal were on display in the Rotunda for many years until 1979 when, after a rearrangement of all sculpture in the Rotunda, they were placed in the Crypt. Borglum was a patriot; believing that the "monuments we have built are not our own, '' he looked to create art that was "American, drawn from American sources, memorializing American achievement '', according to a 1908 interview article. Borglum 's depiction of Lincoln was so accurate, that Robert Todd Lincoln, the president 's son, praised the bust as "the most extraordinarily good portrait of my father I have ever seen. '' Supposedly, according to legend, the marble head remains unfinished (missing the left ear) to symbolize Lincoln 's unfinished life.
At one end of the room near the Old Supreme Court Chamber is a statue of John C. Calhoun. On the right leg of the statue, a mark from a bullet fired during the 1998 shooting incident is clearly visible. The bullet also left a mark on the cape, located on the back right side of the statue.
Eleven presidents have lain in state in the Rotunda for public viewing, most recently Gerald Ford. The tomb meant for Washington stored the catafalque which is used to support coffins lying in state or honor in the Capitol. The catafalque is now on display in the Capitol Visitors Center for the general public to see when not in use.
The Hall of Columns is located on the House side of the Capitol, home to twenty - eight fluted columns and statues from the National Statuary Hall Collection. In the basement of the Capitol building in a utility room are two marble bathtubs, which are all that remain of the once elaborate Senate baths. These baths were a spa - like facility designed for members of Congress and their guests before many buildings in the city had modern plumbing. The facilities included several bathtubs, a barbershop, and a massage parlor.
A steep, metal staircase, totaling 365 steps, leads from the basement to an outdoor walkway on top of the Capitol 's dome. The number of steps represents each day of the year. Also in the basement, the weekly Jummah prayer is held on Fridays by Muslim staffers.
Contrary to a popular myth, D.C. building height laws have never referred to the height of the Capitol building, which rises to 289 feet (88 m). Indeed, the Capitol is only the fifth - tallest structure in Washington.
The House of Representatives Chamber has 448 permanent seats. Unlike Senators, Representatives do not have assigned seats. The chamber is large enough to accommodate members of all three branches of the federal government and invited guests for joint sessions of Congress such as the State of the Union speech and other events. It is adorned with relief portraits of famous lawmakers and lawgivers throughout history. The United States national motto "In God We Trust '' is written over the tribune below the clock and above the United States flag. Of the twenty - three relief portraits only Moses is sculpted from a full front view and is located across from the dais where the Speaker of the House ceremonially sits.
In order clockwise around the chamber:
There is also a quote etched in the marble of the chamber, as stated by venerable statesman Daniel Webster: "Let us develop the resources of our land, call forth its powers, build up its institutions, promote all its great interests, and see whether we also, in our day and generation, may not perform something worthy to be remembered. ''
From 1800 to 1806, this room served as the Senate Chamber and from 1806 until 1860, the room was used as the Supreme Court Chamber. In 1860, the Supreme Court began using the newly vacated Old Senate Chamber. Since 1935, the Supreme Court has met in the United States Supreme Court Building.
The current Senate Chamber opened in 1859 and is adorned with white marble busts of the former Presidents of the Senate (Vice Presidents).
The Capitol Grounds cover approximately 274 acres (1.11 km2), with the grounds proper consisting mostly of lawns, walkways, streets, drives, and planting areas. Several monumental sculptures used to be located on the east facade and lawn of the Capitol including The Rescue and George Washington. The current grounds were designed by noted American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, who planned the expansion and landscaping performed from 1874 to 1892. In 1875, as one of his first recommendations, Olmsted proposed the construction of the marble terraces on the north, west, and south sides of the building that exist today.
Olmsted also designed the Summer House, the open - air brick building that sits just north of the Capitol. Three arches open into the hexagonal structure, which encloses a fountain and twenty - two brick chairs. A fourth wall holds a small window that looks onto an artificial grotto. Built between 1879 and 1881, the Summer House was intended to answer complaints that visitors to the Capitol had no place to sit and no place to obtain water for their horses and themselves. Modern drinking fountains have since replaced Olmsted 's fountain for the latter purpose. Olmsted intended to build a second, matching Summer House on the southern side of the Capitol, but congressional objections led to the project 's cancellation.
Up to four U.S. flags can be seen flying over the Capitol. Two flagpoles are located at the base of the dome on the East and West sides. These flagpoles have flown the flag day and night since World War I. The other two flagpoles are above the North (Senate) and South (House of Representatives) wings of the building, and fly only when the chamber below is in session. The flag above the House of Representatives is raised and lowered by House pages. The flag above the United States Senate is raised and lowered by Senate Doorkeepers. To raise the flag, Doorkeepers access the roof of the Capitol from the Senate Sergeant at Arms 's office. Several auxiliary flagpoles, to the west of the dome and not visible from the ground, are used to meet congressional requests for flags flown over the Capitol. Constituents pay for U.S. flags flown over the Capitol to commemorate a variety of events such as the death of a veteran family member.
The Capitol, as well as the grounds of Capitol Hill, have played host to major events, including presidential inaugurations held every four years. During an inauguration, the front of the Capitol is outfitted with a platform and a grand staircase. Annual events at the Capitol include Independence Day celebrations, and the National Memorial Day Concert.
The general public has paid respect to a number of individuals lying in state at the Capitol, including numerous former presidents, senators, and other officials. Other Americans lying in honor include Officers Jacob Chestnut and John Gibson, the two officers killed in the 1998 shooting incident. Chestnut was the first African American ever to lie in honor in the Capitol. The public also paid respect to Rosa Parks, an icon of the civil rights movement, at the Capitol in 2005. She was the first woman and second African American to lie in honor in the Capitol. In February 2018, the evangelical Rev. Billy Graham became the fourth private citizen to lie in honor in the Rotunda.
On September 24, 2015, Pope Francis gave a joint address to Congress, the first Pope to do so.
On January 30, 1835, what is believed to be the first attempt to kill a sitting President of the United States occurred just outside the United States Capitol. When President Andrew Jackson was leaving the Capitol out of the East Portico after the funeral of South Carolina Representative Warren R. Davis, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed and deranged housepainter from England, either burst from a crowd or stepped out from hiding behind a column and aimed a pistol at Jackson which misfired. Lawrence then pulled out a second pistol which also misfired. It has since been postulated that the moisture from the humid weather of the day contributed to the double misfiring. Lawrence was then restrained, with legend saying that Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane, prompting his aides to restrain him. Others present, including Davy Crockett, restrained and disarmed Lawrence.
On July 2, 1915, prior to the United States ' entry into World War I, Eric Muenter (aka Frank Holt), a German professor who wanted to stop American support of the Allies of World War I, exploded a bomb in the reception room of the U.S. Senate. The next morning he tried to assassinate J.P. Morgan, Jr., son of the financier, at his home on Long Island, New York. In a letter to the Washington Evening Star published after the explosion, Muenter, writing under an assumed name, said he hoped that the detonation would "make enough noise to be heard above the voices that clamor for war. '' J.P. Morgan 's company served as Great Britain 's principal U.S. purchasing agent for munitions and other war supplies.
In 1954, Puerto Rican nationalists opened fire on members of Congress from the visitors ' gallery, injuring five representatives. On March 1, 1971, a bomb exploded on the ground floor of the Capitol, placed by the radical left domestic terrorist group, the Weather Underground. They placed the bomb as a demonstration against U.S. involvement in Laos. On November 7, 1983, a group called the Armed Resistance Unit claimed responsibility for a bomb that detonated in the lobby outside the office of Senate Minority Leader Robert Byrd. Six people associated with the John Brown Anti-Klan Committee were later found in contempt of court for refusing to testify about the bombing. In 1990, three members of the Armed Resistance Unit were convicted of the bombing, which they claimed was in response to the invasion of Grenada. On July 24, 1998, Russell Eugene Weston Jr. burst into the Capitol and opened fire, killing two Capitol Police officers. The Capitol is believed to have been the intended target of the hijacked United Airlines Flight 93 on September 11, 2001, before it crashed near Shanksville in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, after passengers tried to take over control of the plane from hijackers.
Since the September 11 attacks, the roads and grounds around the Capitol have undergone dramatic changes. The United States Capitol Police have also installed checkpoints to inspect vehicles at specific locations around Capitol Hill, and have closed a section of one street indefinitely. The level of screening employed varies. On the main east - west thoroughfares of Constitution and Independence Avenues, barricades are implanted in the roads that can be raised in the event of an emergency. Trucks larger than pickups are interdicted by the Capitol Police and are instructed to use other routes. On the checkpoints at the shorter cross streets, the barriers are typically kept in a permanent "emergency '' position, and only vehicles with special permits are allowed to pass. All Capitol visitors are screened by a magnetometer, and all items that visitors may bring inside the building are screened by an x-ray device. In both chambers, gas masks are located underneath the chairs in each chamber for members to use in case of emergency. Structures ranging from scores of Jersey barriers to hundreds of ornamental bollards have been erected to obstruct the path of any vehicles that might stray from the designated roadways.
In 2004 the capitol was briefly evacuated after a plane carrying the then governor of Kentucky strayed into restricted airspace over the district. A shooting incident occurred in March 2016. One female bystander was wounded by police but not seriously injured; a man pointing a gun was shot and arrested, in critical but stable condition. The city police of Washington D.C. described the shooting incident as "isolated ''.
The United States Capitol Visitor Center (CVC), located below the East Front of the Capitol and its plaza, between the Capitol building and 1st Street East, opened on December 2, 2008. The CVC provides a single security checkpoint for all visitors, including those with disabilities, and an expansion space for the US Congress. The complex contains 580,000 square feet (54,000 m) of space below ground on three floors, and offers visitors a food court, restrooms, and educational exhibits, including an 11 - foot scale model of the Capitol dome. It also features skylights affording views of the actual dome. Long in the planning stages, construction began in the fall of 2001, following the killing of two Capitol police officers in 1998. The estimated final cost of constructing the CVC was $ 621 million.
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when was the ballpark in arlington tx built | Globe Life Park in Arlington - wikipedia
Globe Life Park in Arlington is a baseball park in Arlington, Texas, located between Dallas and Fort Worth. It is home to the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball and the Texas Rangers Baseball Hall of Fame. It was constructed as a replacement for nearby Arlington Stadium and opened in April 1994 as The Ballpark in Arlington. Ameriquest bought the naming rights to the ballpark on May 7, 2004, and renamed it Ameriquest Field in Arlington. The Rangers severed their relationship with Ameriquest on March 19, 2007, and announced the park would be renamed Rangers Ballpark in Arlington. Globe Life and Accident Insurance Company, a subsidiary of McKinney, Texas - based Torchmark Corporation, bought the naming rights for the facility on February 5, 2014.
Voters in Arlington approved extending the sales and hotel taxes in November 2016 to fund Globe Life Field, a new ballpark set to be built in the area adjacent to the current ballpark and open in 2020.
In April 1989, Rangers owner Eddie Chiles, sold the team to an investment group headed by George W. Bush. The aging Arlington Stadium was outdated and did not have amenities that helped make other baseball franchises more profitable. As a result, the team could not compete with other big - city teams for good players. In an effort to fund the project through public money instead of private financing, the Rangers threatened to leave Arlington. The city of Arlington spent $150,000 on an advertising campaign to persuade voters to approve the funding through a referendum by printing brochures, placing telemarketing calls, and planning a "Hands Around Arlington Day. '' On January 19, 1991, over 65 % of voters approved the deal, allowing the city government to cover 71 % of the costs ($135 million out of $191 million) of building the new ballpark. The deal called for the city to raise the sales tax by half a cent to go toward construction. Both houses of the Texas Legislature unanimously approved the public purpose of the ballpark, and Texas Governor Ann Richards signed it all into law.
As part of the deal, the city created a separate corporation, the Arlington Sports Facilities Development Authority (ASFDA), to manage construction. Using authority granted to it by the city, the ASFDA seized several tracts of land around the stadium site using eminent domain for parking and future development.
Construction on the stadium, which was dubbed The Ballpark in Arlington, began on April 2, 1992 a short distance away from Arlington Stadium, the stadium it would replace, and the new Ballpark in Arlington opened on April 1, 1994 in an exhibition contest between the Rangers and the New York Mets. The first official game was on April 11 against the Milwaukee Brewers.
The largest crowd to watch a Rangers baseball game was on October 30, 2010, when 52,419 fans watched Game 3 of the 2010 World Series against the San Francisco Giants.
On May 20, 2016, the Rangers announced that they intend to move from Globe Life Park to the new Globe Life Field for the 2020 season. The new air conditioned stadium will feature a retractable roof, which many argue could increase stadium revenue from those who would otherwise not want to sit in the heat during games as the season progresses throughout the hot Texas summer, in particular those that occur in the afternoon. Voting for the new ballpark began on November 8 (the same day as the United States presidential election, 2016) for residents in the city limits of Arlington. On November 8, 2016, the ballpark was passed with a 60 % favorable vote. It will open as early as the 2020 season.
The new stadium would be built south of Globe Life Park, on the site of a current surface parking lot between Randol Mill Road and Cowboys Way. Space between the new stadium and Globe Life park will be an entertainment complex called Texas Live!, developed by The Cordish Companies, which is expected to include sports bars, restaurants and a 300 - room hotel to be developed in three phases. The first phase, dubbed "Rangers Republic '', would be a two - level venue with multiple restaurants and providing interactive games and authentic memorabilia; the second phase is the Live! Arena, a multi-level venue providing restaurants, a performance stage for concerts, and an outdoor beer garden; Arlington Backyard, the third venue to anchor the entertainment district calls for a large, covered venue that could host concerts, charitable functions, and community events.
Unlike Arlington Stadium, city officials will not bulldoze Globe Life Park, but will redevelop the structure as part of the Texas Live! complex. The redevelopment would retain the ballpark 's outfield office complex and retain the facade and most of the concourse would be repurposed. Potential uses include repurposing the concourse for condos and retail, as well as turning the current field into an amphitheatre. This will be the team 's second move to their third ballpark in Arlington since they began in 1972 (their first ballpark was Arlington Stadium).
The stadium was designed by David M. Schwarz Architectural Services of Washington, D.C. The Rangers chose to build a retro - style ballpark, incorporating many features of baseball 's Jewel Box parks. A roofed home run porch in right field is reminiscent of Tiger Stadium, while the white steel frieze that surrounds the upper deck was copied from the pre-1973 Yankee Stadium. The out - of - town scoreboard (removed in 2009 and replaced with a state - of - the - art videoboard) was built into the left - field wall -- a nod to Fenway Park, while the numerous nooks and crannies in the outfield fence are a reminder of Ebbets Field. The arched windows are a reminder of Comiskey Park. However, it has a few distinct features of its own. Several traditional Texas - style stone carvings are visible throughout it. A four - story office building in center field encloses it, with a white steel multilevel facade similar to the facade on the roof.
As the stadium was built on one of the former Arlington Stadium parking lots, the irregular dimensions of the outfield were planned independently, rather than being forced by neighboring structures. The home plate, foul poles (replaced prior to the 2016 season), and bleachers were originally at Arlington Stadium. The Home Plate was inserted into place by Richard Greene (then Mayor of Arlington), Elzie Odom (Head of Arlington Home Run Committee and later Mayor of Arlington), and George W. Bush (former part Rangers owner, later Texas Governor and President of the United States).
The stadium 's 810 - foot (250 m) - long facades are made of brick and Texas Sunset Red granite. Bas - relief friezes depict significant scenes from the history of both Texas and baseball. The calculus of seating arrangements represented a new economic model for the sport: a critical mass of high - dollar seats close to the infield boost ticket revenue. The stadium has three basic seating tiers: lower, club and upper deck. Two levels of luxury suites occupy spaces behind sliding glass doors above and below the club tier.
The stadium has a large number of obstructed - view seats. In some cases, the view is cut off by an overhang or underhang, and others are directly in front of the foul or support poles. Also, the design of the upper deck leaves it one of the highest in baseball. The view from the grandstand reserved sections in left is particularly obstructed.
Prior to the 2012 season, the visitor bullpen was reconfigured to be parallel to the field after the previous visitor bullpen configuration had an excessive amount of heat during hot weather games. To allow construction, a few rows of bleacher sections were removed.
Greene 's Hill is a sloped section of turf located behind the center field fence at the home field of the ballpark. The Hill serves as a batter 's eye, providing a contrasting background behind the pitchers which enables hitters to more easily see the baseball after the pitcher 's release. It was originally designed as a picnic area for fans but the Rangers have never initiated this policy. It was named after former Arlington mayor Richard Greene in November 1997. For a couple of years in the 2000s, the Rangers had the "T '' from the Texas Rangers logo mowed into the grass, but this is no longer done. In 2010, the Rangers started a tradition where they had four girls run around on it with giant Texas state flags when the Rangers scored, similar to what many football teams do when their teams score. Unlike most batter 's eye, fans are allowed to run onto the hill to catch a home run.
The stadium contains 5,704 club seats and 126 luxury suites.
The field is one of the most notoriously hitter - friendly parks in baseball, due to the high temperatures, relatively short fences, and the design of the stadium which has allowed the area 's high winds to swirl and lift balls that would n't normally make it out. In truth, the park would give up even more home runs if not for the office building in center and the field being 22 feet (6.7 m) below street level.
With a combination of the park 's design and the naturally good hitters who 've played for the Rangers, the team has put up some rather high home run totals. In 1996, the Rangers hit 221 home runs. They eclipsed 200 again in 1998 (201), 1999 (230), 2001 (241), 2002 (230), 2003 (239), 2004 (227), and 2005 (260, four short of the all - time record of 264 by the 1997 Seattle Mariners). Many of the Rangers ' already - skilled hitters take advantage of this, some even racking up multiple 30 + Home run seasons, such as Ian Kinsler, Adrián Beltré, and Josh Hamilton. The longest home run recorded was 485 feet to right - center field by Rangers LF Josh Hamilton on June 27, 2010.
Despite being hailed as a wonderful venue in its infant years, articles in The Dallas Morning News began to suggest that the ballpark would have been better served by having a dome or retractable roof -- much like Minute Maid Park, the home of the Houston Astros -- due to the often oppressive heat that settles over Texas during baseball season, with temperatures on the field being in excess of 110 °. Many argue that the intense heat is a liability in attracting players, particularly starting pitchers.
That being said, it is questionable that retractable roof technology was a good candidate at the time the stadium was constructed, when modern mechanical retractable - roof ballparks like Chase Field, Safeco Field, Minute Maid Park, and Miller Park would not open until several years after it.
The Rangers are planning to open a retractable roof ballpark as early as 2020.
On December 3, 2010, the Rangers announced that extensive renovations to the stadium would be made and ready for the 2011 season. These renovations included:
On April 11, 1994, the first game at the ballpark, Holly Minter, who was posing for a picture while intoxicated, fell 35 feet over a railing in right field, fracturing several bones and causing the team to raise the height of the railings.
On July 6, 2010, firefighter Tyler Morris, leaning over the rail to catch a Nelson Cruz foul ball, fell 30 feet onto the section below him, causing a head injury and a severely sprained ankle to himself and minor injuries to fans he landed on. The game was stopped for 15 minutes while paramedics treated him.
On July 7, 2011, firefighter Shannon Stone, from Brownwood, Texas, was attending the Rangers game against the Oakland Athletics with his six - year - old son, Cooper, when outfielder Josh Hamilton threw him a ball, as he had asked. Reaching for it, he flipped over the railing and fell 20 feet, head - first, onto the concrete behind the out - of - town scoreboard in left field. He was conscious and talking as paramedics tended to him, but he died en route to the hospital. The cause of death was identified as blunt force trauma. This was the fourth fall in the stadium 's 17 years of history. A moment of silence was held for him prior to the next day 's game, both the Rangers and Athletics wore black ribbons on their uniforms, and the flags at the stadium were flown at half - staff in memory of him. The Rangers Foundation set up a memorial fund for Stone 's family.
A tarp was placed over the opening through which Stone fell. Rangers team president Nolan Ryan said the height of the railings exceeds the requirement of the building codes but said the team would do "whatever it takes '' to ensure the safety of the fans; on July 20, 2011, the Rangers announced they would raise all railings in the front of seating sections to 42 inches. On August 10, 2011, the team announced it would erect a statue memorializing Stone. Cooper helped unveil the statue on April 5, 2012. It depicts him and his father wearing baseball caps. They are holding hands and looking at each other as if they were talking. The inscription on the statue reads "In memory of Shannon Stone and dedicated to all fans who love the game ''.
On September 30, 2011, Cooper threw out the ceremonial first pitch to honor his father before Game 1 of the 2011 ALDS against the Tampa Bay Rays.
It hosted the 2002 and the 2004 Big 12 Baseball Tournament.
Scenes from Disney 's The Rookie were shot here.
It was the venue for the Dallas / Fort Worth MDA Muscle Walk event that took place on September 20, 2014. This was previously held at AT&T Stadium (formerly Cowboys Stadium) from 2010 to 2013.
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a radian is a measure of an angle that is approximately equal to | Radian - wikipedia
The radian (SI symbol rad) is the SI unit for measuring angles, and is the standard unit of angular measure used in many areas of mathematics. The length of an arc of a unit circle is numerically equal to the measurement in radians of the angle that it subtends; one radian is just under 57.3 degrees (expansion at A072097). The unit was formerly an SI supplementary unit, but this category was abolished in 1995 and the radian is now considered an SI derived unit.
Separately, the SI unit of solid angle measurement is the steradian.
The radian is most commonly represented by the symbol rad. An alternative symbol is, the superscript letter c (for "circular measure ''), the letter r, or a superscript, but these symbols are infrequently used as it can be easily mistaken for a degree symbol (°) or a radius (r). So, for example, a value of 1.2 radians could be written as 1.2 rad, 1.2 r, 1.2, 1.2, or 1.2.
Radian describes the plane angle subtended by a circular arc as the length of the arc divided by the radius of the arc. One radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc that is equal in length to the radius of the circle. More generally, the magnitude in radians of such a subtended angle is equal to the ratio of the arc length to the radius of the circle; that is, θ = s / r, where θ is the subtended angle in radians, s is arc length, and r is radius. Conversely, the length of the enclosed arc is equal to the radius multiplied by the magnitude of the angle in radians; that is, s = rθ.
As the ratio of two lengths, the radian is a "pure number '' that needs no unit symbol, and in mathematical writing the symbol "rad '' is almost always omitted. When quantifying an angle in the absence of any symbol, radians are assumed, and when degrees are meant the symbol ° is used.
It follows that the magnitude in radians of one complete revolution (360 degrees) is the length of the entire circumference divided by the radius, or 2πr / r, or 2π. Thus 2π radians is equal to 360 degrees, meaning that one radian is equal to 180 / π degrees.
The relation 2 π rad = 360 ∘ (\ displaystyle 2 \ pi (\ text (rad)) = 360 ^ (\ circ)) can be derived using the formula for arc length. Taking the formula for arc length, or l a r c = 2 π r (θ 360 ∘) (\ displaystyle \ ell _ (arc) = 2 \ pi r \ left ((\ frac (\ theta) (360 ^ (\ circ))) \ right)). Assuming a unit circle; the radius is therefore one. Knowing that the definition of radian is the measure of an angle that subtends an arc of a length equal to the radius of the circle, we know that 1 = 2 π (1 rad 360 ∘) (\ displaystyle 1 = 2 \ pi \ left ((\ frac (1 (\ text (rad))) (360 ^ (\ circ))) \ right)). This can be further simplified to 1 = 2 π rad 360 ∘ (\ displaystyle 1 = (\ frac (2 \ pi (\ text (rad))) (360 ^ (\ circ)))). Multiplying both sides by 360 ∘ (\ displaystyle 360 ^ (\ circ)) gives 360 ∘ = 2 π rad (\ displaystyle 360 ^ (\ circ) = 2 \ pi (\ text (rad))).
The concept of radian measure, as opposed to the degree of an angle, is normally credited to Roger Cotes in 1714. He described the radian in everything but name, and he recognized its naturalness as a unit of angular measure. The idea of measuring angles by the length of the arc was already in use by other mathematicians. For example, al - Kashi (c. 1400) used so - called diameter parts as units where one diameter part was 1 / 60 radian and they also used sexagesimal subunits of the diameter part.
The term radian first appeared in print on 5 June 1873, in examination questions set by James Thomson (brother of Lord Kelvin) at Queen 's College, Belfast. He had used the term as early as 1871, while in 1869, Thomas Muir, then of the University of St Andrews, vacillated between the terms rad, radial, and radian. In 1874, after a consultation with James Thomson, Muir adopted radian.
As stated, one radian is equal to 180 / π degrees. Thus, to convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 180 / π.
For example:
Conversely, to convert from degrees to radians, multiply by π / 180.
For example:
23 ∘ = 23 ⋅ π 180 ∘ ≈ 0.4014 rad (\ displaystyle 23 ^ (\ circ) = 23 \ cdot (\ frac (\ pi) (180 ^ (\ circ))) \ approx 0.4014 (\ text (rad)))
Radians can be converted to turns (complete revolutions) by dividing the number of radians by 2π.
The length of circumference of a circle is given by 2 π r (\ displaystyle 2 \ pi r), where r (\ displaystyle r) is the radius of the circle.
So the following equivalent relation is true:
360 ∘ ⟺ 2 π r (\ displaystyle 360 ^ (\ circ) \ iff 2 \ pi r) (Since a 360 ∘ (\ displaystyle 360 ^ (\ circ)) sweep is needed to draw a full circle)
By the definition of radian, a full circle represents:
Combining both the above relations:
2 π (\ displaystyle 2 \ pi) radians equals one turn, which is by definition 400 gradians (400 gons or 400). So, to convert from radians to gradians multiply by 200 / π (\ displaystyle 200 / \ pi), and to convert from gradians to radians multiply by π / 200 (\ displaystyle \ pi / 200). For example,
In calculus and most other branches of mathematics beyond practical geometry, angles are universally measured in radians. This is because radians have a mathematical "naturalness '' that leads to a more elegant formulation of a number of important results.
Most notably, results in analysis involving trigonometric functions are simple and elegant when the functions ' arguments are expressed in radians. For example, the use of radians leads to the simple limit formula
which is the basis of many other identities in mathematics, including
Because of these and other properties, the trigonometric functions appear in solutions to mathematical problems that are not obviously related to the functions ' geometrical meanings (for example, the solutions to the differential equation d 2 y d x 2 = − y (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d ^ (2) y) (dx ^ (2))) = - y), the evaluation of the integral ∫ d x 1 + x 2 (\ displaystyle \ int (\ frac (dx) (1 + x ^ (2)))), and so on). In all such cases it is found that the arguments to the functions are most naturally written in the form that corresponds, in geometrical contexts, to the radian measurement of angles.
The trigonometric functions also have simple and elegant series expansions when radians are used; for example, the following Taylor series for sin x:
If x were expressed in degrees then the series would contain messy factors involving powers of π / 180: if x is the number of degrees, the number of radians is y = πx / 180, so
Mathematically important relationships between the sine and cosine functions and the exponential function (see, for example, Euler 's formula) are, again, elegant when the functions ' arguments are in radians and messy otherwise.
Although the radian is a unit of measure, it is a dimensionless quantity. This can be seen from the definition given earlier: the angle subtended at the centre of a circle, measured in radians, is equal to the ratio of the length of the enclosed arc to the length of the circle 's radius. Since the units of measurement cancel, this ratio is dimensionless.
Although polar and spherical coordinates use radians to describe coordinates in two and three dimensions, the unit is derived from the radius coordinate, so the angle measure is still dimensionless.
The radian is widely used in physics when angular measurements are required. For example, angular velocity is typically measured in radians per second (rad / s). One revolution per second is equal to 2π radians per second.
Similarly, angular acceleration is often measured in radians per second per second (rad / s).
For the purpose of dimensional analysis, the units of angular velocity and angular acceleration are s and s respectively.
Likewise, the phase difference of two waves can also be measured in radians. For example, if the phase difference of two waves is (k ⋅ 2π) radians, where k is an integer, they are considered in phase, whilst if the phase difference of two waves is (k ⋅ 2π + π), where k is an integer, they are considered in antiphase.
Metric prefixes have limited use with radians, and none in mathematics. A milliradian (mrad) is a thousandth of a radian and a microradian (μrad) is a millionth of a radian, i.e. 1 rad = 10 mrad = 10 μrad.
There are 2π × 1000 milliradians (≈ 6283.185 mrad) in a circle. So a trigonometric milliradian is just under 1 / 6283 of a circle. This "real '' trigonometric unit of angular measurement of a circle is in use by telescopic sight manufacturers using (stadiametric) rangefinding in reticles. The divergence of laser beams is also usually measured in milliradians.
An approximation of the trigonometric milliradian (0.001 rad) is used by NATO and other military organizations in gunnery and targeting. Each angular mil represents 1 / 6400 of a circle and is 15 / 8 % or 1.875 % smaller than the trigonometric milliradian. For the small angles typically found in targeting work, the convenience of using the number 6400 in calculation outweighs the small mathematical errors it introduces. In the past, other gunnery systems have used different approximations to 1 / 2000 π; for example Sweden used the 1 / 6300 streck and the USSR used 1 / 6000. Being based on the milliradian, the NATO mil subtends roughly 1 m at a range of 1000 m (at such small angles, the curvature is negligible).
Smaller units like microradians (μrad) and nanoradians (nrad) are used in astronomy, and can also be used to measure the beam quality of lasers with ultra-low divergence. More common is arc second, which is π / 648,000 rad (around 4.8481 microradians). Similarly, the prefixes smaller than milli - are potentially useful in measuring extremely small angles.
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what is the story of hamilton the play | Hamilton (musical) - Wikipedia
Hamilton: An American Musical is a sung - and rapped - through musical about the life of American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, with music, lyrics and book by Lin - Manuel Miranda, inspired by the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by historian Ron Chernow. Notably incorporating hip - hop, rhythm and blues, pop music, soul music, traditional - style show tunes and color - conscious casting of non-white actors as the Founding Fathers and other historical figures, the musical achieved both critical acclaim and box office success.
The musical made its Off - Broadway debut at The Public Theater in February 2015, where its engagement was sold out. The show transferred to Broadway in August 2015 at the Richard Rodgers Theatre. On Broadway, it received enthusiastic critical reception and unprecedented advance box office sales. In 2016, Hamilton received a record - setting 16 Tony nominations, winning 11, including Best Musical, and was also the recipient of the 2016 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album and the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. The prior off - Broadway production of Hamilton won the 2015 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical as well as seven other Drama Desk Awards out of 14 total nominated categories.
The Chicago production of Hamilton began preview performances at the CIBC Theatre in September 2016 and officially opened the following month. The first U.S. national tour of the show began performances in March 2017. A production of Hamilton opened in the West End in December 2017 at the Victoria Palace Theatre. A second U.S. tour is also set to begin performances in early 2018.
On February 14, 2017, Miranda confirmed that a film adaptation based on the musical is in the works.
The musical begins with the company summarizing Alexander Hamilton 's early life as an orphan in the Caribbean ("Alexander Hamilton ''). Hamilton was born out of wedlock in the West Indies -- his father abandoned him in the boy 's early youth and his mother died when Hamilton was 12. By 19, Hamilton has made his way to the American colonies, a dedicated supporter of American independence.
In the summer of 1776 in New York City, Hamilton seeks out Aaron Burr. Burr advises the overenthusiastic Hamilton to "talk less; smile more ''. Hamilton is unable to understand why Burr would rather exercise caution than fight for his beliefs ("Aaron Burr, Sir ''). Hamilton bonds with three fellow revolutionaries: abolitionist John Laurens, the flamboyant Frenchman Marquis de Lafayette, and the tailor 's apprentice Hercules Mulligan. Hamilton dazzles them with his rhetorical skills ("My Shot '') and they dream of laying down their lives for their cause ("The Story of Tonight ''). Meanwhile, the wealthy Schuyler sisters -- Angelica, Eliza, and Peggy -- wander the streets of New York, excited by the spirit of revolution in the air ("The Schuyler Sisters '').
Samuel Seabury, a vocal Loyalist, preaches against the American Revolution, and Hamilton refutes and ridicules his statements ("Farmer Refuted ''). A message arrives from King George III, reminding the colonists that he is able and willing to fight for their submission ("You 'll Be Back '').
The revolution is underway, and Hamilton, Burr, and their friends join the Continental Army. As the army retreats from New York City, General George Washington realizes he needs help to win the war. Though Hamilton desires a command and to fight on the front lines, he recognizes the opportunity Washington offers him, and accepts a position as his aide - de-camp ("Right Hand Man '').
In the winter of 1780, the men attend a ball given by Philip Schuyler, and Hamilton sets his sights on the man 's daughters ("A Winter 's Ball ''). Eliza falls instantly in love, and after being introduced by Angelica, Eliza and Hamilton soon wed ("Helpless ''). Angelica is also smitten with Hamilton, but swallows her feelings for the sake of her sister 's happiness ("Satisfied ''). Hamilton, Laurens, Lafayette and Mulligan drunkenly celebrate the marriage when Burr arrives to offer congratulations. After Laurens teases him, Burr admits that he is having an affair with Theodosia Bartow Prevost, the wife of a British officer ("The Story of Tonight (Reprise) ''). Hamilton urges Burr to make the relationship public. Burr, however, prefers to wait and see what life has in store for him rather than take any drastic measures ("Wait For It '').
As the revolution continues, Hamilton repeatedly petitions Washington to give him command, but Washington refuses, instead promoting Charles Lee. This decision proves disastrous at the Battle of Monmouth, where Lee orders a retreat against Washington 's orders, which prompts the commander to remove him from command in favor of Lafayette. Disgruntled, Lee spreads slanderous and vindictive rumors about Washington ("Stay Alive ''). Hamilton is offended, but Washington orders Hamilton to ignore the comments. Hamilton does not wish to do so, but can not disobey a direct order; instead, Laurens duels Lee, with Hamilton as his second, and Burr as Lee 's second. Laurens is satisfied after he injures Lee and Lee yields ("Ten Duel Commandments ''). Washington is angered by the duel, and orders Hamilton to return home to his wife ("Meet Me Inside ''). When Hamilton returns home, Eliza tells him she is pregnant. She reassures a hesitant Hamilton that he does n't need fame or fortune to live a happy life by her side ("That Would Be Enough '').
Lafayette takes a larger leadership role in the revolution, persuading France to join the American cause, and the balance shifts in favor of the Continental Army. Washington and Lafayette realize they can win the war by cutting off the British navy at Yorktown, but they will need Hamilton to do so, and the general offers him his long - desired command ("Guns and Ships ''). On the eve of battle, Washington recalls his disastrous first command, and advises Hamilton that no man can control how he is remembered ("History Has Its Eyes on You ''). After several days of fighting, the Continental Army is victorious. The British surrender in the last major battle of the war ("Yorktown (The World Turned Upside Down) ''). His forces defeated, King George asks the rebels how they expect to successfully govern on their own ("What Comes Next? '').
Soon after the victory at Yorktown, Hamilton 's son Philip is born, while Burr has a daughter, Theodosia ("Dear Theodosia ''). Hamilton receives word that Laurens has been killed in a seemingly pointless battle (the Battle of the Combahee River) and throws himself into his work. ("Tomorrow There 'll Be More of Us ''). Hamilton and Burr both return to New York to finish their studies and pursue careers as lawyers. Burr is in awe of Hamilton 's unyielding work ethic and becomes increasingly irritated by his success. Hamilton is chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in the summer of 1787. Hamilton enlists James Madison and John Jay to write The Federalist Papers after Burr refuses. Angelica announces that she has found a husband and will be moving to London. The newly elected President Washington enlists Hamilton for the job of Treasury Secretary, despite Eliza 's protests ("Non-Stop '').
In 1789, Thomas Jefferson returns to the U.S. from France, where he spent most of the Articles of Confederation era as an ambassador. Immediately upon returning, he briefly addresses Sally Hemings, asking her to open a letter from Washington, requesting that he become the first Secretary of State under the new Constitution. Upon Jefferson 's arrival in New York, James Madison asks for Jefferson 's help to stop Hamilton 's financial plan, which Madison believes gives the government too much control ("What 'd I Miss? ''). Jefferson and Hamilton debate the merits of Hamilton 's financial plan during a Cabinet meeting. Washington pulls Hamilton aside, and tells him to figure out a compromise to win over Congress ("Cabinet Battle # 1 '').
While Hamilton is working at home, Eliza reminds him that Philip, their son, is turning nine years old. Philip presents Hamilton with a short rap he composed, amazing his father. Angelica advises Hamilton to convince Jefferson of his plan so Congress will accept it. She also mentions a letter recently received from Hamilton, in which he referred to her as his "dearest '', and wondering if it was intentional. Later, Eliza and Angelica try to persuade Hamilton to accompany them on vacation for the summer, but Hamilton refuses, saying that he has to work on his plan for Congress, staying in New York while the family goes upstate ("Take a Break '').
While alone, Hamilton is visited by Maria Reynolds, who claims she has been deserted by her husband. When Hamilton offers to help her, they begin an affair. Maria 's husband James Reynolds blackmails Hamilton, who is furious with Maria but pays Reynolds and continues the affair ("Say No To This '').
Hamilton discusses his plan with Jefferson and Madison over a private dinner, which results in the Compromise of 1790, giving support to Hamilton 's financial plan in exchange for moving the United States capital from New York to Washington, D.C., a site much closer to Jefferson 's home in Virginia. Burr is envious of Hamilton 's sway in the government and wishes he had similar power ("The Room Where It Happens ''). Burr switches political parties and defeats Eliza 's father, Philip Schuyler, in a race for Schuyler 's seat in the Senate. This drives a wedge between Burr and Hamilton -- the latter believes that Burr holds no loyalties and will stop at nothing to gain influence ("Schuyler Defeated '').
In another Cabinet meeting, Jefferson and Hamilton argue over whether the United States should assist France in its conflict with Britain. Washington ultimately agrees with Hamilton 's argument for remaining neutral ("Cabinet Battle # 2 ''). After the meeting, Burr, Jefferson, and Madison share their envy of Washington 's perennial support of Hamilton 's policies. They begin to seek a way to damage Hamilton 's public image ("Washington on Your Side '').
Washington tells Hamilton that Jefferson has resigned from his position in order to run for president, and that Washington himself is stepping down. Hamilton is shocked, but Washington convinces him that it is the right thing to do, and they write a farewell address ("One Last Time ''). In England, King George III receives word that Washington is stepping down and will be replaced with John Adams. The king exits merrily, ready to enjoy the United States ' suffering through the political turmoil caused by transitions in leadership, and Adams ' inexperience ("I Know Him '').
Hamilton is fired by Adams and publishes an inflammatory critique of the new president as a response ("The Adams Administration ''). Jefferson, Madison and Burr believe they have found proof that Hamilton embezzled government money, effectively committing treason. When confronted, Hamilton admits to his affair with Maria Reynolds and his furtive payments to James Reynolds ("We Know ''). Though the men swear to keep his secret, Burr reminds Hamilton that rumors grow, and Hamilton worries that the truth will get out. He reflects on how writing openly and honestly has saved him in the past ("Hurricane ''), and publishes a public admission about the affair, hoping to snuff out rumors of embezzlement and save his political legacy. His personal reputation, however, is ruined following the publication of his Observations ("The Reynolds Pamphlet ''). Heartbroken by his infidelity, Eliza tearfully burns the letters Hamilton has written her over the years, destroying Hamilton 's chance at being redeemed by "future historians '' and keeping the world from knowing how she reacted by "erasing herself from the narrative '' ("Burn '').
Years pass, and Philip, now grown, challenges George Eacker to a duel for insulting his father. Following Alexander 's advice, Philip aims for the sky at the beginning of the duel, hoping the gesture would cause Eacker to stand down, but at the count of seven, Eacker shoots him ("Blow Us All Away ''). Philip is taken to a doctor, who is unable to save him. Hamilton and Eliza separately arrive not long before Philip dies ("Stay Alive (Reprise) ''). In the aftermath of Philip 's death, the family moves uptown. Hamilton asks for Eliza 's forgiveness for his mistakes, which he eventually receives ("It 's Quiet Uptown '').
The presidential election of 1800 results in President John Adams ' defeat, with Jefferson and Burr tied to win. Hamilton is upset that Burr holds no apparent principles, and so endorses Jefferson, who wins the presidency ("The Election of 1800 ''). Burr, angered, challenges Hamilton to a duel via an exchange of letters ("Your Obedient Servant ''). Before sunrise on the morning of the duel, Eliza, unaware of the duel, asks Hamilton to come back to bed. Hamilton tells her he has an appointment, and tells her that he loves her ("Best of Wives and Best of Women '').
Burr and Hamilton travel to Weehawken, New Jersey for the duel. Hamilton aims his pistol at the sky and is struck in the chest by Burr 's bullet. Hamilton soliloquizes on death, his relationships, and his legacy. He dies soon after, with his wife and Angelica at his side. Burr laments that even though he survived, he is cursed to be the villain in history, remembered as the man who killed Alexander Hamilton ("The World Was Wide Enough '').
The company congregates to close the story. Washington enters and reminds the audience that they have no control over how they will be remembered. Jefferson and Madison collectively admit the genius of their rival 's financial plans. Eliza explains her role in preserving her husband 's legacy over the next 50 years and frets that she has still not done enough. Addressing Hamilton directly, she tells him that she has established a private orphanage in his honor and she "ca n't wait to see (him) again '' ("Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story '').
† "Tomorrow There 'll Be More of Us '', a second reprise to "The Story of Tonight '', does not appear on the original Broadway cast recording. Miranda explained that it was "more of a scene than a song, the only scene in the (sung - through) show '', and he wanted to reserve the impact of "at least one revelation '' that could be experienced more fully onstage.
‡ Previously titled "One Last Ride '' in the Off - Broadway production.
The original Broadway cast recording for Hamilton was made available to listeners by NPR on September 21, 2015. It was released by Atlantic Records digitally on September 25, 2015, and physical copies were released on October 16, 2015. The cast album has also been released on vinyl. The album debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 albums chart, the highest entrance for a cast recording since 1963. It went on to reach number 3 on the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the Billboard Rap albums chart. The original cast recording has won a Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album.
The Hamilton Mixtape, a collection of remixes, covers, and samples of the musical 's songs, was released on December 2, 2016. The Mixtape debuted in the number 1 spot on the Billboard 200.
Lin Manuel - Miranda announced a new series of 13 Hamilton - related recordings called "Hamildrop '', releasing once a month from December 2017 to December 2018. The first release was "Ben Franklin 's Song '' by The Decemberists on December 15, 2017, containing lyrics Miranda wrote during development of Hamilton for an unused song that was never set to music. Miranda had long imagined Benjamin Franklin singing in a "Decemberist - y way '', and ultimately sent the lyrics to Colin Meloy, who set them to music.
While on vacation from performing in his hit Broadway show In the Heights, Lin - Manuel Miranda read a copy of Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow, a biography of Alexander Hamilton. After finishing the first few chapters, Miranda began to envision the life of Hamilton as a musical, and researched whether a stage musical of Hamilton 's life had been created. All he found was that a play of Hamilton 's story had been done on Broadway in 1917, starring George Arliss as Alexander Hamilton.
Miranda therefore began a project entitled The Hamilton Mixtape. On May 12, 2009, Miranda was invited to perform music from In the Heights at the White House Evening of Poetry, Music and the Spoken Word. Instead, he performed the first song from The Hamilton Mixtape, a rough version of what would later become "Alexander Hamilton '', Hamilton 's opening number. He spent a year after that working on "My Shot '', another early number from the show.
Miranda performed in a workshop production of the show, then titled The Hamilton Mixtape, at the Vassar Reading Festival on July 27, 2013. The workshop production was directed by Thomas Kail and musically directed by Alex Lacamoire. The workshop consisted of the entirety of the first act of the show and three songs from the second act. The workshop was accompanied by Lacamoire on the piano.
Of the original workshop cast, only three principal cast members played in the Off - Broadway production: Miranda, Daveed Diggs, and Christopher Jackson. Most of the original Off - Broadway cast moved to Broadway, except Brian d'Arcy James, who was replaced by Jonathan Groff as King George III.
Directed by Thomas Kail and choreographed by Andy Blankenbuehler, the musical received its world premiere Off - Broadway at The Public Theater, under the supervision of the Public 's Artistic Director Oskar Eustis, with previews starting on January 20, 2015 and officially opening on February 17. The production was extended twice, first to April 5 and then to May 3. Chernow served as historical consultant to the production. The show opened to universal acclaim according to review aggregator Did He Like It.
Hamilton premiered on Broadway at the Richard Rodgers Theatre (also home to Miranda 's 2008 Broadway debut In the Heights) on July 13, 2015 in previews, and opened on August 6, 2015. The production is produced by Jeffrey Seller and features scenic design by David Korins, costumes by Paul Tazewell, lighting by Howell Binkley and sound by Nevin Steinberg, who all reprised their roles from the off - Broadway production.
The production was critically acclaimed by many theater analysts.
Hamilton opened at the CIBC Theatre in Chicago on October 19, 2016, following previews from September 27, 2016. It is currently booking through September 2, 2018. Near the beginning of its run, lead producer Jeffrey Seller said the show may be in residence for two years or more. On its opening, attended by author Miranda, the Chicago production received strongly positive reviews. Miranda praised the Chicago casts ' performance during a later television interview.
Plans for a national tour of Hamilton emerged near the end of January 2016. The tour was initially announced with over 20 stops, scheduled from 2017 through at least 2020. Tickets to the tour 's run in San Francisco -- its debut city -- sold out within 24 hours of release; the number of people who entered the online waiting room to purchase tickets surpassed 110,000. The first national touring production began preview performances at San Francisco 's SHN Orpheum Theatre on March 10, 2017 and officially opened on March 23. The production ran in San Francisco until August 5, when it transferred to Los Angeles ' Hollywood Pantages Theatre for a run from August 11 to December 30, 2017.
Just days after the first U.S. tour began performances in San Francisco, news emerged that a second U.S. tour of Hamilton would begin in Seattle for a six - week limited engagement before touring North America concurrently with the first tour. To distinguish the first and second touring productions, the production team has labeled them, respectively, the "Angelica tour '' and the "Philip tour ''.
The Angelica tour alone requires 14 truckloads of cargo and a core group of over 60 traveling cast, crew, and musicians. The production team insisted that each tour must be able to duplicate the original Broadway show 's choreography, which literally revolves around two concentric turntables on the stage. This led to the construction of four portable sets, two for each tour, so that one set can be assembled well in advance at the next stop while the tour is still playing at the last stop.
Cameron Mackintosh produced a London production which re-opened the Victoria Palace Theatre on December 21, 2017, following previews from December 6. Initial principal casting was announced on January 26, 2017. The London production received strongly positive reviews.
It was announced on November 8, 2017 that Hamilton would play the University of Puerto Rico 's Teatro UPR in San Juan, beginning in January 2019, with Lin - Manuel Miranda reprising his performance as Alexander Hamilton. The Teatro UPR stage had suffered damage following Hurricane Maria in September and October 2017, and is set to undergo restorations and repairs prior to Hamilton 's 2019 bow.
Hamilton 's off - Broadway engagement at The Public Theater was sold out, and when the musical opened on Broadway, it had a multimillion - dollar advance in ticket sales, reportedly taking in $30 million before its official opening.
By September 2015, the show was sold out for most of its Broadway engagement. It was the second - highest - grossing show on Broadway for the Labor Day week ending September 6, 2015 (behind only The Lion King).
Hamilton set a Broadway box office record for the most money grossed in a single week in New York City in late November 2016, when it grossed $3.3 million for an eight performance week, becoming the first show to break $3 million in eight performances.
Hamilton, like other Broadway musicals, offers a ticket lottery before every show. Initially, twenty - one front row seats (and occasional standing room tickets) were offered in each lottery. Hamilton creator Lin - Manuel Miranda began preparing and hosting outdoor mini-performances shortly before each daily drawing, allowing lottery participants to experience a part of the show even when they did not win tickets. These were dubbed the "Ham4Ham '' shows, because lottery winners were given the opportunity to purchase two tickets at the reduced price of one Hamilton ($10 bill) each.
The online theatrical journal HowlRound characterized Ham4Ham as an expression of Miranda 's cultural background:
Ham4Ham follows a long tradition of Latina / o (or the ancestors of present - day Latina / os) theatremaking that dates back to when the events in Hamilton were happening... The philosophy behind this is simple. If the people wo n't come to the theatre, then take the theatre to the people. While El Teatro Campesino 's ' taking it to the streets ' originated from a place of social protest, Ham4Ham does so to create accessibility, tap into social media, and ultimately generate a free, self - functioning marketing campaign. In this way, Ham4Ham falls into a lineage of accessibility as a Latina / o theatremaking aesthetic.
As a result of the Ham4Ham shows, Hamilton 's lottery process drew unusually large crowds of people that created a significant congestion problem for West 46th Street. To avoid increasingly dangerous crowding and traffic conditions, an online ticket lottery began operating in early January 2016. On the first day of the online lottery, more than 50,000 people entered, resulting in the website crashing.
Following Miranda 's departure from the show on July 9, 2016, Rory O'Malley, then playing King George III, took over as the host of Ham4Ham. The Ham4Ham show officially ended on August 31, 2016, after over a year of performances. The online lottery continued, with an official mobile app released in August 2017 that expanded the lottery by offering tickets for touring productions of Hamilton as well as the Broadway show.
Marilyn Stasio, in her review of the Off - Broadway production for Variety, wrote, "The music is exhilarating, but the lyrics are the big surprise. The sense as well as the sound of the sung dialogue has been purposely suited to each character. George Washington, a stately figure in Jackson 's dignified performance, sings in polished prose... But in the end, Miranda 's impassioned narrative of one man 's story becomes the collective narrative of a nation, a nation built by immigrants who occasionally need to be reminded where they came from. ''
In his review of the Off - Broadway production, Jesse Green in New York wrote, "The conflict between independence and interdependence is not just the show 's subject but also its method: It brings the complexity of forming a union from disparate constituencies right to your ears... Few are the theatergoers who will be familiar with all of Miranda 's touchstones. I caught the verbal references to Rodgers and Hammerstein, Gilbert and Sullivan, Sondheim, West Side Story, and 1776, but other people had to point out to me the frequent hat - tips to hip - hop... Whether it 's a watershed, a breakthrough, and a game changer, as some have been saying, is another matter. Miranda is too savvy (and loves his antecedents too much) to try to reinvent all the rules at once... Those duels, by the way -- there are three of them -- are superbly handled, the highlights of a riveting if at times overbusy staging by the director Thomas Kail and the choreographer Andy Blankenbuehler. '' Although giving a positive review, Elisabeth Vincentelli, of The New York Post (which was founded by Hamilton himself), wrote that Hamilton and Burr 's love / hate relationship "fails to drive the show -- partly because Miranda lacks the charisma and intensity of the man he portrays '', and that "too many of the numbers are exposition - heavy lessons, as if this were ' Schoolhouse Rap! ' The show is burdened with eye - glazingly dull stretches, especially those involving George Washington. ''
Ben Brantley in reviewing the Broadway production in The New York Times, wrote, "I am loath to tell people to mortgage their houses and lease their children to acquire tickets to a hit Broadway show. But Hamilton, directed by Thomas Kail and starring Mr. Miranda, might just about be worth it... Washington, Jefferson, Madison -- they 're all here, making war and writing constitutions and debating points of economic structure. So are Aaron Burr and the Marquis de Lafayette. They wear the clothes (by Paul Tazewell) you might expect them to wear in a traditional costume drama, and the big stage they inhabit has been done up (by David Korins) to suggest a period - appropriate tavern, where incendiary youth might gather to drink, brawl and plot revolution. ''
David Cote in his review of the Broadway production for Time Out New York wrote, "I love Hamilton. I love it like I love New York, or Broadway when it gets it right. And this is so right... A sublime conjunction of radio - ready hip - hop (as well as R&B, Britpop and trad showstoppers), under - dramatized American history and Miranda 's uniquely personal focus as a first - generation Puerto Rican and inexhaustible wordsmith, Hamilton hits multilevel culture buttons, hard... The work 's human drama and novelistic density remain astonishing. '' He chose Hamilton as a Critics ' Pick, and gave the production five out of five stars.
A review in The Economist notes that the production enjoys "near - universal critical acclaim ''. Barack Obama joked that admiration for the musical is "the only thing Dick Cheney and I agree on ''.
In an issue of Journal of the Early Republic, Andrew Schocket wrote that while Hamilton makes bold choices to stray away from what he calls the "American Revolution Rebooted '' genre, it remains "forged in the mold of this genre, and despite its casting and hip - hop delivery, is more representative of it than we might think. '' In the same issue, Marvin McAllister noted that the production 's heavy hip - hop influence works so well because "Miranda elevates the form through this marriage with musical theater storytelling, and in the process, ennobles the culture and the creators. ''
‡ Blankenbuehler received a Special Drama Desk Award for "his inspired and heart - stopping choreography in Hamilton, which is indispensible (sic) to the musical 's storytelling. His body of work is versatile, yet a dynamic and fluid style is consistently evident. When it 's time to ' take his shot, ' Blankenbuehler hits the bull 's - eye. ''
According to an article in The New Yorker, the show is "an achievement of historical and cultural reimagining ''. The costumes and set reflect the period, with "velvet frock coats and knee britches. The set... is a wooden scaffold against exposed brick; the warm lighting suggests candlelight ''. The musical is mostly sung and rapped all the way through, with little dialogue isolated outside of the musical score.
Miranda said that the portrayal of Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and other white historical figures by black and Hispanic actors should not require any substantial suspension of disbelief by audience members. "Our cast looks like America looks now, and that 's certainly intentional '', he said. "It 's a way of pulling you into the story and allowing you to leave whatever cultural baggage you have about the founding fathers at the door. '' He noted "We 're telling the story of old, dead white men but we 're using actors of color, and that makes the story more immediate and more accessible to a contemporary audience. ''
The pro-immigration message of Hamilton is at the forefront, as the show revolves around the life of one of the Founding Fathers of America, Alexander Hamilton, and how he made his mark in American politics as an immigrant. Instead of being characterized as a white person, Alexander Hamilton 's immigrant status would be referenced throughout the whole show, alongside with the virtue and prowess of Hamilton ("by working a lot harder, by being a lot smarter, by being a self - starter '', described in the show 's opening), in order to foster a positive image of immigrants. Alongside this, the casting of Black, Latino, and Asian American leads allowed audiences to literally view America as a nation of immigrants, with the intention of showing how irrelevant the Founding Fathers ' whiteness is to their claim on the country. "Hamilton is a story about America, and the most beautiful thing about it is... it 's told by such a diverse cast with a such diverse styles of music, '' according to Renee Elise Goldberry, who played Angelica Schuyler. "We have the opportunity to reclaim a history that some of us do n't necessarily think is our own. '' Miranda has stated that he is "totally open '' to women playing the Founding Fathers. Casting for the British production is expected to feature predominantly black British artists.
Although Hamilton was based on true events, Miranda did use some dramatic license in retelling the story. For example, while Angelica did have a strong relationship with Hamilton, it was exaggerated in the show. During "Satisfied '', Angelica explains why Hamilton is not suitable for her despite wanting him. In particular, she states, "I 'm a girl in a world in which my only job is to marry rich. My father has no sons so I 'm the one who has to social climb for one. '' In actuality, Angelica had less pressure on her to do this. Philip Schuyler actually had fifteen children, including two sons who survived into adulthood (one of whom was New York State Assemblyman Philip Jeremiah Schuyler), and Angelica had eloped with John Barker Church three years before she met Hamilton at her sister 's wedding, when she was already mother of two of her eight children with Church. Miranda stated that he chose to do this because it is stronger dramatically if Angelica is available but can not marry him.
In addition, in Act I, Burr 's role in Hamilton 's life is overstated, and much of the early interactions between the two men in the show are fictionalized. For example, while Burr was present at the Battle on Monmouth, Burr did not serve as Charles Lee 's second in his duel with John Laurens as seen in "Ten Duel Commandments ''; Lee 's second was Evan Edwards. Hamilton also never approached Burr to help write the Federalist Papers as portrayed in "Non-Stop ''.
During Act I, the character of Aaron Burr says that "... Martha Washington named her feral tomcat after him! (Hamilton) '', to which Alexander Hamilton replies: "That 's true! '' In fact it is false. The idea of Hamilton as a serial adulterer has been one of the biggest mischaracterizations of the real Alexander Hamilton for centuries, with celebrated authors repeating the story over and over again, notwithstanding that the sexual connotation of tomcat as a womanizer did not appear in dictionaries until the first half of the 20th century. The "tomcat '' story has been previously discredited by author Stephen Knott, and refuted by historian and author Michael E. Newton at the "Alexander Hamilton Discoveries and Findings '' talk held by the Alexander Hamilton Awareness Society at Liberty Hall (Kean University) as part of the 2016 CelebrateHAMILTON events.
In Act II, there are multiple inaccuracies throughout Hamilton 's decline, probably due to time constraints and narrative arc. While it is true that John Adams and Hamilton did not particularly get along, John Adams did not fire Hamilton as told in the show. Hamilton tendered his resignation from his position as Secretary of the Treasury on December 1, 1794, two years before Adams became president. However, Hamilton remained close friends with Washington and highly influential in the political sphere. In addition, Jefferson, Madison and Burr did not approach Hamilton about his affair, it was actually James Monroe, Frederick Muhlenberg and Abraham Venable in December 1792. Monroe was a close friend of Jefferson 's and shared the information of Hamilton 's affair with him. In the Summer of 1797, journalist James Callender broke the story of Hamilton 's infidelity. Hamilton blamed Monroe, and the altercation nearly ended in a duel. With nothing left to do, Hamilton then published The Reynolds Pamphlet. In "Blow Us All Away '', George Eacker and Philip Hamilton engage in a duel, before the events of the 1800 presidential election. The duel actually occurred in 1801, with Philip Hamilton dying on November 24. In the song, Eacker fires on Philip at the count of seven, while what happened in real - life was quite the opposite; both men refused to fire for over a minute before Eacker shot Philip in the hips. Lastly, it was not the presidential election of 1800 that led to Burr and Hamilton 's duel. Burr did become Jefferson 's vice-president, but when Jefferson decided to not run with Burr for reelection in 1804, Burr opted to run for Governor of New York instead. Burr lost to Morgan Lewis in a landslide. Afterwards, a letter was published in the Albany Register from Charles D. Cooper to Philip Schuyler, claiming that Hamilton called Burr, "a dangerous man, and one who ought not be trusted with the reins of government '', and that he knew of "a still more despicable opinion which General Hamilton has expressed of Mr. Burr ''. This led to the letters between Burr and Hamilton as seen in the show in "Your Obedient Servant ''.
The show has been critiqued for a simplistic depiction of Hamilton and vilification of Jefferson. Joanne B. Freeman, a history professor at Yale, contrasted the show 's Hamilton to the "real Hamilton (who) was a mass of contradictions: an immigrant who sometimes distrusted immigrants, a revolutionary who placed a supreme value on law and order, a man who distrusted the rumblings of the masses yet preached his politics to them more frequently and passionately than many of his more democracy - friendly fellows ''.
Australian historian Shane White found the framing of the show 's story "troubling '', stating that he and many historian colleagues "would like to imagine that Hamilton is a last convulsion of the founding father mythology ''. According to White, Miranda 's depiction of the founding of the United States "infuses new life into an older view of American history '' that centered on the Founding Fathers, instead of joining the many historians who were "attempting to get away from the Great Men story '' by incorporating "ordinary people, African - Americans, Native Americans and women '' into a "more inclusive and nuanced '' historical narrative in which Hamilton has a "cameo rather than leading role ''.
Rutgers University professor Lyra Monteiro criticized the show 's multi-ethnic casting as obscuring a complete lack of identifiable enslaved or free persons of color as characters in the show. Monteiro identified other commentators, such as Ishmael Reed, who criticized the show for making Hamilton and other historical personages appear more progressive on racial injustice than they really were. According to Reed, "(Hamilton 's) reputation has been shored up as an abolitionist and someone who was opposed to slavery, '' which Reed stated was untrue.
In The Baffler, policy analyst Matt Stoller criticized the musical 's portrayal of Hamilton as an idealist committed to democratic principles, in contrast to what he characterized as the historical record of Hamilton 's reactionary, anti-democratic politics and legacy. For example, Stoller cited Hamilton as a leader involved in the Newburgh conspiracy (a military coup plot against the Continental Congress in 1783); his development of a national financial system which, in Stoller 's view, empowered the plutocratic elite; and his use of military force, indefinite detention, and mass arrests against dissenters during the Whiskey Rebellion of 1791. In 2007, history writer William Hogeland criticized Chernow 's biography of Hamilton on similar grounds in the Boston Review.
KQED News wrote of a "growing number of intrepid U.S. history teachers... who are harnessing the Hamilton phenomenon to inspire their students ''. The Cabinet rap battles provide a way to engage students with topics that have traditionally been considered uninteresting. An elective course for 11th and 12th graders on the musical Hamilton was held at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School in New York. KQED News added that "Hamilton is especially galvanizing for the student who believes that stories about 18th century America are distant and irrelevant '' as it shows the Founding Fathers were real humans with real feeling and real flaws, rather than "bloodless, two - dimensional cutouts who devoted their lives to abstract principles ''. A high school teacher from the Bronx noted his students were "singing these songs the way they might sing the latest release from Drake or Adele ''. One teacher focused on Hamilton 's ability to write his way out of trouble and toward a higher plane of existence: "skilled writing is the clearest sign of scholarship -- and the best way to rise up and alter your circumstance. ''
Hamilton 's producers have made a pledge to allow 20,000 New York City public high school students from low - income families to get subsidized tickets to see Hamilton on Broadway by reducing their tickets to $70 for students, and the Rockefeller Foundation provided $1.5 million to further lower ticket prices to $10 per student. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History created a study guide to accompany the student - ticket program.
The website EducationWorld writes that Hamilton is "being praised for its revitalization of interest in civic education ''. Northwestern University announced plans to offer course work in 2017 inspired by Hamilton, in history, Latino studies, and interdisciplinary studies.
In 2016, Moraine Valley Community College started a Hamilton appreciation movement, Straight Outta Hamilton, hosting panels and events that talk about the musical itself and relate them to current events.
In 2015, the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced a redesign to the $10 bill, with plans to replace Hamilton with a then - undecided woman from American history. Because of Hamilton 's surging popularity, almost exclusively due to the musical, United States Treasury Secretary Jack Lew reversed the plans to replace Hamilton 's portrait, instead deciding to replace Andrew Jackson with Harriet Tubman on the $20 bill.
On April 12, 2016, Miranda and Jeremy McCarter 's book, Hamilton: The Revolution, was released, detailing Hamilton 's journey from an idea to a successful Broadway musical. It includes an inside look at not only Alexander Hamilton 's revolution, but the cultural revolution that permeates the show. It also has footnotes from Miranda and stories from behind the scenes of the show.
After premiering on the New York Film Festival on October 1, 2016, PBS ' Great Performances exhibited on October 21, 2016 the documentary Hamilton 's America. Directed by Alex Horwitz, it "delves even deeper into the creation of the show, revealing Miranda 's process of absorbing and then adapting Hamilton 's epic story into groundbreaking musical theater. Further fleshing out the story is newly shot footage of the New York production with its original cast, trips to historic locations such as Mt. Vernon and Valley Forge with Miranda and other cast members, and a surprising range of interviews with prominent personalities, experts, politicians, and musicians. '' The film featured interviews with American historians and Hamilton authorities Ron Chernow and Joanne B. Freeman.
Following a performance on November 18, 2016, with Vice President - elect Mike Pence in the audience, Brandon Victor Dixon addressed Pence from the stage with a statement jointly written by the cast, show creator Lin - Manuel Miranda and producer Jeffrey Seller. Dixon began by quieting the audience, and stated:
Vice President - elect Pence, we welcome you and we truly thank you for joining us here at Hamilton: An American Musical, we really do. We, sir, -- we -- are the diverse America who are alarmed and anxious that your new administration will not protect us, our planet, our children, our parents, or defend us and uphold our inalienable rights, sir. But we truly hope that this show has inspired you to uphold our American values and to work on behalf of all of us. All of us. Again, we truly thank you truly for seeing this show, this wonderful American story told by a diverse group of men and women of different colors, creeds and orientations. ''
Pence listened to the expression of concern about President - elect Donald Trump 's upcoming administration and later expressed that he was not offended. However, Trump demanded an apology for what he described, on Twitter, as the cast having "harassed '' Pence. This led to an online campaign called "# BoycottHamilton '', which became widely mocked as the show is already sold - out months in advance. Trump was criticized by The Washington Post, who noted the division between white and non-white America in the 2016 Presidential election and suggested Trump could have offered "assurances that he would be a president for all Americans -- that he would respect everybody regardless of race or gender or creed ''; instead, as Presidential historian Robert Dallek expressed, Trump 's Twitter response was a "striking act of divisiveness by an incoming president struggling to heal the nation after a bitter election '', with the Hamilton cast a proxy for those fearful of Trump 's policies and rhetoric. Jeffrey Seller, the show 's lead producer, said that while Trump has not seen Hamilton or inquired about tickets, he is "welcome to attend ''.
In April 2016, Jeb! The Musical, subtitled An American Disappointment appeared on the Internet with Jeb Bush in the place of Alexander Hamilton, with political figures like Donald Trump and Chris Christie holding supporting roles. A staged reading, given "just as much preparation as Jeb 's campaign '', was staged at Northwestern University in June of that year. The parody was crowdsourced, with contributions coming from a range of writers. A number of writers were drawn from Yale University, Boston University, McGill University and the University of Michigan. These writers met in a Facebook group named "Post Aesthetics ''.
In 2016, Gerard Alessandrini, the creator of Forbidden Broadway, wrote the revue Spamilton which premiered at the Triad Theater in New York and also played at the Royal George Theatre in Chicago. It parodies Hamilton and other Broadway shows and caricatures various Broadway stars.
On October 12, 2016, the American sitcom Modern Family released the episode "Weathering Heights ''. The episode features a scene where Manny applies for college. To do so he records a parody of "Alexander Hamilton '' as part of his application, complete with rewritten lyrics to accompany to his own life. It is revealed that most of the other applications are also Hamilton parodies.
On October 13, 2017, the studio TeamFourStar released episode 8 of their "Hellsing Ultimate Abridged '' series on YouTube, which is based upon the OVA series Hellsing Ultimate. In the end credits, they feature a parody of the song "Alexander Hamilton '', in honor of a character in the show, Alexander Anderson, with completely rewritten lyrics designed to mirror Anderson 's life in the OVA and parody series.
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when did the dutch go to south africa | History of South Africa - Wikipedia
The first humans are believed to have inhabited South Africa more than 100,000 years ago. The historical record of this ethnically diverse country is generally divided into five distinct periods: the pre-colonial era, the colonial era, the post-colonial and apartheid eras, and the post-apartheid era. Much of this history, particularly of the colonial and post-colonial eras, is characterised by clashes of culture, violent territorial disputes between European settlers and indigenous people, dispossession and repression, and other racial and political tensions.
The discoveries of diamonds and gold in the nineteenth century had a profound effect on the fortunes of the region, propelling it onto the world stage and introducing a shift away from an exclusively agrarian - based economy towards industrialisation and the development of urban infrastructure. The discoveries also led to new conflicts culminating in open warfare between the Boer settlers and the British Empire, fought essentially for control over the nascent South African mining industry.
Following the defeat of the Boers in the Anglo - Boer or South African War (1899 -- 1902), the Union of South Africa was created as a dominion of the British Empire in terms of the South Africa Act 1909, which amalgamated the four previously separate British colonies: Cape Colony, Natal Colony, Transvaal Colony and Orange River Colony. The country became a self - governing nation state within the British Empire, in 1934 following enactment of the Status of the Union Act. The dominion came to an end on 31 May 1961 as the consequence of a 1960 referendum, which legitimised the country becoming a sovereign state named Republic of South Africa. A republican constitution was adopted.
From 1948 -- 1994, South African politics were dominated by Afrikaner nationalism. Racial segregation and white minority rule known officially as apartheid came into existence in 1948 (under British rule), and become an official law of segregation when South Africa became a republic, an Afrikaans word meaning "separateness ''. It was an extension of segregationist legislation enacted in 1960. On 27 April 1994, after decades of armed struggle and international opposition to apartheid, during which military and political support was provided primarily by the Soviet Union to the non-racial African National Congress (ANC), the ANC achieved victory in the country 's first democratic election in which all races could vote. Since then, the African National Congress has dominated the politics of South Africa, in an uneasy alliance with the South African Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.
Scientists researching the periods before written historical records were made have established that the territory of what is now referred to generically as South Africa was one of the important centers of human evolution. It was inhabited by Australopithecines since at least 2.5 million years ago. Modern human settlement occurred around 125,000 years ago in the Middle Stone Age, as shown by archaeological discoveries at Klasies River Caves. The first human habitation is associated with a DNA group originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa and still prevalent in the indigenous Khoisan (Khoi and San). Southern Africa was reached later by the migration of the ethnically different, dark - skinned, Bantu - speaking or African people originating in the northwestern region of southern Africa during the early centuries AD.
At the Blombos cave Professor Raymond Dart discovered the skull of a 2.51 million year old Taung Child in 1924, the first example of Australopithecus africanus ever found. Following in Dart 's footsteps Robert Broom discovered a new much more robust hominid in 1938 Paranthropus robustus at Kromdraai, and in 1947 uncovered several more examples of Australopithecus africanus at Sterkfontein. In further research at the Blombos cave in 2002, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This has been interpreted as the earliest example ever discovered of abstract art or symbolic art created by Homo sapiens.
Many more species of early hominid have come to light in recent decades. The oldest is Little Foot, a collection of footbones of an unknown hominid between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, discovered at Sterkfontein by Ronald J. Clarke. An important recent find was that of 1.9 million year old Australopithecus sediba, discovered in 2008. In 2015, the discovery near Johannesburg of a previously unknown species of Homo was announced, named Homo naledi. It has been described as one of the most important paleontological discoveries in modern times.
The descendants of the Middle Paleolithic populations are thought to be the aboriginal San and Khoikhoi tribes. The settlement of southern Africa by the ancestors of the Khoisan corresponds to the earliest separation of the extant Homo sapiens populations altogether, associated in genetic science with what is described in scientific terms as matrilinear haplogroup L0 (mtDNA) and patrilinear haplogroup A (Y - DNA), originating in a northwestern area of southern Africa.
The San and Khoikhoi are grouped under the term Khoisan, and are essentially distinguished only by their respective occupations. Whereas the San were hunter - gathers, the Khoikhoi were pastoral herders.
Archaeological discoveries of livestock bones on the Cape Peninsula indicate that the Khoikhoi began to settle there by about 2000 years ago. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Portuguese mariners, who were the first Europeans at the Cape, encountered pastoral Khoikhoi with livestock. Later, English and Dutch seafarers in the late 16th and 17th centuries exchanged metals for cattle and sheep with the Khoikhoi. The conventional view is that availability of livestock was one reason why, in the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a staging post where the port city of Cape Town is today situated. The initial origin of the Khoikhoi remains uncertain.
The establishment of the staging post by the Dutch East India Company at the Cape in 1652 soon brought the Khoikhoi into conflict with Dutch settlers over land ownership. Cattle rustling and livestock theft ensued, with the Khoikhoi being ultimately expelled from the peninsula by force, after a succession of wars. The first Khoikhoi - Dutch War broke out in 1659, the second in 1673, and the third 1674 -- 1677. By the time of their defeat and expulsion from the Cape Peninsula and surrounding districts, the Khoikhoi population was decimated by a smallpox epidemic, against which the Khoikhoi had no natural resistance or indigenous medicines. The disease had been brought to the Cape by Dutch sailors.
The Bantu expansion was one of the major demographic movements in human prehistory, sweeping much of the African continent during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Bantu - speaking communities would have reached southern Africa from the Congo basin by the early centuries AD. The advancing Bantu encroached on the Khoikhoi territory, forcing the original inhabitants of the region to move to more arid areas. Some of the migrant groups, ancestral to today 's Nguni peoples (the Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, and Ndebele), preferred to live near the eastern coast of what is present - day South Africa. Others, now known as the Sotho -- Tswana peoples (Tswana, Pedi, and Sotho), settled in the interior on the plateau known as the Highveld, while today 's Venda, Lemba, and Shangaan - Tsonga peoples made their homes in the north - eastern areas of present - day South Africa.
The Kingdom of Mapungubwe, which was located near the northern border of present - day South Africa, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers adjacent to present - day Zimbabwe and Botswana, was the first indigenous kingdom in southern Africa between AD 900 and 1300. It developed into the largest kingdom in the sub-continent before it was abandoned because of climatic changes in the 14th century. Smiths created objects of iron, copper and gold both for local decorative use and for foreign trade. The kingdom controlled trade through the east African ports to Arabia, India and China, and throughout southern Africa, making it wealthy through the exchange of gold and ivory for imports such as Chinese porcelain and Persian glass beads.
Specifics of the contact between Bantu - speakers and the indigenous Khoisan ethnic group remain largely unresearched, although linguistic proof of some assimilation exists, as several southern Bantu languages (notably Xhosa and Zulu) incorporate many click consonants of the Khoisan languages. The assimilation is not dissimilar to that of the European settlers, who adapted and assimilated the Dutch, Flemish, German and Malay languages into the Dutch patois of Afrikaans.
The Portuguese mariner Bartolomeu Dias was the first European to explore the coastline of South Africa in 1488, while attempting to discover a trade route to the Far East via the southernmost cape of South Africa, which he named Cabo das Tormentas, meaning Cape of Storms. In November 1497, a fleet of Portuguese ships under the command of the Portuguese mariner Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope. By 16 December, the fleet had passed the Great Fish River on the east coast of South Africa, where Dias had earlier turned back. Da Gama gave the name Natal to the coast he was passing, which in Portuguese means Christmas. Da Gama 's fleet proceeded northwards to Zanzibar and later sailed eastwards, eventually reaching India and thereby opening the Cape Route between Europe and Asia.
The Dutch East India Company (in the Dutch of the day: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement at the Cape. The VOC, one of the major European trading houses sailing the spice route to the East, had no intention of colonising the area, instead wanting only to establish a secure base camp where passing ships could shelter and be serviced, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of meat, fruit, and vegetables. To this end, a small VOC expedition under the command of Jan van Riebeeck reached Table Bay on 6 April 1652.
The VOC had settled at the Cape in order to supply their trading ships. As the Khoikhoi were not agricultural farmers, there was no food to trade for at the Cape and the VOC had to import Dutch farmers to establish farms to supply the passing ships as well as to supply the growing VOC settlement. The small initial group of free burghers, as these farmers were known, steadily increased in number and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of the Khoikhoi. The free burghers were ex-VOC soldiers and gardeners, who were unable to return to Holland when their contracts were completed with the VOC.
The majority of burghers had Dutch ancestry and belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, but there were also some Germans. who often happened to be Lutherans. In 1688, the Dutch and the Germans were joined by French Huguenots, who were Calvinist Protestants fleeing religious persecution in France under its Catholic ruler, King Louis XIV.
Van Riebeeck considered it impolitic to enslave the local Khoi and San aboriginals, so the VOC began to import large numbers of slaves, primarily from the Dutch colonies in Indonesia. Eventually, van Riebeeck and the VOC began to make indentured servants out of the Khoikhoi and the San. The offspring from miscegenation between the Dutch settlers and the Khoi - San and Malay slaves became known officially as the Cape Coloureds and the Cape Malays, respectively. A significant number of the offspring from the white and slave unions were absorbed into the local proto - Afrikaans speaking white population. The racially mixed genealogical origins of many so - called "white '' South Africans have been traced to interracial unions at the Cape between the European occupying population and imported Asian and African slaves, the indigenous Khoi and San, and their vari - hued offspring. Simon van der Stel, the first Governor of the Dutch settlement, famous for his development of the lucrative South African wine industry, was himself of mixed race - origin.
In 1787, shortly before the French Revolution, a faction within the politics of the Dutch Republic known as the Patriot Party attempted to overthrow the regime of stadtholder William V. Though the revolt was crushed, it was resurrected after the French invasion of the Netherlands in 1794 / 1795 which resulted in the stadtholder fleeing the country. The Patriot revolutionaries then proclaimed the Batavian Republic, which was closely allied to revolutionary France. In response, the stadtholder, who had taken up residence in England, issued the Kew Letters, ordering colonial governors to surrender to the British. The British then seized the Cape in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands. The Cape was relinquished back to the Dutch in 1803. In 1805, the British inherited the Cape as a prize during the Napoleonic Wars, again seizing the Cape from the French controlled Kingdom of Holland which had replaced the Batavian Republic.
Like the Dutch before them, the British initially had little interest in the Cape Colony, other than as a strategically located port. The Cape Articles of Capitulation of 1806 allowed the colony to retain "all their rights and privileges which they have enjoyed hitherto '', and this launched South Africa on a divergent course from the rest of the British Empire, allowing the continuance of Roman - Dutch law. British sovereignty of the area was recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Dutch accepting a payment of 6 million pounds for the colony. As one of their first tasks they outlawed the use of the Dutch language in 1806 with the view of converting the European settlers to the British language and culture. This had the effect of forcing more of the Dutch colonists to move (or trek) away from British administrative reach. Much later, in 1820 the British authorities persuaded about 5,000 middle - class British immigrants (most of them "in trade '') to leave Great Britain. Many of the 1820 Settlers eventually settled in Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth.
British policy with regard to South Africa would vacillate with successive governments, but the overarching imperative throughout the 19th century was to protect the strategic trade route to India while incurring as little expense as possible within the colony. This aim was complicated by border conflicts with the Boers, who soon developed a distaste for British authority.
Colonel Robert Jacob Gordon of the Dutch East India Company was the first European to explore parts of the interior while commanding the Dutch garrison at the renamed Cape of Good Hope, from 1780 to 1795. The four expeditions Gordon undertook between 1777 and 1786 are recorded in a series of several hundred drawings known collectively as the Gordon Atlas, as well as in his journals, which were only discovered in 1964.
Early relations between the European settlers and the Xhosa, the first Bantu peoples they met when they ventured inward, were peaceful. However, there was competition for land, and this tension led to skirmishes in the form of cattle raids from 1779.
The British explorers David Livingstone and William Oswell, setting out from a mission station in the northern Cape Colony, are believed to have been the first white men to cross the Kalahari desert in 1849. The Royal Geographical Society later awarded Livingstone a gold medal for his discovery of Lake Ngami in the desert.
The Zulu people are part of the Nguni tribe and were originally a minor clan in what is today northern KwaZulu - Natal, founded ca. 1709 by Zulu kaNtombela.
The 1820s saw a time of immense upheaval relating to the military expansion of the Zulu Kingdom, which replaced the original African clan system with kingdoms. Sotho - speakers know this period as the difaqane ("forced migration ''); Zulu - speakers call it the mfecane ("crushing '').
Various theories have been advanced for the causes of the difaqane, ranging from ecological factors to competition in the ivory trade. Another theory attributes the epicentre of Zulu violence to the slave trade out of Delgoa Bay in Mozambique situated to the north of Zululand. According to this theory, Portuguese slavers had been driven southwards because of increased naval activity during the Napoleonic wars; it was the rush of refugees away from the encroaching slavers that precipitated violent instability in the region.
In 1818, Nguni tribes in Zululand became a militaristic kingdom under the driving force of Shaka kaSenzangakhona, son of the chief of the Zulu clan. Shaka built large armies, breaking from clan tradition by placing the armies under the control of his own officers rather than of hereditary chiefs. He then set out on a massive programme of expansion, killing or enslaving those who resisted in the territories he conquered. His impis (warrior regiments) were rigorously disciplined: failure in battle meant death.
Peoples in the path of Shaka 's armies moved out of his way, becoming in their turn aggressors against their neighbours. This wave of displacement spread throughout southern Africa and beyond. It also accelerated the formation of several new nation - states, notably those of the Sotho (present - day Lesotho) and of the Swazi (now Swaziland).
In 1828 Shaka was killed by his half - brothers Dingaan and Umhlangana. The weaker and less - skilled Dingaan became king, relaxing military discipline while continuing the despotism. Dingaan also attempted to establish relations with the British traders on the Natal coast, but events had started to unfold that would see the demise of Zulu independence. Estimates for the death toll resulting from the Mfecane range from 1 million to 2 million.
After 1806, a number of Dutch - speaking inhabitants of the Cape Colony trekked inland, first in small groups. Eventually, in the 1830s, large numbers of Boers migrated in what came to be known as the Great Trek. Among the initial reasons for their leaving the Cape colony were the English language rule. Religion was a very important aspect of the settlers culture and the bible and church services were in Dutch. Similarly, schools, justice and trade up to the arrival of the British, were all managed in the Dutch language. The language law caused friction, distrust and dissatisfaction.
Another reason for Dutch - speaking white farmers trekking away from the Cape was the abolition of slavery by the British government on Emancipation Day, 1 December 1838. The farmers complained they could not replace the labour of their slaves without losing an excessive amount of money. The farmers had invested large amounts of capital in slaves. Owners who had purchased slaves on credit or put them up as surety against loans faced financial ruin. This is to be queried as the Boers were in favor of abolishment of slavery Bloemfontein (1854) and Sand River conventions (1852, Art. 4), Britain had allocated the sum of 1 200 000 British Pounds as compensation to the Dutch settlers, on condition the Dutch farmers had to lodge their claims in Britain as well as the fact that the value of the slaves was many times the allocated amount. This caused further dissatisfaction among the Dutch settlers. The settlers, incorrectly, believed that the Cape Colony administration had taken the money due to them as payment for freeing their slaves. Those settlers who were allocated money could only claim it in Britain in person or through an agent. The commission charged by agents was the same as the payment for one slave, thus those settlers only claiming for one slave would receive nothing.
The South African Republic (Dutch: Zuid - Afrikaansche Republiek or ZAR, not to be confused with the much later Republic of South Africa), is often referred to as The Transvaal and sometimes as the Republic of Transvaal. It was an independent and internationally recognised nation - state in southern Africa from 1852 to 1902. Independent sovereignty of the republic was formally recognised by Great Britain with the signing of the Sand River Convention on 17 January 1852. The republic, under the premiership of Paul Kruger, defeated British forces in the First Boer War and remained independent until the end of the Second Boer War on 31 May 1902, when it was forced to surrender to the British. The territory of the South African Republic became known after this war as the Transvaal Colony.
The independent Boer republic of Orange Free State evolved from colonial Britain 's Orange River Sovereignty, enforced by the presence of British troops, which lasted from 1848 to 1854 in the territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers, named Transorange. Britain, due to the military burden imposed on it by the Crimean War in Europe, then withdrew its troops from the territory in 1854, when the territory along with other areas in the region was claimed by the Boers as an independent Boer republic, which they named the Orange Free State. In March 1858, after land disputes, cattle rustling and a series of raids and counter-raids, the Orange Free State declared war on the Basotho kingdom, which it failed to defeat. A succession of wars were conducted between the Boers and the Basotho for the next 10 years. The name Orange Free State was again changed to the Orange River Colony, created by Britain after the latter occupied it in 1900 and then annexed it in 1902 during the Second Boer War. The colony, with an estimated population of less than 400,000 in 1904 ceased to exist in 1910, when it was absorbed into the Union of South Africa as the Orange Free State Province.
Natalia was a short - lived Boer republic established in 1839 by Boer voortrekkers emigrating from the Cape Colony. In 1824 a party of 25 men under British Lieutenant FG Farewell arrived from the Cape Colony and established a settlement on the northern shore of the Bay of Natal, which would later become the port of Durban, so named after Sir Benjamin d'Urban, a governor of the Cape Colony. Boer voortrekkers in 1838 established the Republic of Natalia in the surrounding region, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg. On the night of 23 / 24 May 1842 British colonial forces attacked the voortrekker camp at Congella. The attack failed, with British forces then retreating back to Durban, which the Boers besieged. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni, who later became folk heroes, were able to escape the blockade and ride to Grahamstown, a distance of 600 km (372.82 miles) in 14 days to raise British reinforcements. The reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later; the siege was broken and the voortrekkers retreated. The Boers accepted British annexation in 1844. Many of the Natalia Boers who refused to acknowledge British rule trekked over the Drakensberg mountains to settle in the Orange Free State and Transvaal republics.
Between 1847 and 1854, Sir Harry Smith, governor and high commissioner of the Cape Colony, annexed territories far to the north of original British and Dutch settlement. Smith 's expansion of the Cape Colony resulted in conflict with disaffected Boers in the Orange River Sovereignty who in 1848 mounted an abortive rebellion at Boomplaats, where the Boers were defeated by a detachment of the Cape Mounted Rifles. Annexation also precipitated a war between British colonial forces and the indigenous Xhosa nation in 1850, in the eastern coastal region.
Starting from the mid-1800s, the Cape of Good Hope, which was then the largest state in southern Africa, began moving towards greater independence from Britain. In 1854, it was granted its first locally elected legislature, the Cape Parliament. In 1872, after a long political struggle, it attained responsible government with a locally accountable executive and Prime Minister. The Cape nonetheless remained nominally part of the British Empire, even though it was self - governing in practice. The Cape Colony was unusual in southern Africa in that its laws prohibited any discrimination on the basis of race and, unlike the Boer republics, elections were held according to the non-racial Cape Qualified Franchise system, whereby suffrage qualifications applied universally, regardless of race.
Initially, a period of strong economic growth and social development ensued. However, an ill - informed British attempt to force the states of southern Africa into a British federation led to inter-ethnic tensions and the First Boer War. Meanwhile, the discovery of diamonds around Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal led to a later return to instability, particularly because they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious colonialist Cecil Rhodes. As Cape Prime Minister, Rhodes curtailed the multi-racial franchise, and his expansionist policies set the stage for the Second Boer War.
By the end of 1847, following annexation by Britain of the former Boer republic of Natalia, nearly all the Boers had left their former republic, which the British renamed Natal. The role of the Boer settlers was replaced by subsidised British immigrants of whom 5,000 arrived between 1849 and 1851.
Indian slaves from the Dutch colonies had been introduced into the Cape area of South Africa by the Dutch settlers in 1654. By 1860, with slavery having been abolished in 1834, and after the annexation of Natal as a British colony in 1843, the British colonialists in Natal (now kwaZulu - Natal) turned to India to resolve a labour shortage. Men of the local Zulu warrior nation were refusing to adopt the servile position of labourers. In that year, the SS Truro arrived in Durban harbour with over 300 Indians on board. Over the next 50 years, 150,000 more indentured Indian servants and labourers arrived, as well as numerous free "passenger Indians '', building the base for what would become the largest Indian community outside India. By 1893, when the lawyer and social activist Mahatma Gandhi arrived in Durban, Indians outnumbered whites in Natal. The civil rights struggle of Gandhi 's Natal Indian Congress failed; until the 1994 advent of democracy, Indians in South Africa were subject to most of the discriminatory laws that applied to all non-white inhabitants of the country.
By the late 1700s, the Cape Colony population had grown to include a large number of mixed - race so - called "coloureds '' who were the offspring of extensive miscegenation between white, male Dutch settlers, Khoikhoi females, and female slaves imported from Dutch colonies in the East. Members of this mixed - race community formed the core of what was to become the Griqua people. Under the leadership of a former slave named Adam Kok, these "coloureds '' or Basters (meaning Bastards) as they were named by the Dutch, started trekking northward into the interior, through what is today named Northern Cape Province. The trek of the Griquas to escape the influence of the Cape Colony has been described as "one of the great epics of the 19th century. '' They were joined on their long journey by a number of San and Khoikhoi aboriginals, local African tribesmen, and also some white renegades. Around 1800, they started crossing the northern frontier formed by the Orange River, arriving ultimately in an uninhabited area, which they named Griqualand.
In 1825, a faction of the Griqua people was induced by Dr John Philip, superintendent of the London Missionary Society in Southern Africa, to relocate to a place called Philippolis, a mission station for the San, several hundred miles southeast of Griqualand. Philip 's intention was for the Griquas to protect the missionary station there against banditti in the region, and as a bulwark against the northward movement of white settlers from the Cape Colony. Friction between the Griquas and the settlers over land rights resulted in British troops being sent to the region in 1845. It marked the beginning of nine years of British intervention in the affairs of the region, which the British named Transorange.
In 1861, to avoid the imminent prospect of either being colonised by the Cape Colony or coming into conflict with the expanding Boer Republic of Orange Free State, most of the Philippolis Griquas embarked on a further trek. They moved about 500 miles eastward, over the Quathlamba (today known as the Drakensberg mountain range), settling ultimately in an area officially designated as "Nomansland '', which the Griquas renamed Griqualand East. East Griqualand was subsequently annexed by Britain in 1874 and incorporated into the Cape Colony in 1879.
The original Griqualand, north of the Orange River, was annexed by Britain 's Cape Colony and renamed Griqualand West after the discovery in 1871 of the world 's richest deposit of diamonds at Kimberley, so named after the British Colonial Secretary, Earl Kimberley.
Although no formally surveyed boundaries existed, Griqua leader Nicolaas Waterboer claimed the diamond fields were situated on land belonging to the Griquas. The Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State also vied for ownership of the land, but Britain, being the preeminent force in the region, won control over the disputed territory. In 1878, Waterboer led an unsuccessful rebellion against the colonial authorities, for which he was arrested and briefly exiled.
In early South Africa, European notions of national boundaries and land ownership had no counterparts in African political culture. To the local African chieftains, customary tribute in the form of horses and cattle represented acceptance by the reigning chief of land use under his authority. To both the Boer and the British settlers, the same form of tribute was believed to constitute purchase and permanent ownership of the land under independent authority. As British and Boer settlers started establishing permanent farms after trekking across the country in search of prime agricultural land, they encountered resistance from the local Bantu people who had originally migrated southwards from central Africa hundreds of years earlier. The consequent frontier wars were officially referred to by the British colonial authorities as the "Kaffir '' wars. It has been suggested by at least one historian that the early tribal societies of what is today South Africa were defeated not only by the superior weapons of the settlers, "but also by their own backwardness and disunity. ''
Too, the increasing economic involvement of the British in southern Africa from the 1820s, and especially following the discovery of first diamonds at Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal, resulted in pressure for land and African labour, and led to increasingly tense relations with African states.
In the southeastern part of the country, the Boers and the Xhosa clashed along the Great Fish River, and in 1779 the first of nine frontier wars erupted. For nearly 100 years subsequently, the Xhosa fought the settlers sporadically, first the Boers or Afrikaners and later the British. In the Fourth Frontier War, which lasted from 1811 to 1812, the British forced the Xhosa back across the Great Fish River and established forts along this boundary.
In 1818 differences between two Xhosa leaders, Ndlambe and Ngqika, ended in Ngqika 's defeat, but the British continued to recognise Ngqika as the paramount chief. He appealed to the British for help against Ndlambe, who retaliated in 1819 during the Fifth Frontier War by attacking the British colonial town of Grahamstown. The Xhosa prophet Nxele emerged at this time and led the Xhosa armies in several attacks. He was subsequently captured and imprisoned on Robben Island. After this war the British attempted unsuccessfully to declare the area between the Great Fish and the Keiskamma rivers neutral territory. More fighting took place, until eventually all Xhosa territories were incorporated into the Cape Colony.
In the eastern part of what is today South Africa, in the region named Natalia by the Boer trekkers, the latter negotiated an agreement with Zulu King Dingane kaSenzangakhona allowing the Boers to settle in part of the then Zulu kingdom. Cattle rustling ensued and a party of Boers under the leadership of Piet Retief was massacred. The Boers retaliated at the Ncome River on 16 December 1838, when they killed about three thousand Zulu warriors in a clash known historically as the Battle of Blood River.
In the later annexation of the Zulu kingdom by imperial Britain, an Anglo - Zulu War was fought in 1879. Following Lord Carnarvon 's successful introduction of federation in Canada, it was thought that similar political effort, coupled with military campaigns, might succeed with the African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in South Africa. In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner for the British Empire to bring such plans into being. Among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand and its army. Frere, on his own initiative, without the approval of the British government and with the intent of instigating a war with the Zulu, had presented an ultimatum on 11 December 1878, to the Zulu king Cetshwayo with which the Zulu king could not comply. Bartle Frere then sent Lord Chelmsford to invade Zululand. The war is notable for several particularly bloody battles, including an overwhelming victory by the Zulu at the Battle of Isandlwana, as well as for being a landmark in the timeline of imperialism in the region.
Britain 's eventual defeat of the Zulus, marking the end of the Zulu nation 's independence, was accomplished with the assistance of Zulu collaborators who harboured cultural and political resentments against centralised Zulu authority. The British then set about establishing large sugar plantations in the area today named KwaZulu - Natal Province.
From the 1830s onwards, numbers of white settlers from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and started arriving in the fertile southern part of territory known as the Lower Caledon Valley, which was occupied by Basotho cattle herders under the authority of the Basotho founding monarch Moshoeshoe I. In 1845, a treaty was signed between the British colonists and Moshoeshoe, which recognised white settlement in the area. No firm boundaries were drawn between the area of white settlement and Moshoeshoe 's kingdom, which led to border clashes. Moshoeshoe was under the impression he was loaning grazing land to the settlers in accordance with African precepts of occupation rather than ownership, while the settlers believed they had been granted permanent land rights. Afrikaner settlers in particular were loathe to live under Moshoesoe 's authority and among Africans.
The British, who at that time controlled the area between the Orange and Vaal Rivers called the Orange River Sovereignty, decided a discernible boundary was necessary and proclaimed a line named the Warden Line, dividing the area between British and Basotho territories. This led to conflict between the Basotho and the British, who were defeated by Moshoeshoe 's warriors at the battle of Viervoet in 1851.
As punishment to the Basotho, the governor and commander - in - chief of the Cape Colony, Sir George Cathcart, deployed troops to the Mohokare River; Moshoeshoe was ordered to pay a fine. When he did not pay the fine in full, a battle broke out on the Berea Plateau in 1852, where the British suffered heavy losses. In 1854, the British handed over the territory to the Boers through the signing of the Sand River Convention. This territory and others in the region then became the Republic of the Orange Free State.
A succession of wars followed from 1858 to 1868 between the Basotho kingdom and the Boer republic of Orange Free State. In the battles that followed, the Orange Free State tried unsuccessfully to capture Moshoeshoe 's mountain stronghold at Thaba Bosiu, while the Sotho conducted raids in Free State territories. Both sides adopted scorched - earth tactics, with large swathes of pasturage and cropland being destroyed. Faced with starvation, Moshoeshoe signed a peace treaty on 15 October 1858, though crucial boundary issues remained unresolved. War broke out again in 1865. After an unsuccessful appeal for aid from the British Empire, Moshoeshoe signed the 1866 treaty of Thaba Bosiu, with the Basotho ceding substantial territory to the Orange Free State. On 12 March 1868, the British parliament declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate and part of the British Empire. Open hostilities ceased between the Orange Free State and the Basotho. The country was subsequently named Basutoland and is presently named Lesotho.
In 1836, when Boer voortrekkers (meaning advance trekkers) arrived in the northwestern part of present - day South Africa, they came into conflict with a Ndebele sub-group that the settlers named "Matabele '', under chief Mzilikazi. A series of battles ensued, in which Mzilikazi was eventually defeated. He withdrew from the area and led his people northwards to what would later become the Matabele region of Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
Other members of the Ndebele ethnic language group in different areas of the region similarly came into conflict with the Voortrekkers, notably in the area that would later become the Northern Transvaal. In September 1854, 28 Boers accused of cattle rustling were killed in three separate incidents by an alliance of the Ndebele chiefdoms of Mokopane and Mankopane. Mokopane and his followers, anticipating retaliation by the settlers, retreated into the mountain caves known as Gwasa, (or Makapansgat in Afrikaans). In late October, Boer commandos supported by local Kgatla tribal collaborators laid siege to the caves. By the end of the siege, about three weeks later, Mokopane and between 1,000 and 3,000 people had died in the caves. The survivors were captured and allegedly enslaved.
The Bapedi wars, also known as the Sekukuni wars, consisted of three separate campaigns fought between 1876 and 1879 against the Bapedi under their reigning monarch King Sekukuni, in the northeastern region known as Sekukuniland, bordering on Swaziland. The wars were an outcome of constant friction between the Bapedi and the Boers, who claimed that Bapedi carrying arms were continually stealing livestock, whilst the Bapedi claimed that neighbouring Boer settlers stole children to be forced into farm labour. Further friction was caused by the refusal of Sekukuni to allow prospectors to search for gold in territory he considered to be sovereign and independent under his authority. The First Sekukuni War of 1876 was conducted by the Boers, and the two separate campaigns of the Second Sekukuni War of 1878 / 1879 were conducted by the British.
During the final campaign, Sekukuni (also spelled Sekhukhune) and members of his entourage took refuge in a mountain cave where he was cut off from food and water. He eventually surrendered to a combined deputation of Boer and British forces on 2 December 1879. Sekukuni, members of his family and some Bapedi generals were subsequently imprisoned in Pretoria for two years, with Sekukuniland becoming part of the Transvaal Republic. No gold was ever discovered in the annexed territory.
The first diamond discoveries between 1866 and 1867 were alluvial, on the southern banks of the Orange River. By 1869, diamonds were found at some distance from any stream or river, in hard rock called blue ground, later called kimberlite, after the mining town of Kimberley where the diamond diggings were concentrated. The diggings were located in an area of vague boundaries and disputed land ownership. Claimants to the site included the South African (Transvaal) Republic, the Orange Free State Republic, and the mixed - race Griqua nation under Nicolaas Waterboer. Cape Colony Governor Sir Henry Barkly persuaded all claimants to submit themselves to a decision of an arbitrator and so Robert W Keate, Lieutenant - Governor of Natal was asked to arbitrate. Keate awarded ownership to the Griquas. Waterboer, fearing conflict with the Boer republic of Orange Free State, subsequently asked for and received British protection. Griqualand then became a separate Crown Colony renamed Griqualand West in 1871, with a Lieutenant - General and legislative council.
The Crown Colony of Griqualand West was annexed into the Cape Colony in 1877, enacted into law in 1880. No material benefits accrued to the Griquas as a result of either colonisation or annexation; they did not receive any share of the diamond wealth generated at Kimberley. The Griqua community became subsequently dissimulated.
By the 1870s and 1880s the mines at Kimberley were producing 95 % of the world 's diamonds. The widening search for gold and other resources were financed by the wealth produced and the practical experience gained at Kimberley. Revenue accruing to the Cape Colony from the Kimberley diamond diggings enabled the Cape Colony to be granted responsible government status in 1872, since it was no longer dependent on the British Treasury and hence allowing it to be fully self - governing in similar fashion to the federation of Canada, New Zealand and some of the Australian states. The wealth derived from Kimberley diamond mining, having effectively tripled the customs revenue of the Cape Colony from 1871 to 1875, also doubled its population, and allowed it to expand its boundaries and railways to the north.
In 1888, British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes co-founded De Beers Consolidated Mines at Kimberley, after buying up and amalgamating the individual claims with finance provided by the Rothschild dynasty. Abundant, cheap African labour was central to the success of Kimberley diamond mining, as it would later also be to the success of gold mining on the Witwatersrand. It has been suggested in some academic circles that the wealth produced at Kimberley was a significant factor influencing the Scramble for Africa, in which European powers had by 1902 competed with each other in drawing arbitrary boundaries across almost the entire continent and dividing it among themselves.
Although many tales abound, there is no conclusive evidence as to who first discovered gold or the manner in which it was originally discovered in the late 19th Century on the Witwatersrand (meaning White Waters Ridge) of the Transvaal. The discovery of gold in February 1886 at a farm called Langlaagte on the Witwatersrand in particular precipitated a gold rush by prospectors and fortune seekers from all over the world. Except in rare outcrops, however, the main gold deposits had over many years become covered gradually by thousands of feet of hard rock. Finding and extracting the deposits far below the ground called for the capital and engineering skills that would soon result in the deep - level mines of the Witwatersrand producing a quarter of the world 's gold, with the "instant city '' of Johannesburg arising astride the main Witwatersrand gold reef.
Within two years of gold being discovered on the Witwatersrand, four mining finance houses had been established. The first was formed by Hermann Eckstein in 1887, eventually becoming Rand Mines. Cecil Rhodes and Charles Rudd followed, with their Gold Fields of South Africa company. Rhodes and Rudd had earlier made fortunes from diamond mining at Kimberley. In 1895 there was an investment boom in Witwatersrand gold - mining shares. The precious metal that underpinned international trade would dominate South African exports for decades to come.
Of the leading 25 foreign industrialists who were instrumental in opening up deep level mining operations at the Witwatersrand gold fields, 15 were Jewish, 11 of the total were from Germany or Austria, and nine of that latter category were also Jewish. The commercial opportunities opened by the discovery of gold attracted many other people of European Jewish origin. The Jewish population of South Africa in 1880 numbered approximately 4,000; by 1914 it had grown to more than 40,000, mostly migrants from Lithuania.
The working environment of the mines, meanwhile, as one historian has described it, was "dangerous, brutal and onerous '', and therefor unpopular among local black Africans. Recruitment of black labour began to prove difficult, even with an offer of improved wages. In mid-1903 there remained barely half of the 90,000 black labourers who had been employed in the industry in mid-1899. The decision was made to start importing Chinese indentured labourers who were prepared to work for far less wages than local African labourers. The first 1,000 indentured Chinese labourers arrived in June 1904. By January 1907, 53,000 Chinese labourers were working in the gold mines.
The Transvaal Boer republic was forcefully annexed by Britain in 1877, during Britain 's attempt to consolidate the states of southern Africa under British rule. Long - standing Boer resentment turned into full - blown rebellion in the Transvaal and the first Anglo - Boer War, also known as the Boer Insurrection, broke out in 1880. The conflict ended almost as soon as it began with a decisive Boer victory at Battle of Majuba Hill (27 February 1881).
The republic regained its independence as the Zuid - Afrikaansche Republiek ("South African Republic ''), or ZAR. Paul Kruger, one of the leaders of the uprising, became President of the ZAR in 1883. Meanwhile, the British, who viewed their defeat at Majuba as an aberration, forged ahead with their desire to federate the Southern African colonies and republics. They saw this as the best way to come to terms with the fact of a white Afrikaner majority, as well as to promote their larger strategic interests in the area.
The cause of the Anglo - Boer wars has been attributed to a contest over which nation would control and benefit most from the Witwatersrand gold mines. The enormous wealth of the mines was in the hands of European "Randlords '' overseeing the mainly British foreign managers, mining foremen, engineers and technical specialists, characterised by the Boers as uitlander, meaning aliens. The "aliens '' objected to being denied parliamentary representation and the right to vote, and they complained also of bureaucratic government delays in the issuing of licenses and permits, and general administrative incompetence on the part of the government.
In 1895, a column of mercenaries in the employ of Cecil John Rhodes ' Rhodesian - based Charter Company and led by Captain Leander Starr Jameson had entered the ZAR with the intention of sparking an uprising on the Witwatersrand and installing a British administration there. The armed incursion became known as the Jameson Raid. It ended when the invading column was ambushed and captured by Boer commandos. President Kruger suspected the insurgency had received at least the tacit approval of the Cape Colony government under the premiership of Cecil John Rhodes, and that Kruger 's South African Republic faced imminent danger. Kruger reacted by forming an alliance with the neighbouring Boer republic of Orange Free State. This did not prevent the outbreak of a Second Anglo - Boer war.
Renewed tensions between Britain and the Boers peaked in 1899 when the British demanded voting rights for the 60,000 foreign whites on the Witwatersrand. Until that point, President Paul Kruger 's government had excluded all foreigners from the franchise. Kruger rejected the British demand and called for the withdrawal of British troops from the borders of the South African Republic. When the British refused, Kruger declared war. This Second Anglo - Boer War, also known as the South African War lasted longer than the first, with British troops being supplemented by colonial troops from Southern Rhodesia, Canada, India, Australia and New Zealand. It has been estimated that the total number of British and colonial troops deployed in South Africa during the war outnumbered the population of the two Boer Republics by more than 150,000.
By June 1900, Pretoria, the last of the major Boer towns, had surrendered. Yet resistance by Boer bittereinders (meaning those who would fight to the bitter end) continued for two more years with guerrilla warfare, which the British met in turn with scorched earth tactics. The Boers kept on fighting.
The British suffragette Emily Hobhouse visited British concentration camps in South Africa and produced a report condemning the appalling conditions there. By 1902, 26,000 Boer women and children had died of disease and neglect in the camps.
The Anglo - Boer War affected all race groups in South Africa. Black people were conscripted or otherwise coerced by both sides into working for them either as combatants or non-combatants to sustain the respective war efforts of both the Boers and the British. The official statistics of blacks killed in action are inaccurate. Most of the bodies were dumped in unmarked graves. It has, however, been verified that 17,182 black people died mainly of diseases in the Cape concentration camps alone, but this figure is not accepted historically as a true reflection of the overall numbers. Concentration camp superintendents did not always record the deaths of black inmates in the camps.
From the outset of hostilities in October 1899 to the signing of peace on 31 May 1902 the war claimed the lives of 22,000 imperial soldiers and 7,000 republican fighters. In terms of the peace agreement known as the Treaty of Vereeniging, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British in turn committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control.
During the years immediately following the Anglo - Boer wars, Britain set about unifying the four colonies including the former Boer republics into a single self - governed country called the Union of South Africa. This was accomplished after several years of negotiations, when the South Africa Act 1909 consolidated the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State into one nation. Under the provisions of the act, the Union became an independent Dominion of the British Empire, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, with the British monarch represented by a Governor - General. Prosecutions before the courts of the Union of South Africa were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. The British High Commission territories of Basutoland (now Lesotho), and Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Swaziland continued under direct rule from Britain.
Among other harsh segregationist laws, including denial of voting rights to black people, the Union parliament enacted the 1913 Natives ' Land Act, which earmarked only eight percent of South Africa 's available land for black occupancy. White people, who constituted 20 percent of the population, held 90 percent of the land. The Land Act would form a cornerstone of legalised racial discrimination for the next nine decades.
General Louis Botha headed the first government of the new Union, with General Jan Smuts as his deputy. Their South African National Party, later known as the South African Party or SAP, followed a generally pro-British, white - unity line. The more radical Boers split away under the leadership of General Barry Hertzog, forming the National Party (NP) in 1914. The National Party championed Afrikaner interests, advocating separate development for the two white groups, and independence from Britain.
Dissatisfaction with British influence in the Union 's affairs reached a climax in September 1914, when impoverished Boers, anti-British Boers and bitter - enders launched a rebellion. The rebellion was suppressed, and at least one officer was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad.
In 1924 the Afrikaner - dominated National Party came to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party. Afrikaans, previously regarded as a low - level Dutch patois, replaced Dutch as an official language of the Union. English and Dutch became the two official languages in 1925.
The Union of South Africa came to an end after a referendum on 5 October 1960, during which, a majority of white South Africans voted in favour of unilateral withdrawal from the British Commonwealth and the establishment of a Republic of South Africa.
At the outbreak of World War I, South Africa joined Great Britain and the Allies against the German Empire. Both Prime Minister Louis Botha and Defence Minister Jan Smuts, were former Second Boer War generals who had previously fought against the British, but they now became active and respected members of the Imperial War Cabinet. Elements of the South African Army refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the government; they rose in an open revolt known as the Maritz Rebellion. The government declared martial law on 14 October 1914, and forces loyal to the government under the command of generals Louis Botha and Jan Smuts defeated the rebellion. The rebel leaders were prosecuted, fined heavily and sentenced to imprisonment ranging from six to seven years.
Nearly 250,000 South Africans served in the South African military units supporting the Allies during World War I. This included 43,000 in German South West Africa and 30,000 on the Western Front. An estimated 3,000 South Africans also joined the Royal Flying Corps. The total South African casualties during the war was about 18,600. South Africa assisted the Allied war effort by capturing the two German colonies of German West Africa and German East Africa, as well as participating in battles in Western Europe and the Middle East. In July 1916, four battalions of the South African Brigade attached to the 9th Scottish Division suffered 766 fatalities among the approximately 3,150 South African soldiers who fought in the Battle of Delville Wood, France,. It was the most costly action fought by the South African Brigade on the Western Front. The dead outnumbered the wounded by four to one.
Public opinion in South Africa split along racial and ethnic lines. The British elements strongly supported the war, and formed by far the largest military component. Likewise the Indian element (led by Mahatma Gandhi) generally supported the war effort. Afrikaners were split, with some like Botha and Smuts taking a prominent leadership role in the British war effort. This position was rejected by many rural Afrikaners who supported the Maritz Rebellion. The trade union movement was divided. Many urban blacks supported the war expecting it would raise their status in society. Others said it was not relevant to the struggle for their rights. The Coloured element was generally supportive and many served in a Coloured Corps in East Africa and France, also hoping to better themselves after the war.
25,000 Black South Africans were recruited at the request of the British War Cabinet to serve as non-combatant labourers in the South African Native Labour Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 of them were deployed to France as stevedores at French ports, where they were housed in segregated compounds. A total of 616 men from the Fifth Battalion of the SANLC drowned on 21 February 1917 when the troopship SS Mendi, on which they were being transported to France, collided with another vessel near the Isle of Wight. The Mendi disaster was one of South Africa 's worst tragedies of the Great War, second perhaps only to the Battle of Delville Wood. The South African government issued no war service medal to the black servicemen and the special medal issued by King George V to "native troops '' that served the Empire, the British War Medal in bronze, was disallowed and not issued to the SANLC. Black and mixed - race South Africans who had supported the war were embittered when post-war South Africa saw no easing of white domination and racial segregation.
South Africa 's main economic role was as the country that supplied two - thirds of gold production in the British Empire, most of the remainder coming from Australia. When the war began, Bank of England officials worked with the government of South Africa to block any gold shipments to Germany, and force the mine owners to sell only to the British Treasury, at prices set by the Treasury. This facilitated purchases of munitions and food in the United States and neutral countries.
During World War II, South Africa 's ports and harbours, such as at Cape Town, Durban, and Simon 's Town, were important strategic assets to the British Royal Navy. South Africa 's top - secret Special Signals Service played a significant role in the early development and deployment of radio detection and ranging (radar) technology used in protecting the vital coastal shipping route around southern Africa. By August 1945, South African Air Force aircraft in conjunction with British and Dutch aircraft stationed in South Africa had intercepted 17 enemy ships, assisted in the rescue of 437 survivors of sunken ships, attacked 26 of the 36 enemy submarines operating the vicinity of the South African coast, and flown 15,000 coastal patrol sorties.
About 334,000 South Africans volunteered for full - time military service in support of the Allies abroad. Nearly 9,000 were killed in action. On 21 June 1942 nearly 10,000 South African soldiers, representing one - third of the entire South African force in the field, were taken prisoner by German Field Marshal Rommel 's forces in the fall of Tobruk, Libya. A number of South African fighter pilots served with distinction in the Royal Air Force during the Battle of Britain, including Group Captain Adolph "Sailor '' Malan who led 74 Squadron and established a record of personally destroying 27 enemy aircraft.
General Jan Smuts was the only important non-British general whose advice was constantly sought by Britain 's war - time Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Smuts was invited to the Imperial War Cabinet in 1939 as the most senior South African in favour of war. On 28 May 1941, Smuts was appointed a Field Marshal of the British Army, becoming the first South African to hold that rank. When the war ended, Smuts represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the United Nations Charter in May 1945. Just as he had done in 1919, Smuts urged the delegates to create a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the League of Nations, the UN would have teeth. Smuts also signed the Paris Peace Treaty, resolving the peace in Europe, thus becoming the only signatory of both the treaty ending the First World War, and that which ended the Second.
After the suppression of the abortive, pro-German Maritz Rebellion during the South African World War I campaign against German South West Africa in 1914, the South African rebel General Manie Maritz escaped to Spain. He returned in 1923, and continued working in the Union of South Africa as a German Spy for the Third Reich.
In 1896, the German Kaiser Kaiser Wilhelm had enraged Britain by sending congratulations to Boer republican leader Paul Kruger after Kruger 's commandos captured a column of British South Africa Company soldiers engaged in an armed incursion and abortive insurrection, known historically as the Jameson Raid, into Boer territory. Germany was the primary supplier of weapons to the Boers during the subsequent Anglo - Boer war. Kaiser Wilhelm 's government arranged for the two Boer Republics to purchase modern breech - loading Mauser rifles and millions of smokeless gunpowder cartridges. Germany 's Ludwig Loewe company, later known as Deutsche Waffen - und Munitionfabriken, delivered 55,000 of these rifles to the Boers in 1896.
The early - 1940s saw the pro-Nazi Ossewa Brandwag (OB) movement become half - a-million strong, including future prime minister John Vorster and Hendrik van den Bergh, the future head of police intelligence. The anti-semitic Boerenasie (Boer Nation) and other similar groups soon joined them. When the war ended, the OB was one of the anti-parliamentary groups absorbed into the National Party.
The South African Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging or AWB (meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement), a militant neo-Nazi, mainly Afrikaner white supremacist movement that arose in the 1970s, and was active until the mid-1990s, openly used a flag that closely resembled the swastika. In the early to mid-1990s, the AWB attempted unsuccessfully through various acts of public violence and intimidation to derail the country 's transition to democracy. After the country 's first multiracial democratic elections in 1994, a number of terrorist bomb blasts were linked to the AWB. On 11 March 1994, several hundred AWB members formed part of an armed right - wing force that invaded the nominally independent "homeland '' territory of Bophuthatswana, in a failed attempt to prop up its unpopular, conservative leader Chief Lucas Mangope. The AWB leader Eugène Terre'Blanche was murdered by farm workers on 3 April 2010.
A majority of politically moderate Afrikaners were pragmatic and did not support the AWB 's extremism.
Racist legislation during the apartheid era was a continuation and extension of discriminatory and segregationist laws forming a continuum that had commenced in 1856, under Dutch rule in the Cape and continued throughout the country under British colonialism.
From 1948, successive National Party administrations formalised and extended the existing system of racial discrimination and denial of human rights into the legal system of apartheid, which lasted until 1991. A key act of legislation during this time was the Homeland Citizens Act of 1970. This act augmented the Native Land Act of 1913 through the establishment of so - called "homelands '' or "reserves ''. It authorised the forced evictions of thousands of African people from urban centres in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) to what became described colloquially as "Bantustans '' or the "original homes '', as they were officially referred to, of the black tribes of South Africa. The same legislation applied also to South West Africa over which South Africa had continued after World War I to exercise a disputed League of Nations mandate. Apartheid apologists attempted to justify the "homelands '' policy by citing the 1947 partition of India, when the British had done much the same thing without arousing international condemnation.
Although many important events occurred during this period, apartheid remained the central pivot around which most of the historical issues of this period revolved, including violent conflict and the militarisation of South African society. By 1987, total military expenditure amounted to about 28 % of the national budget.
In the aftermath of the 1976 Soweto uprising and the security clampdown that accompanied it, Joint Management Centres (JMCs) operating in at least 34 State - designated "high - risk '' areas became the key element in a National Security Management System. The police and military who controlled the JMCs by the mid-1980s were endowed with influence in decision - making at every level, from the Cabinet down to local government.
On 16 December 1966, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2202 A (XXI) identified apartheid as a "crime against humanity ''. The Apartheid Convention, as it came to be known, was adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1973 with 91 member states voting in favour, four against (Portugal, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States) and 26 abstentions. The convention came into force on 18 July 1976. On 23 October 1984 the UN Security Council endorsed this formal determination. The convention declared that apartheid was both unlawful and criminal because it violated the Charter of the United Nations. The General Assembly had already suspended South Africa from the UN organisation on 12 November 1974. On 4 November 1977, the Security Council imposed a mandatory arms embargo in terms of Resolution 181 calling upon all States to cease the sale and shipment of arms, ammunition and military vehicles to South Africa. The country would only be readmitted to the UN in 1994 following its transition to democracy. Apartheid South Africa reacted to the UN arms embargo by strengthening its military ties with Israel, and establishing its own arms manufacturing industry: with the help of Israel. Four hundred M - 113A1 armoured personnel carriers, and 106mm recoilless rifles manufactured in the United States were delivered to South Africa via Israel.
In the mid-1980s, police and army death squads conducted state - sponsored assassinations of dissidents and activists. By mid-1987 the Human Rights Commission knew of at least 140 political assassinations in the country, while about 200 people died at the hands of South African agents in neighbouring states. The exact numbers of all the victims may never be known. Strict censorship disallowed journalists from reporting, filming or photographing such incidents, while the government ran its own covert disinformation programme that provided distorted accounts of the extrajudicial killings. At the same time, State - sponsored vigilante groups carried out violent attacks on communities and community leaders associated with resistance to apartheid. The attacks were then falsely attributed by the government to "black - on - black '' or factional violence within the communities.
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) would later establish that a covert, informal network of former or still serving army and police operatives, frequently acting in conjunction with extreme right - wing elements, was involved in actions that could be construed as fomenting violence and which resulted in gross human rights violations, including random and targeted killings. Between 1960 -- 1994, according to statistics from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the Inkatha Freedom Party was responsible for 4,500 deaths, South African Police 2,700, and the ANC about 1,300.
In early 2002, a planned military coup by a white supremacist movement known as the Boeremag (Boer Force) was foiled by the South African police. Two dozen conspirators including senior South African Army officers were arrested on charges of treason and murder, after a bomb explosion in Soweto. The effectiveness of the police in foiling the planned coup strengthened public perceptions that the democratic order was irreversible.
The TRC, at the conclusion of its mandate in 2004, handed over a list of 300 names of alleged perpetrators to the National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) for investigation and prosecution by the NPA 's Priority Crimes Litigation Unit. Less than a handful of prosecutions were ever pursued.
South African security forces during the latter part of the apartheid era, had a policy of destabilising neighbouring states supporting opposition movements, conducting sabotage operations and attacking ANC bases and places of refuge for exiles in those states. These states, forming a regional alliance of southern African states, were named collectively as the Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and, from 1980, Zimbabwe.
In early - November 1975, immediately after Portugal granted independence to its former African colony of Angola, civil war broke out between the rival UNITA and MPLA movements. In order to prevent UNITA 's collapse and cement the rule of a friendly government, South Africa intervened on 23 October, sending between 1,500 and 2,000 troops from Namibia into southern Angola in order to fight the MPLA. In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18,000 soldiers as part of a large - scale military intervention nicknamed Operation Carlota in support of the MPLA. Cuba had initially provided the MPLA with 230 military advisers prior to the South African intervention. The Cuban intervention was decisive in helping reverse SADF and UNITA advances and cement MPLA rule in Angola. More than a decade later 36,000 Cuban troops were deployed throughout the country helping providing support for MPLA 's fight with UNITA. The civil war in Angola resulted in 550,000 -- 1,250,000 deaths in total mostly from famine. Most of the deaths occurred between 1992 and 1993, after South African and Cuban involvement had ended. Direct war damage in Angola alone amounted to over $17,000,000,000 in the period 1980 -- 88. Loss of farm production amounted to a further $1,000,000,000.
Between 1975 and 1988, the SADF continued to stage massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLAN 's forward operating bases across the border from Namibia as well as provide support for UNITA. A controversial bombing and airborne assault conducted by 200 South African paratroopers on 4 May 1978 at Cassinga in southern Angola, resulted in around 700 South West Africans being killed, including PLAN millitants and a large number of women and children. Colonel Jan Breytenbach, the South African parachute battalion commander, claimed it was "recognised in Western military circles as the most successful airborne assault since World War II. '' The Angolan government described the target of the attack as a refugee camp. The United Nations Security Council on 6 May 1978 condemned South Africa for the attack. On 23 August 1981 South African troops again launched an incursion into Angola with collaboration and encouragement provided by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The Angolan army, in resisting what it perceived as a South African invasion, was supported by a combination of Cuban forces and PLAN and ANC guerrillas, all armed with weapons supplied by the Soviet Union. The apartheid - era South African military and political intelligence services, for their part, worked closely with American, British and West German secret services throughout the Cold War.
Both South Africa and Cuba claimed victory at the decisive battle of Cuito Cuanavale, which have been described as "the fiercest in Africa since World War II ''. However, the South African military had lost air superiority and its technological advantage, largely due to an international arms embargo against the country. South African involvement in Angola ended formally after the signing of a United Nations - brokered agreement known as the New York Accords between the governments of Angola, Cuba and South Africa, resulting in the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Angola and also South Africa 's withdrawal from South West Africa (now Namibia), which the UN regarded as illegally occupied since 1966.
South Africa in the 1980s also provided logistical and other covert support to Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO) rebels, in neighbouring Mozambique fighting the FRELIMO - run government during the Mozambique Civil War, and it launched cross-border raids into Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana, killing or capturing a number of South African exiles. The civil war in Mozambique resulted in an estimated 1,000,000 deaths from violence and famine.
Organised resistance to Afrikaner nationalism was not confined exclusively to activists of the oppressed, dark - skinned population. A movement known as the Torch Commando was formed in the 1950s, led by white war veterans who had fought fascism in Europe and North Africa during World War II, only to find fascism on the rise in South Africa when they returned home. With 250,000 paid - up members at the height of its existence, it was the largest white protest movement in the country 's history. By 1952, the brief flame of mass - based white radicalism was extinguished, when the Torch Commando disbanded due to government legislation under the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950. Some members of the Torch Commando subsequently became leading figures in the armed wing of the banned African National Congress.
From the 1940s to the 1960s, anti-apartheid resistance within the country took the form mainly of passive resistance, influenced in part by the pacifist ideology of Mahatma Gandhi. After the March 1960 massacre of 69 peaceful demonstrators at Sharpeville, and the subsequent declaration of a state of emergency, and the banning of anti-apartheid parties including the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), and the Communist Party of South Africa, the focus of national resistance turned to armed struggle and underground activity. The armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto weSizwe (abbreviation MK, meaning Spear of the Nation) claimed moral legitimacy for the resort to violence on the grounds of necessary defence and just war. From the 1960s onwards until 1989, MK carried out numerous acts of sabotage and attacks on military and police personnel. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission noted in 2003 that, despite the ANC 's stated policy of attacking only military and police targets, "the majority of casualties of MK operations were civilians. ''
The national liberation movement was divided in the early 1960s when an "Africanist '' faction within the ANC objected to an alliance between the ANC and the Communist Party of South Africa. Leaders of the Communist Party of South Africa were mostly white. The Africanists broke away from the ANC to form the Pan-Africanist Congress and its military wing named Poqo, which became active mainly in the Cape provinces. During the early - 1990s, Poqo was renamed Azanian People 's Liberation Army (APLA). Its underground cells conducted armed robberies to raise funds and obtain weapons and vehicles. Civilians were killed or injured in many of these robberies. In 1993, attacks on white civilian targets in public places increased. APLA denied the attacks were racist in character, claiming that the attacks were directed against the apartheid government as all whites, according to the PAC, were complicit in the policy of apartheid. An attack on a Christian church in Cape Town in 1993, left eleven people dead and 58 injured.
Hundreds of students and others who fled to neighbouring countries, especially Botswana, to avoid arrest after the Soweto uprising of 16 June 1976, provided a fertile recruiting ground for the military wings of both the ANC and PAC. The uprising had been precipitated by Government legislation forcing African students to accept Afrikaans as the official medium for tuition. with support from the wider Black Consciousness Movement. The uprising spread throughout the country. By the time it was finally quelled, hundreds of protesters had been shot dead with many more wounded or arrested by police.
A non-racial United Democratic Front (UDF) coalition of about 400 civic, church, student, trade union and other organisations emerged in 1983. At its peak in 1987, the UDF had some 700 affiliates and about 3,000,000 members. It pursued a non-violent strategy known as "ungovernability '' including rent boycotts, student protests, and strike campaigns. A strong relationship existed between the African National Congress (ANC) and the UDF, based on the shared mission statement of the Freedom Charter. Following restrictions placed on its activities, the UDF was replaced in 1988 by the Mass Democratic Movement, a loose and amorphous alliance of anti-apartheid groups that had no permanent structure, making it difficult for the government to place a ban on its activities.
A total of 130 political prisoners were hanged on the gallows of Pretoria Central Prison between 1960 and 1990. The prisoners were mainly members of the Pan Africanist Congress and United Democratic Front.
The dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late - 1980s meant the African National Congress (ANC) in alliance with the South African Communist Party, could no longer depend on the Soviet Union for weaponry and political support. It also meant the apartheid government could no longer link apartheid and its purported legitimacy to the protection of Christian values and civilisation in the face of the rooi gevaar, meaning "red danger '' or the threat of communism. Both sides were forced to the negotiating table, with the result that in June 1991, all apartheid laws were finally rescinded - opening the way for the country 's first multiracial democratic elections three years later. It was the culmination of mounting local and international opposition to apartheid in the 1980s, including the armed struggle, widespread civil unrest, economic and cultural sanctions by the international community, and pressure from the anti-apartheid movement around the world, State President FW de Klerk announced the lifting of the ban on the African National Congress, the Pan Africanist Congress and the South African Communist Party, as well as the release of political prisoner Nelson Mandela on 2 February 1990, after twenty - seven years in prison. In a referendum held on 17 March 1992, the white electorate voted 68 % in favour of democracy.
After lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), a draft constitution was published on 26 July 1993, containing concessions towards all sides: a federal system of regional legislatures, equal voting - rights regardless of race, and a bicameral legislature.
From 26 -- 29 April 1994, the South African population voted in the first universal suffrage general elections. The African National Congress won, well ahead of the governing National Party and the Inkatha Freedom Party. The Democratic Party and Pan Africanist Congress, among others, formed a parliamentary opposition in the country 's first non-racial parliament. Nelson Mandela was elected as President on 9 May 1994 and formed a Government of National Unity, consisting of the ANC, the National Party and Inkatha. On 10 May 1994 Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa 's new President in Pretoria with Thabo Mbeki and F.W. De Klerk as his vice-presidents. The Government of National Unity lapsed at the end of the first parliament sitting in 1999, with the ANC becoming the sole party in power while maintaining a strategic alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party. After considerable debate, and following submissions from advocacy groups, individuals and ordinary citizens, the Parliament enacted a new Constitution and Bill of Rights in 1996. The death penalty was abolished, land reform and redistribution policies were introduced, and equitable labour laws legislated.
The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled, white South Africans amid safety concerns. The South African Institute of Race Relations estimated in 2008 that 800,000 or more white people had emigrated since 1995, out of the approximately 4,000,000 who were in South Africa when apartheid formally ended the year before. Large white South African diasporas, both English - and Afrikaans - speaking, sprouted in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and especially in the UK to which around 550,000 South Africans emigrated.
The apartheid government had declared a moratorium on foreign debt repayments in the mid-1980s, when it declared a state of emergency in the face of escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the new democratic government was saddled with an onerous foreign debt amounting to 86,700,000,000 rands ($14,000,000,000 at then current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. The cash - strapped post-apartheid government was obliged to repay this debt or else face a credit downgrading by foreign financial institutions. The debt was finally settled in September 2001.
A further financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid government through its obligation to provide antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to impoverished victims of the HIV / AIDS epidemic sweeping the country. South Africa had the highest prevalence of HIV / AIDS compared to any other country in the world, with 5,600,000 people afflicted by the disease and 270,000 HIV - related deaths were recorded in 2011. By that time, more than 2,000,000 children were orphaned due to the epidemic. The provision of ARV treatment resulted in 100,000 fewer AIDS - related deaths in 2011 than in 2005.
Migrant labour remained a fundamental aspect of the South African mining industry, which employed half a million mostly black miners. Labour unrest in the industry resulted in a massacre in mid-August 2012, when anti-riot police shot dead 34 striking miners and wounded many more in what is known as the Marikana massacre. The incident was widely criticised by the public, civil society organisations and religious leaders. The migrant labour system was identified as a primary cause of the unrest. Multi-national mining corporations including Anglo - American Corporation, Lonmin, and Anglo Platinum, were accused of failing to address the enduring legacies of apartheid.
By 2014, around 47 % of mostly black South Africans continued to live in poverty, making it one of the most unequal countries in the world. Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio - economic transformation, government incompetence and maladministration, and other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, precipitated many violent protest demonstrations. In 2007, less than half the protests were associated with some form of violence, compared with 2014, when almost 80 % of protests involved violence on the part of the participants or the authorities. The slow pace of transformation also fomented tensions within the tripartite alliance between the ANC, the Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions.
The ANC had risen to power on the strength of a socialist agenda embodied in a Freedom Charter, which was intended to form the basis of ANC social, economic and political policies. The Charter decreed that "the national wealth of our country, the heritage of South Africans, shall be restored to the people; the mineral wealth beneath the soil, the banks and monopoly industry shall be transferred to the ownership of the people ''. ANC icon Nelson Mandela, asserted in a statement released on 25 January 1990: "The nationalisation of the mines, banks and monopoly industries is the policy of the ANC, and a change or modification of our views in this regard is inconceivable. '' But, after the ANC 's electoral victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalisation was never implemented. The ANC - led government, in a historic reversal of policy, adopted neoliberalism instead. A wealth tax on the super-rich to fund developmental projects was set aside, while domestic and international corporations, enriched by apartheid, were excused from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to shift their main listings abroad. According to a leading South African economics expert, the government 's concessions to big business represented "treacherous decisions that (will) haunt South Africa for generations to come ''.
The post-apartheid period has been marked by numerous outbreaks of xenophobic attacks against foreign migrants and asylum seekers from various conflict zones in Africa. An academic study conducted in 2006, found that South Africans showed levels of xenophobia greater than anywhere else in the world. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) found that competition over jobs, business opportunities, public services and housing gave rise to tension among refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and host communities, identified as a main cause of the xenophobic violence. South Africa received more than 207,000 individual asylum applications in 2008 and a further 222,300 in 2009, representing nearly a four-fold rise in both years over the levels seen in 2007. These refugees and asylum seekers originated mainly from Zimbabwe, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.
Under the post-apartheid Constitution the president is head of both state and government. The president is elected by the National Assembly and serves a term that expires at the next general election; a president may serve a maximum of two terms. In the event of a vacancy the Deputy President serves as Acting President.
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the girl with the dragon tattoo 2009 movie | The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2009 film) - wikipedia
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (Swedish: Män som hatar kvinnor, literally "Men who hate women '') is a 2009 Swedish drama thriller film based on the novel of the same name by Swedish author / journalist Stieg Larsson. It is the first book in the trilogy known as the Millennium series, published in Sweden in 2005. By August 2009, it had been sold to 25 countries outside Scandinavia and had been seen by more than 6 million people in the countries where it was already released. Directed by Niels Arden Oplev, the film stars Michael Nyqvist and Noomi Rapace.
In December 2002, Mikael Blomkvist, publisher of Millennium magazine, loses a libel case involving allegations he published about billionaire financier Hans - Erik Wennerström. He is sentenced to three months in prison and a hefty fine. Lisbeth Salander, a brilliant but damaged surveillance agent and hacker, is hired by Henrik Vanger, the patriarch of the wealthy Vanger family, to investigate Blomkvist. Vanger then hires Blomkvist to investigate the disappearance of his niece, Harriet, who vanished on Children 's Day in 1966. Vanger believes that Harriet was murdered by a family member.
Salander, who was ruled mentally incompetent as a child, is appointed a new legal guardian, Nils Bjurman (Peter Andersson), after her previous guardian suffers a stroke. Bjurman, a sexual sadist, forces Salander to perform fellatio on him in return for the money she needs to buy a new computer; he withholds the full amount she has requested. At her next meeting with Bjurman, he beats and rapes her. Having used a hidden camera to record Bjurman raping her, Salander returns to take her revenge, torturing and threatening to ruin him unless he gives her full control of her life and finances. She then uses a tattoo gun to brand Bjurman 's abdomen with the message "I am a sadist pig and a rapist ''.
Blomkvist moves to a cottage on the Vanger estate and meets the Vanger family, including Harriet 's brother Martin and cousin Cecilia. Inside Harriet 's diary, he finds a list of five names alongside what might appear to be phone numbers. He visits retiring police inspector Morell, who informs him that his investigation team had been unable to decipher them. After viewing photographs taken during the Children 's Day parade, Blomkvist sees Harriet 's facial expression change suddenly just before she leaves and, after obtaining photographs taken from the same side of the street as her, comes to believe that Harriet may have seen her murderer that day.
Using her access to Blomkvist 's computer, Salander learns that the numbers in Harriet 's diary are references to verses in the Book of Leviticus and emails Blomkvist anonymously. Blomkvist works out that Salander sent the mail and hires her as a research assistant. Together, Blomkvist and Salander connect all but one of the names on Harriet 's list to murdered women. They are all Jewish names, which intrigues Blomkvist, as the Vanger family has a long history of antisemitism. During the investigation, Blomkvist and Salander become lovers.
They suspect Henrik 's reclusive brother Harald to be the murderer, as the two other Vanger brothers had already died by the time Harriet disappeared. Salander searches through Vanger 's business records to trace Harald to the crime scenes, while Blomkvist breaks into Harald 's house, believing it to be unoccupied. When Harald attacks Blomkvist, Martin appears and saves him. He escorts Blomkvist to his home, where Blomkvist reveals what he and Salander have uncovered. Martin drugs him. Salander 's search of the company accounts points to Martin and his late father, Gottfried, having been jointly responsible for the murders. She returns to the cottage to find Blomkvist missing.
Blomkvist wakes to find himself bound in Martin 's cellar. Martin boasts about raping and murdering women for decades but denies killing Harriet, insisting that she disappeared. As Martin is in the process of hanging Blomkvist, Salander appears and attacks Martin with a golf club. While she frees Blomkvist, Martin flees in his car. Salander gives chase on her motorcycle. When Martin drives off the road, Salander finds him still alive but trapped in the vehicle. As the car goes up in flames, she makes no attempt to save him.
Blomkvist realizes that Cecilia 's late sister Anita was the near - double of Harriet and that some of the film taken on the day of Harriet 's disappearance show Anita, not Harriet as previously thought. Blomkvist and Salander discover that Harriet has been using Anita 's name and is still alive in Australia. Blomkvist flies there to look for her, and he persuades her to return to Sweden, where she is reunited with her uncle. Harriet explains the truth about her disappearance: that her father and her brother had repeatedly raped her; that she killed her father by drowning him, only to find herself being blackmailed by Martin; and that her cousin Anita had smuggled her away from the island.
Salander 's mother, living in a nursing home, apologizes for not choosing a "better papa '' for her. Salander then visits Blomkvist in prison and gives him new information on the Wennerström case. From prison, Blomkvist publishes a new story on Wennerström in Millennium, which ruins Wennerström and makes the magazine a national sensation. Wennerström is then found dead, a presumed suicide. His offshore bank account in the Cayman Islands is raided; the police suspect a young woman caught on CCTV, whom Blomkvist recognizes as Salander in disguise. The film ends with Salander, dressed in disguise as she exits her car, walking along a sunny beach promenade.
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was well received by critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a normalized score of 86 % based on 168 reviews, with an average score of 7.2 / 10 and declares it "Certified Fresh ''. The critical consensus is: "Its graphic violence and sprawling length will prove too much for some viewers to take, but Noomi Rapace 's gripping performance makes The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo an unforgettable viewing experience. '' Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 76 % based on reviews from 36 critics. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four out of four stars, noting that "(the film) is a compelling thriller to begin with, but it adds the rare quality of having a heroine more fascinating than the story ''.
The film grossed more than $10 million in North America in a limited release of 202 theatres. The total gross worldwide is $104,617,430.
French premium pay television channel Canal+ aired extended versions of the three movies as a mini-series (6 × 90 minutes) between March and June 2010, before the theatrical release of the second and third films. The series premiere attracted over 1.1 million viewers. Considering the network is only available in 8 million French households, the series was a substantial success. The series aired on US pay - for - view cable networks in the weeks leading up to the release of David Fincher 's 2011 film adaptation of the novel.
In France, the audience of the Canal+ broadcast of the first part on 22 March 2010 was 1.2 million (18 % of the channel 's subscribers in the country) and the largest audience of a foreign series at Canal+ that year.
A home video set of all six parts of the mini-series was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc by Music Box Home Entertainment on 6 December 2011.
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what was being protested at the time of the boston massacre | Boston Massacre - wikipedia
The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was a confrontation on March 5, 1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed five people while under harassment by locals. The incident was heavily publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams, to encourage rebellion against the British authorities. British troops had been stationed in Boston, capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, since 1768 in order to protect and support crown - appointed colonial officials attempting to enforce unpopular Parliamentary legislation.
Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and harassment. He was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and repeatedly hit by clubs, stones and snowballs. They fired into the crowd, without orders, instantly killing three people and wounding others. Two more people died later of wounds sustained in the incident.
The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, but the crowd re-formed the next day, prompting the withdrawal of the troops to Castle Island. Eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, while the other two were convicted of manslaughter and given reduced sentences. The men found guilty of manslaughter were sentenced to branding on their hand.
Depictions, reports, and propaganda about the event, notably the colored engraving produced by Paul Revere (shown at top - right), further heightened tensions throughout the Thirteen Colonies.
Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of common items that were manufactured in Britain and exported to the colonies were subjected to import tariffs. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, and constitutional rights of British subjects in the colonies. The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. The House also sent what became known as the Massachusetts Circular Letter to other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement, and called for a boycott of merchants importing the affected goods.
In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. The house refused to comply.
Boston 's chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, asking for military support because "the Government is as much in the hands of the people as it was in the time of the Stamp Act. '' Commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty - gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10, 1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection.
-- Excerpt from A Short Narrative, suggesting the soldiers were contemplating violence against the colonists
Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief, North America, to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston ''. On October 1, 1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston. Two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained.
The Journal of Occurrences, an anonymously written series of newspaper articles, chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers while troops were stationed in Boston, feeding tensions with its sometimes exaggerated accounts of the events. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, "a young lad about eleven Years of Age '', was killed by a customs employee on February 22, 1770. Seider 's death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston. The killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation.
On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on guard duty outside the Custom house on King Street, today known as State Street. A young wigmaker 's apprentice named Edward Garrick called out to a British officer, Captain - Lieutenant John Goldfinch, that Goldfinch had not paid a bill due to Garrick 's master. Goldfinch had in fact settled his account and ignored the insult. Private White called out to Garrick that he should be more respectful of the officer. Garrick exchanged insults with Private White. Then, after Garrick started poking the officer in the chest with his finger, the officer left his post, challenged the boy, and struck him on the side of the head with his musket. As Garrick cried in pain, one of his companions, Bartholomew Broaders, began to argue with White. This attracted a larger crowd. Henry Knox, a 19 - year - old bookseller (who would later serve as a general in the revolution), came upon the scene and warned White, "if he fired he must die for it. ''
As the evening progressed, the crowd around Private White grew larger and more boisterous. Church bells were rung, which usually signified a fire, bringing more people out. Over fifty Bostonians pressed around White, led by a mixed - race former slave named Crispus Attucks, throwing objects at the sentry and challenging him to fire his weapon. White, who had taken up a somewhat safer position on the steps of the Custom House, sought assistance. Runners alerted the nearby barracks and Captain Thomas Preston, the officer of the watch. According to his report, Preston dispatched a non-commissioned officer and six privates of the 29th Regiment of Foot, with fixed bayonets, to relieve White. The soldiers Preston sent were Corporal William Wemms, Hugh Montgomery, John Carroll, William McCauley, William Warren, and Matthew Kilroy. Accompanied by Preston, they pushed their way through the crowd. En route, Henry Knox, again trying to reduce tensions, warned Preston, "For God 's sake, take care of your men. If they fire, you must die. '' Captain Preston responded "I am aware of it. '' When they reached Private White on the custom house stairs, the soldiers loaded their muskets, and arrayed themselves in a semicircular formation. Preston shouted at the crowd, estimated to number between three and four hundred, to disperse.
The crowd continued to press around the soldiers, taunting them by yelling, "Fire! '', by spitting at and throwing snowballs and other small objects at them. Richard Palmes, a local innkeeper who was carrying a cudgel, came up to Preston and asked if the soldiers ' weapons were loaded. Preston assured him they were, but that they would not fire unless he ordered it, and (according to his own deposition) that he was unlikely to do so, since he was standing in front of them. A thrown object then struck Private Montgomery, knocking him down and causing him to drop his musket. He recovered his weapon, and was thought to angrily shout "Damn you, fire! '', then discharged it into the crowd although no command was given. Palmes swung his cudgel first at Montgomery, hitting his arm, and then at Preston. He narrowly missed Preston 's head, striking him on the arm instead.
There was a pause of uncertain length (eyewitness estimates ranged from several seconds to two minutes), after which the soldiers fired into the crowd. Rather than a disciplined volley (Preston gave no orders to fire), a ragged series of shots was fired, which hit eleven men. Three Americans -- ropemaker Samuel Gray, mariner James Caldwell, and Attucks -- died instantly. Samuel Maverick, an apprentice ivory turner of seventeen, was struck by a ricocheting musket ball at the back of the crowd, and died a few hours later, in the early morning of the next day. An Irish immigrant, Patrick Carr, died two weeks later. Christopher Monk, another apprentice, was one of those seriously wounded in the attack. Although he recovered to some extent, he was crippled and eventually died in 1780, purportedly due to the injuries he had sustained in the attack a decade earlier.
The crowd moved away from the immediate area of the custom house, but continued to grow in nearby streets. Captain Preston immediately called out most of the 29th Regiment, which adopted defensive positions in front of the state house. Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson was summoned to the scene, and was forced by the movement of the crowd into the council chamber of the state house. From its balcony he was able to minimally restore order, promising there would be a fair inquiry into the shootings if the crowd dispersed.
Hutchinson immediately began investigating the affair, and by morning, Preston and the eight soldiers had been arrested. In a meeting of the governor 's council held late the morning after the shootings, Boston 's selectmen asked Hutchinson to order the removal of troops from the city to Castle William on Castle Island, while a town meeting at Faneuil Hall met to discuss the affair. The governor 's council was at first opposed to ordering the troop withdrawal, with Hutchinson correctly claiming he did not have the authority to order the troops to move. Lieutenant Colonel William Dalrymple, commander of the troops, did not offer to move them. The town meeting, however, became more restive when it learned of this. Under an imminent threat of further violence, the council changed its position, and unanimously ("under duress '', according to Hutchinson 's report) agreed to request the troops ' removal. Secretary of State Andrew Oliver reported that, had the troops not been removed, "that they would probably be destroyed by the people -- should it be called rebellion, should it incur the loss of our charter, or be the consequence what it would. '' This decision left the governor without effective means to police the town. The 14th was transferred to Castle Island without incident about a week later, with the 29th following shortly after. The first four victims were buried amid great ceremony on March 8; Patrick Carr, the fifth and final victim, died on March 14 and was buried with them on March 17 in the Granary Burying Ground, one of Boston 's oldest burial grounds...
-- Excerpt from A Fair Account, suggesting the colonists planned the attack on the soldiers
On March 27 the eight soldiers, Captain Preston, and four civilians who were in the Customs House and were alleged to have fired shots, were all indicted for murder. Bostonians continued to be hostile to the troops and their dependents. General Gage, convinced the troops were doing more harm than good, ordered the 29th Regiment out of the province in May. Governor Hutchinson took advantage of the ongoing high tensions to orchestrate delays of the trials until later in the year.
In the days and weeks following the incident, a propaganda battle was waged between Boston 's radicals and supporters of the government. Both sides published pamphlets that told strikingly different stories, which were principally published in London in a bid to influence opinion there. The Boston Gazette 's version of events, for example, characterized the massacre as part of an ongoing scheme to "quell a Spirit of Liberty '', and harped on the negative consequences of quartering troops in the city.
A young Boston artist, Henry Pelham, half - brother of the celebrated portrait painter John Singleton Copley, depicted the event. Silversmith and engraver Paul Revere closely copied Pelham 's image, and is often credited as its originator. In order to further public outrage, the engraving contained several inflammatory details. Captain Preston is shown ordering his men to fire, and a musket is seen shooting out of the window of the customs office, which is labeled "Butcher 's Hall. '' Artist Christian Remick hand - colored some prints. Some copies of the print show a man with two chest wounds and a somewhat darker face, matching descriptions of Attucks; others show no victim as a person of color. The image was published in the Boston Gazette, circulating widely, and became an effective piece of anti-British propaganda. The image of bright red "lobster backs '' and wounded men with red blood was hung in farmhouses across New England.
Anonymous pamphlets were published describing the event from significantly different perspectives. A Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre, published under the auspices of the Boston town meeting, was principally written by James Bowdoin, a member of the governor 's council and a vocal opponent of British colonial policy, along with Samuel Pemberton, and Joseph Warren. It described the shooting and other lesser incidents that took place in the days before as unprovoked attacks on peaceful, law - abiding inhabitants, and was, according to historian Neal Langley York, probably the most influential description of the event. The account it provided was drawn from more than 90 depositions taken after the event, and it included accusations that the soldiers sent by Captain Preston had been deployed with the intention of causing harm. In the interest of minimizing impact on the jury pool, city leaders held back local distribution of the pamphlet, but sent copies to other colonies and to London, where they knew depositions collected by Governor Hutchinson were en route. A second pamphlet, Additional Observations on the Short Narrative, furthered the attack on crown officials by complaining that customs officials (one of whom had left Boston to carry Hutchinson 's gathered depositions to London) were abandoning their posts under the pretense that it was too dangerous for them to do their duties.
The depositions that Hutchinson collected and sent to London were eventually published in a pamphlet entitled A Fair Account of the Late Unhappy Disturbance in Boston. Drawn mainly from depositions by soldiers, its account of affairs sought to blame selfish Bostonians for denying the validity of Parliamentary laws. It also blamed the city 's hoodlums and gangs for the lawlessness preceding the event, and claimed that they set up an ambush of the soldiers. However, as it was not published until well after the first pamphlet had arrived in London, it ended up having a much smaller impact on the public debate there.
The Part I took in Defence of Cptn. Preston and the Soldiers, procured me Anxiety, and Obloquy enough. It was, however, one of the most gallant, generous, manly and disinterested Actions of my whole Life, and one of the best Pieces of Service I ever rendered my Country. Judgment of Death against those Soldiers would have been as foul a Stain upon this Country as the Executions of the Quakers or Witches, anciently. As the Evidence was, the Verdict of the Jury was exactly right. This however is no Reason why the Town should not call the Action of that Night a Massacre, nor is it any Argument in favour of the Governor or Minister, who caused them to be sent here. But it is the strongest Proofs of the Danger of Standing Armies.
The government was determined to give the soldiers a fair trial so there could be no grounds for retaliation from the British and so moderates would not be alienated from the Patriot cause. After several lawyers with Loyalist leanings refused to defend him, Preston sent a request to John Adams, pleading for him to work on the case. Adams, who was already a leading Patriot and who was contemplating a run for public office, agreed to help, in the interest of ensuring a fair trial. Adams was joined by Josiah Quincy II after the latter was assured that the Sons of Liberty would not oppose his appointment, and by Robert Auchmuty, a Loyalist. They were assisted by Sampson Salter Blowers, whose chief duty was to investigate the jury pool, and Paul Revere, who drew a detailed map of the bodies to be used in the trial of the British soldiers held responsible. Massachusetts Solicitor General Samuel Quincy and private attorney Robert Treat Paine, hired by the town of Boston, handled the prosecution. Preston was tried separately in late October 1770. He was acquitted after the jury was convinced that he had not ordered the troops to fire.
The trial of the eight soldiers opened on November 27, 1770. Adams told the jury to look beyond the fact the soldiers were British. He argued that if the soldiers were endangered by the mob, which he called "a motley rabble of saucy boys, negroes, and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish jack tarrs (i.e. sailors) '', they had the legal right to fight back, and so were innocent. If they were provoked but not endangered, he argued, they were at most guilty of manslaughter.
The jury agreed with Adams and acquitted six of the soldiers after two and one - half hours ' deliberation. Two of the soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter because there was overwhelming evidence that they had fired directly into the crowd. The jury 's decisions suggest that they believed the soldiers had felt threatened by the crowd, but should have delayed firing. The convicted soldiers were granted reduced sentences by pleading benefit of clergy, which reduced their punishment from a death sentence to branding of the thumb in open court.
Carr 's deathbed account of the event is regarded as the most important piece of evidence exonerating the eight defendants of murder charges. Carr testified that the soldiers were provoked by the crowd and that the soldiers were much more restrained against the colonists compared to their usual tactics against the people of his native country of Ireland. He claimed that the Boston mob began to throw dangerous projectiles, and that the soldiers fired their muskets in self - defense. The testimony of Samuel Hemmingway is reprinted below:
When Justices Edmund Trowbridge and Peter Oliver instructed the jury, Oliver specifically addressed Carr 's testimony, stating: "this Carr was not upon oath, it is true, but you will determine whether a man just stepping into eternity is not to be believed, especially in favor of a set of men by whom he had lost his life ''. Carr 's testimony is one of the earliest recorded uses of the dying declaration exception to the inadmissibility of hearsay evidence in United States legal code.
Carr 's deathbed testimony was used by defense attorney, and future U.S. President, John Adams to exonerate six of the eight defendants on all charges. The other two defendants had their conviction charges reduced from murder to manslaughter, avoiding capital punishment. Adams was further able to circumvent mandated imprisonment for manslaughter through benefit of clergy laws. The two soldiers were subsequently branded on their right thumbs.
When Carr 's evidence was determined admissible by the court, Samuel Adams was purported to be outraged. Adams proclaimed that Carr 's testimony could not be trusted, since Carr had been Roman Catholic.
The four civilians were tried on December 13. The principal prosecution witness, a servant of one of the accused, made claims that were easily rebutted by defense witnesses. In the face of this weak testimony, as well as waning public interest, the prosecution allegedly failed to press its case very hard. The civilians were all acquitted, and the servant was eventually convicted of perjury, whipped, and banished from the province.
The Boston Massacre is considered one of the most important events that turned colonial sentiment against King George III and British Parliamentary authority.
Howard Zinn argues that Boston was full of class anger. He reports that in 1763, the Boston Gazette published that "a few persons in power '' were promoting political projects "for keeping the people poor in order to make them humble. ''
John Adams wrote that the "foundation of American independence was laid '' on March 5, 1770, and Samuel Adams and other Patriots used annual commemorations (Massacre Day) of the event to fulminate against British rule. Christopher Monk, the boy who was wounded in the attack and died in 1780, was paraded before the crowds as a reminder of British hostility.
Later events, such as the Boston Tea Party, further illustrated the crumbling relationship between Britain and its colonies. Although five years passed between the massacre and outright revolution, and direct connections between the massacre and the later war are (according to historian Neil Langley York) somewhat tenuous, it is widely perceived as a significant event leading to the violent rebellion that followed.
The massacre was remembered in 1858 in a celebration organized by William Cooper Nell, an African American abolitionist who saw the death of Crispus Attucks as an opportunity to demonstrate the role of African Americans in the Revolutionary War. Partly because of this activism, artwork commemorating the massacre was produced that changed the color of a victim 's skin to black (which in Revere 's original engraving was white) to emphasize Attucks ' claimed martyrdom. In 1888, a monument was erected on the Boston Common to the men killed in the massacre, and the five victims, along with Christopher Seider, were reinterred in a prominent grave in the Granary Burying Ground.
The massacre is reenacted annually on March 5 under the auspices of the Bostonian Society. The Old State House, the massacre site, and the Granary Burying Ground are all part of Boston 's Freedom Trail, connecting sites important in the city 's revolutionary - era history.
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when was the last time ajax won the league | AFC Ajax - Wikipedia
Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax (Dutch pronunciation: (ˈaːjɑks)), also AFC Ajax, Ajax Amsterdam or simply Ajax, is a Dutch professional football club based in Amsterdam. Historically, Ajax (named after the legendary Greek hero) has been the most successful club in the Netherlands, with 33 Eredivisie titles and 18 KNVB Cups. It has continuously played in the Eredivisie, the Dutch football top division, since its inception in 1956 and, along with Feyenoord and PSV, it is one of the country 's "big three '' clubs that have dominated that competition.
Ajax has historically been one of the most successful clubs in the world. According to the IFFHS, Ajax were the seventh-most successful European club of the 20th century and The World 's Club Team of the Year in 1992. According to German magazine Kicker, Ajax were the second-most successful European club of the 20th century. The club is one of the five teams that has earned the right to keep the European Cup and to wear a multiple - winner badge; they won consecutively in 1971 -- 1973. In 1972, they completed the continental treble by winning the Eredivisie, KNVB Cup, and the European Cup. It also won the first organized UEFA Super Cup in 1972 against Glasgow Rangers (played in 1973). Ajax 's last international trophies were the 1995 Intercontinental Cup, 1995 UEFA Super Cup and the 1995 Champions League, where they defeated Milan in the final; they lost the 1996 Champions League final on penalties to Juventus. In 1995, Ajax was crowned as World Team of the Year by World Soccer magazine.
Ajax is also one of four teams to win the continental treble and the Intercontinental Cup or Club World Cup in the same season / calendar year; This was achieved in the 1971 -- 72 season. Ajax, Juventus, Bayern Munich, Chelsea and Manchester United are the five clubs to have won all three major UEFA club competitions. They have also won the Intercontinental Cup twice, the 1991 -- 92 UEFA Cup, as well as the Karl Rappan Cup, a predecessor of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1962. Ajax plays at the Johan Cruyff Arena, which opened as the Amsterdam ArenA in 1996 and was renamed in 2018. They previously played at De Meer Stadion and the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium (for international matches).
Ajax was founded in Amsterdam on 18 March 1900. The club achieved promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911 and had its first major success in 1917, winning the KNVB Beker, the Netherlands ' national cup. The following season, Ajax became national champion for the first time. The club defended its title in 1918 -- 19, becoming the only team to achieve an unbeaten season in the Netherlands Football League Championship.
Throughout the 1920s, Ajax was a strong regional power, winning the Eerste Klasse West division in 1921, 1927 and 1928, but could not maintain its success at national level. This changed in the 1930s, with the club winning five national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939), making it the most successful Dutch team of the decade. Ajax won its second KNVB Cup in 1942 -- 43, and an eighth Dutch title in 1946 -- 47, the last season the club was managed by Englishman Jack Reynolds, who, up to this point, had overseen all of its national championship successes as well as its 1917 KNVB Cup win.
In 1956, the first season of the Netherlands ' new professional league, the Eredivisie, was played with Ajax participating as a founding member. The Amsterdam club became the first national champions under the new format and made its debut in the European Champion Clubs ' Cup the following year, losing to Hungarian champions Vasas SC 6 -- 2 on aggregate at the quarter - final stage. The team were again Eredivisie champions in 1960 and won a third KNVB Cup in 1961.
In 1965, Rinus Michels, who had played for the club between 1946 and 1958, was appointed manager of Ajax, implementing his philosophy of Total Football which was to become synonymous with both Ajax and the Netherlands national team. A year earlier, Johan Cruyff, who would go on to become the greatest Dutch footballer of all - time, made his debut. Between them, Michels and Cruyff led Ajax through the most successful period in its history, winning seven Eredivisie titles, four KNVB Cups and three European Cups.
Ajax won the Dutch championship in 1966, 1967 and 1968, and reached the 1969 European Cup final, losing to Milan. During the 1966 -- 67 season, Ajax scored a record 122 goals in an Eredivisie season and also won the KNVB Cup to achieve its first league and cup double. In 1969 -- 70, Ajax won a fourth Dutch league championship and second league and cup double in five seasons, winning 27 out of 34 league matches and scoring 100 goals.
The 1970 -- 71 season saw Ajax retain the KNVB Cup and reach the 1971 European Cup final, where they defeated Panathinaikos 2 -- 0 with goals from Dick van Dijk and Arie Haan to become continental champions for the first time, with Cruyff being named European Footballer of the Year. After this success, Michels departed to become manager of Barcelona and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács. In Kovács ' first season, Ajax completed a treble of the European Cup, the Eredivisie and a third consecutive KNVB Cup. The following season, the team beat Argentine club Independiente to win the 1972 Intercontinental Cup and retained their Eredivisie and European Cup titles, becoming the first club to win three consecutive European Cups since Real Madrid in the 1950s.
In 1973, Michels ' Barcelona broke the world transfer record to bring Cruyff to Catalonia. Kovács also departed to become manager of the France national team, signalling the end of this period of international success.
In 1976 -- 77, Ajax won its first domestic championship in four seasons and recorded a double of the Eredivisie and KNVB Cup two years later.
The early 1980s saw the return of Johan Cruyff to the club, as well as the emergence of young players Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard. The team won back - to - back Eredivisie titles in 1982 and 1983, with all three playing a significant role in the latter. After Cruyff 's sale to rivals Feyenoord in 1983, Van Basten became Ajax 's key player, top scoring in the Eredivisie for four seasons between 1983 -- 84 and 1986 -- 87.
In 1985, Cruyff returned to Ajax as manager and the team ended his first season in charge with 120 goals from 34 matches. However, Ajax still finished as runner - up to PSV by eight points. The following season, Ajax again lost out on the Eredivisie title to PSV, but won the European Cup Winners ' Cup, its first continental trophy in 14 years. After this, Cruyff left the club to become manager of Barcelona and Rijkaard and Van Basten were sold to Sporting CP and Milan respectively. Despite these losses, Ajax reached a second consecutive Cup Winners ' Cup final in 1988, where they lost to Belgian club KV Mechelen.
The 1988 -- 89 season saw Dennis Bergkamp, a young forward who had first appeared under Cruyff in 1986, establish himself as a regular goalscorer for Ajax. Bergkamp helped Ajax to the 1989 -- 90 Eredivisie title and was the top scorer in the division in 1990 -- 91, 1991 -- 92 and 1992 -- 93. Under the management of Louis van Gaal, Ajax won the UEFA Cup in 1992 to become the second club, after Juventus, to have won all three major European club competitions.
After the sale of Bergkamp to Internazionale in 1993, Van Gaal re-signed the experienced Frank Rijkaard to complement his young Ajax team featuring academy graduates Frank and Ronald de Boer, Edwin van der Sar, Clarence Seedorf, Edgar Davids, Michael Reiziger and Winston Bogarde, as well as mercurial foreign talents Finidi George, Nwankwo Kanu and Jari Litmanen, and veteran captain Danny Blind. The team regained the Dutch championship in 1993 -- 94, and won it again in 1994 -- 95 and 1995 -- 96 to become the first Ajax side to win three back - to - back championships since 1968. The height of Van Gaal 's success came in 1994 -- 95, where Ajax became the first, and to date only, team to complete an entire Eredivisie season unbeaten. The team also won its first European Cup since its glorious 1970s era, defeating Milan in the 1995 UEFA Champions League final 1 -- 0, with the winning goal scored by 18 - year - old Patrick Kluivert. Ajax again reached the final one year later, but were defeated on penalties by Juventus.
Ajax 's return as a European force was short lived as Van Gaal and several members of the squad soon departed to some of the continent 's biggest clubs. The 2000s was a lean decade for the club with only two Eredivisie championships won. However, Ajax 's academy continued to produce star players such as Wesley Sneijder and Rafael van der Vaart.
In 2010, Frank de Boer was appointed manager of Ajax and led the club to its first league title in seven years, and record 30th title overall, in the 2010 -- 11 season. This was followed by back - to - back wins in 2011 -- 12 and 2012 -- 13 to match his three consecutive titles as a player in the 1990s. In 2013 -- 14, Ajax were again Eredivisie champions, winning four consecutive league titles for the first time in club history. After finishing as runner - up to PSV in both 2014 -- 15 and 2015 -- 16, De Boer resigned as Ajax head coach in May 2016.
Peter Bosz took over the club and led them to the 2017 UEFA Europa League final, their first European final in 21 years. Although they lost to Manchester United, the lineup they fielded was the youngest ever in a European final at 22 years and 282 days old. For the third consecutive season, they finished runner - up in the Eredivisie, this time to Feyenoord.
The club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth programme that has produced many Dutch talents over the years -- Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Gerald Vanenburg, Frank Rijkaard, Dennis Bergkamp, Rafael van der Vaart, Patrick Kluivert, Marco van Basten, Wesley Sneijder, Maarten Stekelenburg, and Nigel de Jong have come through the ranks and are just some of the talents who 've played for Ajax. Ajax also regularly supplies the Dutch national youth teams with local talent.
Due to mutual agreements with foreign clubs, the youth academy has also signed foreign players as teenagers before making first team debuts, such as Belgian defensive trio Jan Vertonghen, Toby Alderweireld and Thomas Vermaelen along with winger Tom De Mul, all of whom are full internationals, as well as Dutch international Vurnon Anita and Javier Martina, representing Curaçao.
Ajax has also expanded its talent searching programme to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax Cape Town was set up with the help of Rob Moore. Ajax has also had a satellite club in the United States under the name Ajax America, until it filed for bankruptcy. There are some youth players from Ajax Cape Town that have been drafted into the Eredivisie squad, such as South African internationals Steven Pienaar, Thulani Serero and Cameroonian international Eyong Enoh.
In 1995, the year Ajax won the UEFA Champions League, the Netherlands national team was almost entirely composed of Ajax players, with Edwin van der Sar in goal; players such as Michael Reiziger, Frank de Boer and Danny Blind in defence; Ronald de Boer, Edgar Davids and Clarence Seedorf in midfield; and Patrick Kluivert and Marc Overmars in attack.
In 2011, Ajax opened its first youth academies outside the Netherlands when the club partnered up with George Kazianis and All Star Consultancy in Greece to open the Ajax Hellas Youth Academy. The offices are based in Nea Smyrni, Attica, with the main training facility located on the island of Corfu, hosting a total of 15 football youth academies throughout Greece and Cyprus. Eddie van Schaik heads the organization as coach and consultant, introducing the Ajax football philosophy at the various Greek football training camps.
Ajax 's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was called Het Houten Stadion ("The Wooden Stadium ''). Ajax later played in the stadium built for the 1928 Summer Olympics hosted in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known as the Olympic Stadium. In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, designed by architect and Ajax - member Daan Roodenburgh, who had also designed the club 's first stadium. It could accommodate 29,500 spectators and Ajax continued to play there until 1996. For big European and national fixtures the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, which could accommodate about twice the number of spectators.
In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the Amsterdam Arena, since 2018 known as the Johan Cruyff Arena. This stadium was built by the Amsterdam city authority at a cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding approximately 54,990 spectators. The average attendance in 2006 -- 07 was 48,610, rising in the next season to 49,128. The Arena has a retractable roof and set a trend for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena has earned a reputation for a terrible grass pitch caused by the removable roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and fresh air. During the 2008 -- 09 season, ground staff introduced an artificial lighting system that has finally reduced this problem considerably.
The much - loved De Meer Stadion was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. A residential neighbourhood now occupies the area. The only thing left of the old stadium are the letters "AJAX '', which nowadays is in place on the façade of the youth training grounds De Toekomst, near the Johan Cruyff Arena.
In 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. The crest was slightly altered following the club 's promotion to the top division in 1911 to match the club 's new outfits. In 1928, the club logo was introduced with the head of the Greek hero Ajax. The logo was once again changed in 1990 into an abstract version of the previous one. The new logo still sports the portrait of Ajax, but drawn with just 11 lines, symbolizing the 11 players of a football team.
Ajax originally played in an all - black uniform with a red sash tied around the players ' waists, but that uniform was soon replaced by a red / white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of Amsterdam. When under manager Jack Kirwan, however, the club earned promotion to the top flight of Dutch football for the first time in 1911 (then the Eerste Klasse or ' First Class ', later named the Eredivisie), Ajax were forced to change their colours because Sparta Rotterdam already had exactly the same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax 's outfit.
AFC Ajax are the only Dutch club with an Initial public offering (IPO). The club is registered as a Naamloze vennootschap (N.V.) listed on the stock exchange Euronext Amsterdam, since 17 May 1998. With a launch price of ƒ25, - (Guilders) the club managed to a bring their total revenue up to € 54 million (converted) in their first year on the market. After short - lived success, however, the rate dropped, at one point as low as € 3.50. Criticism was brought forth that the legal grid for a naamloze vennootschap would not be suitable for a Football club, and that the sports related ambitions would suffer from the new commercial interests of the now listed Ajax. Shares of the company in the year 2008 were valued at approximately € 5.90 per share.
In 2008, a Commission under guidance of honorary member Uri Coronel concluded that the IPO was of no value to the club, and that measures should be taken to exit the stock exchange by purchasing back all public shares. Ajax remain on the stock exchange.
Ajax 's shirts have been sponsored by TDK from 1982 to 1991, and by ABN AMRO from 1991 to 2008. AEGON then replaced ABN AMRO as the new head sponsor for a period of seven years. On 1 April 2007, Ajax wore a different sponsor for the match against Heracles Almelo, Florius. Florius is a banking programme launched by ABN AMRO who wanted it to be the shirt sponsor for one match.
The shirts have been manufactured by Le Coq Sportif (1973 -- 1977), Puma (1977 -- 1980), Le Coq Sportif (1980 -- 1984) Kappa (1985 -- 1989) and Umbro (1989 -- 2000) in the past, and by Adidas since 2000 (until at least 2019).
In conclusion of the 2013 -- 14 season, Ajax won the Football shirt of the Year award for their black and rose colored away shirt by Adidas. The annual award was presented by Subside Sports, which had previously given the award to Internazionale, Juventus and the Belgium national team. It was Ajax 's first time winning the award.
On 7 November 2014, it was announced that Ajax had agreed to a four - and - a-half - year contract worth € 8 million annually with Dutch cable operating company Ziggo as the new shirt sponsor for the club. Having extended their contract with AEGON for half a season until December, the club featured Fonds Gehandicaptensport, a charitable fund for handicapped sports on its away shirts for a six - month period before transitioning to Ziggo in 2015.
Jong Ajax (formerly more commonly known as Ajax 2) is the reserve team of AFC Ajax. The team is composed mostly of professional footballers, who are often recent graduates from the highest youth level (Ajax A1) serving their first professional contract as a reserve, or players who are otherwise unable to play in the first team.
Since 1992, Jong Ajax competed in the Beloften Eredivisie, competing against other reserve teams such as Jong PSV, Jong FC Groningen or Jong AZ. They have won the Beloften Eredivisie title a record eight times, as well as the KNVB Reserve Cup three times, making them the most successful reserve squad in the Netherlands. By winning the Beloften Eredivisie title, Jong Ajax were able to qualify for the actual KNVB Cup, even advancing to the semi-finals on three occasions. Their best result in the Dutch Cup was under manager Jan Olde Riekerink in 2001 -- 02, when a semi-final loss to Utrecht in a Penalty shoot - out after extra time, which saw Utrecht advance, and thus preventing an Ajax -- Jong Ajax Dutch Cup final.
The 2013 -- 14 season marked the Jupiler League debut of the Ajax reserves ' squad, Jong Ajax. Previously playing in the Beloften Eredivisie (a separate league for reserve teams, not included in the Dutch professional or amateur league structure), players were allowed to move around freely between the reserve team and the first team during the season. This is no longer the case as Jong Ajax now registers and fields a separate squad from that of Ajax first team for the Eerste Divisie, the second tier of professional football in the Netherlands. Their home matches are played at Sportpark De Toekomst, except for the occasional match in the Johan Cruyff Arena. Now regarded a semi-professional team in their own respect, the only period in which players are able to move between squads are during the transfer windows, unless the player has made less than 15 appearances for the first team, then he is still eligible to appear in both first team and second team matches during the season. Furthermore, the team is not eligible for promotion to the Eredivisie or to participate in the KNVB Cup. Jong Ajax were joined in the Eerste Divisie by Jong Twente and Jong PSV, reserve teams who have also moved from the Beloften Eredivisie to the Eerste Divisie, in place of VV Katwijk, SC Veendam and AGOVV Apeldoorn, increasing the total number of teams in the Jupiler League from 18 to 20.
Ajax reserve squad Jong Ajax left the Beloften Eredivisie in 2013, having held a 21 - year tenure in the reserves league, having also won the league title a record eight times (1994, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2009).
AFC Ajax Amateurs, better known as Ajax Zaterdag, is a Dutch amateur football club founded 18 March 1900. It is the amateur team of the professional club AFC Ajax, who play their home matches at the Sportpark De Toekomst training grounds to a capacity of 5,000. The team was promoted from the Eerste Klasse to the Hoofdklasse ahead of the 2011 -- 12 season, the league in which they are currently competing. The team has won the Eerste Klasse title twice, as well as the * KNVB District Cup West I on two occasions as well.
Furthermore, Ajax Zaterdag have also managed to qualify for the KNVB Cup on their own accord on three occasions, namely in 2004, 2005 and in 2008, even advancing to the second round before bowing out to Vitesse on 24 September 2008 during their last appearance in the cup tournament.
AFC Ajax Vrouwen (English: AFC Ajax Women) are the women 's team of AFC Ajax, competing in the BeNe League, the highest level of professional football in Belgium and the Netherlands. Founded on 18 May 2012, the women 's team saw Ajax attracting many of the Netherlands top talents, with International players such as Anouk Hoogendijk, Daphne Koster and Petra Hogewoning joining the Amstedam club on its maiden season in women 's professional football. The team won their first piece of silverware when the defeated PSV / FC Eindhoven 2 -- 1 in the final of the KNVB Women 's Cup.
Ajax HVA (1922 -- 1972) was the baseball team of AFC Ajax founded in 1922, and competing as founding members of the Honkbal Hoofdklasse, the top flight of professional baseball in the Netherlands. Ajax won the national baseball title a total of four times (1924, 1928, 1942, 1948) before the club opted to no longer field a baseball team, and to focus solely on football in 1972. Ajax spent a total of 50 years at the top flight of Baseball in the Netherlands from 1922 to 1972. The dissolution of Ajax baseball club resulted in the players finding a new sponsor in a mustard manufacturing company called Luycks, while merging with the Diemen Giants to become the Luycks Giants, thus replacing both former clubs.
In 2016, Ajax launched an eSports team, with Koen Weijland as the clubs first signing, making their debut on the Global stage of professional gaming. They have since signed the likes of Dani Hagebeuk, Lev Vinken, Joey Calabro and Bob van Uden, the latter spent his first season on loan to the eSports team of Japanese club Sagan Tosu.
The following clubs are currently affiliated with AFC Ajax:
The following clubs were affiliated with AFC Ajax in the past:
As one of the traditional big three clubs in the Netherlands, Ajax have amassed a number of intense rivalries over the years. Listed below are the most significant of the rivalries involving Ajax.
Feyenoord from Rotterdam are Ajax 's archrivals. Every year both clubs play the De Klassieker ("The Classic ''), a match between the teams from the two largest cities of the Netherlands. During the 1970s, Ajax and Feyenoord were the only two clubs in the Netherlands who were able to clinch national titles, as well as achieve continental and even global success. A meeting between the two clubs became the measure for who was truly the best club in the Netherlands. The Klassieker is the most famous of all the rivalries in the Netherlands and the matches are always sold out. The fixture is seen in the public eye as "the graceful and elegant football of Ajax, against the indomitable fighting spirit of Feyenoord ''; the confidence of the capital city versus the blue collar mentality of Rotterdam. Matches are known for their tension and violence, both on and off the pitch. Over the years, several violent incidents have taken place involving rival supporters, leading to the current prohibition of away supporters in both stadiums. The lowest point was reached on 23 March 1997, when supporters of both clubs meet on a field near Beverwijk, where Ajax - supporter Carlo Picornie was fatally injured, the incident is commonly referred to as the "Battle of Beverwijk ''.
PSV are also a rival of Ajax, but in terms of tension and rivalry, these matches are not as loaded as the duels with Feyenoord. The rivalry has existed for some time with PSV and stems from various causes, such as the different interpretations of whether current national and international successes of both clubs correlates and the supposed opposition between the Randstad and the province. The matches between these two teams is commonly referred to as "De Topper '' ("The Topper ''), and involves the two most trophy - laden sides in Dutch football and is essentially a clash of two competing schools of thought in Dutch football. Historically, PSV compete with a workmanlike ethic, preferring a more robust 4 -- 3 -- 1 -- 2 or 4 -- 2 -- 3 -- 1, typically shunning the seductive 4 -- 3 -- 3 approach favoured in Amsterdam. While Rinus Michels and Johan Cruyff helped to innovate Total Football in the sixties and seventies, a different philosophy was honed in Eindhoven by Kees Rijvers and Guus Hiddink in the late 1970s and ' 80s. This in turn has created one of the more philosophical rivalries in football, an ideological battleground, which is gradually becoming as heated and intense as the matches Ajax and Feyenoord partake in.
Aside from Feyenoord and PSV, Ajax have several other rivalries, although in most cases the sentiment is mostly felt by the opposition and is more directed towards Ajax, with one of them being Utrecht. Although the rivalry is more felt on the Utrecht side then with Ajax, matchups between the two sides are often quite intense. Both teams have fanatic supporters, and clashes off the pitch are more often the rule than the exception. The same goes for ADO Den Haag, with both supporter groups often getting in conflicts, when ADO - Hooligans set fire to the supporters home of Ajax, and Ajax hooligans subsequently broke into the Supporters home of ADO tensions between the two clubs rose. In 2006, supporters from both clubs were banned from attending away matches for five years due to frequent violent outbreaks and clashes.
Further teams who share a rivalry with Ajax include Twente, Vitesse Arnhem, Groningen and AZ, although the latter is often regarded by Ajax supporters as the club 's "little brother ''. Being from nearby Alkmaar, and with both clubs sharing the same province, match - ups between the two sides are commonly known as the "De Noord - Hollandse Derby '' ("North Holland Derby '') and are often very competitive, intense and loaded fixtures.
Past rivalries include local Amsterdam derbies between Ajax and clubs such as Blauw - Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers (which later merged to become FC Amsterdam in 1972). However, the tension between the local sides lessened as the division of the clubs through playing in different leagues over time became greater. Years of not competing in the same league resulted in less frequent match - ups, until tensions finally settled between the Amsterdam clubs. The last Amsterdam derby to take place in an official league match was when Ajax defeated FC Amsterdam 5 -- 1 on 19 March 1978.
Ajax are known for having fanatic core supporter - groups, of which F - Side and VAK410 are the most famous. F - Side were founded on 3 October 1976, and are situated right behind the goal in the Johan Cruyff Arena, on the southern end of the stadium in rows 125 -- 129. Their name is derived from the group 's former location on the F - side of the old De Meer Stadion. The F - side supporters are responsible for a big part of the atmosphere in the stadium, but are also known for rioting during and after matches. If in any match Ajax should win the coin toss, the second half of the match Ajax always play towards the south - end of the stadium. VAK410 (English: Row 410) were founded in 2001 and are situated in the Zuidhoek (South corner) of the stadium on the upper ring in rows 424 -- 425. The group was originally situated on the North - West side of the stadium in row 410, from where it derives its name, until relocating to their current place in the stands in 2008. Members of VAK410 are known to perform various stunts, which include massive banners, to enhance the atmosphere in the stadium. Neither F - Side or VAK410 have seats in their sections of the stadium, and both groups stand for the duration of the match.
Through the official Football Top 20 of Dutch sports research group SPORT + MARKT, it was revealed in 2010 that Ajax had approximately 7.1 million supporters throughout Europe. This is significantly more than rivals Feyenoord and PSV (each 1.6 and 1.3 million, respectively), which puts Ajax as the club with the 15th-most supporters across Europe. The study also revealed that approximately 39 % of the Netherlands were Ajax supporters. Not only does Ajax have many supporters, but several fans attend their matches in European competition, with an average attendance of 48,677 spectators for every international match Ajax played, putting the team at 12th place in Europe for highest attendance, ahead of high - profile clubs such as Milan and Chelsea. It is noteworthy that not all stadiums share the capacity of the Johan Cruyff Arena.
The Supporters Club Ajax (Dutch: Supportersvereniging Ajax) is officially the largest supporters club in the Netherlands with 94,000 members. Founded on 7 May 1992, the supporters club organize big monthly events throughout the Netherlands, and particularly around the official Ajax Open Training Day, which attracts thousands of supporters each year. Furthermore, the supporters group is responsible for the Ajax Life website, as well as the fanzine which is issued 20 times a year. In 2006, the AFCA Supportersclub was introduced as the club 's second official supporters ' association, through the merger of the Onafhankelijke Fanclub Ajax (OFA) and the Ajax Supporters Delegatie (ASD). The AFCA Supportersclub has a reported 42,000 members, as well as a former member on the Board of Administration of Ajax, in Ronald Pieloor.
This graph displays the average attendance for home matches of Ajax from 1988 -- 2017, whereby the difference in capacity of the De Meer Stadion and the Johan Cruyff Arena (est. 1996) is clearly visible.
Historically, Ajax was popularly seen as having "Jewish roots ''. Although not an official Jewish club like the city 's WV - HEDW, Ajax has had a Jewish image since the 1930s when the home stadium was located next to a Jewish neighbourhood of Amsterdam - Oost and opponents saw many supporters walking through the Nieuwmarkt / Waterloopleinbuurt (de Jodenhoek -- the "Jews ' corner '') to get to the stadium. The city of Amsterdam was historically referred to as a Mokum city, Mokum (מקום) being the Yiddish word for "place '' or "safe haven '', and as anti-Semitic chants and name calling developed and intensified at the old De Meer Stadion from frustrated supporters of opposing clubs, Ajax fans (few of whom are actually Jewish) responded by embracing Ajax 's "Jewish '' identity: calling themselves "super Jews '', chanting "Jews, Jews '' ("Joden, Joden '') at games, and adopting Jewish symbols such as the Star of David and the Israeli flag.
This Jewish imagery eventually became a central part of Ajax fans ' culture. At one point ringtones of "Hava Nagila '', a Hebrew folk song, could be downloaded from the club 's official website. Beginning in the 1980s, fans of Ajax 's rivals escalated their antisemitic rhetoric, chanting slogans like "Hamas, Hamas / Jews to the gas '' ("Hamas, hamas, joden aan het gas ''), hissing to imitate the flow of gas, giving Nazi salutes, etc. The eventual result was that many (genuinely) Jewish Ajax fans stopped going to games.
In the 2000s, the club began trying to persuade fans to drop their Jewish image. In 2013, a documentary titled Superjews was released by NTR and Viewpoint Productions which premiered at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA). The film was directed by Nirit Peled, an Israeli living in Amsterdam, and an independent film maker who offers a very personal view into the game, the lore of Ajax and its relation to Judaism from both the supporters as well as from a Jewish perspective.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
For the reserve squad of Ajax see: Jong Ajax.
Ajax have won numerous friendly tournaments, unsanctioned by UEFA or FIFA, including the Amsterdam Tournament, Bruges Matins Trophy, Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu, Eusébio Cup, Ted Bates Trophy, Jalkapalloturnaus and Chippie Polar Cup. (For a complete list, see main article)
Ajax have a total of 45 honorary club members, from people who have been invested within the club 's administrative engagements, to committed players who have excelled in the athletic department. Of those 45 members 40 have since passed away. Five members still remain, having been reduced from eight members after Piet Keizer denounced his membership, seven after the passing of Johan Cruyff and six after the passing of Uri Coronel.
The remaining 40 honorary members who have since died:
Below is a table with Ajax 's domestic results since the introduction of the Eredivisie in 1956.
The Club van 100 is the official list of Football players who have appeared in one hundred or more official matches for AFC Ajax. The club currently has a total of 150 members with Daley Blind being the latest addition. The record for league appearances is held by Mr. Ajax himself Sjaak Swart, who appeared in 463 league matches for Ajax 1. There is a beneficiary team called Lucky Ajax, which was initiated by Sjaak Swart. Lucky Ajax participate in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity, and commonly at football ceremonies to bid farewell to retiring players. One of the prerequisites for playing on Lucky Ajax, which is invitational only, is that you are a member of the Club van 100, having made at least 100 official match appearances for Ajax in the first team of the club.
Lucky Ajax are a beneficiary team that was initiated by Sjaak Swart in the seventies, competing in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity and / or to bid farewell to retiring former Ajax players. The team is made up of various members of the Club van 100 of Ajax who will come out of retirement for this match to face the Ajax squad that is current of that year. Past participants have included Barry Hulshoff, Sonny Silooy, Simon Tahamata, Ronald Koeman, Tscheu La Ling, Gerrie Mühren, John van ' t Schip, Brian Roy, Stanley Menzo, Peter van Vossen and Fred Grim. The name Lucky Ajax is derived from the famous "Lucky Ajax '' nickname from how people used to refer to the club when Ajax would either win a match by chance, by a decision of a referee, or by coincidence such as was said to be the case during the infamous Mistwedstrijd ("Fog Match '').
As of the 2007 -- 08 season, no player could wear the number 14 shirt at Ajax after the club decided to retire the shirt out of respect for Johan Cruyff, "the legendary number fourteen ''. Cruyff himself laughed off the tribute, saying the club had to let its best player play with number 14. Spanish midfielder Roger was the last player to wear the number. Marvin Zeegelaar wore the shirt number In preparation for the 2011 -- 12 season in one preseason match, while Aras Özbiliz wore the number 14 shirt in one pre-season match ahead of the 2011 -- 12 season as well. The club stated that this was, in fact, not done in error.
Below is a list of all players to wear the number 14 shirt since Johan Cruyff 's departure.
From 1983 -- 1997, reserves no longer received permanent shirt numbers.
Established in 1975 as the Amsterdam 700 Tournament to celebrate 700 years of history in the city. The tournament was hosted annually each summer by Ajax until 1992, when the last edition of the original tournament was played. It returned in 1999 with the backing of the International Event Partnership (IEP). Four teams participate in the competition, played in a league format since 1986. Since its return, the tournament has used an unusual point scoring system. As with most league competitions, three points are awarded for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. An additional point, however, is awarded for each goal scored. The system is designed to reward teams that adopt a more attacking style of play. Each entrant plays two matches, with the winner being the club that finishes at the top of the table. The original competition was held at De Meer Stadion, Ajax 's home between 1934 and 1996. The Amsterdam Arena (now Johan Cruyff Arena) has played host to the event since its return until the last edition was played in 2009. Ajax is the most successful team of the tournament, having won it a record ten times, while Benfica from Portugal were the last team to win the tournament, in 2009.
Established in 2005, the Copa Amsterdam is an international friendly football tournament for Under - 19 youth teams, that is organized by Ajax and the Amsterdam city council, which takes place at the Olympic Stadium as part of the annual Amsterdam Sports Weekend, a citywide sponsored initiative to promote ' sports and recreation ' within the city of Amsterdam. Each Summer the city of Amsterdam and Ajax invite U-19 teams from various top clubs from around the World to participate in the tournament. Seven teams are invited and play in the competition every year with the ninth edition of the tournament having occurred in 2013. Over the years, clubs such as Barcelona, Juventus, Chelsea and Real Madrid have had their senior youth teams participate in the tournament. Cruzeiro from Brazil are the most successful club in the history of the tournament, having won it three times in total, while Ajax Cape Town from South Africa are the current cup holders.
Established in 2010, the AEGON Future Cup is an international friendly tournament for Under - 17 youth teams, which is organized by AFC Ajax and their main sponsor, the insurance company AEGON. The tournament is held each year at the Johan Cruyff Arena and at the Sportpark De Toekomst, the teams training ground, which also inspired the name of the competition, since De Toekomst in Dutch means The Future. Every year during the Easter weekend, six U-17 teams are invited to participate in the competition, while the seventh place for the contesters is reserved for the winners of the "Craques Mongeral AEGON Future Cup '' in Brazil, the sister competition of the tournament in South America. Youth teams from top clubs such as Manchester United, Bayern Munich, Milan and many more have participated in the competition over the years. Ajax are the most successful club of the tournament, having won the trophy a total of five times, and current cup holders having defeated Juventus in the final of the latest edition.
Former clubs: FC Amsterdam Aristos DWV VV De Beursbengels FC Blauw - Wit Amsterdam FC Chabab ASV De Germaan RAP Sporting Amsterdam Sporting Maroc Sporting Noord Türkiyemspor De Volewijckers SC Voorland ZRC Herenmarkt
1888 -- 89 VV Concordia 1889 -- 90 HFC (1 / 3) 1890 -- 91 HVV (1 / 10) 1891 -- 92 RAP (1 / 5) 1892 -- 93 HFC (2 / 3) 1893 -- 94 RAP (2 / 5) 1894 -- 95 HFC (3 / 3) 1895 -- 96 HVV (2 / 10) 1896 -- 97 RAP (3 / 5) 1897 -- 98 RAP (4 / 5) 1898 -- 99 RAP (5 / 5) 1899 -- 00 HVV (3 / 10)
1900 -- 01 HVV (4 / 10) 1901 -- 02 HVV (5 / 10) 1902 -- 03 HVV (6 / 10) 1903 -- 04 Craeyenhout (1 / 3) 1904 -- 05 HVV (7 / 10) 1905 -- 06 Craeyenhout (2 / 3) 1906 -- 07 HVV (8 / 10) 1907 -- 08 Quick 1908 -- 09 Sparta (1 / 6) 1909 -- 10 HVV (9 / 10)
1910 -- 11 Sparta (2 / 6) 1911 -- 12 Sparta (3 / 6) 1912 -- 13 Sparta (4 / 6) 1913 -- 14 HVV (10 / 10) 1914 -- 15 Sparta (5 / 6) 1915 -- 16 Willem II (1 / 3) 1916 -- 17 Go Ahead (1 / 4) 1917 -- 18 Ajax (1 / 33) 1918 -- 19 Ajax (2 / 33) 1919 -- 20 Be Quick 1887
1920 -- 21 NAC 1921 -- 22 Go Ahead (2 / 4) 1922 -- 23 RCH (1 / 2) 1923 -- 24 Feyenoord (1 / 15) 1924 -- 25 Craeyenhout (3 / 3) 1925 -- 26 SC Enschede 1926 -- 27 Heracles (1 / 2) 1927 -- 28 Feyenoord (2 / 15) 1928 -- 29 PSV (1 / 22) 1929 -- 30 Go Ahead (3 / 4)
1930 -- 31 Ajax (3 / 33) 1931 -- 32 Ajax (4 / 33) 1932 -- 33 Go Ahead (4 / 4) 1933 -- 34 Ajax (5 / 33) 1934 -- 35 PSV (2 / 22) 1935 -- 36 Feyenoord (3 / 15) 1936 -- 37 Ajax (6 / 33) 1937 -- 38 Feyenoord (4 / 15) 1938 -- 39 Ajax (7 / 33) 1939 -- 40 Feyenoord (5 / 15)
1940 -- 41 Heracles (2 / 2) 1941 -- 42 ADO (1 / 2) 1942 -- 43 ADO (2 / 2) 1943 -- 44 De Volewijckers 1944 -- 45 Not Played 1945 -- 46 HFC Haarlem 1946 -- 47 Ajax (8 / 33) 1947 -- 48 BVV 1948 -- 49 SVV 1949 -- 50 Limburgia
1950 -- 51 PSV (3 / 22) 1951 -- 52 Willem II (2 / 3) 1952 -- 53 RCH (2 / 2) 1953 -- 54 EVV 1954 -- 55 Willem II (3 / 3) 1955 -- 56 Rapid JC
1898 -- 99 RAP 1899 -- 00 Velocitas 1900 -- 01 HBS Craeyenhout (1 / 2) 1901 -- 02 HFC Haarlem (1 / 2) 1902 -- 03 HVV Den Haag 1903 -- 04 Koninklijke HFC (1 / 3) 1904 -- 05 VOC Rotterdam (1 / 2) 1905 -- 06 Concordia 1906 -- 07 VOC Rotterdam (2 / 2) 1907 -- 08 HBS Crayenhout 2 (2 / 2) 1908 -- 09 Quick D. Haag 2 (1 / 4) 1909 -- 10 Quick D. Haag 2 (2 / 4)
1910 -- 11 Quick D. Haag (3 / 4) 1911 -- 12 HFC Haarlem (2 / 2) 1912 -- 13 Koninklijke HFC (2 / 3) 1913 -- 14 DFC (1 / 2) 1914 -- 15 Koninklijke HFC (3 / 3) 1915 -- 16 Quick D. Haag (4 / 4) 1916 -- 17 Ajax (1 / 18) 1917 -- 18 RHC (1 / 2) 1918 -- 19 not played 1919 -- 20 CVV
1920 -- 21 Schoten 1921 -- 22 not played 1922 -- 23 not played 1923 -- 24 not played 1924 -- 25 ZFC 1925 -- 26 LONGA 1926 -- 27 VUC Den Haag 1927 -- 28 RHC (2 / 2) 1928 -- 29 not played 1929 -- 30 Feyenoord (1 / 13)
1930 -- 31 not played 1931 -- 32 DFC (2 / 2) 1932 -- 33 not played 1933 -- 34 Velocitas 1897 1934 -- 35 Feyenoord (2 / 13) 1935 -- 36 Roermond 1936 -- 37 EVV 1937 -- 38 VSV 1938 -- 39 FC Wageningen (1 / 2) 1939 -- 40 not played
1940 -- 41 not played 1941 -- 42 not played 1942 -- 43 Ajax (2 / 18) 1943 -- 44 Willem II (1 / 2) 1944 -- 45 not played 1945 -- 46 not played 1946 -- 47 not played 1947 -- 48 FC Wageningen (2 / 2) 1948 -- 49 Quick 1888 1949 -- 50 PSV (1 / 9)
1950 -- 51 not played 1951 -- 52 not played 1952 -- 53 not played 1953 -- 54 not played 1954 -- 55 not played 1955 -- 56 not played 1956 -- 57 Fortuna ' 54 (1 / 2) 1957 -- 58 Sparta (1 / 3) 1958 -- 59 VVV 1959 -- 60 not played
1960 -- 61 Ajax (3 / 18) 1961 -- 62 Sparta (2 / 3) 1962 -- 63 Willem II (2 / 2) 1963 -- 64 Fortuna ' 54 (2 / 2) 1964 -- 65 Feyenoord (3 / 13) 1965 -- 66 Sparta (3 / 3) 1966 -- 67 Ajax (4 / 18) 1967 -- 68 ADO 1968 -- 69 Feyenoord (4 / 13) 1969 -- 70 Ajax (5 / 18)
1970 -- 71 Ajax (6 / 18) 1971 -- 72 Ajax (7 / 18) 1972 -- 73 NAC 1973 -- 74 PSV (2 / 9) 1974 -- 75 FC Den Haag 1975 -- 76 PSV (3 / 9) 1976 -- 77 FC Twente (1 / 3) 1977 -- 78 AZ (1 / 4) 1978 -- 79 Ajax (8 / 18) 1979 -- 80 Feyenoord (5 / 13)
1980 -- 81 AZ (2 / 4) 1981 -- 82 AZ (3 / 4) 1982 -- 83 Ajax (9 / 18) 1983 -- 84 Feyenoord (6 / 13) 1984 -- 85 FC Utrecht (1 / 3) 1985 -- 86 Ajax (10 / 18) 1986 -- 87 Ajax (11 / 18) 1987 -- 88 PSV (4 / 9) 1988 -- 89 PSV (5 / 9) 1989 -- 90 PSV (6 / 9)
1990 -- 91 Feyenoord (7 / 13) 1991 -- 92 Feyenoord (8 / 13) 1992 -- 93 Ajax (12 / 18) 1993 -- 94 Feyenoord (9 / 13) 1994 -- 95 Feyenoord (10 / 13) 1995 -- 96 PSV (7 / 9) 1996 -- 97 Roda JC (1 / 2) 1997 -- 98 Ajax (13 / 18) 1998 -- 99 Ajax (14 / 18) 1999 -- 00 Roda JC (2 / 2)
2000 -- 01 FC Twente (2 / 3) 2001 -- 02 Ajax (15 / 18) 2002 -- 03 FC Utrecht (2 / 3) 2003 -- 04 FC Utrecht (3 / 3) 2004 -- 05 PSV (8 / 9) 2005 -- 06 Ajax (16 / 18) 2006 -- 07 Ajax (17 / 18) 2007 -- 08 Feyenoord (11 / 13) 2008 -- 09 Heerenveen 2009 -- 10 Ajax (18 / 18)
2010 -- 11 FC Twente (3 / 3) 2011 -- 12 PSV (9 / 9) 2012 -- 13 AZ (4 / 4) 2013 -- 14 PEC Zwolle 2014 -- 15 FC Groningen 2015 -- 16 Feyenoord (12 / 13) 2016 -- 17 Vitesse 2017 -- 18 Feyenoord (13 / 13)
Coordinates: 52 ° 18 ′ 51 '' N 4 ° 56 ′ 31 '' E / 52.31417 ° N 4.94194 ° E / 52.31417; 4.94194
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what is use of jumper on the motherboard | Jumper (computing) - wikipedia
In electronics and particularly computing, a jumper is a short length of conductor used to close, open or bypass part of an electronic circuit. They are typically used to set up or configure printed circuit boards, such as the motherboards of computers.
Jumper pins (points to be connected by the jumper) are arranged in groups called jumper blocks, each group having at least one pair of contact points. An appropriately sized conductive sleeve called a jumper, or more technically, a shunt jumper, is slipped over the pins to complete the circuit.
Jumpers must be electrically conducting; they are usually encased in a non-conductive block of plastic for convenience. This also avoids the risk that an unshielded jumper will accidentally short out something critical (particularly if it is dropped on a live circuit).
When a jumper is placed over two or more jumper pins, an electrical connection is made between them, and the equipment is thus instructed to activate certain settings accordingly. For example, with older PC systems, CPU speed and voltage settings were often made by setting jumpers. Informally, technicians often call setting jumpers "strapping ''. To adjust the SCSI ID jumpers on a hard drive, for example, is to "strap it up ''.
Some documentation may refer to setting the jumpers to on, off, closed, or open. When a jumper is on or covering at least two pins it is a closed jumper, when a jumper is off, is covering only one pin, or the pins have no jumper it is an open jumper.
Jumperless designs have the advantage that they are usually fast and easy to set up, often require little technical knowledge, and can be adjusted without having physical access to the circuit board. With PCs, the most common use of jumpers is in setting the operating mode for ATA drives (master, slave, or cable select), though this use is declining with the rise of SATA drives. Jumpers have been used since the beginning of printed circuit boards.
Some printed wiring assemblies, particularly those using single - layer circuit boards, include short lengths of wire soldered between pairs of points. These wires are called jumpers, but unlike jumpers used for configuration settings, they are intended to permanently connect the points in question. They are used to solve layout issues of the printed wiring, providing connections that would otherwise require awkward (or in some cases, impossible) routing of the conductive traces. In some cases a resistor of 0 ohms is used instead of a wire, as these may be installed by the same robotic assembly machines that install real resistors and other components.
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what is the red dinosaur in jurassic park 3 | List of cloned animals in the Jurassic Park series - wikipedia
This list of cloned animals in the Jurassic Park series enumerates all the cloned animals which have appeared in the Jurassic Park films or the two novels by Michael Crichton that the films are based on.
Entries followed by an asterisk (*) are only referenced or appear as dioramas, holograms and / or skeletons.
= Novels
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eigen values and eigen vectors of a square matrix | Eigenvalues and eigenvectors - wikipedia
In linear algebra, an eigenvector or characteristic vector of a linear transformation is a non-zero vector that only changes by an overall scale when that linear transformation is applied to it. More formally, if T is a linear transformation from a vector space V over a field F into itself and v is a vector in V that is not the zero vector, then v is an eigenvector of T if T (v) is a scalar multiple of v. This condition can be written as the equation
where λ is a scalar in the field F, known as the eigenvalue, characteristic value, or characteristic root associated with the eigenvector v.
If the vector space V is finite - dimensional, then the linear transformation T can be represented as a square matrix A, and the vector v by a column vector, rendering the above mapping as a matrix multiplication on the left hand side and a scaling of the column vector on the right hand side in the equation
There is a correspondence between n by n square matrices and linear transformations from an n - dimensional vector space to itself. For this reason, it is equivalent to define eigenvalues and eigenvectors using either the language of matrices or the language of linear transformations.
Geometrically an eigenvector, corresponding to a real nonzero eigenvalue, points in a direction that is stretched by the transformation and the eigenvalue is the factor by which it is stretched. If the eigenvalue is negative, the direction is reversed.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors feature prominently in the analysis of linear transformations. The prefix eigen - is adopted from the German word eigen for "proper '', "characteristic ''. Originally utilized to study principal axes of the rotational motion of rigid bodies, eigenvalues and eigenvectors have a wide range of applications, for example in stability analysis, vibration analysis, atomic orbitals, facial recognition, and matrix diagonalization.
In essence, an eigenvector v of a linear transformation T is a non-zero vector that, when T is applied to it, does not change direction. Applying T to the eigenvector only scales the eigenvector by the scalar value λ, called an eigenvalue. This condition can be written as the equation
referred to as the eigenvalue equation or eigenequation. In general, λ may be any scalar. For example, λ may be negative, in which case the eigenvector reverses direction as part of the scaling, or it may be zero or complex.
The Mona Lisa example pictured at right provides a simple illustration. Each point on the painting can be represented as a vector pointing from the center of the painting to that point. The linear transformation in this example is called a shear mapping. Points in the top half are moved to the right and points in the bottom half are moved to the left proportional to how far they are from the horizontal axis that goes through the middle of the painting. The vectors pointing to each point in the original image are therefore tilted right or left and made longer or shorter by the transformation. Notice that points along the horizontal axis do not move at all when this transformation is applied. Therefore, any vector that points directly to the right or left with no vertical component is an eigenvector of this transformation because the mapping does not change its direction. Moreover, these eigenvectors all have an eigenvalue equal to one because the mapping does not change their length, either.
Linear transformations can take many different forms, mapping vectors in a variety of vector spaces, so the eigenvectors can also take many forms. For example, the linear transformation could be a differential operator like d d x (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (d) (dx))), in which case the eigenvectors are functions called eigenfunctions that are scaled by that differential operator, such as
Alternatively, the linear transformation could take the form of an n by n matrix, in which case the eigenvectors are n by 1 matrices that are also referred to as eigenvectors. If the linear transformation is expressed in the form of an n by n matrix A, then the eigenvalue equation above for a linear transformation can be rewritten as the matrix multiplication
where the eigenvector v is an n by 1 matrix. For a matrix, eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be used to decompose the matrix, for example by diagonalizing it.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors give rise to many closely related mathematical concepts, and the prefix eigen - is applied liberally when naming them:
Eigenvalues are often introduced in the context of linear algebra or matrix theory. Historically, however, they arose in the study of quadratic forms and differential equations.
In the 18th century Euler studied the rotational motion of a rigid body and discovered the importance of the principal axes. Lagrange realized that the principal axes are the eigenvectors of the inertia matrix. In the early 19th century, Cauchy saw how their work could be used to classify the quadric surfaces, and generalized it to arbitrary dimensions. Cauchy also coined the term racine caractéristique (characteristic root) for what is now called eigenvalue; his term survives in characteristic equation.
Fourier used the work of Laplace and Lagrange to solve the heat equation by separation of variables in his famous 1822 book Théorie analytique de la chaleur. Sturm developed Fourier 's ideas further and brought them to the attention of Cauchy, who combined them with his own ideas and arrived at the fact that real symmetric matrices have real eigenvalues. This was extended by Hermite in 1855 to what are now called Hermitian matrices. Around the same time, Brioschi proved that the eigenvalues of orthogonal matrices lie on the unit circle, and Clebsch found the corresponding result for skew - symmetric matrices. Finally, Weierstrass clarified an important aspect in the stability theory started by Laplace by realizing that defective matrices can cause instability.
In the meantime, Liouville studied eigenvalue problems similar to those of Sturm; the discipline that grew out of their work is now called Sturm -- Liouville theory. Schwarz studied the first eigenvalue of Laplace 's equation on general domains towards the end of the 19th century, while Poincaré studied Poisson 's equation a few years later.
At the start of the 20th century, Hilbert studied the eigenvalues of integral operators by viewing the operators as infinite matrices. He was the first to use the German word eigen, which means "own '', to denote eigenvalues and eigenvectors in 1904, though he may have been following a related usage by Helmholtz. For some time, the standard term in English was "proper value '', but the more distinctive term "eigenvalue '' is standard today.
The first numerical algorithm for computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors appeared in 1929, when Von Mises published the power method. One of the most popular methods today, the QR algorithm, was proposed independently by John G.F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya in 1961.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are often introduced to students in the context of linear algebra courses focused on matrices. Furthermore, linear transformations can be represented using matrices, which is especially common in numerical and computational applications.
Consider n - dimensional vectors that are formed as a list of n scalars, such as the three - dimensional vectors
These vectors are said to be scalar multiples of each other, or parallel or collinear, if there is a scalar λ such that
In this case λ = − 1 / 20.
Now consider the linear transformation of n - dimensional vectors defined by an n by n matrix A,
or
where, for each row,
If it occurs that v and w are scalar multiples, that is if
A v = w = λ v, (\ displaystyle Av = w = \ lambda v,)
(1)
then v is an eigenvector of the linear transformation A and the scale factor λ is the eigenvalue corresponding to that eigenvector. Equation (1) is the eigenvalue equation for the matrix A.
Equation (1) can be stated equivalently as
(A − λ I) v = 0, (\ displaystyle (A - \ lambda I) v = 0,)
(2)
where I is the n by n identity matrix.
Equation (2) has a non-zero solution v if and only if the determinant of the matrix (A − λI) is zero. Therefore, the eigenvalues of A are values of λ that satisfy the equation
A − λ I = 0 (\ displaystyle A - \ lambda I = 0)
(3)
Using Leibniz ' rule for the determinant, the left hand side of Equation (3) is a polynomial function of the variable λ and the degree of this polynomial is n, the order of the matrix A. Its coefficients depend on the entries of A, except that its term of degree n is always (− 1) λ. This polynomial is called the characteristic polynomial of A. Equation (3) is called the characteristic equation or the secular equation of A.
The fundamental theorem of algebra implies that the characteristic polynomial of an n by n matrix A, being a polynomial of degree n, can be factored into the product of n linear terms,
A − λ I = (λ 1 − λ) (λ 2 − λ) ⋯ (λ n − λ), (\ displaystyle A - \ lambda I = (\ lambda _ (1) - \ lambda) (\ lambda _ (2) - \ lambda) \ cdots (\ lambda _ (n) - \ lambda),)
(4)
where each λ may be real but in general is a complex number. The numbers λ, λ,... λ, which may not all have distinct values, are roots of the polynomial and are the eigenvalues of A.
As a brief example, which is described in more detail in the examples section later, consider the matrix
Taking the determinant of (M − λI), the characteristic polynomial of M is
Setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, it has roots at λ = 1 and λ = 3, which are the two eigenvalues of M. The eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue can be found by solving for the components of v in the equation Mv = λv. In this example, the eigenvectors are any non-zero scalar multiples of
If the entries of the matrix A are all real numbers, then the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial will also be real numbers, but the eigenvalues may still have non-zero imaginary parts. The entries of the corresponding eigenvectors therefore may also have non-zero imaginary parts. Similarly, the eigenvalues may be irrational numbers even if all the entries of A are rational numbers or even if they are all integers. However, if the entries of A are all algebraic numbers, which include the rationals, the eigenvalues are complex algebraic numbers.
The non-real roots of a real polynomial with real coefficients can be grouped into pairs of complex conjugates, namely with the two members of each pair having imaginary parts that differ only in sign and the same real part. If the degree is odd, then by the intermediate value theorem at least one of the roots is real. Therefore, any real matrix with odd order has at least one real eigenvalue, whereas a real matrix with even order may not have any real eigenvalues. The eigenvectors associated with these complex eigenvalues are also complex and also appear in complex conjugate pairs.
Let λ be an eigenvalue of an n by n matrix A. The algebraic multiplicity μ (λ) of the eigenvalue is its multiplicity as a root of the characteristic polynomial, that is, the largest integer k such that (λ − λ) divides evenly that polynomial.
Suppose a matrix A has dimension n and d ≤ n distinct eigenvalues. Whereas Equation (4) factors the characteristic polynomial of A into the product of n linear terms with some terms potentially repeating, the characteristic polynomial can instead be written as the product of d terms each corresponding to a distinct eigenvalue and raised to the power of the algebraic multiplicity,
If d = n then the right hand side is the product of n linear terms and this is the same as Equation (4). The size of each eigenvalue 's algebraic multiplicity is related to the dimension n as
If μ (λ) = 1, then λ is said to be a simple eigenvalue. If μ (λ) equals the geometric multiplicity of λ, γ (λ), defined in the next section, then λ is said to be a semisimple eigenvalue.
Given a particular eigenvalue λ of the n by n matrix A, define the set E to be all vectors v that satisfy Equation (2),
On one hand, this set is precisely the kernel or nullspace of the matrix (A − λI). On the other hand, by definition, any non-zero vector that satisfies this condition is an eigenvector of A associated with λ. So, the set E is the union of the zero vector with the set of all eigenvectors of A associated with λ, and E equals the nullspace of (A − λI). E is called the eigenspace or characteristic space of A associated with λ. In general λ is a complex number and the eigenvectors are complex n by 1 matrices. A property of the nullspace is that it is a linear subspace, so E is a linear subspace of C.
Because the eigenspace E is a linear subspace, it is closed under addition. That is, if two vectors u and v belong to the set E, written (u, v) ∈ E, then (u + v) ∈ E or equivalently A (u + v) = λ (u + v). This can be checked using the distributive property of matrix multiplication. Similarly, because E is a linear subspace, it is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if v ∈ E and α is a complex number, (αv) ∈ E or equivalently A (αv) = λ (αv). This can be checked by noting that multiplication of complex matrices by complex numbers is commutative. As long as u + v and αv are not zero, they are also eigenvectors of A associated with λ.
The dimension of the eigenspace E associated with λ, or equivalently the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors associated with λ, is referred to as the eigenvalue 's geometric multiplicity γ (λ). Because E is also the nullspace of (A − λI), the geometric multiplicity of λ is the dimension of the nullspace of (A − λI), also called the nullity of (A − λI), which relates to the dimension and rank of (A − λI) as
Because of the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, an eigenvalue 's geometric multiplicity must be at least one, that is, each eigenvalue has at least one associated eigenvector. Furthermore, an eigenvalue 's geometric multiplicity can not exceed its algebraic multiplicity. Additionally, recall that an eigenvalue 's algebraic multiplicity can not exceed n.
The condition that γ (λ) ≤ μ (λ) can be proven by considering a particular eigenvalue ξ of A and diagonalizing the first γ (ξ) columns of A with respect to the eigenvectors of ξ, described in a later section. The resulting similar matrix B is block upper triangular, with its top left block being the diagonal matrix ξI. As a result, the characteristic polynomial of B will have a factor of (ξ − λ). The other factors of the characteristic polynomial of B are not known, so the algebraic multiplicity of ξ as an eigenvalue of B is no less than the geometric multiplicity of ξ as an eigenvalue of A. The last element of the proof is the property that similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial.
Suppose A has d ≤ n distinct eigenvalues λ, λ,..., λ, where the geometric multiplicity of λ is γ (λ). The total geometric multiplicity of A,
is the dimension of the union of all the eigenspaces of A 's eigenvalues, or equivalently the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors of A. If γ = n, then
Let A be an arbitrary n by n matrix of complex numbers with eigenvalues λ, λ,..., λ. Each eigenvalue appears μ (λ) times in this list, where μ (λ) is the eigenvalue 's algebraic multiplicity. The following are properties of this matrix and its eigenvalues:
Many disciplines traditionally represent vectors as matrices with a single column rather than as matrices with a single row. For that reason, the word "eigenvector '' in the context of matrices almost always refers to a right eigenvector, namely a column vector that right multiples the n by n matrix A in the defining equation, Equation (1),
The eigenvalue and eigenvector problem can also be defined for row vectors that left multiply matrix A. In this formulation, the defining equation is
where κ is a scalar and u is a 1 by n matrix. Any row vector u satisfying this equation is called a left eigenvector of A and κ is its associated eigenvalue. Taking the transpose of this equation,
Comparing this equation to Equation (1), it follows immediately that a left eigenvector of A is the same as the transpose of a right eigenvector of A, with the same eigenvalue. Furthermore, since the characteristic polynomial of A is the same as the characteristic polynomial of A, the eigenvalues of the left eigenvectors of A are the same as the eigenvalues of the right eigenvectors of A.
Suppose the eigenvectors of A form a basis, or equivalently A has n linearly independent eigenvectors v, v,..., v with associated eigenvalues λ, λ,..., λ. The eigenvalues need not be distinct. Define a square matrix Q whose columns are the n linearly independent eigenvectors of A,
Since each column of Q is an eigenvector of A, right multiplying A by Q scales each column of Q by its associated eigenvalue,
With this in mind, define a diagonal matrix Λ where each diagonal element Λ is the eigenvalue associated with the i column of Q. Then
Because the columns of Q are linearly independent, Q is invertible. Right multiplying both sides of the equation by Q,
or by instead left multiplying both sides by Q,
A can therefore be decomposed into a matrix composed of its eigenvectors, a diagonal matrix with its eigenvalues along the diagonal, and the inverse of the matrix of eigenvectors. This is called the eigendecomposition and it is a similarity transformation. Such a matrix A is said to be similar to the diagonal matrix Λ or diagonalizable. The matrix Q is the change of basis matrix of the similarity transformation. Essentially, the matrices A and Λ represent the same linear transformation expressed in two different bases. The eigenvectors are used as the basis when representing the linear transformation as Λ.
Conversely, suppose a matrix A is diagonalizable. Let P be a non-singular square matrix such that P AP is some diagonal matrix D. Left multiplying both by P, AP = PD. Each column of P must therefore be an eigenvector of A whose eigenvalue is the corresponding diagonal element of D. Since the columns of P must be linearly independent for P to be invertible, there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors of A. It then follows that the eigenvectors of A form a basis if and only if A is diagonalizable.
A matrix that is not diagonalizable is said to be defective. For defective matrices, the notion of eigenvectors generalizes to generalized eigenvectors and the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues generalizes to the Jordan normal form. Over an algebraically closed field, any matrix A has a Jordan normal form and therefore admits a basis of generalized eigenvectors and a decomposition into generalized eigenspaces.
In the Hermitian case, eigenvalues can be given a variational characterization. The largest eigenvalue of H (\ displaystyle H) is the maximum value of the quadratic form x T H x / x T x (\ displaystyle x ^ (\ mathsf (T)) Hx / x ^ (\ mathsf (T)) x). A value of x (\ displaystyle x) that realizes that maximum, is an eigenvector.
Consider the matrix
The figure on the right shows the effect of this transformation on point coordinates in the plane. The eigenvectors v of this transformation satisfy Equation (1), and the values of λ for which the determinant of the matrix (A − λI) equals zero are the eigenvalues.
Taking the determinant to find characteristic polynomial of A,
Setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, it has roots at λ = 1 and λ = 3, which are the two eigenvalues of A.
For λ = 1, Equation (2) becomes,
Any non-zero vector with v = − v solves this equation. Therefore,
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 1, as is any scalar multiple of this vector.
For λ = 3, Equation (2) becomes
Any non-zero vector with v = v solves this equation. Therefore,
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3, as is any scalar multiple of this vector.
Thus, the vectors v and v are eigenvectors of A associated with the eigenvalues λ = 1 and λ = 3, respectively.
Consider the matrix
The characteristic polynomial of A is
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are 2, 1, and 11, which are the only three eigenvalues of A. These eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors (1 0 0) T, (\ displaystyle (1 \; 0 \; 0) ^ (\ mathsf (T)),) (0 2 − 1) T, (\ displaystyle (0 \; 2 \; - 1) ^ (\ mathsf (T)),) and (0 1 2) T (\ displaystyle (0 \; 1 \; 2) ^ (\ mathsf (T))), or any non-zero multiple thereof.
Consider the cyclic permutation matrix
This matrix shifts the coordinates of the vector up by one position and moves the first coordinate to the bottom. Its characteristic polynomial is 1 − λ, whose roots are
where i = − 1 (\ displaystyle (\ sqrt (- 1))) is the imaginary unit.
For the real eigenvalue λ = 1, any vector with three equal non-zero entries is an eigenvector. For example,
For the complex conjugate pair of imaginary eigenvalues, note that
Then
and
Therefore, the other two eigenvectors of A are complex and are v λ 2 = (1 λ 2 λ 3) T (\ displaystyle v_ (\ lambda _ (2)) = (1 \; \ lambda _ (2) \; \ lambda _ (3)) ^ (\ mathrm (T))) and v λ 3 = (1 λ 3 λ 2) T (\ displaystyle v_ (\ lambda _ (3)) = (1 \; \ lambda _ (3) \; \ lambda _ (2)) ^ (\ mathrm (T))) with eigenvalues λ and λ, respectively. Note that the two complex eigenvectors also appear in a complex conjugate pair,
Matrices with entries only along the main diagonal are called diagonal matrices. The eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are the diagonal elements themselves. Consider the matrix
The characteristic polynomial of A is
which has the roots λ = 1, λ = 2, and λ = 3. These roots are the diagonal elements as well as the eigenvalues of A.
Each diagonal element corresponds to an eigenvector whose only non-zero component is in the same row as that diagonal element. In the example, the eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors,
respectively, as well as scalar multiples of these vectors.
A matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all zero is called a lower triangular matrix, while a matrix whose elements below the main diagonal are all zero is called an upper triangular matrix. As with diagonal matrices, the eigenvalues of triangular matrices are the elements of the main diagonal.
Consider the lower triangular matrix,
The characteristic polynomial of A is
which has the roots λ = 1, λ = 2, and λ = 3. These roots are the diagonal elements as well as the eigenvalues of A.
These eigenvalues correspond to the eigenvectors,
respectively, as well as scalar multiples of these vectors.
As in the previous example, the lower triangular matrix
has a characteristic polynomial that is the product of its diagonal elements,
The roots of this polynomial, and hence the eigenvalues, are 2 and 3. The algebraic multiplicity of each eigenvalue is 2; in other words they are both double roots. The sum of the algebraic multiplicities of each distinct eigenvalue is μ = 4 = n, the order of the characteristic polynomial and the dimension of A.
On the other hand, the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 2 is only 1, because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector (0 1 − 1 1) and is therefore 1 - dimensional. Similarly, the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 3 is 1 because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector (0 0 0 1). The total geometric multiplicity γ is 2, which is the smallest it could be for a matrix with two distinct eigenvalues. Geometric multiplicities are defined in a later section.
The definitions of eigenvalue and eigenvectors of a linear transformation T remains valid even if the underlying vector space is an infinite - dimensional Hilbert or Banach space. A widely used class of linear transformations acting on infinite - dimensional spaces are the differential operators on function spaces. Let D be a linear differential operator on the space C of infinitely differentiable real functions of a real argument t. The eigenvalue equation for D is the differential equation
The functions that satisfy this equation are eigenvectors of D and are commonly called eigenfunctions.
Consider the derivative operator d d t (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (d) (dt))) with eigenvalue equation
This differential equation can be solved by multiplying both sides by dt / f (t) and integrating. Its solution, the exponential function
is the eigenfunction of the derivative operator. Note that in this case the eigenfunction is itself a function of its associated eigenvalue. In particular, note that for λ = 0 the eigenfunction f (t) is a constant.
The main eigenfunction article gives other examples.
The concept of eigenvalues and eigenvectors extends naturally to arbitrary linear transformations on arbitrary vector spaces. Let V be any vector space over some field K of scalars, and let T be a linear transformation mapping V into V,
We say that a non-zero vector v ∈ V is an eigenvector of T if and only if there exists a scalar λ ∈ K such that
T (v) = λ v. (\ displaystyle T (\ mathbf (v)) = \ lambda \ mathbf (v).)
(5)
This equation is called the eigenvalue equation for T, and the scalar λ is the eigenvalue of T corresponding to the eigenvector v. Note that T (v) is the result of applying the transformation T to the vector v, while λv is the product of the scalar λ with v.
Given an eigenvalue λ, consider the set
which is the union of the zero vector with the set of all eigenvectors associated with λ. E is called the eigenspace or characteristic space of T associated with λ.
By definition of a linear transformation,
for (x, y) ∈ V and α ∈ K. Therefore, if u and v are eigenvectors of T associated with eigenvalue λ, namely (u, v) ∈ E, then
So, both u + v and αv are either zero or eigenvectors of T associated with λ, namely (u+v, αv) ∈ E, and E is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. The eigenspace E associated with λ is therefore a linear subspace of V. If that subspace has dimension 1, it is sometimes called an eigenline.
The geometric multiplicity γ (λ) of an eigenvalue λ is the dimension of the eigenspace associated with λ, i.e., the maximum number of linearly independent eigenvectors associated with that eigenvalue. By the definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, γ (λ) ≥ 1 because every eigenvalue has at least one eigenvector.
The eigenspaces of T always form a direct sum. As a consequence, eigenvectors of different eigenvalues are always linearly independent. Therefore, the sum of the dimensions of the eigenspaces can not exceed the dimension n of the vector space on which T operates, and there can not be more than n distinct eigenvalues.
Any subspace spanned by eigenvectors of T is an invariant subspace of T, and the restriction of T to such a subspace is diagonalizable. Moreover, if the entire vector space V can be spanned by the eigenvectors of T, or equivalently if the direct sum of the eigenspaces associated with all the eigenvalues of T is the entire vector space V, then a basis of V called an eigenbasis can be formed from linearly independent eigenvectors of T. When T admits an eigenbasis, T is diagonalizable.
While the definition of an eigenvector used in this article excludes the zero vector, it is possible to define eigenvalues and eigenvectors such that the zero vector is an eigenvector.
Consider again the eigenvalue equation, Equation (5). Define an eigenvalue to be any scalar λ ∈ K such that there exists a non-zero vector v ∈ V satisfying Equation (5). It is important that this version of the definition of an eigenvalue specify that the vector be non-zero, otherwise by this definition the zero vector would allow any scalar in K to be an eigenvalue. Define an eigenvector v associated with the eigenvalue λ to be any vector that, given λ, satisfies Equation (5). Given the eigenvalue, the zero vector is among the vectors that satisfy Equation (5), so the zero vector is included among the eigenvectors by this alternate definition.
If λ is an eigenvalue of T, then the operator (T − λI) is not one - to - one, and therefore its inverse (T − λI) does not exist. The converse is true for finite - dimensional vector spaces, but not for infinite - dimensional vector spaces. In general, the operator (T − λI) may not have an inverse even if λ is not an eigenvalue.
For this reason, in functional analysis eigenvalues can be generalized to the spectrum of a linear operator T as the set of all scalars λ for which the operator (T − λI) has no bounded inverse. The spectrum of an operator always contains all its eigenvalues but is not limited to them.
One can generalize the algebraic object that is acting on the vector space, replacing a single operator acting on a vector space with an algebra representation -- an associative algebra acting on a module. The study of such actions is the field of representation theory.
The representation - theoretical concept of weight is an analog of eigenvalues, while weight vectors and weight spaces are the analogs of eigenvectors and eigenspaces, respectively.
The simplest difference equations have the form
The solution of this equation for x in terms of t is found by using its characteristic equation
which can be found by stacking into matrix form a set of equations consisting of the above difference equation and the k -- 1 equations x t − 1 = x t − 1,..., x t − k + 1 = x t − k + 1, (\ displaystyle x_ (t - 1) = x_ (t - 1), \ dots, x_ (t - k + 1) = x_ (t - k + 1),) giving a k - dimensional system of the first order in the stacked variable vector (x t,..., x t − k + 1) (\ displaystyle (x_ (t), \ dots, x_ (t - k + 1))) in terms of its once - lagged value, and taking the characteristic equation of this system 's matrix. This equation gives k characteristic roots λ 1,..., λ k, (\ displaystyle \ lambda _ (1), \ dots, \ lambda _ (k),) for use in the solution equation
A similar procedure is used for solving a differential equation of the form
The eigenvalues of a matrix A (\ displaystyle A) can be determined by finding the roots of the characteristic polynomial. Explicit algebraic formulas for the roots of a polynomial exist only if the degree n (\ displaystyle n) is 4 or less. According to the Abel -- Ruffini theorem there is no general, explicit and exact algebraic formula for the roots of a polynomial with degree 5 or more.
It turns out that any polynomial with degree n (\ displaystyle n) is the characteristic polynomial of some companion matrix of order n (\ displaystyle n). Therefore, for matrices of order 5 or more, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors can not be obtained by an explicit algebraic formula, and must therefore be computed by approximate numerical methods.
In theory, the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial can be computed exactly, since they are sums of products of matrix elements; and there are algorithms that can find all the roots of a polynomial of arbitrary degree to any required accuracy. However, this approach is not viable in practice because the coefficients would be contaminated by unavoidable round - off errors, and the roots of a polynomial can be an extremely sensitive function of the coefficients (as exemplified by Wilkinson 's polynomial).
Efficient, accurate methods to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors of arbitrary matrices were not known until the advent of the QR algorithm in 1961. Combining the Householder transformation with the LU decomposition results in an algorithm with better convergence than the QR algorithm. For large Hermitian sparse matrices, the Lanczos algorithm is one example of an efficient iterative method to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors, among several other possibilities.
Once the (exact) value of an eigenvalue is known, the corresponding eigenvectors can be found by finding non-zero solutions of the eigenvalue equation, that becomes a system of linear equations with known coefficients. For example, once it is known that 6 is an eigenvalue of the matrix
we can find its eigenvectors by solving the equation A v = 6 v (\ displaystyle Av = 6v), that is
This matrix equation is equivalent to two linear equations
Both equations reduce to the single linear equation y = 2 x (\ displaystyle y = 2x). Therefore, any vector of the form (a, 2 a) ′ (\ displaystyle (a, 2a) '), for any non-zero real number a (\ displaystyle a), is an eigenvector of A (\ displaystyle A) with eigenvalue λ = 6 (\ displaystyle \ lambda = 6).
The matrix A (\ displaystyle A) above has another eigenvalue λ = 1 (\ displaystyle \ lambda = 1). A similar calculation shows that the corresponding eigenvectors are the non-zero solutions of 3 x + y = 0 (\ displaystyle 3x + y = 0), that is, any vector of the form (b, − 3 b) ′ (\ displaystyle (b, - 3b) '), for any non-zero real number b (\ displaystyle b).
Some numeric methods that compute the eigenvalues of a matrix also determine a set of corresponding eigenvectors as a by - product of the computation.
The following table presents some example transformations in the plane along with their 2 × 2 matrices, eigenvalues, and eigenvectors.
Note that the characteristic equation for a rotation is a quadratic equation with discriminant D = − 4 (sin θ) 2 (\ displaystyle D = - 4 (\ sin \ theta) ^ (2)), which is a negative number whenever θ is not an integer multiple of 180 °. Therefore, except for these special cases, the two eigenvalues are complex numbers, cos θ ± i sin θ (\ displaystyle \ cos \ theta \ pm \ mathbf (i) \ sin \ theta); and all eigenvectors have non-real entries. Indeed, except for those special cases, a rotation changes the direction of every nonzero vector in the plane.
A linear transformation that takes a square to a rectangle of the same area (a squeeze mapping) has reciprocal eigenvalues.
An example of an eigenvalue equation where the transformation T (\ displaystyle T) is represented in terms of a differential operator is the time - independent Schrödinger equation in quantum mechanics:
where H (\ displaystyle H), the Hamiltonian, is a second - order differential operator and ψ E (\ displaystyle \ psi _ (E)), the wavefunction, is one of its eigenfunctions corresponding to the eigenvalue E (\ displaystyle E), interpreted as its energy.
However, in the case where one is interested only in the bound state solutions of the Schrödinger equation, one looks for ψ E (\ displaystyle \ psi _ (E)) within the space of square integrable functions. Since this space is a Hilbert space with a well - defined scalar product, one can introduce a basis set in which ψ E (\ displaystyle \ psi _ (E)) and H (\ displaystyle H) can be represented as a one - dimensional array (i.e., a vector) and a matrix respectively. This allows one to represent the Schrödinger equation in a matrix form.
The bra -- ket notation is often used in this context. A vector, which represents a state of the system, in the Hilbert space of square integrable functions is represented by Ψ E ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (E) \ rangle). In this notation, the Schrödinger equation is:
where Ψ E ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (E) \ rangle) is an eigenstate of H (\ displaystyle H) and E (\ displaystyle E) represents the eigenvalue. H (\ displaystyle H) is an observable self adjoint operator, the infinite - dimensional analog of Hermitian matrices. As in the matrix case, in the equation above H Ψ E ⟩ (\ displaystyle H \ Psi _ (E) \ rangle) is understood to be the vector obtained by application of the transformation H (\ displaystyle H) to Ψ E ⟩ (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (E) \ rangle).
In quantum mechanics, and in particular in atomic and molecular physics, within the Hartree -- Fock theory, the atomic and molecular orbitals can be defined by the eigenvectors of the Fock operator. The corresponding eigenvalues are interpreted as ionization potentials via Koopmans ' theorem. In this case, the term eigenvector is used in a somewhat more general meaning, since the Fock operator is explicitly dependent on the orbitals and their eigenvalues. Thus, if one wants to underline this aspect, one speaks of nonlinear eigenvalue problems. Such equations are usually solved by an iteration procedure, called in this case self - consistent field method. In quantum chemistry, one often represents the Hartree -- Fock equation in a non-orthogonal basis set. This particular representation is a generalized eigenvalue problem called Roothaan equations.
In geology, especially in the study of glacial till, eigenvectors and eigenvalues are used as a method by which a mass of information of a clast fabric 's constituents ' orientation and dip can be summarized in a 3 - D space by six numbers. In the field, a geologist may collect such data for hundreds or thousands of clasts in a soil sample, which can only be compared graphically such as in a Tri-Plot (Sneed and Folk) diagram, or as a Stereonet on a Wulff Net.
The output for the orientation tensor is in the three orthogonal (perpendicular) axes of space. The three eigenvectors are ordered v 1, v 2, v 3 (\ displaystyle v_ (1), v_ (2), v_ (3)) by their eigenvalues E 1 ≥ E 2 ≥ E 3 (\ displaystyle E_ (1) \ geq E_ (2) \ geq E_ (3)); v 1 (\ displaystyle v_ (1)) then is the primary orientation / dip of clast, v 2 (\ displaystyle v_ (2)) is the secondary and v 3 (\ displaystyle v_ (3)) is the tertiary, in terms of strength. The clast orientation is defined as the direction of the eigenvector, on a compass rose of 360 °. Dip is measured as the eigenvalue, the modulus of the tensor: this is valued from 0 ° (no dip) to 90 ° (vertical). The relative values of E 1 (\ displaystyle E_ (1)), E 2 (\ displaystyle E_ (2)), and E 3 (\ displaystyle E_ (3)) are dictated by the nature of the sediment 's fabric. If E 1 = E 2 = E 3 (\ displaystyle E_ (1) = E_ (2) = E_ (3)), the fabric is said to be isotropic. If E 1 = E 2 > E 3 (\ displaystyle E_ (1) = E_ (2) > E_ (3)), the fabric is said to be planar. If E 1 > E 2 > E 3 (\ displaystyle E_ (1) > E_ (2) > E_ (3)), the fabric is said to be linear.
The eigendecomposition of a symmetric positive semidefinite (PSD) matrix yields an orthogonal basis of eigenvectors, each of which has a nonnegative eigenvalue. The orthogonal decomposition of a PSD matrix is used in multivariate analysis, where the sample covariance matrices are PSD. This orthogonal decomposition is called principal components analysis (PCA) in statistics. PCA studies linear relations among variables. PCA is performed on the covariance matrix or the correlation matrix (in which each variable is scaled to have its sample variance equal to one). For the covariance or correlation matrix, the eigenvectors correspond to principal components and the eigenvalues to the variance explained by the principal components. Principal component analysis of the correlation matrix provides an orthonormal eigen - basis for the space of the observed data: In this basis, the largest eigenvalues correspond to the principal components that are associated with most of the covariability among a number of observed data.
Principal component analysis is used to study large data sets, such as those encountered in bioinformatics, data mining, chemical research, psychology, and in marketing. PCA is popular especially in psychology, in the field of psychometrics. In Q methodology, the eigenvalues of the correlation matrix determine the Q - methodologist 's judgment of practical significance (which differs from the statistical significance of hypothesis testing; cf. criteria for determining the number of factors). More generally, principal component analysis can be used as a method of factor analysis in structural equation modeling.
Eigenvalue problems occur naturally in the vibration analysis of mechanical structures with many degrees of freedom. The eigenvalues are the natural frequencies (or eigenfrequencies) of vibration, and the eigenvectors are the shapes of these vibrational modes. In particular, undamped vibration is governed by
or
that is, acceleration is proportional to position (i.e., we expect x (\ displaystyle x) to be sinusoidal in time).
In n (\ displaystyle n) dimensions, m (\ displaystyle m) becomes a mass matrix and k (\ displaystyle k) a stiffness matrix. Admissible solutions are then a linear combination of solutions to the generalized eigenvalue problem
where ω 2 (\ displaystyle \ omega ^ (2)) is the eigenvalue and ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) is the (imaginary) angular frequency. Note that the principal vibration modes are different from the principal compliance modes, which are the eigenvectors of k (\ displaystyle k) alone. Furthermore, damped vibration, governed by
leads to a so - called quadratic eigenvalue problem,
This can be reduced to a generalized eigenvalue problem by algebraic manipulation at the cost of solving a larger system.
The orthogonality properties of the eigenvectors allows decoupling of the differential equations so that the system can be represented as linear summation of the eigenvectors. The eigenvalue problem of complex structures is often solved using finite element analysis, but neatly generalize the solution to scalar - valued vibration problems.
In image processing, processed images of faces can be seen as vectors whose components are the brightnesses of each pixel. The dimension of this vector space is the number of pixels. The eigenvectors of the covariance matrix associated with a large set of normalized pictures of faces are called eigenfaces; this is an example of principal component analysis. They are very useful for expressing any face image as a linear combination of some of them. In the facial recognition branch of biometrics, eigenfaces provide a means of applying data compression to faces for identification purposes. Research related to eigen vision systems determining hand gestures has also been made.
Similar to this concept, eigenvoices represent the general direction of variability in human pronunciations of a particular utterance, such as a word in a language. Based on a linear combination of such eigenvoices, a new voice pronunciation of the word can be constructed. These concepts have been found useful in automatic speech recognition systems for speaker adaptation.
In mechanics, the eigenvectors of the moment of inertia tensor define the principal axes of a rigid body. The tensor of moment of inertia is a key quantity required to determine the rotation of a rigid body around its center of mass.
In solid mechanics, the stress tensor is symmetric and so can be decomposed into a diagonal tensor with the eigenvalues on the diagonal and eigenvectors as a basis. Because it is diagonal, in this orientation, the stress tensor has no shear components; the components it does have are the principal components.
In spectral graph theory, an eigenvalue of a graph is defined as an eigenvalue of the graph 's adjacency matrix A (\ displaystyle A), or (increasingly) of the graph 's Laplacian matrix due to its discrete Laplace operator, which is either T − A (\ displaystyle T-A) (sometimes called the combinatorial Laplacian) or I − T − 1 / 2 A T − 1 / 2 (\ displaystyle I-T ^ (- 1 / 2) AT ^ (- 1 / 2)) (sometimes called the normalized Laplacian), where T (\ displaystyle T) is a diagonal matrix with T i i (\ displaystyle T_ (ii)) equal to the degree of vertex v i (\ displaystyle v_ (i)), and in T − 1 / 2 (\ displaystyle T ^ (- 1 / 2)), the i (\ displaystyle i) th diagonal entry is 1 / deg (v i) (\ displaystyle 1 / (\ sqrt (\ deg (v_ (i))))). The k (\ displaystyle k) th principal eigenvector of a graph is defined as either the eigenvector corresponding to the k (\ displaystyle k) th largest or k (\ displaystyle k) th smallest eigenvalue of the Laplacian. The first principal eigenvector of the graph is also referred to merely as the principal eigenvector.
The principal eigenvector is used to measure the centrality of its vertices. An example is Google 's PageRank algorithm. The principal eigenvector of a modified adjacency matrix of the World Wide Web graph gives the page ranks as its components. This vector corresponds to the stationary distribution of the Markov chain represented by the row - normalized adjacency matrix; however, the adjacency matrix must first be modified to ensure a stationary distribution exists. The second smallest eigenvector can be used to partition the graph into clusters, via spectral clustering. Other methods are also available for clustering.
The basic reproduction number (R 0 (\ displaystyle R_ (0))) is a fundamental number in the study of how infectious diseases spread. If one infectious person is put into a population of completely susceptible people, then R 0 (\ displaystyle R_ (0)) is the average number of people that one typical infectious person will infect. The generation time of an infection is the time, t G (\ displaystyle t_ (G)), from one person becoming infected to the next person becoming infected. In a heterogeneous population, the next generation matrix defines how many people in the population will become infected after time t G (\ displaystyle t_ (G)) has passed. R 0 (\ displaystyle R_ (0)) is then the largest eigenvalue of the next generation matrix.
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where does the term surf and turf come from | Surf and turf - wikipedia
Surf and turf or surf ' n ' turf is a main course which combines seafood and red meat. The seafood used may be lobster, prawns, or shrimp, which may be steamed, grilled or breaded and fried. When served with lobster, the lobster tail or a whole lobster may be served with the dish. The meat is typically beef steak, although others may be used. One standard combination is lobster tail and filet mignon.
Surf and turf is eaten in steakhouses in the U.S., Canada and Australia, and may also be available in some British / Irish - style pubs in those countries.
It is unclear where the term originated. The earliest known citation is from 1961, in the Los Angeles Times.
Surf and turf was often considered to symbolize the middle - class "Continental cuisine '' of the 1960s and 1970s, with (frozen) lobster and steak as ersatz status foodstuffs for the middle class.
The name has been reappropriated ironically by more recent chefs such as Thomas Keller.
A varisation is the surf and turf burger, which is prepared with ground beef and various types of seafood such as lobster, shrimp or crab.
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is ed sheeran in chris brown freaky friday | Freaky Friday (song) - wikipedia
"Freaky Friday '' is a song recorded by American rapper Lil Dicky, featuring guest vocals from American singer Chris Brown and uncredited vocals from Ed Sheeran, DJ Khaled, and Kendall Jenner. Written by Dicky, Brown, Cashmere Cat, Lewis Hughes, Wilbart McCoy III, Ammo and its producers DJ Mustard, Benny Blanco and Twice as Nice, it was released by Dirty Burd on March 15, 2018, alongside its music video. The song topped the charts in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100. The song has also reached the top ten of the charts in Australia, Canada and Ireland.
"Freaky Friday '' is a hip hop and comedy hip hop song featuring pop - rap production.
The music video parodies the 2003 film Freaky Friday and features cameos from Jimmy Tatro, Ed Sheeran, DJ Khaled and Kendall Jenner. As of July 2018, the video had over 320 million views on YouTube. The video shows Lil Dicky at a Chinese restaurant, similar to the 2003 film, Freaky Friday, where a character is at a Chinese restaurant and wishes she was somebody else. In the music video, Lil Dicky is approached by a fan, played by Jimmy Tatro, who mentions he is a fan of his work. He then explains to his girlfriend who he is accompanied by that he is a comedic rapper, who is not that impressive of a rapper. Lil Dicky then says to himself he wishes he was somebody who could dance, and who had credibility. The camera then pans to Chris Brown on TV, mentioning he wishes he was somebody else as well. The Chinese waiter takes note of it, and gives Lil Dicky a fortune cookie. The video then shows Lil Dicky, supposedly in the body of Chris Brown, and vice versa. The song illustrates the two in each others bodies. Towards the end, the two are about to fight, and they realize they should not kill each other, and instead love each other. They realize that this will set them back to their original form. The video then ends with cameos from Ed Sheeran, DJ Khaled and Kendall Jenner, where Lil Dicky is then in possession in all of their bodies.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who granted charters to the virginia company of london | London Company - wikipedia
The London Company (also called the Virginia Company of London) was an English joint - stock company established in 1606 by royal charter by King James I with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America.
The territory granted to the London Company included the eastern coast of America from the 34th parallel (Cape Fear) north to the 41st parallel (in Long Island Sound). As part of the Virginia Company and Colony, the London Company owned a large portion of Atlantic and Inland Canada. The company was permitted by its charter to establish a 100 - square - mile (260 km) settlement within this area. The portion of the company 's territory north of the 38th parallel was shared with the Plymouth Company, with the stipulation that neither company found a colony within 100 miles (161 km) of each other.
The London Company made landfall on 26 April 1607, at the southern edge of the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, which they named Cape Henry, near present - day Virginia Beach. Deciding to move the encampment, on 4 May 1607, they established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River about 40 miles (64 km) upstream from its mouth at the Chesapeake Bay. Later in 1607, the Plymouth Company established its Popham Colony in present - day Maine, but it was abandoned after about a year. By 1609, the Plymouth Company had dissolved. As a result, the charter for the London Company was adjusted with a new grant that extended from "sea to sea '' of the previously - shared area between the 38th and 40th parallel. It was amended in 1612 to include the new territory of the Somers Isles (or Bermuda).
The London Company struggled financially, especially with labour shortages in its Virginia colony. Its profits improved after sweeter strains of tobacco than the native variety were cultivated and successfully exported from Virginia as a cash crop beginning in 1612. By 1619 a system of indentured service was fully developed in the colony; the same year the home government passed a law that prohibited the commercial growing of tobacco in England. In 1624, the company lost its charter, and Virginia became a royal colony. (Its spin - off, The London Company of The Somers Isles, operated until 1684).
In Renaissance England, wealthy merchants were eager to find investment opportunities, so they established a number of companies to trade in various parts of the world. Each company was made up of individuals who purchased shares of company stock. The Crown granted a charter to each company with a monopoly to explore, settle, or trade with a particular region of the world. Profits were shared among the investors according to the amount of stock that each owned. More than 6,300 Englishmen invested in joint stock companies between 1585 and 1630, trading in Russia, Turkey, Africa, the East Indies, the Mediterranean, and North America.
Investors in the Virginia Company hoped to profit from the natural resources of the New World. In 1606 Captain Bartholomew Gosnold obtained of King James I a charter for two companies. The first, for the South - Virginia or London Company, covered what are now Maryland, Virginia and Carolina, between Latitude 34 ° and Latitude 41 ° North. Gosnold 's principal backers were Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Edward Wingfield and Richard Hakluyt. The second Company, the Plymouth Adventurers, were empowered to settle as far as 45 ° North, encompassing what are present day Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and New England. The Company paid all the costs of establishing each colony, and in return controlled all land and resources there, requiring all settlers to work for the Company.
The first leader of the Virginia Company in England was its treasurer, Sir Thomas Smythe, who arranged the 1609 charter. He had been governor of the East India Company since 1603 and continued with one break until 1620.
In an extensive publicity campaign, Wingfield, Gosnold and a few others, circulated pamphlets, plays, sermons and broadsides throughout England to raise interest in New World investments. Shareholders could buy stock individually or in groups. Almost 1,700 people purchased shares, including men of different occupations and classes, wealthy women, and representatives of institutions such as trade guilds, towns and cities. Investors, called "adventurers '', purchased shares of stock to help finance the costs of establishing overseas settlements. Money from the sale of stock was used to pay for ships and supplies and to recruit and outfit laborers. A single share of stock in the Virginia Company cost 12 pounds 10 shillings, the equivalent of more than six months ' wages for an ordinary working man.
The largest single investor was Thomas West, Lord de la Warre, who served as the first governor of Virginia between 1610 and 1618. (The English colonists named the Delaware River and Native American Lenape tribe for him.)
The business of the company was the settlement of the Virginia colony, supported by a labour force of voluntary transportees under the customary indenture system. In exchange for 7 years of labor for the company, the company provided passage, food, protection, and land ownership (if the worker survived).
In December 1606, the Virginia Company 's three ships, containing 144 men and boys (with only one man who died during the voyage), set sail from Blackwall, London. After an unusually long voyage of 144 days, they made landfall on 26 April 1607 at the southern edge of the mouth of what they named the James River on the Chesapeake Bay. They named this shore as Cape Henry. They were attacked by Native Americans, and the settlers moved north. On 14 May 1607, these first settlers selected the site of Jamestown Island, further upriver and on the northern shore, as the place to build their fort.
In addition to survival, the early colonists were expected to make a profit for the owners of the Virginia Company. Although the settlers were disappointed that gold did not wash up on the beach and gems did not grow in the trees, they realised there was great potential for wealth of other kinds in their new home. Early industries, such as glass manufacture, pitch and tar production for naval stores, and beer and wine making took advantage of natural resources and the land 's fertility. From the outset settlers thought that the abundance of timber would be the primary leg of the economy, as Britain 's forests had long been felled. The seemingly inexhaustible supply of cheap American timber was to be the primary enabler of England 's (and then Britain 's) rise to maritime (merchant and naval) supremacy. However, the settlers could not devote as much time as the Virginia Company would have liked to developing commodity products for export. They were too busy trying to survive.
Within the three - sided fort erected on the banks of the James, the settlers quickly discovered that they were, first and foremost, employees of the Virginia Company of London, following instructions of the men appointed by the Company to rule them. In exchange, the laborers were armed, and received clothes and food from the common store. After seven years, they were to receive land of their own. The gentlemen, who provided their own armor and weapons, were to be paid in land, dividends or additional shares of stock.
Initially, the colonists were governed by a president and seven - member council selected by the King. Leadership problems quickly erupted. Jamestown 's first two leaders coped with varying degrees of success with sickness, assaults by Native Americans, poor food and water supplies, and class strife. Many colonists were ill - prepared to carve out a new settlement on a frontier. When Captain John Smith became Virginia 's third president, he proved the strong leader that the colony needed. Industry flourished and relations with Chief Powhatan 's people improved.
In 1609, the Virginia Company received its Second Charter, which allowed the Company to choose its new governor from amongst its shareholders. Investment boomed as the Company launched an intensive recruitment campaign. Over 600 colonists set sail for Virginia between March 1608 and March 1609.
Sir Thomas Gates, Virginia 's deputy governor, bound for the colony in the Third Supply aboard the Sea Venture, was shipwrecked in Bermuda, along with the Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, Captain Newport, and 147 other settlers and seamen. When Gates finally arrived to take up his new post in 1610, with most of the survivors of the Sea Venture (on two new ships built in Bermuda, the Deliverance and the Patience), he found that only 60 of the original 214 colonists had survived the infamous "Starving Time '' of 1609 -- 1610. Most of these were dying or ill. Despite the abundance of food which Gates ' expedition brought from Bermuda (which had necessitated the building of two ships), it was clear the colony was not yet self - sufficient and could not survive.
The survivors of Jamestown were taken aboard the Deliverance and the Patience, and the colony was abandoned. Gates intended to transport all the settlers back to England, but the fortuitous arrival of another relief fleet, bearing Governor Lord De la Warre, granted Jamestown a reprieve. All the settlers were put ashore again, and Sir George Somers returned to Bermuda aboard the Patience to obtain more food. (Somers died there, and his nephew, Matthew Somers, the captain of the Patience, sailed the vessel to Lyme Regis in England, instead, to claim his inheritance).
After 1620, with growing demand for tobacco on the continent, the Company arranged to sell Virginia tobacco in the Netherlands, but the next year and despite company pleas to maintain the privilege of freedom of trade, the Privy Council forbade the export of any product of Virginia to a foreign country until the commodities had been landed in England, and English duties had been paid. By 1621, the Company was in trouble; unpaid dividends and increased use of lotteries had made future investors wary. The Company debt was now over £ 9,000. Worried Virginians were hardly reassured by the advice of pragmatic Treasurer Sandys, who warned that the Company "can not wish you to rely on anything but yourselves. '' In March 1622, the Company 's and the colony 's situation went from dire to disastrous when, during the Indian massacre of 1622, the Powhatan confederacy killed one - quarter of the European population of the Virginia colony.
When the Crown and company officials proposed a fourth charter, severely reducing the Company 's ability to make decisions in the governing of Virginia, subscribers rejected it. King James I forthwith changed the status of Virginia in 1624, taking control of it as a royal colony to be administered by a governor appointed by the King. The government 's colonial policy of export restrictions however, did not change. The Crown approved the election of a Virginia Assembly in 1627. This form of government, with governor and assembly, would oversee the colony of Virginia until 1776, excepting only the years of the English Commonwealth.
Bermuda had been separated from the Virginia Company in 1614, when the Crown briefly took over its administration. In 1615, the shareholders of the Virginia Company created a new company, the Somers Isles Company, which continued to operate Bermuda. It was subsequently, also known officially as The Somers Isles (for the Admiral of the Virginia Company, Sir George Somers) until being dissolved in 1684 and made a royal colony. Meetings were held at town hall to discuss the distribution of the tobacco.
The instructions issued to Sir Thomas Gates, on 20 November 1608, called for a forcible conversion of Native Americans to Anglicanism and their subordination to the colonial administration. The records of the company record a discussion during one of its first meetings about publishing a justification of their business enterprise methods to "give adventurers, a clearness and satisfaction, a public debate where Catholics and neutrals might attack them. Whereas Catholic arguments would be in support of Spanish legal claims to the New World under the Treaty of Tordesillas, it was feared that the neutral "pen - adversaries '' might "cast scruples into our conscience '' by criticising the lawfulness of the plantation. '' It was decided to forego such a publication of a justification.
In 1608, Sir Edward Coke, in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice, offered a ruling in Calvin 's Case that went beyond the issue at hand: whether a Scotsman could seek justice at an English Court. Coke distinguished between aliens from nations at war with England and friendly aliens, those from nations in league with England. Friendly aliens could have recourse to English courts. But he also ruled that with "all infidels '' (i.e. those from non-Christian nations), there could be no peace, and a state of perpetual hostility would exist between them and Christians.
In 1609, the company issued instructions to settlers to kidnap Native American children so as to educate them with English values and religion. These instructions also sanctioned attacking the Iniocasoockes, the cultural leaders of the local Powhatans. Only after Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr arrived in 1610, was the Company able to commence a war against the Powhatan with the First Anglo - Powhatan War. De La Warr was replaced by Sir Thomas Dale, who continued the war. It was during this period that Pocahontas married John Rolfe.
The military offensive was accompanied by a propaganda war: Alderman Robert Johnson published Nova Britannia, in 1609, which compared Native Americans to wild animals -- "heardes of deere in a forest ''. While it did portray the Powhatan as peace - loving, it threatened to deal with any who resisted conversion to Anglicanism as enemies of their country. (Johnson was the son - in - law of Sir Thomas Smythe, treasurer of the Company in London and leader of its "court '' faction.)
The Company began to turn a profit after 1612, when planting a couple of new varieties of tobacco yielded a product that appealed more to English tastes than the native tobacco. Tobacco became the commodity crop of the colony, and settlers were urged to cultivate more. The colony struggled with labor shortages as mortality was high.
In 1622, the Second Anglo - Powhatan War erupted. Its origins are disputed. English apologists for the company say that Opchanacanough initiated the war. Robert Williams, a 21st - century Native American Law Professor, argues that Opchanacanough had secured concessions from Governor Yeardley which the company would not accept. Thus, Opchanacanough 's attack, on 18 April 1622, may have been a pre-emptive attempt to defeat the colony before reinforcements arrived.
In about a day, the Powhatan killed 350 of 1,240 colonists, destroying some outlying settlements. The Virginia Company quickly published an account of this attack. It was steeped in Calvinist theology of the time: the massacre was the work of Providence in that it was justification for the destruction of the Powhatan, and building English settlements over their former towns. New orders from the London Company directed a "perpetual war without peace or truce '' "to root out from being any longer a people, so cursed a nation, ungrateful to all benefitte, and incapable of all goodnesses. '' Within two years, the Crown took over the territory in 1624 as a royal colony.
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who plays young noah flynn in the kissing booth | The Kissing Booth - Wikipedia
The Kissing Booth is a 2018 American romantic comedy film directed by Vince Marcello, based on the novel of the same name by Beth Reekles. It stars Molly Ringwald, Joey King, Jacob Elordi and Joel Courtney. The film was released on May 11, 2018 on Netflix.
Born on the same day and time in the same hospital in Los Angeles, California, Elle Evans (Joey King) and Lee Flynn (Joel Courtney) have been best friends all their lives. To keep their special friendship, the pair created a set of friendship rules they promise to follow including rule # 9: relatives totally off limits, especially Lee 's older brother Noah (Jacob Elordi).
On the first day of school due to unforeseen circumstances Elle is forced to go to school wearing a skirt that is too small. Another student touches her butt which almost gets Lee into a fight but Noah instead jumps into the fight. Elle, violates the dress code so she has to serve detention. Tuppen, the student who touched Elle inappropriately later apologizes. Lee and Elle chat and he approves of her going on a date with Tuppen however Elle is stood up. He goes to see her later that night to let her know that he was threatened by Noah not to go out with her. And finds out that, Noah has told other guys besides Tuppen not to date Elle.
Elle and Lee decide to create a kissing booth for the school carnival. The two have difficulty finding people to participate but get a group of popular girls called the OMG 's to participate by lying to them about Noahs participation.
The kissing booth is a success. However, girls become angry when they discover that Noah is not actually working the kissing booth. Therefore Elle is set up to kiss a nerdy kid while blindfolded however Noah interferes causing him to kiss Elle and when she takes off her blindfold he does it again. After cleaning up Elle sees Noah flirting with another girl so she runs home while Noah looks at her. While on her way home it starts to rain and Noah offers her a ride on his motorcycle. However, the rain gets too heavy and they have to stop. They shelter in a nearby glass ' bandstand ' in a park. Elle kisses Noah again and he pulls away. After staring at each other Noah goes in for another kiss. Elle ends up pulling away, telling him she ca n't be another one of his conquests. He 's hurt by her response but tells Elle why he likes her. They kiss again but are interrupted by a security guard who recognizes Noah and tells him to stop bringing girls there. Elle gets upset that Noah brought her to the place where he brings his other girlfriends and leaves.
The next day, there is a school party. Elle sees Noah getting tackled by females, so she undresses to make him jealous. The school participates in a slippery slide drink game. While at a party Elle is harassed by Warren and Noah trucks (football term) him. This causes Elle to storm off but Noah requests her to get in his car very aggressively. Instead of going home he takes her to the Hollywood Sign and they talk about their relationship. They both admit to liking each other and decide to come up with rules for their relationship, one being that Lee never finds out. The two share a kiss, and Noah tries to lay a move on her. Elle moves his hand to signal she is n't ready, but she makes the first move instead and they end up having sex under the Hollywood sign.
Elle and Noah start to see each other secretly and are careful that Lee or anyone else do n't find out. While in Noah 's room his mom almost walks in on them and Elle has to hide. While hiding she overhears her say that he had been accepted to an Ivy League school. Soon after he reveals to her that he is going to Harvard and she starts to realize that he wo n't be around next year. One day while hanging out with Noah, Lee walks in on him tending to a cut on her face. He become suspicious and asks Elle if it was Noah who hurt her. This infuriates Noah and they are about to get involved in a fight, but Elle stops them and takes Lee away. Lee asks her is there is something going on between the two of them, to which she denies. She ends up feeling guilty about lying to Lee and goes back to Noah and tells him that they need to come clean that night and when Noah agrees he says that way he can take her to prom. They kiss but Lee ends up seeing it. Hurt, Lee attempts to leave his house but Elle tries to get him to talk before Noah intervenes and eventually get into a fight. Lee asks if they have sex, Elle and Noah looks gulity and Lee admits he knew they were. After backing off, Lee leaves and Elle tells Noah to leave her alone.
Lee starts giving Elle the silent treatment and Noah goes missing. While at the arcade one day Lee invites Elle over to play a game and they make up and make plans for their upcoming birthday party. Before prom, Noah finally returns but to talk to Elle 's dad who says he does not approve but it is her decision.
Elle goes to prom with Lee and his girlfriend Rachel and has a good time until a replica of their kissing booth is revealed. Noah comes out from behind the curtains to tell Elle that he loves her but she responds by saying that she can not keep on hurting the people she loves because of him and that no one wants them to be together. Noah agrees to this but then asks her what does she want. To this Elle does not seem to have an answer and she runs away sobbing. Rachel chases after her but she gets away before they can say anything.
The next day at their costume themed birthday party, Elle begins missing Noah and decides to leave. Lee stops her and Elle tells him that she loves him but she also loves Noah and if he ca n't accept that then maybe they should n't be friends. Lee, finally accepts that Noah makes her happy and agrees to help Elle find him. Elle and Lee get in the car and leave for the airport. She starts sharing her true feelings for Noah to Lee and then it is revealed that all this time in the car it was Noah in Lee 's costume. Elle is surprised to see Noah and admits to him that she loves him. They embrace and kiss.
During the next few weeks, Elle and Noah spend every day together before he has to leave for college. When it is time to go Elle goes with him to the airport and he leaves. After watching him leave, she drives off on Noah 's motorcycle saying that she does not know if they will be together forever but she knows that a part of her heart will always belong to Noah Flynn. The story ends with Elle stating that everything happened just because of the Kissing Booth.
In June 2014, Vince Marcello was hired to write the film adaptation of teenage author Beth Reekles ' young adult novel The Kissing Booth, which was originally published on Wattpad. In November 2016, it was announced that Netflix had purchased rights to the film, with Marcello now set to helm his screenplay. In January 2017, Joey King and Molly Ringwald signed on to star in the film.
The filming took place in Los Angeles, California, and in Cape Town, South Africa between January and April 2017.
The film was released on 11 May 2018 on Netflix. According to Netflix, one in three viewers of the film have re-watched it, "which is 30 percent higher than the average movie re-watch rate on the (streaming service). '' Deeming the film a huge success for the service, CCO Ted Sarandos called the film "one of the most - watched movies in the country, and maybe in the world. ''
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 13 %, based on 8 reviews, and an average rating of 3.7 / 10.
The Kissing Booth was panned by critics. IndieWire 's Kate Erbland gave the film a "D '' grade, adding that "Unfortunately, the high school - set rom - com is a sexist and regressive look at relationships that highlights the worst impulses of the genre. '' Ani Bundel of NBCNews criticized the film 's "problematic stereotyping of masculinity and relationships '' and lack of original ideas. "It feels like it was written by someone who simply digested everything she was told ' romance ' was supposed to be by the patriarchy, and vomited back at us. Nearly every cliché in the film feels cribbed from another movie, like a song made completely of samples from better - known hits. ''
Despite being deemed "sexist '' and "objectively bad '' by several critics, The Kissing Booth was widely consumed among audiences. Netflix 's Ted Sarandos, CCO affirmed the film 's success as a "hugely popular original movie '' for the streaming service.
The Kissing Booth was written in 2011 by author Beth Reekles. It originated as a story on Wattpad where it won a Watty Award for "Most Popular Teen Fiction '' in Wattpad 's annual writing contest. By 2012 it had amassed over 19 million reads and, in 2013, was published by Penguin Random House. In an interview with Forbes, Reekles explains what drew her to Wattpad: "I loved the feeling of community on the site, and when I began to share, I liked the anonymity of it because I was so self - conscious about my writing and had n't shared it with anyone before. ''
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explain the privileges and exemption of private company | Joint - stock company - wikipedia
A joint - stock company is a business entity in which different numbers of shares of the company 's stock can be bought and sold by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion, evidenced by their shares (certificates of ownership). That allows for the unequal ownership of a business with some shareholders owning more of a company than others. Shareholders are able to transfer their shares to others without any effects to the continued existence of the company.
In modern - day corporate law, the existence of a joint - stock company is often synonymous with incorporation (possession of legal personality separate from shareholders) and limited liability (shareholders are liable for the company 's debts only to the value of the money they invested in the company). Therefore, joint - stock companies are commonly known as corporations or limited companies.
Some jurisdictions still provide the possibility of registering joint - stock companies without limited liability. In the United Kingdom and other countries that have adopted its model of company law, they are known as unlimited companies. In the United States, they are known simply as joint - stock companies.
Ownership of stock refers to a large number of privileges. The company is managed on behalf of the shareholders by a board of directors, elected at an annual general meeting. The shareholders also vote to accept or reject an annual report and audited set of accounts. Individual shareholders can sometimes stand for directorships within the company if a vacancy occurs, but that is uncommon.
The shareholders are usually liable for any of the company debts that extend beyond the company 's ability to pay. Meanwhile, the limit of their liability extends only to the face value of their shareholding. The concept of limited liability largely accounts for the success of this form of business organization.
Ordinary shares entitle the owner to a share in the company 's net profit. It is calculated in the following way: the net profit is divided by the total number of owned shares, producing a notional value per share, known as a dividend. An individual 's share of the profit is thus the dividend multiplied by the number of shares owned.
Finding the earliest joint - stock company is a matter of definition. The earliest records of joint stock company can be found in China during the Song Dynasty (960 -- 1279). Around 1250 in France at Toulouse, 96 shares of the Société des Moulins du Bazacle, or Bazacle Milling Company were traded at a value that depended on the profitability of the mills the society owned, making it probably the first company of its kind in history. The Swedish company Stora has documented a stock transfer for an eighth of the company (or more specifically, the mountain in which the copper resource was available) as early as 1288.
In more recent history, the earliest joint - stock company recognized in England was the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, chartered in 1553 with 250 shareholders. Muscovy Company, which had a monopoly on trade between Moscow and London, was chartered soon after in 1555. The much more famous, wealthy and powerful English (later British) East India Company was granted an English Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600, with the intention of favouring trade privileges in India. The Royal Charter effectively gave the newly created Honourable East India Company a 15 - year monopoly on all trade in the East Indies. The Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to one that ruled India and exploited its resources, as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, until its dissolution.
Soon afterwards, in 1602, the Dutch East India Company issued shares that were made tradable on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. That invention enhanced the ability of joint - stock companies to attract capital from investors, as they could now easily dispose their shares. In 1612, it became the first ' corporation ' in intercontinental trade with ' locked in ' capital and limited liability.
During the period of colonialism, Europeans, initially the British, trading with the Near East for goods, pepper and calico for example, enjoyed spreading the risk of trade over multiple sea voyages. The joint - stock company became a more viable financial structure than previous guilds or state - regulated companies. The first joint - stock companies to be implemented in the Americas were The London Company and The Plymouth Company.
Transferable shares often earned positive returns on equity, which is evidenced by investment in companies like the British East India Company, which used the financing model to manage trade in India. Joint - stock companies paid out divisions (dividends) to their shareholders by dividing up the profits of the voyage in the proportion of shares held. Divisions were usually cash, but when working capital was low and detrimental to the survival of the company, divisions were either postponed or paid out in remaining cargo, which could be sold by shareholders for profit.
However, in general, incorporation was possible by royal charter or private act, and it was limited because of the government 's jealous protection of the privileges and advantages thereby granted.
As a result of the rapid expansion of capital - intensive enterprises in the course of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, many businesses came to be operated as unincorporated associations or extended partnerships, with large numbers of members. Nevertheless, membership of such associations was usually for a short term so their nature was constantly changing.
Consequently, registration and incorporation of companies, without specific legislation, was introduced by the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844. Initially, companies incorporated under this Act did not have limited liability, but it became common for companies to include a limited liability clause in their internal rules. In the case of Hallett v Dowdall, the English Court of the Exchequer held that such clauses bound people who have notice of them. Four years later, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 provided for limited liability for all joint - stock companies provided, among other things, that they included the word "limited '' in their company name. The landmark case of Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd established that a company with legal liability, not being a partnership, had a distinct legal personality that was separate from that of its individual shareholders.
The existence of a corporation requires a special legal framework and body of law that specifically grants the corporation legal personality, and it typically views a corporation as a fictional person, a legal person, or a moral person (as opposed to a natural person) which shields its owners (shareholders) from "corporate '' losses or liabilities; losses are limited to the number of shares owned. It furthermore creates an inducement to new investors (marketable stocks and future stock issuance). Corporate statutes typically empower corporations to own property, sign binding contracts, and pay taxes in a capacity separate from that of its shareholders, who are sometimes referred to as "members ''. The corporation is also empowered to borrow money, both conventionally and directly to the public, by issuing interest - bearing bonds. Corporations subsist indefinitely; "death '' comes only by absorption (takeover) or bankruptcy. According to Lord Chancellor Haldane,
... a corporation is an abstraction. It has no mind of its own any more than it has a body of its own; its active and directing will must consequently be sought in the person of somebody who is really the directing mind and will of the corporation, the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation.
This ' directing will ' is embodied in a corporate Board of Directors. The legal personality has two economic implications. It grants creditors (as opposed to shareholders or employees) priority over the corporate assets upon liquidation. Second, corporate assets can not be withdrawn by its shareholders, and assets of the firm can not be taken by personal creditors of its shareholders. The second feature requires special legislation and a special legal framework, as it can not be reproduced via standard contract law.
The regulations most favorable to incorporation include:
In many jurisdictions, corporations whose shareholders benefit from limited liability are required to publish annual financial statements and other data so that creditors who do business with the corporation are able to assess the credit - worthiness of the corporation and can not enforce claims against shareholders. Shareholders, therefore, experience some loss of privacy in return for limited liability. That requirement generally applies in Europe, but not in common law jurisdictions, except for publicly traded corporations (for which financial disclosure is required for investor protection).
In many countries, corporate profits are taxed at a corporate tax rate, and dividends paid to shareholders are taxed at a separate rate. Such a system is sometimes referred to as "double taxation '' because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice. One solution, followed by as in the case of the Australian and UK tax systems, is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit to address the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed. The company profit being passed on is thus effectively taxed only at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.
In other systems, dividends are taxed at a lower rate than other income (for example, in the US), or shareholders are taxed directly on the corporation 's profits, while dividends are not taxed (for example, S corporations in the US).
The institution most often referenced by the word "corporation '' is publicly traded, which means that the company 's shares are traded on a public stock exchange (for example, the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq in the United States) whose shares of stock of corporations are bought and sold by and to the general public. Most of the largest businesses in the world are publicly traded corporations.
However, the majority of corporations are privately held, or closely held, so there is no ready market for the trading of shares. Many such corporations are owned and managed by a small group of businesspeople or companies, but the size of such a corporation can be as vast as the largest public corporations.
Closely held corporations have some advantages over publicly traded corporations. A small, closely held company can often make company - changing decisions much more rapidly than a publicly traded company, as there will generally be fewer voting shareholders, and the shareholders would have common interests. A publicly traded company is also at the mercy of the market, with capital flow in and out based not only on what the company is doing but also on what the market and even what the competitors, major and minor, are doing.
However, publicly traded companies also have advantages over their closely held counterparts. Publicly traded companies often have more working capital and can delegate debt throughout all shareholders. Therefore, shareholders of publicly traded company will each take a much smaller hit to their returns as opposed to those involved with a closely held corporation. Publicly traded companies, however, can suffer from that advantage. A closely held corporation can often voluntarily take a hit to profit with little to no repercussions if it is not a sustained loss. A publicly traded company often comes under extreme scrutiny if profit and growth are not evident to stock holders, thus stock holders may sell, further damaging the company. Often, that blow is enough to make a small public company fail.
Often, communities benefit from a closely held company more so than from a public company. A closely held company is far more likely to stay in a single place that has treated it well even if that means going through hard times. Shareholders can incur some of the damage the company may receive from a bad year or slow period in the company profits. Closely held companies often have a better relationship with workers. In larger, publicly traded companies, often after only one bad year, the first area to feel the effects is the workforce with layoffs or worker hours, wages or benefits being cut. Again, in a closely held business the shareholders can incur the profit damage rather than passing it to the workers.
The affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations have the burden of complying with additional securities laws, which (especially in the US) may require additional periodic disclosure (with more stringent requirements), stricter corporate governance standards as well as additional procedural obligations in connection with major corporate transactions (for example, mergers) or events (for example, elections of directors).
A closely held corporation may be a subsidiary of another corporation (its parent company), which may itself be either a closely held or a public corporation. In some jurisdictions, the subsidiary of a listed public corporation is also defined as a public corporation (for example, in Australia).
In Australia corporations are registered and regulated by the Commonwealth Government through the Australian Securities and Investments Commission. Corporations law has been largely codified in the Corporations Act 2001.
In Brazil there are many different types of legal entities ("sociedades ''), but the two most common ones commercially speaking are (i) sociedade limitada, identified by "Ltda. '' or "Limitada '' after the company 's name, equivalent to the British limited liability company, and (ii) sociedade anônima or companhia, identified by "SA '' or "Companhia '' in the company 's name, equivalent to the British public limited company. The "Ltda. '' is mainly governed by the new Civil Code, enacted in 2002, and the "SA '', by Law 6.404, dated December 15, 1976, as amended.
In Bulgaria, a joint - stock company is called "aktsionerno druzhestvo '' or AD (Bulgarian: Акционерно дружество or АД)
In Canada both the federal government and the provinces have corporate status, and thus a corporation may have a provincial or a federal charter. Many older corporations in Canada stem from Acts of Parliament passed before the introduction of general corporation law. The oldest corporation in Canada is the Hudson 's Bay Company; though its business has always been based in Canada, its Royal Charter was issued in England by King Charles II in 1670, and became a Canadian charter by amendment in 1970 when it moved its corporate headquarters from London to Canada. Federally recognized corporations are regulated by the Canada Business Corporations Act.
The Czech form of the public limited company is called akciová společnost (a.s.) and its private counterpart is called společnost s ručením omezeným (s.r.o.). Their Slovak equivalents are called akciová spoločnosť (a.s.) and spoločnosť s ručeným obmedzením (s.r.o.).
Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein recognize two forms of company limited by shares: the Aktiengesellschaft (AG), analogous to public limited companies (or corporations in US / Can) in the English - speaking world, and the Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH), similar to the modern private limited company.
Italy recognizes three types of company limited by shares: the public limited company (società per azioni, or S.p.A.), the private limited company (società a responsabilità limitata, or S.r.l.), and the publicly traded partnership (società in accomandita per azioni, or S.a.p.a.). The latter is a hybrid of the limited partnership and public limited company, having two categories of shareholders, some with and some without limited liability, and is rarely used in practice.
In Japan, both the state and local public entities under the Local Autonomy Act (now 47 prefectures, made in the 19th century and municipalities) are considered to be corporations (法人, hōjin). Non-profit corporations may be established under the Civil Code.
The term "company '' (会社, kaisha) or (企業 kigyō) is used to refer to business corporations. The predominant form is the Kabushiki gaisha (株式 会社), used by public corporations as well as smaller enterprises. Mochibun kaisha (持分 会社), a form for smaller enterprises, are becoming increasingly common. Between 2002 and 2008, the intermediary corporation (中間 法人, chūkan hōjin) existed to bridge the gap between for - profit companies and non-governmental and non-profit organizations.
In Norway a joint - stock company is called an aksjeselskap, abbreviated AS. A special and by far less common form of joint - stock companies, intended for companies with a large number of shareholders, is the publicly traded joint - stock companies, called allmennaksjeselskap and abbreviated ASA. A joint - stock company must be incorporated, has an independent legal personality and limited liability, and is required to have a certain capital upon incorporation. Ordinary joint - stock companies must have a minimum capital of NOK 30,000 upon incorporation, which was reduced from 100,000 in 2012. Publicly traded joint - stock companies must have a minimum capital of NOK 1 million.
In Romania, a joint - stock company is called "societate pe acțiuni ''. According to Law 31 / 1991 there are two types of joint - stock companies: "societatea pe acțiuni '' and "societate în comandită pe acţiuni ''.
See: Open joint - stock company (OJSC).
In Spain there are two types of companies with limited liability: (i) "S.L. '', or Sociedad Limitada (a private limited company), and (ii) "S.A. '', or Sociedad Anónima (similar to a public limited company).
There are two types of Joint stock companies (Aktsionerne Tovarystvo; Ukr. Акціонерне Товариство) in Ukraine: Public Joint - stock company (Publichne Aktsionerne Tovarystvo; Ukr. Публічне Акціонерне Товариство) and Private Joint - stock company (Pryvatne Aktsionerne Tovarystvo; Ukr. Приватне Акціонерне Товариство). Minimum amount of share capital is 1250 minimum wages (as of 01.01. 2017 - 4 000 000 UAH or 148 000 USD). Ukraine National Securities and Stock Market Commission is the main stock market state authority.
Most companies are regulated by the Companies Act 2006 (or the Northern Ireland equivalent). The most common type of company is the private limited company ("Limited '' or "Ltd ''). Private limited companies can either be limited by shares or by guarantee. Other corporate forms include the public limited company ("plc '') and the private unlimited company.
Some corporations, both public and private sector, are formed by Royal Charter or Act of Parliament.
A special type of corporation is a corporation sole, which is an office held by an individual natural person (the incumbent), but which has a continuing legal entity separate from that person.
Several types of conventional corporations exist in the United States. Generically, any business entity that is recognized as distinct from the people who own it (i.e., is not a sole proprietorship or a partnership) is a corporation. This generic label includes entities that are known by such legal labels as ' association ', ' organization ' and ' limited liability company ', as well as corporations proper.
Only a company that has been formally incorporated according to the laws of a particular state is called ' corporation '. A corporation was defined in the Dartmouth College case of 1819, in which Chief Justice Marshall of the United States Supreme Court stated that "A corporation is an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of the law ''. A corporation is a legal entity, distinct and separate from the individuals who create and operate it. As a legal entity the corporation can acquire, own, and dispose of property in its own name like buildings, land and equipment. It can also incur liabilities and enter into contracts like franchising and leasing. American corporations can be either profit - making companies or non-profit entities. Tax - exempt non-profit corporations are often called "501 (c) 3 corporation '', after the section of the Internal Revenue Code that addresses the tax exemption for many of them.
In some states, such as Colorado, a corporation may represent itself pro se in courts of law in some situations
The federal government can only create corporate entities pursuant to relevant powers in the U.S. Constitution. Thus, virtually all corporations in the U.S. are incorporated under the laws of a particular state. A major exception to the federal nonparticipation in the incorporation of private businesses is in banking; under the National Bank Act, banks may receive charters from the federal government as "national banks, '' subjecting them to the regulation of the federal Office of the Comptroller of the Currency rather than state banking regulators.
All states have some kind of "general corporation law '' (California, Delaware, Kansas, Nevada and Ohio actually use that exact name) which authorizes the formation of private corporations without having to obtain a charter for each one from the state legislature (as was formerly the case in the 19th century). Many states have separate, self - contained laws authorizing the formation and operation of certain specific types of corporations that are wholly independent of the state general corporation law. For example, in California, nonprofit corporations are incorporated under the Nonprofit Corporation Law, and in Illinois, insurers are incorporated under the Illinois Insurance Code.
Corporations are created by filing the requisite documents with a particular state government. The process is called "incorporation, '' referring to the abstract concept of clothing the entity with a "veil '' of artificial personhood (embodying, or "corporating '' it, ' corpus ' being the Latin word for ' body '). Only certain corporations, including banks, are chartered. Others simply file their articles of incorporation with the state government as part of a registration process.
Once incorporated, a corporation has artificial personhood everywhere it may operate, until such time as the corporation may be dissolved. A corporation that operates in one state while being incorporated in another is a "foreign corporation. '' This label also applies to corporations incorporated outside of the United States. Foreign corporations must usually register with the secretary of state 's office in each state to lawfully conduct business in that state.
A corporation is legally a citizen of the state (or other jurisdiction) in which it is incorporated (except when circumstances direct the corporation be classified as a citizen of the state in which it has its head office, or the state in which it does the majority of its business). Corporate business law differs dramatically from state to state. Many prospective corporations choose to incorporate in a state whose laws are most favorable to its business interests. Many large corporations are incorporated in Delaware, for example, without being physically located there because that state has very favorable corporate tax and disclosure laws.
Companies set up for privacy or asset protection often incorporate in Nevada, which does not require disclosure of share ownership. Many states, particularly smaller ones, have modeled their corporate statutes after the Model Business Corporation Act, one of many model sets of law prepared and published by the American Bar Association.
As juristic persons, corporations have certain rights that attach to natural persons. The vast majority of them attach to corporations under state law, especially the law of the state in which the company is incorporated -- since the corporations very existence is predicated on the laws of that state. A few rights also attach by federal constitutional and statutory law, but they are few and far between compared to the rights of natural persons. For example, a corporation has the personal right to bring a lawsuit (as well as the capacity to be sued) and, like a natural person, a corporation can be libeled.
Harvard College, an undergraduate school of Harvard University, formally the President and Fellows of Harvard College (also known as the Harvard Corporation), is the oldest corporation in the western hemisphere. Founded in 1636, the second of Harvard 's two governing boards was incorporated by the Great and General Court of Massachusetts in 1650. Significantly, Massachusetts itself was a corporate colony at that time -- owned and operated by the Massachusetts Bay Company (until it lost its charter in 1684) - so Harvard College is a corporation created by a corporation.
Many nations have modeled their own corporate laws on American business law. Corporate law in Saudi Arabia, for example, follows the model of New York State corporate law. In addition to typical corporations in the United States, the federal government, in 1971 passed the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), which authorized the creation of 12 regional native corporations for Alaska Natives and over 200 village corporations that were entitled to a settlement of land and cash. In addition to the 12 regional corporations, the legislation permitted a 13th regional corporation without a land settlement for those Alaska Natives living out of the State of Alaska at the time of passage of ANCSA.
Almost every recognized type of organization carries out some economic activities (for example, the family). Other organizations that may carry out activities that are generally considered to be business exist under the laws of various countries:
Notes
Further reading
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why did spain help the american in the revolutionary war answers | Spanish American wars of Independence - wikipedia
Independentist states victory
The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America that took place during the early 19th century, after the French invasion of Spain during Europe 's Napoleonic Wars. Although various regions of Spanish America objected to crown policies that restricted trade and privileged Spanish - born officials over American - born, "there was little interest in outright independence; indeed there was widespread support for the Spanish Central Junta formed to lead the resistance against the French. ''
These conflicts started in 1809 with short - lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion, in 1810, numerous new juntas appeared across the Spanish domains in the Americas. The conflicts among these colonies and with Spain eventually resulted in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south to Mexico in the north in the first third of the 19th century. Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish -- American War in 1898.
The new republics from the beginning abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition, and noble titles. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century. Criollos (those of Spanish descent born in the New World) and mestizos (those of mixed Indian and Spanish blood or culture) replaced Spanish - born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a social structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally, if not legally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions.
These conflicts were fought both as irregular warfare and conventional warfare, and both wars of national liberation and civil wars, since on the one hand the goal of one group of belligerents was the independence from Spain, and on the other the majority of combatants on both sides were Spanish Americans and indigenous peoples, not Spaniards. Both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas. While some Spanish Americans believed that independence was necessary, most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a means to preserve the region 's autonomy from the French. Over the course of the next decade, the political instability in Spain and the absolutist restoration under Ferdinand VII convinced many Spanish Americans of the need to formally establish independence from the mother country.
The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in the former French colony of St - Domingue, Haiti, and the transition to independence in Brazil. Brazil 's independence, in particular, shared a common starting point with Spanish America 's, since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon 's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil in 1807. The process of Latin American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment and that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions, including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France. A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period.
Political independence was not necessarily the foreordained outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. "There was little interest in outright independence. '' As historians R.A. Humphreys and John Lynch note, "it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. '' Since "by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, '' because Spanish American independence did occur, explanations for why it came about have been sought.
There are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from "kingdoms '' with independent standing with the crown to "colonies '' subordinate to Spain. In an effort to better control the administration and economy of the overseas possessions the Crown reintroduced the practice of appointing outsiders, almost all peninsulars, to the royal offices throughout the empire. This meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crown 's upending of long - standing practices of creole access to office holding.
The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. Later in the eighteenth century the crown sought to decrease the privileges (fueros) of the clergy, restricting clerical authority to spiritual matters and undermining the power of parish priests, who often acted as agents of the crown in rural parishes. By desacralizing power and frontal attacks on the clergy, the crown, according to William B. Taylor, undermined its own legitimacy, since parish priests had been traditionally the "natural local representatives of their Catholic king. ''
In the economic sphere, the crown sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, mainly in the form of mortgages for haciendas owned by the elites. The Act of Consolidation simultaneously threatened the wealth of the church, whose capital was mainly lent for mortgages, as well as threatening the financial well - being of elites, who depended on mortgages for acquiring and keeping their estates. Shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. The crown also sought to gain access to benefices elite families set aside to support a priest, often their own family members, by eliminating these endowed funds (capellanías) that the lower clergy depended on disproportionately. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos.
The reforms had mixed results. In some areas -- such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain -- the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. In other areas, the changes in the crown 's economic and administrative policies led to tensions with locals, which at times erupted into open revolts, such as the Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in Peru.
The loss of high offices to Criollos and the eighteenth - century revolts in Spanish South America were the direct causes of the wars of independence, which took place decades later, but they have been considered important elements of the political background in which the wars took place.
Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire and a homegrown Spanish American Enlightenment. The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors.
The Peninsular War was the trigger for conflicts in Spanish America in the absence of a legitimate monarch. The Peninsular War began an extended period of instability in the worldwide Spanish monarchy that lasted until 1823. Napoleon 's capture of the Bourbon monarchs precipitated a political crisis in Spain and Spanish America. Although the Spanish world almost uniformly rejected Napoleon 's plan to place his brother, Joseph, on the throne, there was no clear solution to the lack of a king. Following traditional Spanish political theories on the contractual nature of the monarchy (see Philosophy of Law of Francisco Suárez), the peninsular provinces responded to the crisis by establishing juntas. The move, however, led to more confusion, since there was no central authority and most juntas did not recognize the claim of some juntas to represent the monarchy as a whole. The Junta of Seville, in particular, claimed authority over the overseas empire, because of the province 's historic role as the exclusive entrepôt of the empire.
This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the juntas and the Council of Castile, which led to the creation of a "Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies '' on September 25, 1808. It was agreed that the kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Central Junta, and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each. These kingdoms were defined as "the viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico), Peru, New Granada, and Buenos Aires, and the independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Chile, Province of Venezuela, and the Philippines. ''
This plan was criticized for providing unequal representation to Spanish America; nevertheless, throughout the end of 1808 and early 1809, the regional capitals elected candidates, whose names were forwarded to the capitals of the viceroyalties or captaincies general. Several important and large cities were left without direct representation in the Supreme Junta. In particular Quito and Chuquisaca, which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms, resented being subsumed in the larger Viceroyalty of Peru. This unrest led to the establishment of juntas in these cities in 1809, which were eventually quashed by the authorities within the year. An unsuccessful attempt at establishing a junta in New Spain was also stopped. In order to establish a more legitimate government, the Supreme Junta called for the convening of an "extraordinary and general Cortes of the Spanish Nation. '' The plan for the election of the Cortes, based on provinces and not kingdoms, was more equitable and provided more time to determine what would be considered an overseas province.
The dissolution of the Supreme Junta on January 29, 1810, because of the reverses suffered after the Battle of Ocaña by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money, set off another wave of juntas being established in the Americas. French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek refuge in the island - city of Cádiz. The Junta replaced itself with a smaller, five - man council, the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies. Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of being captured by the French at any moment, and began to work for the creation of local juntas to preserve the region 's independence from the French.
Junta movements were successful in New Granada (Colombia), Venezuela, Chile and Río de la Plata (Argentina). Less successful, though serious movements, also occurred in Central America. Ultimately, Central America, along with most of New Spain, Quito (Ecuador), Peru, Upper Peru (Bolivia), the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands remained in control of royalists for the next decade and participated in the Spanish Cortes effort to establish a liberal government for the Spanish Monarchy.
The creation of juntas in Spanish America, such as the Junta Suprema de Caracas on April 19, 1810, set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half. Political fault lines appeared, and were often the causes of military conflict. On the one hand the juntas challenged the authority of all royal officials, whether they recognized the Regency or not. On the other hand, royal officials and Spanish Americans who desired to keep the empire together were split between liberals, who supported the efforts of the Cortes, and conservatives (often called "absolutists '' in the historiography), who did not want to see any innovations in government. Finally, although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king, Ferdinand VII, their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to publicly and safely promote their agenda. The proponents of independence called themselves patriots, a term which eventually was generally applied to them.
The idea that independence was not the initial concern is evidenced by the fact that few areas declared independence in the years after 1810. The congresses of Venezuela and New Granada did so in 1811 and also Paraguay in same year (14 and 15 of May 1811). Some historians explain the reluctance to declare independence as a "mask of Ferdinand VII '': that is, that patriot leaders felt that they needed to claim loyalty to the deposed monarch in order to prepare the masses for the radical change that full independence eventually would entail. Nevertheless, even areas such as Río de la Plata and Chile, which more or less maintained de facto independence from the peninsular authorities, did not declare independence until quite a few years later, in 1816 and 1818, respectively. Overall, despite achieving formal or de facto independence, many regions of Spanish America were marked by nearly continuous civil wars, which lasted well into the 1820s. In Mexico, where the junta movement had been stopped in its early stages by a coalition of Peninsular merchants and government officials, efforts to establish a government independent of the Regency or the French took the form of rebellion, under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo. Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811, but a resistance movement continued, which declared independence from Spain in 1813. In Central America, attempts at establishing juntas were also put down, but resulted in significantly less violence. The Caribbean islands, like the Philippines on the other side of the world, were relatively peaceful. Any plots to set up juntas were denounced to the authorities early enough to stop them before they gained widespread support.
Underlying social tensions had a great impact on the nature of the fighting. Rural areas were pitted against urban centers, as grievances against the authorities found an outlet in the political conflict. This was the case with Hidalgo 's peasant revolt, which was fueled as much by discontent over several years of bad harvests as with events in the Peninsular War. Hidalgo was originally part of a circle of liberal urbanites in Querétaro, who sought to establish a junta. After this conspiracy was discovered, Hidalgo turned to the rural people of the Mexican Bajío to build his army, and their interests soon overshadowed those of the urban intellectuals. A similar tension existed in Venezuela, where the Spanish immigrant José Tomás Boves was able to form a nearly invincible, though informal, royalist army out of the Llanero, mixed - race, plains people, by seeking to destroy the white landowning class. Boves and his followers often disregarded the command of Spanish officials and were not concerned with actually reestablishing the toppled royal government, choosing instead to keep real power among themselves. Finally in the backcountry of Upper Peru, the republiquetas kept the idea of independence alive by allying with disenfranchised members of rural society and Native groups, but were never able to take the major population centers. This period witnessed increasingly violent confrontations between Spaniards and Spanish Americans, but this tension was often related to class issues or fomented by patriot leaders to create a new sense of nationalism. After being incited to rid the country of the gachupines (a disparaging term for Peninsulares), Hidalgo 's forces indiscriminately massacred hundreds of Criollos and Peninsulares who had taken refuge at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato. In Venezuela during his Admirable Campaign, Simón Bolívar instituted a policy of a war to the death -- in which and royalist Spanish Americans would be purposely spared but even neutral Peninsulares would be killed -- in order to drive a wedge between the two groups. This policy laid the ground for the violent royalist reaction under Boves. Often though, royalism or patriotism simply provided a banner to organize the aggrieved, and the political causes could be discarded just as quickly as they were picked up. The Venezuelan Llaneros switched to the patriot banner once the elites and the urban centers became securely royalist after 1815, and it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation 's independence.
Regional rivalry also played an important role in the wars. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority -- and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority (as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata) -- initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units which should replace the empire, and there were no new national identities to replace the traditional sense of being Spaniards. The original juntas of 1810 appealed first, to a sense of being Spanish, which was counterposed to the French threat; second, to a general American identity, which was counterposed to the Peninsula lost to the French; and third, to a sense of belonging to the local province, the patria in Spanish. More often than not, juntas sought to maintain a province 's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some provinces were to be subordinate to others as they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in New Granada, Venezuela and Río de la Plata. This rivalry also leads some regions to adopt the opposite political cause to that chosen by their rivals. Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata, to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the latter was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars.
By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro-independence forces were established and a general stalemate set in the war. In areas where royalists controlled the main population centers, most of the fighting by those seeking independence was done by isolated guerrilla bands. In New Spain, the two main guerrilla groups were led by Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca. In northern South America, New Granadan and Venezuelan patriots, under leaders such as Simón Bolívar, Francisco de Paula Santander, Santiago Mariño, Manuel Piar and José Antonio Páez, carried out campaigns in the vast Orinoco River basin and along the Caribbean coast, often with material aid coming from Curaçao and Haiti. Also, as mentioned above, in Upper Peru, guerrilla bands controlled the isolated, rural parts of the country.
In March 1814, following with the collapse of the First French Empire, Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne. This signified an important change, since most of the political and legal changes made on both sides of the Atlantic -- the myriad of juntas, the Cortes in Spain and several of the congresses in the Americas, and many of the constitutions and new legal codes -- had been made in his name. Before entering Spanish territory, Ferdinand made loose promises to the Cortes that he would uphold the Spanish Constitution. But once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from conservatives in the general population and the hierarchy of the Spanish Catholic Church; so, on May 4, he repudiated the Constitution and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders on May 10. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He restored the former legal codes and political institutions and promised to convene a new Cortes under its traditional form (with separate chambers for the clergy and the nobility), a promise never fulfilled. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain.
Ferdinand 's actions constituted a definitive de facto break both with the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and with the effort of Spanish liberals to create a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions. Such a government was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain, Central America, the Caribbean, Quito, Peru, Upper Peru and Chile. Yet the news of the restoration of the "ancien régime '' did not initiate a new wave of juntas, as had happened in 1809 and 1810, with the notable exception of the establishment of a junta in Cuzco demanding the implementation of the Spanish Constitution. Instead most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. In fact, in areas of New Spain, Central America and Quito, governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional ayuntamientos in place for several years in order to prevent conflict with the local society. Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic, nevertheless, continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy, ultimately succeeding in 1820. The most dramatic example of transatlantic collaboration is perhaps Francisco Javier Mina 's expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817.
Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined the guerrilla movements. However, Ferdinand 's actions did set areas outside of the control of the crown on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of 1810, and even moderates there, who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown, now saw the need to separate from Spain if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted.
During this period, royalist forces made advances into New Granada, which they controlled from 1815 to 1819, and into Chile, which they controlled from 1814 to 1817. Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of 10,500 troops and nearly sixty ships. (See, Spanish reconquest of New Granada.) Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada, its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito, and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. More importantly, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from the peninsula, but of Spanish Americans.
Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units, once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier casualty was replaced by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example, Pablo Morillo, commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent to South America, reported that he had only 2,000 European soldiers under his command in 1820; in other words, only half the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the Battle of Maipú only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the Battle of Carabobo about a fifth, and in the Battle of Ayacucho less than 1 % was European.
The American militias reflected the racial make - up of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white (español), 5,378 Casta and 980 Indigenous soldiers.
Towards the end of this period the pro-independence forces made two important advances. In the Southern Cone, a veteran of the Spanish army with experience in the Peninsular War, José de San Martín, became the governor of the Province of Cuyo. He used this position to begin organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile. This was an important change in strategy after three United Provinces campaigns had been defeated in Upper Peru. San Martín 's army became the nucleus of the Army of the Andes, which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when Juan Martín de Pueyrredón became Supreme Director of the United Provinces. In January 1817, San Martín was finally ready to advance against the royalists in Chile. Ignoring an injunction from the congress of the Río de la Plata not to move against Chile, San Martín together with General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, later Supreme Director of Chile, led the Army over the Andes in a move that turned the tables on the royalists. By February 10, San Martín had control of northern and central Chile, and a year later, after a war with no quarter, the south. With the aid of a fleet under the command of former British naval officer Thomas Cochrane, Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared that year. San Martín and his allies spent the next two years planning an invasion of Peru, which began in 1820.
In northern South America, after several failed campaigns to take Caracas and other urban centers of Venezuela, Simón Bolívar devised a similar plan in 1819 to cross the Andes and liberate New Granada from the royalists. Like San Martín, Bolívar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country, collaborated with pro-independence exiles from that region, and lacked the approval of the Venezuelan congress. Unlike San Martín, however, Bolívar did not have a professionally trained army, but rather a quickly assembled mix of Llanero guerrillas, New Granadan exiles led by Santander and British recruits. From June to July 1819, using the rainy season as cover, Bolívar led his army across the flooded plains and over the cold, forbidding passes of the Andes, with heavy losses -- a quarter of the British Legion perished, as well as many of his Llanero soldiers, who were not prepared for the nearly 4,000 - meter altitudes -- but the gamble paid off. By August Bolívar was in control of Bogotá and its treasury, and gained the support of many in New Granada, which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo. Nevertheless, Santander found it necessary to continue the policy of the "war to the death '' and carried out the execution of thirty - eight royalist officers who had surrendered. With the resources of New Granada, Bolívar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state called Colombia (Gran Colombia).
To counter the advances the pro-independence forces had made in South America, Spain prepared a second, large, expeditionary force in 1819. This force, however, never left Spain. Instead, it became the means by which liberals were finally able to reinstate a constitutional regime. On January 1, 1820, Rafael Riego, commander of the Asturias Battalion, headed a rebellion among the troops, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution. His troops marched through the cities of Andalusia with the hope of extending the uprising to the civilian population, but locals were mostly indifferent. An uprising, however, did occur in Galicia in northern Spain, and from there it quickly spread throughout the country. On March 7, the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General Francisco Ballesteros, and three days later, on March 10, the besieged Ferdinand VII, now a virtual prisoner, agreed to restore the Constitution.
Riego 's Revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas. Militarily, the large numbers of reinforcements, which were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru, would never arrive. Furthermore, as the royalists ' situation became more desperate in region after region, the army experienced wholesale defections of units to the patriot side. Politically, the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents. The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides. The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in the overseas provinces, just as in Spain. It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government.
In effect, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 adopted by the Cortes de Cadiz served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America, since in both regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed and deputies sent to the Cortes. Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last; and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance. This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind Agustín de Iturbide, a colonel in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by Vicente Guerrero.
In January 1821, Iturbide began peace negotiations with Guerrero, suggesting they unite to establish an independent New Spain. The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the Plan of Iguala: the independence of New Spain (now to be called the Mexican Empire) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor; the retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its existing privileges; and the equality of all New Spaniards, whether immigrants or native - born. The following month the other important guerrilla leader, Guadalupe Victoria, joined the alliance, and March 1 Iturbide was proclaimed head of a new Army of the Three Guarantees. The representative of the new Spanish government, Superior Political Chief Juan O'Donojú, who replaced the previous viceroys, arrived in Veracruz on July 1, 1821; but he found that royalists the entire country except for Veracruz, Mexico City and Acapulco. Since at the time that O'Donojú had left Spain, the Cortes was considering greatly expanding the autonomy of the overseas Spanish possessions, O'Donojú proposed to negotiate a treaty with Iturbide on the terms of the Plan of Iguala. The resulting Treaty of Córdoba, which was signed on August 24, kept all existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, in force until a new constitution for Mexico could be written. O'Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on October 8. Both the Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, and the final break with the mother country came on May 19, 1822, when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Itrubide.
Central America gained its independence along with New Spain. On September 15, 1821, an Act of Independence was signed in Guatemala City which declared Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) independent from Spain. The regional elites supported the terms of the Plan of Iguala and orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire in 1821. Two years later, following Iturbide 's downfall, the region, with the exception of Chiapas, peacefully seceded from Mexico on July 1, 1823, establishing the Federal Republic of Central America. The new state existed for seventeen years, centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840.
Unlike in New Spain and Central America, in South America independence was spurred by the pro-independence fighters who had held out for the past half decade. José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar inadvertently led a continent - wide pincer movement from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent. After securing the independence of Chile in 1818, San Martín concentrated on building a naval fleet in the Pacific to counter Spanish control of those waters and reach the royalist stronghold of Lima. By mid-1820 San Martín had assembled a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships under the command of Admiral Cochrane. The fleet set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas in southern Peru. On September 7, the army landed at Paracas and successfully took Pisco. After this, San Martín, waiting for a generalized Peruvian revolt, chose to avoid direct military confrontation. San Martín hoped that his presence would initiate an authentic Peruvian revolt against Spanish rule, believing that otherwise any liberation would be ephemeral. In the meantime, San Martín engaged in diplomacy with Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela, who was under orders from the constitutional government to negotiate on the basis of the 1812 Constitution and to maintain the unity of the Spanish Monarchy. However, these efforts proved fruitless, since independence and unity of the monarchy could not be reconciled, so the army sailed in late October to a better strategic position in Huacho, in northern Peru. During the next few months, successful land and naval campaigns against the royalists secured the new foothold, and it was at Huacho that San Martín learned that Guayaquil (in Ecuador) had declared independence on October 9.
Bolívar, learning about the collapse of the Cádiz expedition, spent the year 1820 preparing a liberating campaign in Venezuela. Bolívar was aided by Spain 's new policy of seeking engagement with the insurgents, which Morillo implemented, renouncing to the command in chief, and returning to Spain. Although Bolívar rejected the Spanish proposal that the patriots rejoin Spain under the Spanish Constitution, the two sides established a six - month truce and the regularization of the rules of engagement under the law of nations on November 25 and 26. The truce did not last six months. It was apparent to all that the royalist cause had been greatly weakened by the lack of reinforcements. Royalist soldiers and whole units began to desert or defect to the patriots in large numbers. On January 28, 1821, the ayuntamiento of Maracaibo declared the province an independent republic that chose to join the new nation - state of Gran Colombia. Miguel de la Torre, who had replaced Morillo as head of the army, took this to be a violation of the truce, and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition, both sides began to prepare for renewed war. The fate of Venezuela was sealed when Bolívar returned there in April leading an army of 7,000 from New Granada. At the Battle of Carabobo on June 24, the Gran Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces, assuring control of Venezuela save for Puerto Cabello and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence. Bolívar could now concentrate on Gran Colombia 's claims to southern New Granada and Quito.
In Peru, on January 29, 1821, Viceroy Pezuela was deposed in a coup d'état by José de la Serna, but it would be two months before San Martín moved his army closer to Lima by sailing it to Ancón. During the next few months San Martín once again engaged in negotiations, offering the creation of an independent monarchy; but La Serna insisted on the unity of the Spanish monarchy, so the negotiations came to nothing. By July La Serna judged his hold on Lima to be weak, and on July 8 the royal army abandoned the coastal city in order to reinforce positions in the highlands, with Cuzco as new capital of the viceroyalty. On the 12th San Martín entered Lima, where he was declared "Protector of the Country '' on July 28, an office which allowed him to rule the newly independent state.
To ensure that the Presidency of Quito became a part of Gran Colombia and did not remain a collection of small, divided republics, Bolívar sent aid in the form of supplies and an army under Antonio José de Sucre to Guayaquil in February 1821. For a year Sucre was unable to take Quito, and by November both sides, exhausted, signed a ninety - day armistice. The following year, at the Battle of Pichincha on May 24, 1822, Sucre 's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito; Gran Colombia 's hold on the territory was secure. The following year, after a Peruvian patriot army was destroyed in the Battle of Ica, San Martín met with Simón Bolívar in Guayaquil on July 26 and 27. Thereafter San Martín decided to retire from the scene. For the next two years, two armies of Rioplatense (Argentinian), Chilean, Colombian and Peruvian patriots were destroyed trying to penetrate the royalist bastion in the Andean regions of Peru and Upper Peru. A year later a Peruvian congress resolved to make Bolívar head of the patriot forces in the country. An internecine conflict between La Serna and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, which was an extension of the Liberal Triennium, proved to be the royalists ' undoing. La Serna lost control of half of his best army by the beginning of 1824, giving the patriots an opportunity.
Under the command of Bolívar and Sucre, the experienced veterans of the combined army, mainly Colombians, destroyed a royalist army under La Serna 's command in the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. La Serna 's army was numerically superior but consisted of mostly new recruits. The only significant royalist area remaining on the continent was the highland country of Upper Peru. Following the Battle of Ayacucho, the royalist troops of Upper Peru under the command of Olañeta surrendered after he died in Tumusla on April 2, 1825. Bolívar tended to favor maintaining the unity of Upper Peru with Peru, but the Upper Peruvian leaders -- many former royalists, like Casimiro Olañeta, nephew of General Olañeta -- gathered in a congress under Sucre 's auspices supported the country 's independence. Bolívar left the decision to Sucre, who went along with the congress. Sucre proclaimed Upper Peru 's independence in the city which now bears his name on August 6, bringing the main wars of independence to an end.
As it became clear that there was to be no reversal of Spanish American independence, several of the new states began to receive international recognition. Early, in 1822, the United States recognized Chile, the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Peru, Gran Colombia, and Mexico. Britain waited until 1825, after the Battle of Ayacucho, to recognize Mexico, Gran Colombia, and Río de la Plata. Both nations recognized more Spanish American states in the next few years.
The Spanish coastal fortifications in Veracruz, Callao and Chiloé were the footholds that resisted until 1825 and 1826 respectively. In the following decade, royalist guerrillas continued to operate in several countries and Spain launched a few attempts to retake parts of the Spanish American mainland. In 1827 Colonel José Arizabalo started an irregular war with Venezuelan guerrillas, and Brigadier Isidro Barradas led the last attempt with regular troops to reconquer Mexico in 1829. The Pincheira brothers moved to Patagonia and remained there as royalist outlaws until defeated in 1832. But efforts like these did not reverse the new political situation.
The increasing irrelevance of the Holy Alliance after 1825 and the fall of the Bourbon dynasty in France in 1830 during the July Revolution eliminated the principal support of Ferdinand VII in Europe, but it was not until the king 's death in 1833 that Spain finally abandoned all plans of military reconquest, and in 1836 its government went so far as to renounce sovereignty over all of continental America. During the course of the 19th century, Spain would recognize each of the new states. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish -- American War in 1898.
The nearly decade and a half of wars greatly weakened the Spanish American economies and political institutions, which hindered the region 's potential economic development for most of the nineteenth century and resulted in the enduring instability the region experienced. Independence destroyed the de facto trade bloc that was the Spanish Empire - Manila galleons and Spanish treasure fleets in particular. After independence, trade among the new Spanish American nations was less than it had been in the colonial period. Once the ties were broken, the small populations of most of the new nations provided little incentive to entice Spanish American producers to recreate the old trade patterns. In addition, the protection against European competition, which the Spanish monopoly had provided to the manufacturing sectors of the economy, ended. Due to expediency, protective tariffs for these sectors, in particular textile production, were permanently dropped and foreign imports beat out local production. This greatly affected Native communities, which in many parts of Spanish America, specialized in supplying finished products to the urban markets, albeit using pre-industrial techniques. The wars also greatly affected the principal economic sector of the region, mining. Silver production in Bolivia halved after independence and it dropped by three quarters in Mexico.
To compensate for the lack of capital, foreign investment -- in particular from Great Britain -- was courted, but it was not sizable enough to initiate an economic recovery. Finally the new nations entered the world economy after the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when the economies of Europe and the United States were recovering and aggressively seeking new markets to sell their products after more than two decades of disruption. Ultimately Spanish America could only connect to the world markets as an exporter of raw materials and a consumer of finished products.
In addition to improving the economy, the lower social classes also had to be integrated into the new body politic, although they often got few rewards from independence. The political debate seeking answers to these questions was marked by a clash -- at times on the battlefield -- between liberalism and conservatism. Conservatives sought to maintain the traditional social structures in order to ensure stability; liberals sought to create a more dynamic society and economy by ending ethnically - based social distinctions and freeing property from economic restrictions. In its quest to transform society, liberals often adopted policies that were not welcome by Native communities, who had benefited from unique protections afforded to them by traditional Spanish law.
Independence, however, did initiate the abolition of slavery in Spanish America, as it was seen as part of the independence struggle, since many slaves had gained their manumission by joining the patriot armies. In areas where slavery was not a major source of labor (Mexico, Central America, Chile), emancipation occurred almost immediately after independence was achieved. In areas where slavery was a main labor source (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina), emancipation was carried out in steps over the next three decades, usually first with the creation of free - womb laws and programs for compensated emancipation. By the early 1850s, slavery had been abolished in the independent nations of Spanish America.
Women were not simply spectators throughout the Independence Wars of Latin America. Many women took sides on political issues and joined independence movements in order to participate on many different levels. Women could not help but act as caring relatives either as mother, sister, wives or daughters of the men who were fighting. Women created political organizations and organized meetings and groups to donate food and supplies to the soldiers. Some women supported the wars as spies, informants and combatants. Manuela Sáenz was a long term lover of Simón Bolívar and acted as his spy and confidante and was secretary of his archive. She saved his life on two occasions, nursed wounded soldiers and has even been believed some historians to have fought in a few battles. Sáenz followed Bolívar and his army through the independence wars and became to be known in Latin America as the "mother of feminism and women 's emancipation and equal rights. '' Bolívar himself was a supporter of women 's rights and suffrage in Latin America. It was Bolívar who allowed for Sáenz to become the great pioneer of women 's freedom. He wanted to set the women of Latin America free from the oppression and inferiority of what the Spanish regime had established. Bolívar even made Sáenz a Colonel of the Colombian Army due to her heroics which caused controversy because there were no women in the army at the time. Another woman who gained prominence in the fight for independence was Juana Azurduy de Padilla, a mixed - race woman who fought for independence in the Río de la Plata region. Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner posthumously promoted her to the rank of general.
According to gender stereotypes, women were not meant to be soldiers; only men were supposed to engage in fighting and conflict. There were still plenty of women present on the battlefields to help rescue and nurse soldiers. Some women fought alongside their husbands and sons on the battlefield. The majority of women assumed supportive and non-competitive roles such as fundraising and caring for the sick. Revolution for women meant something different than for men. Women saw revolution as a way to earn equal rights, such as voting, and to overcome the suppression of subordination of women to men. Women were usually identified as victims during the independence wars since the women of Latin America were forced to sacrifice for the cause. The ideals of womanhood meant that women must sacrifice what the situation required such as a mother sacrificing her son or a virgin knowing she might be sacrificing motherhood or marriage due to the loss of many young men. This view meant that women were meant to contribute to independence in a supportive role while leaving the combat and politics in the hands of the men.
Independence also did not result in stable political regimes, save in a few countries. First, the new nations did not have well - defined identities, but rather the process of creating identities was only beginning. This would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols, including new names for the countries ("Mexico '', "Colombia '', "Ecuador '', "Bolivia '', "Argentina ''), that broke with the past. In addition, the borders were not firmly established, and the struggle between federalism and centralism, which began in independence, continued throughout the rest of the century. Two large states that emerged from the wars -- Gran Colombia and the Federal Republic of Central America -- collapsed after a decade or two, and Argentina would not consolidate politically until the 1860s.
The wars destroyed the old civilian bureaucracy that had governed the region for centuries, as institutions such as the audiencias were eliminated and many Peninsular officials fled to Spain. The Catholic Church, which had been an important social and political institution during the colonial period, initially came out weakened by the end of the conflicts. As with government officials, many Peninsular bishops abandoned their dioceses and their posts were not filled for decades until new prelates could be created and relations between the new nations and the Vatican were regularized. Then as the Church recovered, its economic and political power was attacked by liberals.
Despite the fact that the period of the wars of independence itself was marked by a rapid expansion of representative government, for several of the new nations the nineteenth century was marked by militarism because of the lack of well - defined political and national institutions. The armies and officers that came into existence during the process of independence wanted to ensure that they got their rewards once the struggle was over. Many of these armies did not fully disband once the wars were over and they proved to be one of the stabler institutions in the first decades of national existence. These armies and their leaders effectively influenced the course of political development. Out of this new tradition came the caudillos, strongmen who amassed formal and informal economic, military and political power in themselves.
National Wars, Battles and Revolts
Mexico
Central America
Liberators and Other Independence Leaders
Royalist leaders
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who plays big mike in the blind side | Quinton Aaron - wikipedia
Quinton Aaron (born August 15, 1984) is an American actor. He made his film debut in Michel Gondry 's Be Kind Rewind. His first lead role was as Michael Oher in the 2009 film The Blind Side. In 2010, Aaron guest - starred in an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. In 2015, Aaron shot the film Busy Day in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Aaron was born in The Bronx, New York City, but moved to Augusta, Georgia after elementary school.
Aaron made his film debut as Q in Michel Gondry 's Be Kind Rewind, starring Mos Def and Jack Black. He has also appeared in Fighting with Channing Tatum and Terrence Howard and co-starred in an NYU thesis short film called Mr. Brooklyn with Al Thompson (Liberty Kid, A Walk to Remember), directed by Jason Sokoloff.
Aaron has appeared in two episodes of the TV show Law & Order (Season 17, episode "Bling '' as a bodyguard and episode "Fallout '' as a bouncer).
His first lead role was playing Michael Oher, alongside Sandra Bullock and Tim McGraw in The Blind Side, released November 20, 2009. Directed by John Lee Hancock, the film was adapted from Michael Lewis 's 2006 book The Blind Side: Evolution of a Game, which features Oher 's real - life story. Oher had started in ten games as a guard during his first season with the Ole Miss Rebels, becoming a first - team freshman All - American, and later an American football offensive tackle for the Baltimore Ravens. Aaron auditioned for the role after his mother found out about the casting call online. Chosen as a finalist, he was flown in to Los Angeles for the final audition. Unsure whether he had been successful, he reached into his pocket on his way to the door and pulled out a card, telling director John Lee Hancock that he knew that it was a long shot for him to get the part, but that he did security work and would love to provide those services should they be needed for the film. Director Hancock said that he would keep it in mind.
On March 24, 2010, Aaron guest - starred with Jill Scott in an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. On April 28, 2010, Quinton guest - starred in the "We All Saw This Coming '' episode of Mercy. On April 4, 2011 Quinton guest - starred in the season finale of Harry 's Law with his The Blind Side co-star Kathy Bates.
During the 2010 Major League Baseball All - Star Game, Aaron participated in the Taco Bell Legends and Celebrities Softball Game as a victorious American Leaguer.
In 2015, Aaron shot the film Busy Day in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
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who plays the new henry mills on once upon a time | Once Upon a Time (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 11, 2017. It will consist of 22 episodes, airing on Fridays, having premiered on October 6, 2017.
This season marks a significant change for the series, as it was announced at the end of the sixth season that the majority of the main cast members would not be returning for season 7. Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle will be the only ones remaining. Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced as new regulars in May 2017. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced as additional regulars in July 2017. In August 2017, it was announced that Mekia Cox had been promoted to series regular after initially joining the cast in July as recurring.
The storyline is softly rebooted with a main narrative led by an adult Henry Mills, set several years after last season 's events.
Years after the Final Battle was won, Henry decides to leave Storybrooke to other realms in search of his own story. After years of realm travelling, he ends up in the New Enchanted Forest, where he gets tangled into a conflict between Cinderella, Lady Tremaine, Drizella, a resistance led by Princess Tiana, and the Coven of the Eight led by Mother Gothel that eventually leads to the casting of another curse that takes the inhabitants to a newly created neighbourhood called Hyperion Heights in Seattle. Lucy, Henry 's daughter, tries to get Henry believe again to break the curse, but the breaking of the curse would have chilling consequences while an awaken Mother Gothel seeks the members of her coven, having captured Lady Tremaine and Drizella.
In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset '' of the show 's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order. After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back - end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind. Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot. '' We 're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We 're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It 's a combination of a lot of things, but what we 're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been. ''
In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real - world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood '' and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters ' lives before and during the latest curse.
In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7. It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss. In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge. ''
Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season. Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017. On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.
In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode 's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7. West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.
On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7. Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season. On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons. On July 22 at San Diego Comic - Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.
On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season 's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple. On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch, whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season. On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season. On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3. It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc. On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.
On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season, later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season 's fifth episode. On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage '' Anastasia, Lady Tremaine 's other biological daughter.
On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood. On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character. On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be appearing in the second half of the season. On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.
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when was the last time the death penalty was used in the us | List of offenders executed in the United States in 2017 - wikipedia
This is a list of offenders executed in the United States in 2017. A total of twenty - three criminal offenders -- all male -- were executed in the United States in 2017, all by lethal injection. The State of Arkansas executed four individuals in April, ending a hiatus on executions in the state which had lasted for over 11 years.
On April 24, 2017, Arkansas carried out back - to - back executions. Convicted rapist and murderer Jack Jones, age 52, was pronounced dead at 7: 20 pm Monday. Approximately three hours later, convicted rapist and murderer Marcel Williams, age 46, was pronounced dead at 10: 33 pm. Jones was sentenced to death for the 1995 rape and murder of Mary Phillips (August 18, 1959 - June 6, 1995) and the near - fatal assault of her then - 10 - year - old daughter, Lacy Phillips (born July 9, 1984), during a botched robbery in Bald Knob, Arkansas. Williams was sent to death row for the 1994 rape and murder of 22 - year - old Stacy Errickson, whom he kidnapped from a gas station in central Arkansas.
The last double execution in Arkansas was on September 8, 1999. By conducting the double execution in 2017, Arkansas became the first U.S. state to put more than one inmate to death on the same day in 17 years. The last state to do so was Texas, which executed two murderers in August 2000. Oklahoma planned a double execution in 2014 but scrapped plans for the second one after the first (the execution of Clayton Lockett) went awry.
Arkansas executed four men in an eight - day period in 1960. The only quicker pace included quadruple executions in 1926 and 1930.
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when was the brown hare introduced to britain | European hare - wikipedia
The European hare (Lepus europaeus), also known as the brown hare, is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia. It is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate, open country. Hares are herbivorous and feed mainly on grasses and herbs, supplementing these with twigs, buds, bark and field crops, particularly in winter. Their natural predators include large birds of prey, canids and felids. They rely on high - speed endurance running to escape from their enemies; having long, powerful limbs and large nostrils.
Generally nocturnal and shy in nature, hares change their behaviour in the spring, when they can be seen in broad daylight chasing one another around in fields. During this spring frenzy, they sometimes strike one another with their paws ("boxing ''). This is usually not competition between males, but a female hitting a male, either to show she is not yet ready to mate or as a test of his determination. The female nests in a depression on the surface of the ground rather than in a burrow, and the young are active as soon as they are born. Litters may consist of three or four young and a female can bear three litters a year, with hares living for up to twelve years. The breeding season lasts from January to August.
The European hare is listed as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature because it has a wide range and is moderately abundant. However, populations have been declining in mainland Europe since the 1960s, at least partly due to changes in farming practices. The hare has been hunted across Europe for centuries, with more than five million being shot each year; in Britain, it has traditionally been hunted by beagling and hare coursing, but these field sports are now illegal. The hare has been a traditional symbol of fertility and reproduction in some cultures, and its courtship behaviour in the spring inspired the English idiom mad as a March hare.
The European hare was first described in 1778 by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas. It shares the genus Lepus (Latin for "hare '') with 31 other hare and jackrabbit species, jackrabbits being the name given to some species of hare native to North America. They are distinguished from other leporids (hares and rabbits) by their longer legs, wider nostrils and active (precocial) young. The Corsican hare, broom hare and Granada hare were at one time considered to be subspecies of the European hare, but DNA sequencing and morphological analysis support their status as separate species.
There is some debate as to whether the European hare and the Cape hare are the same species. A 2005 nuclear gene pool study suggested that they are, but a 2006 study of the mitochondrial DNA of these same animals concluded that they had diverged sufficiently widely to be considered separate species. A 2008 study claims that in the case of Lepus species, with their rapid evolution, species designation can not be based solely on mtDNA but should also include an examination of the nuclear gene pool. It is possible that the genetic differences between the European and Cape hare are due to geographic separation rather than actual divergence. It has been speculated that in the Near East, hare populations are intergrading and experiencing gene flow. Another 2008 study suggests that more research is needed before a conclusion is reached as to whether a species complex exists; the European hare remains classified as a single species until further data contradicts this assumption.
Cladogenetic analysis suggests that European hares survived the last glacial period during the Pleistocene via refugia in southern Europe (Italian peninsula and Balkans) and Asia Minor. Subsequent colonisations of Central Europe appear to have been initiated by human - caused environmental changes. Genetic diversity in current populations is high with no signs of inbreeding. Gene flow appears to be biased towards males, but overall populations are matrilineally structured. There appears to be a particularly large degree of genetic diversity in hares in the North Rhine - Westphalia region of Germany. It is however possible that restricted gene flow could reduce genetic diversity within populations that become isolated.
Historically, up to 30 subspecies of European hare have been described, although their status has been disputed. These subspecies have been distinguished by differences in pelage colouration, body size, external body measurements, skull morphology and tooth shape. Sixteen subspecies are listed in the IUCN red book, following Hoffmann and Smith (2005): Lepus europaeus caspicus, L. e. connori, L. e. creticus, L. e. cyprius, L. e. cyrensis, L. e. europaeus, L. e. hybridus, L. e. judeae, L. e. karpathorum, L. e. medius, L. e. occidentalis, L. e. parnassius, L. e. ponticus, L. e. rhodius, L. e. syriacus, and L. e. transsylvanicus. Twenty - nine subspecies are listed by Chapman and Flux in their book on lagomorphs, including in addition L. e. alba, L. e. argenteogrisea, L. e. biarmicus, L. e. borealis, L. e. caspicus, L. e. caucasicus, L. e. flavus, L. e. gallaecius, L. e. hispanicus, L. e. hyemalis, L. e. granatensis, L. e. iturissius, L. e. kalmykorum, L. e. meridiei, L. e. meridionalis, L. e. niethammeri, L. e. niger, L. e. tesquorum, and L. e. tumak, but excluding L. e. connori, L. e. creticus, L. e. cyprius, L. e. judeae, L. e. rhodius, and L. e. syriacus, with the proviso that the subspecies they list are of "very variable status ''.
The European hare, like other members of the family Leporidae, is a fast - running terrestrial mammal; it has eyes set high on the sides of its head, long ears and a flexible neck. Its teeth grow continuously, the first incisors being modified for gnawing while the second incisors are peg - like and non-functional. There is a gap (diastema) between the incisors and the cheek teeth, the latter being adapted for grinding coarse plant material. The dental formula is 2 / 1, 0 / 0, 3 / 2, 3 / 3. The dark limb musculature of hares is adapted for high - speed endurance running in open country. By contrast, cottontail rabbits are built for short bursts of speed in more vegetated habitats. Other adaptions for high speed running in hares include wider nostrils and larger hearts. In comparison to the European rabbit, the hare has a proportionally smaller stomach and caecum.
This hare is one of the largest of the lagomorphs. Its head and body length can range from 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) with a tail length of 7.2 to 11 cm (2.8 to 4.3 in). The body mass is typically between 3 and 5 kg (6.6 and 11.0 lb). The hare 's elongated ears range from 9.4 to 11.0 cm (3.7 to 4.3 in) from the notch to tip. It also has long hind feet that have a length of between 14 and 16 cm (5.5 and 6.3 in). The skull has nasal bones that are short, but broad and heavy. The supraorbital ridge has well - developed anterior and posterior lobes and the lacrimal bone projects prominently from the anterior wall of the orbit.
The fur colour is grizzled yellow - brown on the back; rufous on the shoulders, legs, neck and throat; white on the underside and black on the tail and ear tips. The fur on the back is typically longer and more curled than on the rest of the body. The European hare 's fur does not turn completely white in the winter as is the case with some other members of the genus, although the sides of the head and base of the ears do develop white areas and the hip and rump region may gain some grey.
European hares are native to much of continental Europe and part of Asia. Their range extends from northern Spain to southern Scandinavia, eastern Europe, and northern parts of Western and Central Asia. They have been extending their range into Siberia. They may have been introduced to Britain by the Romans (circa 2000 years ago) as there are no records of them from earlier sites. Undocumented introductions probably occurred in some Mediterranean Islands. They have also been introduced, mostly as game animals, to North America (in Ontario and New York State, and unsuccessfully in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut), South America (Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru and the Falkland Islands), Australia, both islands of New Zealand and the south Pacific coast of Russia.
Hares primarily live in open fields with scattered brush for shelter. They are very adaptable and thrive in mixed farmland. According to a study done in the Czech Republic, the mean hare densities were highest at altitudes below 200 metres (660 ft), 40 to 60 days of annual snow cover, 450 to 700 millimetres (18 to 28 in) of annual precipitation, and a mean annual air temperature of around 10 ° C (50 ° F). With regards to climate, the study found that hare densities were highest in "warm and dry districts with mild winters ''. In Poland, hares are most abundant in areas with few forest edges, perhaps because foxes can use these for cover. They require cover, such as hedges, ditches and permanent cover areas, because these habitats supply the varied diet they require, and are found at lower densities in large open fields. Intensive cultivation of the land results in greater mortality of young hares (leverets).
In the United Kingdom, hares are seen most frequently on arable farms, especially those with fallow land, wheat and sugar beet crops. In mainly grass farms their numbers are raised when there are improved pastures, some arable crops and patches of woodland. They are seen less frequently where foxes are abundant or where there are many buzzards. They also seem to be fewer in number in areas with high European rabbit populations, although there appears to be little interaction between the two species and no aggression. Although hares are shot as game when they are plentiful, this is a self - limiting activity and is less likely to occur in localities where they are scarce.
Hares are primarily nocturnal and spend a third of their time foraging. During daytime, a hare hides in a depression in the ground called a "form '' where it is partially hidden. Hares can run at 70 km / h (43 mph) and when confronted by predators they rely on outrunning them in the open. They are generally thought of as asocial but can be seen in both large and small groups. They do not appear to be territorial, living in shared home ranges of around 300 ha (740 acres). Hares communicate with each other by a variety of visual signals. To show interest they raise their ears, while lowering the ears warns others to keep away. When challenging a conspecific, a hare thumps its front feet; the hind feet are used to warn others of a predator. A hare squeals when hurt or scared and a female makes "guttural '' calls to attract her young. Hares can live for as long as twelve years.
European hares are primarily herbivorous. They may forage for wild grasses and weeds but with the intensification of agriculture, they have taken to feeding on crops when preferred foods are not available. During the spring and summer, they feed on soy, clover and corn poppy as well as grasses and herbs. During autumn and winter, they primarily choose winter wheat, and are also attracted to piles of sugar beet and carrots provided for them by hunters. They also eat twigs, buds and the bark of shrubs and young fruit trees during winter. Cereal crops are usually avoided when other more attractive foods are available, the species appearing to prefer high energy foodstuffs over crude fibre. When eating twigs, hares strip off the bark to access the vascular tissues which store soluble carbohydrates. Compared to the European rabbit, food passes through the gut more rapidly in the hare, although digestion rates are similar. They sometimes eat their own green, faecal pellets to recover undigested proteins and vitamins. Two to three adult hares can eat more food than a single sheep.
European hares forage in groups. Group feeding is beneficial as individuals can spend more time feeding knowing that other hares are being vigilant. Nevertheless, the distribution of food affects these benefits. When food is well - spaced, all hares are able to access it. When food is clumped together, only dominant hares can access it. In small gatherings, dominants are more successful in defending food, but as more individuals join in, they must spend more time driving off others. The larger the group, the less time dominant individuals have in which to eat. Meanwhile, the subordinates can access the food while the dominants are distracted. As such, when in groups, all individuals fare worse when food is clumped as opposed to when it is widely spaced.
European hares have a prolonged breeding season which lasts from January to August. Females, or does, can be found pregnant in all breeding months and males, or bucks, are fertile all year round except during October and November. After this hiatus, the size and activity of the males ' testes increase, signalling the start of a new reproductive cycle. This continues through December, January and February when the reproductive tract gains back its functionality. Matings start before ovulation occurs and the first pregnancies of the year often result in a single foetus, with pregnancy failures being common. Peak reproductive activity occurs in March and April, when all females may be pregnant, the majority with three or more foetuses.
The mating system of the hare has been described as both polygynous (single males mating with multiple females) and promiscuous. Females have six - weekly reproductive cycles and are receptive for only a few hours at a time, making competition among local bucks intense. At the height of the breeding season, this phenomenon is known as "March madness '', when the normally nocturnal bucks are forced to be active in the daytime. In addition to dominant animals subduing subordinates, the female fights off her numerous suitors if she is not ready to mate. Fights can be vicious and can leave numerous scars on the ears. In these encounters, hares stand upright and attack each other with their paws, a practice known as "boxing '', and this activity is usually between a female and a male and not between competing males as was previously believed. When a doe is ready to mate, she runs across the countryside, starting a chase that tests the stamina of the following males. When only the fittest male remains, the female stops and allows him to copulate. Female fertility continues through May, June and July, but testosterone production decreases in males and sexual behaviour becomes less overt. Litter sizes decrease as the breeding season draws to a close with no pregnancies occurring after August. The testes of males begin to regress and sperm production ends in September.
Does give birth in hollow depressions in the ground. An individual female may have three litters in a year with a 41 - to 42 - day gestation period. The young have an average weigh of around 130 grams (4.6 oz) at birth. The leverets are fully furred and are precocial, being ready to leave the nest soon after they are born, an adaptation to the lack of physical protection relative to that afforded by a burrow. Leverets disperse during the day and come together in the evening close to where they were born. Their mother visits them for nursing soon after sunset; the young suckle for around five minutes, urinating while they do so, with the doe licking up the fluid. She then leaps away so as not to leave an olfactory trail, and the leverets disperse once more. Young can eat solid food after two weeks and are weaned when they are four weeks old. While young of either sex commonly explore their surroundings, natal dispersal tends to be greater in males. Sexual maturity occurs at seven or eight months for females and six months for males.
European hares are large leporids and adults can only be tackled by large predators such as canids, felids and the largest birds of prey. In Poland it was found that the consumption of hares by foxes was at its highest during spring, when the availability of small animal prey was low; at this time of year, hares may constitute up to 50 % of the biomass eaten by foxes, with 50 % of the mortality of adult hares being caused by their predation. In Scandinavia, a natural epizootic of sarcoptic mange which reduced the population of red foxes dramatically, resulted in an increase in the number of European hares, which returned to previous levels when the numbers of foxes subsequently increased. The golden eagle preys on the European hare in the Alps, the Carpathians, the Apennines and northern Spain. In North America, foxes and coyotes are probably the most common predators, with bobcats and lynx also preying on them in more remote locations.
European hares have both external and internal parasites. One study found that 54 % of animals in Slovakia were parasitised by nematodes and over 90 % by coccidia. In Australia, European hares were reported as being infected by four species of nematode, six of coccidian, several liver flukes and two canine tapeworms. They were also found to host rabbit fleas (Spilopsyllus cuniculi), stickfast fleas (Echidnophaga myrmecobii), lice (Haemodipsus setoni and H. lyriocephalus), and mites (Leporacarus gibbus).
European brown hare syndrome (EBHS) is a disease caused by a calicivirus similar to that causing rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHS) and can similarly be fatal, but cross infection between the two mammal species does not occur. Other threats to the hare are pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudo-tuberculosis), coccidiosis and tularaemia, which are the principal sources of mortality.
In Europe, the hare has been a symbol of sex and fertility since at least Ancient Greece. The Greeks associated it with the gods Dionysus, Aphrodite and Artemis as well as with satyrs and cupids. The Christian Church connected the hare with lustfulness and homosexuality, but also associated it with the persecution of the church because of the way it was commonly hunted.
In Northern Europe, Easter imagery often involves hares or rabbits. Citing folk Easter customs in Leicestershire, England, where "the profits of the land called Harecrop Leys were applied to providing a meal which was thrown on the ground at the ' Hare - pie Bank ' '', the 19th - century scholar Charles Isaac Elton proposed a possible connection between these customs and the worship of Ēostre. In his 19th - century study of the hare in folk custom and mythology, Charles J. Billson cites folk customs involving the hare around Easter in Northern Europe, and argues that the hare was probably a sacred animal in prehistoric Britain 's festival of springtime. Observation of the hare 's springtime mating behaviour led to the popular English idiom "mad as a March hare '', with similar phrases from the sixteenth century writings of John Skelton and Sir Thomas More onwards. The mad hare reappears in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, in which Alice participates in a crazy tea party with the March Hare and the Mad Hatter.
Any connection of the hare to Ēostre is doubtful. John Andrew Boyle cites an etymology dictionary by A. Ernout and A. Meillet, who wrote that the lights of Ēostre were carried by hares, that Ēostre represented spring fecundity, love and sexual pleasure. Boyle responds that almost nothing is known about Ēostre, and that the authors had seemingly accepted the identification of Ēostre with the Norse goddess Freyja, but that the hare is not associated with Freyja either. Boyle adds that "when the authors speak of the hare as the ' companion of Aphrodite and of satyrs and cupids ' and ' in the Middle Ages (the hare) appears beside the figure of (mythological) Luxuria ', they are on much surer ground. ''
The hare is a character in some fables, such as The Tortoise and the Hare of Aesop. The story was annexed to a philosophical problem by Zeno of Elea, who created a set of paradoxes to support Parmenides ' attack on the idea of continuous motion, as each time the hare (or the hero Achilles) moves to where the tortoise was, the tortoise moves just a little further away. The German Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer realistically depicted a hare in his 1502 watercolour painting Young Hare.
Across Europe, over five million European hares are shot each year, making it probably the most important game mammal on the continent. This popularity has threatened regional varieties such as those of France and Denmark, through large - scale importing of hares from Eastern European countries such as Hungary. Hares have traditionally been hunted in Britain by beagling and hare coursing. In beagling, the hare is hunted with a pack of small hunting dogs, beagles, followed by the human hunters on foot. In Britain, the 2004 Hunting Act banned hunting of hares with dogs, so the 60 beagle packs now use artificial "trails '', or may legally continue to hunt rabbits. Hare coursing with greyhounds was once an aristocratic pursuit, forbidden to lower social classes. More recently, informal hare coursing became a lower class activity and was conducted without the landowner 's permission; it is also now illegal.
Hare is traditionally cooked by jugging: a whole hare is cut into pieces, marinated and cooked slowly with red wine and juniper berries in a tall jug that stands in a pan of water. It is traditionally served with (or briefly cooked with) the hare 's blood and port wine. Hare can also be cooked in a casserole. The meat is darker and more strongly flavoured than that of rabbits. Young hares can be roasted; the meat of older hares becomes too tough for roasting, and may be slow - cooked.
The European hare has a wide range across Europe and western Asia and has been introduced to a number of other countries around the globe, often as a game species. In general it is considered moderately abundant in its native range, but declines in populations have been noted in many areas since the 1960s. These have been associated with the intensification of agricultural practices. The hare is an adaptable species and can move into new habitats, but it thrives best when there is an availability of a wide variety of weeds and other herbs to supplement its main diet of grasses. The hare is considered a pest in some areas; it is more likely to damage crops and young trees in winter when there are not enough alternative foodstuffs available.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature has evaluated the European hare 's conservation status as being of least concern. However, at low population densities, hares are vulnerable to local extinctions as the available gene pool declines, making inbreeding more likely. This is the case in northern Spain and in Greece, where the restocking by hares brought from outside the region has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. To counteract this, a captive breeding program has been implemented in Spain, and the relocation of some individuals from one location to another has increased genetic variety. The Bern Convention lists the hare under Appendix III as a protected species. Several countries, including Norway, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, have placed the species on their Red Lists as "near threatened '' or "threatened ''.
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what kind of dog is the mack truck mascot | Mack trucks - wikipedia
Mack Trucks, Inc., is an American truck -- manufacturing company and a former manufacturer of buses and trolley buses. Founded in 1900 as the Mack Brothers Company, it manufactured its first truck in 1907 and adopted its present name in 1922. Mack Trucks is a subsidiary of AB Volvo which purchased Mack along with Renault Trucks in 2000. After being founded in Brooklyn, New York, the company 's headquarters were in Allentown, Pennsylvania, from 1905 to 2009, when they moved to Greensboro, North Carolina. The entire line of Mack products is still produced in Lower Macungie, Pennsylvania, with additional assembly plants in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Australia, and Venezuela.
Currently, the company 's manufacturing facilities are located at LVO Lehigh Valley Operations formally known as the Macungie Assembly Operations Plant in Lower Macungie Township, Pennsylvania. Mack Trucks is one of the top producers in the vocational and on - road vehicle market, class 8 through class 13. It is also one of the most popular manufacturers of heavy - duty off - road trucks in the United States.
Mack trucks have been sold in 45 countries. The Macungie, Pennsylvania, manufacturing plant, located near its former Allentown corporate headquarters, produces all Mack products. The Mack MP - series engine, Mack transmissions, the TC - 15 transfer cases, and rear engine power take - offs are designed and manufactured in Hagerstown, Maryland, which, according to local historians, was the original factory location.
Parts for Mack 's right - hand - drive vehicles are produced in Brisbane, Australia, for worldwide distribution. Assembly for South America is done at Mack de Venezuela C.A., in Caracas, Venezuela. The Venezuela operation is a complete knock down (CKD) facility. Components are shipped from the United States to Caracas, and the plant then does the final assembly.
In addition to its Macungie manufacturing facility, Mack also has a remanufacturing center in Middletown, Pennsylvania, where it takes used parts and refurbishes them for resale and reuse.
On August 14, 2008, Mack Trucks announced a major restructuring plan that included:
This is a timeline of Mack Trucks history. Most of the information is taken from the Mack history page at MackTrucks.com, unless otherwise noted.
This is a timeline of Mack Trucks history. Most of the information is taken from the Mack History page at MackTrucks.com, unless otherwise noted. Photos of most models 1906 -- 1978 available at.
Mack Trucks produced fire apparatuses from 1911 until 1990. Despite the abrupt shutdown of their production, many have been refurbished and still serve with fire departments throughout the world.
Some examples of Mack fire apparatus:
1961 B95
1982 CF685
CF
MR
MC
The heavy - duty AC, with its well - known tapered hood, was the truck which started the bulldog theme. A 377 cu in (6.2 L) 4 cylinder gasoline engine 4X2 with chain drive, it was strong, reliable, and worked well in rough terrain. Introduced in 1916, there was a great demand because of World War I, over 6000 3 ⁄ -, 5 ⁄ -, and 7 ⁄ - ton trucks were built for the UK and US military. There were also commercial sales from 1916; the AC was well suited for logging and construction work. A larger version, the AP, built between 1926 and 1938, was an off - road haul truck used on Boulder Dam and other large projects. 40,299 ACs had been built when production ended in 1939.
The N Series was Mack 's first military design, large 6 and 7 1 / 2 ton 6X6 artillery prime movers. Between its development in the late 1930s and the beginning of production in 1940 US military requirements changed and the truck was not needed. All NMs and most of the larger NOs were exported as foreign aid. After World War II the NO was developed into the successful M 123 semi-tractor.
The Mack B series models were Mack 's primary vehicle from its introduction in 1953 until it was replaced by the R Series in 1966. They ranged in size from the medium duty B20P gas powered 4X2 to the oversized B873SX turbo - diesel 6X6. B Models were commonly used as semi tractors and in the construction industry. They were also used as fire engines and trucks, sometimes with the roof of the cab removed. 127,786 B Models were built.
Mack started to produce the Mack R series (R, RW, and U models) in 1966 for highway use, and the RD, DM, and all wheel drive RM and DMM models for construction use. The lightweight RL model followed in 1967, the RW Superliner with a large, rectangular hood and grill in 1977, and the setback front axle RB in the 1990s. All these models featured the same cab; the U, DM, and DMM had the cab offset to the left.
In the 1990s, the R, RW, and U series models were discontinued and the RB was introduced, mostly for severe - duty applications. The hood was modified slightly for the model RB. 2004 was the last year for the RD, and 2006 for the RB and DM. The DM was the last model to use this cab style, and was the last model of this family to be produced.
As a replacement for the construction models, Mack started to offer the Granite, Granite Bridge - Formula and Granite Axle - back.
Also this model is serving in the Mexican Army as a Troop and Utility Truck in configuration 6X6 OR 6X4
By 1916 Mack was producing 4 - and 6 - cylinder gasoline engines, and through 2014 continued to offer their own, in the form of three diesel V8s. Engines by other manufacturers were often optional, supplied over the years by Caterpillar, Cummins, Chrysler, Detroit Diesel, Hercules, Scania, and Waukesha.
Mack started making diesels in 1938, in 1957 the END and turbocharged ENDT 673 diesel were introduced. This 672 cu in (11.0 L) I6 engine family was successful, and remained in production for over 30 years.
In the early 1960s, Mack Truck 's executive vice president of product and engineering, Walter May, developed the Maxidyne high - torque rise engine. The engine was introduced as an inline six in 1966, as a V8 in 1970, and as the intercooled inline six 300 series in 1973. This was an industry - changing event. The Maxidyne, with an operating range of 1200 -- 2100 R.P.M, and later 1050 -- 1700 R.P.M., allowed a heavy Class 8 truck to be operated with a 5 speed (Maxitorque) transmission. Previously, heavy trucks typically operated between 1800 - 2100R. P.M. and were equipped with 10 or more gears.
In 2014 Mack offers three engine series, the 11 L MP 7, 13 L MP8, and 16 L MP10, with 325 hp (242 kW) to 605 hp (451 kW) and 1,200 lb ft (1,627 N m) to 2,060 lb ft (2,793 N m).
Mack also produced railroad cars and locomotives between 1905 and 1930.
The company 's trademark is the bulldog, which can be found on the front of almost all Mack trucks. A gold - plated bulldog indicates the truck was made with a Mack produced drive train of engine, transmission and drive axles. A chrome bulldog indicates other manufacturers ' components were used.
Mack trucks earned their nickname during World War I, when the British government purchased the Mack AC for supplying its front lines. Its pugnacious, blunt - nosed hood, tenacious performance, and durability, reminded the soldiers of their country 's mascot, the British Bulldog.
The logo was first used in 1921 for the AB chain drive models and became the official corporate logo in 1922.
This is a list of the highest ranking executive officer of Mack Trucks since its inception:
Mack built over 35,000 heavy duty military trucks during World War II, most for export under Lend - Lease. None were US Army standard types, all were designed and built exclusively by Mack.
The EH series was a commercial design 5 ton (4,536 kg) 4x2 adapted for military service. The EH, EHU (cabover) and semi-tractor models EHT and EHUT were used by the US Army in Europe. Over 2,400 were built in 1942.
The LMSW was a commercial design 10 ton (9,072 kg) 6x4 chassis adapted for military wreckers, most were exported to Great Britain.
The NJU (G - 639) series were military design 5 ton (5,443 kg) 4x4 semi-tractors used to tow bridging pontoons and equipment. Several other manufactures built standardized models of similar trucks, so only 700 were produced in 1941 -- 1942.
The NM (G - 535) and NO (G - 532) series were military design 6 ton (5,443 kg) and 7 ⁄ ton (6,803 kg) 6x6 artillery prime movers. All NMs and most of the larger NOs were exported as foreign aid. Over 8,400 NMs and 2,000 NOs were built between 1940 and 1944.
The NR series were military design 10 ton (5,443 kg) 6x4 cargo trucks. Intended for British use in North Africa, they had Mack ED diesel engines, making them valuable for long distance trips. Over 15,000 were built between 1940 -- 1944.
Since World War II, Mack has had limited military production.
The M39 (G - 744) series, which includes the M54 cargo truck, were a standardized military design 5 ton (4,536 kg) 6x6 chassis, with many models. Mack developed a competing design, when the M39 was standardized Mack built a relatively small number of M51 dump trucks. In the early 1960s they took part in a short lived program to retrofit some of the series with Mack END 672 engines.
The M123 and M125 (G - 792) were standardized military design 10 ton (9,072 kg) 6x6 semi tractors and artillery prime movers. Designed by Mack, using many components from the NO series. Mack built 392 M123s, used with a lowboy trailer to recover and transport tanks, and all 552 M125s, between 1955 and 1957. Later follow - up orders called for 420 M123s and retrofitted 210 more with Cummins engines.
The 1968 C&W song "Phantom 309 '' by Red Sovine is about a ghost trucker who, when asked about the name Phantom 309, replies that "This Ole ' Mack will put ' em all to shame. There aint a driver or rig runnin ' any line that seen nothin ' but taillights from ' Phantom 309 ' ''.
Five 1970s Mack RS700 series & one Cruise Liner COE trucks were used in the motion picture Convoy starring Kris Kristofferson as Martin ' Rubber Duck ' Penwald and Ali MacGraw as Melissa.
A 1970s Mack R - 600 truck with a "coolpower '' engine setup is used to haul an oil tanker in Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior.
Mack DM series dump trucks appeared prominently in Die Hard with a Vengeance (the third movie in the series).
Maximum Overdrive (1986) is a horror tale of machinery come to life which includes a truck stop with various vehicles.
A Mack M915 (LHRT) Line - Haul Replacement Tractor (military version of the Mack Granite GU713 10 - wheeler) with a (military version M970 fuel tanker) semi-trailer, was the vehicle mode for Megatron in Transformers: Dark of the Moon.
The beginning of Blake Crouch 's best selling novel Pines has the main protagonist. Secret Service Agent Ethan Burke. suffering temporary amnesia after the car he is travelling in crashes. He believes he must seek out a person named "Mack '' as it the only word he is able to recall. He later realizes the significant of "Mack '' is in fact his recollection of his vehicle being intentionally hit by a Mack truck.
A 1984 Mack Superliner, owned by J.R. Collins Pulling Team, is also officially sponsored by Mack. The truck (named "Buckeye Bulldog '') runs in the NTPA (National Tractor Pulling Association) in the "Super Semi '' class.
Dale Gribble, a character from King of the Hill, is rarely seen without his Mack cap.
In Bad Boys II (2003), a 2000 Mack CX 613 Vision truck is used by the villains.
In the film Cars, Mack is Lightning McQueen 's transport, an animated 1985 Mack Super-Liner voiced by John Ratzenberger. Ratzenberger 's father drove a Mack truck to deliver oil for three decades. On the "Disney / Pixar Road Trip ' 06 '', which promoted the film in a four - month tour of forty - one cities, "Mack '' is a 2006 CH Rawhide 460 - horsepower Mack truck carrying an Eddie Paul customised Trans Am as "Lightning ''.
CEO Denny Slagle took part in CBS ' Undercover Boss in 2011.
In the 2001 movie Vanilla Sky, a green mack truck almost crashes into David Aames 's mustang, stopping just in time.
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who wrote the star spangled banner and when | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the then 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large U.S. flag, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, known as the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the U.S. victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known U.S. patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being very difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of U.S. officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the United Kingdom 's national anthem, also served as a de facto national anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent U.S. wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the U.S. victory and the sight of the large U.S. flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. It was first published nationally in The Analectic Magazine.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when the British and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the U.S. Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and U.S. national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both U.S. and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when U.S. athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the national anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward, she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature film (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the U.S. national anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the national anthem, but not if the flag was not present. On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the national anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said: "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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where do the days of the week get their names from | Names of the days of the week - wikipedia
The names of the days of the week in many languages are derived from the names of the classical planets in Hellenistic astrology, which were in turn named after contemporary deities, a system introduced in the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity. In some other languages, the days are named after corresponding deities of the regional culture, either beginning with Sunday or with Monday. In the international standard ISO 8601, Monday is treated as the first day of the week.
Between the 1st and 3rd centuries, the Roman Empire gradually replaced the eight - day Roman nundinal cycle with the seven - day week. Our earliest evidence for this new system is a Pompeiian graffito referring to the 6th February (viii idus Februarius) of the year AD 60 as dies solis ("Sunday ''). Another early witness is a reference to a lost treatise by Plutarch, written in about AD 100, which addressed the question of Why are the days named after the planets reckoned in a different order from the actual order?.
The days were named after the planets of Hellenistic astrology, in the order Sun, Moon, Mars (Ares), Mercury (Hermes), Jupiter (Zeus), Venus (Aphrodite) and Saturn (Cronos).
The seven - day week spread throughout the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. By the 4th century, it was in wide use throughout the Empire, and it had also reached India and China.
The Greek and Latin names are as follows:
Except for modern Portuguese, the Romance languages preserved the Latin names, except for the names of Sunday, which was replaced by (dies) Dominicus (Dominica), i.e. "Day of the Lord '' and of Saturday, which was named for the Sabbath.
Early Old Irish adopted the names from Latin, but introduced separate terms of uncertain origin for Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, then later supplanted these with terms relating to church fasting practices.
Albanian adopted the Latin terms. Other languages adopted the week together with the Latin (Romance) names for the days of the week in the colonial period. Some constructed languages also adopted the Latin terminology.
The Germanic peoples adapted the system introduced by the Romans by substituting the Germanic deities for the Roman ones (with the exception of Saturday) in a process known as interpretatio germanica. The date of the introduction of this system is not known exactly, but it must have happened later than AD 200 but before the introduction of Christianity during the 6th to 7th centuries, i.e., during the final phase or soon after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. This period is later than the Common Germanic stage, but still during the phase of undifferentiated West Germanic. The names of the days of the week in North Germanic languages were not calqued from Latin directly, but taken from the West Germanic names.
Hindu astrology adopted the concept of days under the regency of a planet under the term vāra, the days of the week being called āditya -, soma -, maṅgala -, budha -, guru -, śukra -, and śani - vāra. śukrá is a name of Venus (regarded as a son of Bhṛgu); guru is here a title of Bṛhaspati, and hence of Jupiter; budha "Mercury '' is regarded as a son of Soma, i.e. the Moon. Knowledge of Greek astrology existed since about the 2nd century BC, but references to the vāra occur somewhat later, during the Gupta period (Yājñavalkya Smṛti, c. 3rd to 5th century), i.e. at roughly the same period the system was introduced in the Roman Empire. (Source?)
The East Asian naming system for the days of the week closely parallels that of the Latin system and is ordered after the "Seven Luminaries '' (七曜 qī yào), which consists of the Sun, Moon and the five planets visible to the naked eye.
The Chinese seem to have adopted the seven - day week from the Hellenistic system by the 4th century, although by which route is not entirely clear. It was again transmitted to China in the 8th century by Manichaeans, via the country of Kang (a Central Asian polity near Samarkand). The 4th - century date, according to the Cihai encyclopedia, is due to a reference to Fan Ning (範 寧 / 范 宁), an astrologer of the Jin Dynasty. The renewed adoption from Manichaeans in the 8th century (Tang Dynasty) is documented with the writings of the Chinese Buddhist monk Yi Jing and the Ceylonese Buddhist monk Bu Kong.
The Chinese transliteration of the planetary system was soon brought to Japan by the Japanese monk Kobo Daishi; surviving diaries of the Japanese statesman Fujiwara Michinaga show the seven day system in use in Heian Period Japan as early as 1007. In Japan, the seven day system was kept in use (for astrological purposes) until its promotion to a full - fledged (Western - style) calendrical basis during the Meiji era. In China, with the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, Monday through Saturday in China are now named after the luminaries implicitly with the numbers.
The Southeast Asian tradition also uses the Hindu names of the days of the week.
Sunday comes first in order in calendars shown in the table below. In the Judeo - Christian or Abrahamic tradition, the first day of the week is Sunday. Biblical Sabbath (corresponding to Saturday), when God rested from six - day Creation, made the day following Sabbath the first day of the week (corresponding to Sunday). Seventh - day Sabbaths were sanctified for celebration and rest. After the week was adopted in early Christianity, Sunday remained the first day of the week, but also gradually displaced Saturday as the day of celebration and rest, being considered the Lord 's Day.
Saint Martin of Dumio (c. 520 -- 580), archbishop of Braga, decided not to call days by pagan gods and to use ecclesiastic terminology to designate them. While the custom of numbering the days of the week was mostly prevalent in the Eastern Church, Portuguese and Galician, due to Martin 's influence, are the only Romance languages in which the names of the days come from numbers rather than planetary names.
Icelandic is a special case within the Germanic languages, maintaining only the Sun and Moon (sunnudagur and mánudagur respectively), while dispensing with the names of the explicitly heathen gods in favour of a combination of numbered days and days whose names are linked to pious or domestic routine (föstudagur, "Fasting Day '' and laugardagur, "Washing Day ''). The "washing day '' is also used in other North Germanic languages, but otherwise the names correspond to those of English.
The ISO prescribes Monday as the first day of the week with ISO - 8601 for software date formats.
The Slavic, Baltic and Uralic languages (except Finnish and partially Estonian) adopted numbering but took Monday rather than Sunday as the "first day ''. This convention is also found in some Austronesian languages whose speakers were converted to Christianity by European missionaries.
In Slavic languages, some of the names correspond to numerals after Sunday: compare Russian vtornik "Tuesday '' and vtoroj "the following '', chetverg "Thursday '' and chetvertyj "the fourth '', pyatnitsa "Friday '' and pyatyj "the fifth ''; see also the Notes.
In Standard Chinese, the week is referred to as the cycle of the stars (Chinese: 星期; pinyin: Xīngqī). The modern Chinese names for the days of the week are based on a simple numerical sequence. The word for ' week ' (which is literally translated to ' star day ') is followed by a number indicating the day: ' Monday ' is literally ' star day one ', ' Tuesday ' is ' star day two ', etc. The exception is Sunday, where rì (日), meaning ' sun ' or ' day ', is used instead of a number.
In Swahili, the day begins at sunrise rather than sunset, and so are offset by twelve hours from the Arabic and Hebrew calendar. Saturday is therefore the first day of the week, as it is the day that includes the first night of the week in Arabic.
Etymologically speaking, Swahili has two "fifth '' days. The words for Saturday through Wednesday contain the Bantu - derived Swahili words for "one '' through "five ''. The word for Thursday, Alhamisi, is of Arabic origin and means "the fifth '' (day). The word for Friday, Ijumaa, is also Arabic and means (day of) "gathering '' for the Friday noon prayers in Islam.
In the Žejane dialect of Istro - Romanian, lur (Monday) and virer (Friday) follow the Latin convention, while utorek (Tuesday), sredu (Wednesday), and četrtok (Thursday) follow the Slavic convention.
There are several systems in the different Basque dialects.
In Judaeo - Spanish (Ladino), which is mainly based on a medieval version of Spanish, the five days of Monday -- Friday closely follow the Spanish names. Sunday uses the Arabic name, which is based on numbering, because a Jewish language was not likely to adapt a name based on "Lord 's Day '' for Sunday. As in Spanish, the Ladino name for Saturday is based on Sabbath. However, as a Jewish language -- and with Saturday being the actual day of rest in the Jewish community -- Ladino directly adapted the Hebrew name, Shabbat.
From Latin Dominicus (Dominica) or Greek Κυριακή (Christian Sabbath) Holy Day and First - Day of the Week (Day of the Sun - > Light - > Resurrection - > Born again) (Christianity) Resurrection (Christianity) Bazaar Day Market Day No Work Full good day Borrowed from English week From an Old Burmese word, not of Indic origin.
After No Work. In Russian also "Day After Week (end) '' - see понедельник After Bazaar Head of Week Master (as in Pir, because Muhammad was born on a Monday) From an Old Burmese word, not of Indic origin.
Thing (Assembly), of which god Tyr / Ziu was the patron. Second day of the week (cf. Hungarian kettő "two '') Third day of the week. From Arabic "ath - Thalaathaaʼ '' (third day)
Mid-week or Middle The First Fast (Christianity)
The day between two fasts (An Dé idir dhá aoin, contracted to An Déardaoin) (Christianity) Five (Arabic) Fifth day of the week.
The Fast (Celtic) or Fasting Day (Icelandic) (Christianity) Good Friday or Preparation (Christianity) Jumu'ah (Muslim Sabbath) Gathering / Assembly / Meeting (Islam) -- in Malta with no Islamic connotations
Shabbat (Jewish Sabbath) Wash or Bath day Sun - eve (Eve of Sunday) After the Gathering (Islam) End of the Week (Arabic Sabt = Rest) Week Half good day
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why do they call flipping the bird bird | The finger - wikipedia
In Western culture, the finger or the middle finger (as in giving someone the (middle) finger or the bird or flipping someone off) is an obscene hand gesture. The gesture communicates moderate to extreme contempt, and is roughly equivalent in meaning to "fuck off '', "fuck you, '' "shove it up your ass / arse, '' "up yours, '' or "go fuck yourself. '' It is performed by showing the back of a hand that has only the middle finger extended upwards, though in some locales, the thumb is extended. Extending the finger is considered a symbol of contempt in several cultures, especially in the West. Many cultures use similar gestures to display their disrespect, although others use it to express pointing without intentional disrespect toward other cultures. The gesture is usually used to express contempt but can also be used humorously or playfully.
The gesture dates back to Ancient Greece and it was also used in Ancient Rome. Historically, it represented the phallus. In some modern cultures, it has gained increasing recognition as a sign of disrespect, and has been used by music artists (notably more common among hardcore punk bands and rappers), actors, celebrities, athletes, and politicians. Most still view the gesture as obscene. The index finger and ring finger besides the middle finger in more contemporary periods has been likened to represent the testes.
The middle finger gesture was used in ancient times as a symbol of sexual intercourse, in a manner meant to degrade, intimidate and threaten the individual receiving the gesture. It also represented the phallus, with the fingers next to the middle finger representing testicles; from its close association, the gesture may have assumed apotropaic potency. In the 1st - century Mediterranean world, extending the finger was one of many methods used to divert the ever - present threat of the evil eye.
In Greek the gesture was known as the katapygon (κατάπυγον, from kata -- κατά, "downwards '' and pugē -- πυγή, "rump, buttocks ''). In ancient Greek comedy, the finger was a gesture of insult toward another person, with the term katapugon also referring to "a male who submits to anal penetration '' or katapygaina to a female. In Aristophanes 's comedy The Clouds (423 BC), when the character Socrates is quizzing his student on poetic meters, Strepsiades declares that he knows quite well what a dactyl is, and gives the finger. The gesture is a visual pun on the two meanings of the Greek word dactylos, both "finger '' and the rhythmic measure composed of a long syllable and two short, like the joints of a finger (, which also appears as a visual pun on the penis and testicles in a medieval Latin text). Socrates called one who made the gesture "boorish and stupid ''. The gesture recurs as a form of mockery in Peace, alongside farting in someone 's face; the usage is later explained in the Suda and included in the Adagia of Erasmus. The verb "to play the Siphnian '' appears in a fragment of Aristophanes and has a similar meaning; the usage is once again explained in the Suda, where it is said to mean "to touch the anus with a finger ''. Diogenes Laërtius records how the Cynic philosopher Diogenes of Sinope directed the gesture at the orator Demosthenes in 4th - century BC Athens. In the Discourses of Epictetus, Diogenes 's target is instead one of the sophists.
In Latin, the middle finger was the digitus impudicus, meaning the "shameless, indecent or offensive finger ''. In the 1st century AD, Persius had superstitious female relatives concoct a charm with the "infamous finger '' (digitus infamis) and "purifying spit ''; while in the Satyricon, an old woman uses dust, spit and her middle finger to mark the forehead before casting a spell. The poet Martial has a character in good health extend "the indecent one '' toward three doctors. In another epigram, Martial wrote: "Laugh loud, Sextillus, at whoever calls you a cinaedus and extend your middle finger. '' Juvenal, through synecdoche, has the "middle nail '' cocked at threatening Fortuna. The indecent finger features again in a mocking context in the Priapeia, a collection of poems relating to the phallic god Priapus. In Late Antiquity, the term "shameless finger '' is explained in the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville with reference to its frequent use when accusing someone of a "shameful action ''.
Linguist Jesse Sheidlower traces the gesture 's development in the United States to the 1890s. According to anthropologist Desmond Morris, the gesture probably came to the United States via Italian immigrants. The first documented appearance of the finger in the United States was in 1886, when Old Hoss Radbourn, a baseball pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters, was photographed giving it to a member of their rival the New York Giants. In the film Speedy (1928), Harold Lloyd 's character gives himself the finger into a distorting mirror at Luna Park, about 24 minutes into the film.
The gesture has been involved in notable political events. During the USS Pueblo incident, in which an American ship was captured by North Korea, the captured American crewmembers often discreetly gave the finger in staged photo ops, thus ruining the North Koreans ' efforts at propaganda. The North Koreans, ignorant of what the gesture meant, were at first told by the prisoners that it was a "Hawaiian good luck sign '', similar to the shaka. When the guards finally figured things out, the crewmembers were subjected to extremely severe beatings. Abbie Hoffman used the gesture at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Ronald Reagan, while serving as the Governor of California, gave the middle finger to counterculture protestors in Berkeley, California. Nelson Rockefeller, then the Vice President of the United States, directed the gesture to hecklers at a 1976 campaign stop near Binghamton, New York, leading it to be called the "Rockefeller gesture ''. Pierre Trudeau, then the Prime Minister of Canada, gave the finger to protesters in Salmon Arm, British Columbia, earning the incident the nickname the "Salmon Arm salute ''. The gesture itself has also been nicknamed the "Trudeau salute ''. Former president George W. Bush gave the finger to the camera at an Austin production facility during his term as governor of Texas, saying it was "just a one - finger victory salute. '' Anthony Weiner gave the finger to reporters after leaving his election headquarters the night he lost the 2013 primary election for Mayor of New York City. During the campaign for the 2013 German federal election, the leading candidate of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, Peer Steinbrück controversially gave the finger in a photo interview with Süddeutsche Zeitung 's Magazin supplement.
During World War II, the 91st Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces referred to the gesture as the "rigid digit '' salute. It was used in a more jocular manner, to suggest an airman had committed an error or infraction; the term was a reference to British slang terms for inattentiveness (i.e. "pull your finger out (of your bum) ''). The "order of the rigid digit '' continued after the war as a series of awards presented by the veteran 's association of the 91st, marked by wooden statuettes of a hand giving the single finger gesture. In 2005 during the war in Iraq, Gunnery Sergeant Michael Burghardt gained prominence when the Omaha World - Herald published a photo of Burghardt making the gesture towards Iraqi insurgents he believed to be watching after an improvised explosive device failed to kill him.
The middle finger has been involved in judicial hearings. An appellate court in Hartford, Connecticut ruled in 1976 that gesturing with the middle finger was offensive, but not obscene, after a police officer charged a 16 - year - old with making an obscene gesture when the student gave the officer the middle finger. The case was appealed to the Connecticut Supreme Court, which upheld the decision. In March 2006, a federal lawsuit was filed regarding the free speech issue.
Giving the finger has resulted in negative consequences. A Malaysian man was bludgeoned to death after giving the finger to a motorist following a car chase. A Pakistani man was deported by the United Arab Emirates for the gesture, which violates indecency codes.
People have given the finger as a method of political protest. At a concert, Ricky Martin gave a picture of George W. Bush the finger to protest the War in Iraq. Serbian protesters gave the finger to the Russian embassy regarding their support of Slobodan Milošević. Artist Ai Weiwei has used the finger in photographs and sculptures as a political statement. As a political message to the Czech President Miloš Zeman, Czech artist David Černý floated an outsize, purple statue of a hand on the River Vltava in Prague; its middle finger extended towards Prague Castle, the Presidential seat.
The use of the middle finger has become pervasive in popular culture. The band Cobra Starship released a song called "Middle Finger '', and released a music video that showed people giving the finger. Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan installed a marble statue of a middle finger measuring 11 metres (36 ft), located directly in front of the Milan Stock Exchange. A now - famous photograph of Johnny Cash shows him giving the middle finger to a photographer during a 1969 concert at San Quentin State Prison, released as At San Quentin. However, the photo remained fairly obscure until 1998, when producer Rick Rubin made it the centerpiece of an ad in Billboard criticizing country radio for not giving airplay to Cash 's Grammy - winning album Unchained. Cameron Diaz made the gesture during a photo shoot for Esquire. Harold Lloyd shot the finger to his own reflection in a Coney Island funhouse after getting paint on his suit in Speedy, his final silent feature, from 1928.
Athletes, including Stefan Effenberg, Ron Artest, Luis Suárez, Juan Pablo Montoya, Iván Rodríguez, Danny Graves, Jack McDowell, Natasha Zvereva, Josh Smith, Bryan Cox, and Johnny Manziel have been suspended or fined for making the gesture. José Paniagua was released by the Chicago White Sox after giving the middle finger to an umpire; he has n't played in the majors since. Baseball executive Chub Feeney once resigned after giving the finger to fans on Fan Appreciation Night. Bud Adams, owner of the National Football League 's Tennessee Titans, was fined US $250,000 for giving both middle fingers to the fans of the Buffalo Bills during a game. Professional wrestler Stone Cold Steve Austin is also famous for flashing one or both middle fingers as part of his gimmick. Hockey star Jaromír Jágr made the gesture several times following goals in the early 1990s.
The NME Awards, an annual music awards show in the UK, uses an extended middle finger design in the trophy handed out to the winners. Many musical artists, including Madonna, Lady Gaga, Eminem, Ariana Grande, Katy Perry, and Adele have publicly made the gesture. Britney Spears and Iggy Azalea have given the gesture towards members of the paparazzi, but had to apologize when fans interpreted the gesture as directed at them. M.I.A. gave the gesture during the Super Bowl XLVI Halftime Show. The National Football League, NBC, and M.I.A. apologized. The CD itself for Kid Rock 's album Devil Without a Cause is a picture of his raised middle finger. On the cover of Moby Grape 's first album, Moby Grape, band member Don Stevenson was caught flipping the bird at the camera. The finger was airbrushed out of subsequent releases of the album.
In automobile driving culture, giving the finger to a fellow motorist communicates displeasure at another person 's reckless driving habits and / or their disregard for common courtesy.
The finger is included in Unicode as U + 1F595 🖕 REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED.
The media sometimes refers to the gesture as being mistaken for an indication of "we 're number one '', typically indicated with a raised index finger. Sometimes, though, the "mistake '' is actually an intentional euphemism meant to indirectly convey the gesture in a medium where a direct description would be inappropriate. For example, Don Meredith is famously noted in a 1972 Monday Night Football game describing the Finger of a dejected Houston Oilers fan as, "He thinks they 're number one in the nation. '' Ira Robbins, a law professor, believes the finger is no longer an obscene gesture. Psychologist David Walsh, founder of the National Institute on Media and the Family, sees the growing acceptance of the middle finger as a sign of the growth of a "culture of disrespect ''.
Google Street View 's picture of the area around the Wisconsin Governor 's Mansion, taken in 2011 during the tenure of Scott Walker, shows a jogger giving the finger in the direction of the mansion.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand, the V sign, "two - fingered salute '' or "the fingers '', when given with back of the hand towards the recipient, serves a similar purpose. According to a synopsis of the play, Henry V, written by The Royal Shakespeare Company, "the ' two - fingered salute ' is almost certainly older than Agincourt, appearing as it does in the Macclesfield Psalter of c. 1330 (in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge), being made by a glove in the psalter 's marginalia ''. George H.W. Bush, former President of the United States, accidentally made the gesture while on a diplomatic trip to Australia.
In countries where Spanish, Portuguese, or French are spoken, and especially in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and France the gesture involving raising a fist and slapping the biceps on the same arm as the fist used, sometimes called the bras d'honneur or Iberian slap, is equivalent to the finger.
Italy, Poland, and countries under the influence of Russian culture, such as Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, also see it as equivalent to the finger, but the majority of young people in these countries use the finger as an insult, which is associated with the Western culture.
In Islamic countries and cultures, a gesture involving exposing only the thumb in a vertical orientation -- a thumbs up -- is used in lieu of the finger to express roughly the same sentiment. A similarly obscene gesture is extending all five digits with the palm facing forward, meaning "you have five fathers '', thus calling someone a bastard. This is similar to a gesture known in Greece as the Moutza, where the five fingers are spread wide and the palm is pushed towards the recipient. More commonly in Turkish or Slavic regions, the fig sign (also known as nah or shish) serves as the equivalent to the finger, meaning "you wo n't get it '' or "in your dreams ''. The gesture is typically made with the hand and fingers curled and the thumb thrust between the middle and index fingers. This gesture is also used similarly in Indonesia, Turkey and China.
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just you and i crystal gayle eddie rabbitt | You and I (Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle song) - Wikipedia
"You and I '' is a song written by Frank J. Myers, and recorded by American country music artists Eddie Rabbitt and Crystal Gayle. It was released in October 1982 as the first single from the album Radio Romance. "You and I '' became a major country pop crossover hit for both artists.
US television show Glee covered this song in a mash - up with the Lady Gaga 's same titled song in episode "Mash Off. ''
The song was used for the wedding of the Greg Nelson and Jenny Gardner characters on the American soap opera All My Children.
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how many indian state contain the word nagar | List of state and union territory capitals in India - wikipedia
India is a country located in southern Asia. With over 1.3 billion people, India is the most populous democracy in the world. It is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system consisting of 29 states and 7 union territories. All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis. Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts...
The state and union territory capitals are sorted according to no legislative and judicial capitals. The administrative capital is where the executive government offices are located, the legislative capital is where the state assembly convenes, and the judicial capital is the location of the state or territorial High Courts. Union territories are marked with a dagger ().
Dharamshala (W / 2nd)
Dharamsala (Winter)
2017
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when was the shot heard around the world fired | Shot Heard Round the World - wikipedia
"The shot heard round the world '' is a phrase which refers to an event that precipitates or completes a major conflict or contest, most commonly the first gunfire at the beginning of a war. The phrase originated in a poem which describes the 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord which opened the American Revolutionary War, but it has since been used to refer to other events, such as the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914.
The phrase comes from the opening stanza of Ralph Waldo Emerson 's "Concord Hymn '' (1837) and refers to the first shot of the American Revolutionary War. According to Emerson 's poem, this pivotal shot occurred at the North Bridge in Concord, Massachusetts, where the first British soldiers fell in the battles of Lexington and Concord.
Historically, no single shot can be cited as the first shot of the battle or the war. Shots were fired earlier at Lexington, where eight Americans were killed and a British soldier was slightly wounded, but accounts of that event are confused and contradictory, and it has been characterized as a massacre rather than a battle. The North Bridge skirmish did see the first shots by Americans acting under orders, the first organized volley by Americans, the first British fatalities, and the first British retreat.
The question of the point of origin of the Revolutionary War has been debated between Lexington and Concord and their partisans since at least 1824, when the Marquis de Lafayette visited the towns. He was welcomed to Lexington hearing it described as the "birthplace of American liberty '', but he was then informed in Concord that the "first forcible resistance '' was made there. President Grant considered not attending the 1875 centennial celebrations in the area to evade the issue. In 1894, Lexington petitioned the state legislature to proclaim April 19 as "Lexington Day '', to which Concord objected; the current name for the holiday is Patriots ' Day.
Emerson lived in a house known as the Old Manse at the time when he was composing the "Concord Hymn, '' from which his grandfather and father (then a young child) had witnessed the skirmish. The house is located approximately 300 feet (91 m) from the North Bridge.
The phrase "shot heard round the world '' has taken on a different meaning in Europe and in the Commonwealth of Nations, countries that were part of the British Empire and formerly known as the British Commonwealth. It has become associated with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, an event considered to be one of the immediate causes of World War I. Serbian Gavrilo Princip fired two shots, the first hitting Franz Ferdinand 's wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, and the second hitting the Archduke himself. The death of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro - Hungarian throne, propelled Austria - Hungary and the rest of Europe into World War I.
In American baseball, the "Shot Heard ' Round the World '' (usually spelled with an apostrophe) denotes the game - winning walk - off home run by New York Giants outfielder Bobby Thomson off Brooklyn Dodgers pitcher Ralph Branca at the Polo Grounds to win the National League pennant at 3: 58 p.m. EST on October 3, 1951. As a result of the "shot '', the Giants won the game 5 - 4, defeating their traditional rivals in their pennant playoff series, 2 games to 1, though they eventually lost the World Series to the Yankees.
The phrase "Shot heard round the world '' continues to be a stock phrase in the 21st century, widely used to refer to extraordinary events in general. The following sections list some examples of this.
The phrase has been applied to several dramatic moments in sports history.
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who does daryl end up with in the walking dead | Daryl Dixon - wikipedia
Daryl Dixon is a fictional character from AMC 's horror drama series The Walking Dead. The character was created for the television series by writers Frank Darabont, Charles H. Eglee and Jack LoGiudice specifically for Norman Reedus, and does not have a counterpart in the comics, on which the series is based. The character was introduced in the first season as a southerner, expert tracker, living in the shadow of his older brother, Merle. Despite his ill temper and volatility, he is tolerated by the core group of survivors due to his skills in hunting animals and fearless efficiency in killing walkers. This is particularly important in the early days of the apocalypse, when people with survival skills and the moxie to confront the undead are in short supply.
After Merle 's disappearance, Daryl sheds his aloof personality and starts to bond with the group, particularly Carol Peletier after her daughter 's disappearance, and Beth Greene after the two split off together in season 4. The character becomes the cooperative right - hand man and protector of protagonist Rick Grimes and leads several supply runs. He is one of the longest - surviving characters of the television series. His origin is explored in the 2013 video game The Walking Dead: Survival Instinct, and he stars in the mobile game The Walking Dead: No Man 's Land.
Daryl has been well received by fans and critics. Initially a member of the recurring cast, Reedus was upgraded to series regular after season one.
In their childhood, Daryl and his older brother, Merle, lived with an abusive, alcoholic father, Will. He was raised by Merle, though Merle was often away (serving time in juvenile institutions). Daryl had significant periods of time alone and, throughout these lonely periods, learned to fend for himself and adopted a hard - boiled survivalist mindset. When the outbreak occurs he and Merle fend for themselves and drift around, avoiding walkers. Unlike his brother, Daryl has never been to prison (as an inmate), and was offended when Beth revealed to him that she had believed he had during a drinking game in season 4.
It is implied in season 1 that he shares his brother 's racist beliefs, but Daryl has not expressed overt racism, leaving the question ambiguous for the viewer. In much of season 2 Daryl rides his brother Merle 's Triumph Bonneville chopper with the Nazi German ᛋᛋ (Schutzstaffel) insignia prominently displayed on the fuel tank. In the final episode of season 2, Daryl jokes that he could identify Glenn by his driving, due to Glenn being Korean. Daryl usually has a serious demeanor, but occasionally makes wry comments and jokes to break the tension. By season 3, he has become a responsible, trusted and loyal member of the group. His priorities are tested when he learns that his brother is still alive and working for an opposing group.
Daryl is first introduced in the Season 1 episode "Tell It to the Frogs ''. Having been a hunter to secure wildlife for nourishment of the survivor group outside of Atlanta, he is furious to learn they left Merle handcuffed to plumbing atop a skyscraper in the city, and puts most of his anger on Rick, the newcomer of the group. Daryl joins Rick and others to return to the city, finding that Merle may have escaped by cutting off his hand. Daryl becomes one of the group 's key fighters, but falls in under Rick 's orders as they abandon Atlanta, driving his brother 's motorcycle.
In Season 2, the group settles onto Hershel Greene 's farmstead as they look for Carol 's missing daughter Sophia after a walker attack. Daryl aids in the search, and tries to help Carol cope with her feelings. During one solo outing, he is knocked from a horse and suffers hallucinations of Merle, complaining that he is spending time searching for Sophia and not for him, before returning to the group. After Sophia is discovered to have already been turned in a walker and hidden away in Hershel 's barn, Daryl helps Carol to cope with her loss. He helps protect the group as they deal with a potential threat of hostile survivors nearby, and to help evacuate the farm when it is overrun by walkers.
Rick 's group find and secure a prison as a new shelter at the start of Season 3. In dealing with this, Rick 's wife Lori dies after giving birth to her daughter, and Rick is devastated, having hallucinations of her and unable to make decisions. Daryl steps up to help lead the group alongside Hershel during Rick 's lapse. His friendship with Carol strengthens after she was feared lost dealing with the walkers.
The group is forced to deal with the Governor from the nearby Woodbury community, who seeks to kill them and take their supplies for himself. In rescuing two of their allies kidnapped by the Governor, Daryl discovers Merle is still alive, having escaped Atlanta, but working for the Governor. After the Governor considers Merle a traitor, Daryl helps him to escape and returns with him to the prison. Rick 's group knows the Governor seeks to capture Michonne or else attack the prison, but Rick 's hallucinations leave him unable to make the decision, and Merle takes Michonne himself to the Governor, with Daryl following him after discovering his absence. Merle had a change of heart, lets Michonne go, and sacrificially ambushes the Governor 's men. Daryl arrives to find the reanimated corpse of Merle, killed by the Governor, and cries as he is forced to put his brother down. Rick 's group fends off a major attack by the Governor, driving him away, and bring the survivors of Woodbury to the prison.
Rick has recovered from Lori 's death, and he, Daryl, and Hershel lead the growing population. A flu - like epidemic strikes the prison, killing many before a cure is found. Carol takes initiative to kill two who have shown signs of the flu in secret, and when Rick discovers this, evicts her from the group, upsetting Daryl.
The Governor, having obtained more men, launch a fatal assault on the prison, forcing the survivors to flee in separate groups. Daryl rescues Beth who is catatonic after watching the Governor behead her father Hershel. After days of traveling, Beth opens up to Daryl, and the two get drunk on moonshine as they talk about and let go of their pasts. A few days later, the two are briefly separated while fleeing walkers, and Daryl sees Beth kidnapped by men in a car with a white cross on it. He tries to follow them but is caught by Joe and small group of bandits that force him to stay with them. The group later captures Rick, Carl, and Michonne, but Rick and Daryl fight back when they attempt to rape Carl and Michonne, killing them all.
The four travel to Terminus, a safe haven according to signs along a railroad track. Though the community seems open, they find evidence that their friends have been captured. The four are taken prisoner and taken to the others, with Rick asserting they messed with the wrong group.
Rick 's group escapes Terminus after discovering they engage in cannibalism, and with the help of Carol, who had launched a walker horde on the site. After meeting Fr. Gabriel Stokes at his church, the group makes plans to head to Washington D.C. While Daryl and Carol are catching up, they see a car drive by with a similar white cross on it, and they give chase. This leads them to find that Beth was taken to Gracy Memorial Hospital, where she was forced to work by corrupt cops on patients there. After Carol is captured, Daryl lead Rick 's group to try to rescue them. Carol is saved but Beth is killed in a standoff with the cops, and Daryl returns her body to the church to bury her.
The group continues on, eventually meeting Aaron, a recruiter for the Alexandria Safe - Zone in Virginia, who offers them sanctuary there. Like Rick, Daryl remains skeptical given the lack of survival experience the residents have, but accepts Aaron 's offer to assist them in finding more recruits. Daryl and Aaron find the community is being watched by the Wolves, exiles from Alexandria that seek revenge. After walking into a Wolves trap, they are rescued by Morgan Jones, Rick 's friend before he met the rest of the group in Atlanta, and they bring him back to Alexandria.
Rick and the others of his group are put in charge of Alexandria after proving their survival skills. To get rid of a walker horde trapped in a nearby quarry, Rick plans to parade them far away from Alexandria. Daryl, along with Abraham and Sasha, lead the parade. However, the Wolves launch a surprise attack, breaking the parade, through Rick instructs Daryl to lead the remaining away. The attack breeches the Alexandria walls, allowing walkers to swarm in. After leading the remaining walkers away, Daryl is briefly waylaid by Dwight and his wife Sherry. He finds a fuel truck, and regroups with Abraham and Sasha, and quickly deals with a group of men working for Negan. They ignite the truck in Alexandria to lure the walkers away from the citizens to dispatch them.
As Alexandria is recovering, Carol opts to leave on her own, concerned about seeing others she cares for die, leaving Daryl upset. Rick and Daryl meet Jesus and are introduced to the Hilltop community. They request help dealing with the Saviors, a brutal group that demand supplies as a periodic offering. Rick, Daryl and others launch an attack on a Savior outpost, appearing to kill Negan and all of the Saviors. Later, Daryl encounters Dwight again with other men who claim to be Saviors working for Negan. After reporting this to Rick and the others, Daryl patrols to track down the Saviors but is soon captured. He is brought to a clearing along with Rick and several others of the group that has been captured by the Saviors, and they met the real Negan, who wields a baseball bat wrapped with barbed wired named "Lucille ''. Negan prepares to kill one of the group in retaliation for the attack on the Savior compound and force them to swear loyalty to him.
After Negan randomly chose Abraham to kill, Daryl attacks him but he is held back by the Saviors. Negan proceeds to kill Glenn, and then convinces Rick to agree to his terms. Daryl is taken prisoner by Dwight back to Sanctuary, the Savior 's base. Dwight attempts to convert him to join Negan, but Daryl refuses. Later, Sherry helps Daryl to escape, and he is helped to Hilltop by Jesus, where Rick and others are meeting to discuss the situation with Negan. After a tearful reunion, they all agree Daryl is a fugitive from Negan and Jesus suggest he go to the Kingdom run by King Ezekiel for safety as well as to try to convince Ezekiel to help. There Ezekiel remains non-committed as his deal with Negan is amicable, but offers Daryl shelter.
While there, one of Ezekiel 's men, Richard, suggests a plan to lure Ezekiel into fighting the Saviors, by having the Savior kill a woman that Ekeziel has taken a liking to but staying outside of the Kingdom. Daryl realizes this is Carol, and refuses to go along with the plan. He opts to return to Hilltop, but stops to reunite with Carol on his way out. After debriefing the Hilltop community, he apologizes to Maggie for Glenn 's death, but she forgives him. Daryl then returns to Alexandria, and helps prepare for a plan to attack Negan when he next comes. However, they find Dwight has arrived, who swears that he wants to help them stop Negan, despite Daryl 's reservations. Negan does launch a surprise attack on Alexandria, but the timely arrival of the Hilltop and Kingdom communities allow them to overpower the Saviors and their allies, the Scavengers, and the three communities agree to go to war against Negan. Daryl finds a note from Dwight swearing he did not know what Negan had planned.
Daryl is first seen in the season premiere "Mercy '', where he is key to their plan to attack the Sanctuary by luring a massive walker herd using placed explosives and his motorcycle. After their plan succeeds, he splits off with Rick to attack a compound housing Savior weaponry. "Monsters '' shows Daryl and Rick searching the compound for the guns to no avail; unlike Rick, who is beginning to question their decision to go to war, Daryl has zero qualms about their mission, killing former Atlanta survivor Morales and executing a Savior who Rick promised mercy to. He is still distrusting of Dwight.
When Rick and Daryl have a misunderstanding, their newly acquired weapons are accidentally set ablaze as they fight. After Dwight is later exposed as a mole, one Savior gets away after the rest are shot, and then Dwight asks to be spared. As he is lead away, Daryl takes back his vest.
Daryl used a Horton Scout HD 125 crossbow for the first three seasons. The character 's use has inspired reviews of the weapon at Amazon.com referring to the show. It was replaced by a more powerful Stryker StrykeZone during Season 3. In season 6 episode 9, Daryl uses an Airtronic RPG - 7 to take out a biker gang working for Negan. In Season 7 Episode 10, Daryl was given a new crossbow, which is a PSE Fang 350.
Reedus read the script for the show and wanted to be a part of it so badly that he begged to audition even for a day role. He was asked to come in and read lines. They picked Merle 's lines, which is why the rumor still abounds that he read for the role of Merle, but Rooker already had the part. They liked his audition and gave him the role of Daryl. Daryl was originally a recurring character but was upgraded to the main cast in season two. Reedus originally asked the writers and crew if Daryl could get a dog. His request was denied, and Daryl instead got a new crossbow.
After being fourth place in top billing for the third season, Daryl was promoted to second place in top billing for every season since the fourth, having become one of the main protagonists of the series. Fans follow the character, and Reedus in other roles. They have debated Daryl 's sexual orientation and sexuality, especially with regard to Caryl (Carol and Daryl) and Bethyl (Beth and Daryl) shippers; some fans argue that he is heterosexual, while others argue that he is gay or bisexual. The Walking Dead creator Robert Kirkman stated that Daryl is heterosexual, but that the show has portrayed him as somewhat asexual. "I think that he 's a very introverted character and I think that 's somewhat his appeal. I do have to clear something up, though, '' said Kirkman. "In the Walking Dead letters column in the old comic book that I do, there was a question that made me mention that there was a possibility early on about making Daryl Dixon 's character gay and it caused quite a hubbub online. I just wanted to make it clear that I was saying that the possibility is there and I would 've been fine with it, the network would have been fine with it, but we ultimately did n't do that. ''
Entertainment Weekly featured Reedus as Daryl on the cover of an issue previewing season three of The Walking Dead. Additionally, Daryl won IGN 's "Best TV Hero '' of 2012, and the character was featured in a Super Bowl XLVII commercial for Time Warner Cable. For his performance as Daryl, Reedus won the People 's Choice Award for Favorite TV Hero in 2014 and was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television in 2011.
TV Guide listed Daryl as the best character on The Walking Dead, ranking the top twenty four characters in the first five seasons. His transformation from a "selfish loner to an integral member of the survivors '' was highlighted as well as being an "excellent hunter ''.
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when were genetically modified crops first introduced for commercial production in the u.s | Genetically modified food - wikipedia
Genetically modified foods or GM foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, bioengineered foods, genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits than previous methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.
Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its unsuccessful Flavr Savr delayed - ripening tomato. Most food modifications have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton. Genetically modified crops have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and for better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have been developed, although as of November 2013 none were on the market.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case - by - case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
However, there are ongoing public concerns related to food safety, regulation, labelling, environmental impact, research methods, and the fact that some GM seeds, along with all new plant varieties, are subject to plant breeders ' rights owned by corporations.
Genetically modified foods, GM foods or genetically engineered foods, are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering as opposed to traditional cross breeding. In the U.S., the Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) favor the use of "genetic engineering '' over "genetic modification '' as the more precise term; the USDA defines genetic modification to include "genetic engineering or other more traditional methods. ''
According to the World Health Organization, "Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and / or natural recombination. The technology is often called ' modern biotechnology ' or ' gene technology ', sometimes also ' recombinant DNA technology ' or ' genetic engineering '... Foods produced from or using GM organisms are often referred to as GM foods. ''
Human - directed genetic manipulation of food began with the domestication of plants and animals through artificial selection at about 10,500 to 10,100 BC. The process of selective breeding, in which organisms with desired traits (and thus with the desired genes) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification (GM). With the discovery of DNA in the early 1900s and various advancements in genetic techniques through the 1970s it became possible to directly alter the DNA and genes within food.
The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic - resistant tobacco plant. Genetically modified microbial enzymes were the first application of genetically modified organisms in food production and were approved in 1988 by the US Food and Drug Administration. In the early 1990s, recombinant chymosin was approved for use in several countries. Cheese had typically been made using the enzyme complex rennet that had been extracted from cows ' stomach lining. Scientists modified bacteria to produce chymosin, which was also able to clot milk, resulting in cheese curds.
The first genetically modified food approved for release was the Flavr Savr tomato in 1994. Developed by Calgene, it was engineered to have a longer shelf life by inserting an antisense gene that delayed ripening. China was the first country to commercialize a transgenic crop in 1993 with the introduction of virus - resistant tobacco. In 1995, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Potato was approved for cultivation, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US. Other genetically modified crops receiving marketing approval in 1995 were: canola with modified oil composition, Bt maize, cotton resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, Bt cotton, glyphosate - tolerant soybeans, virus - resistant squash, and another delayed ripening tomato.
With the creation of golden rice in 2000, scientists had genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time.
By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops and a further 31 countries had granted regulatory approval for transgenic crops to be imported. The US was the leading country in the production of GM foods in 2011, with twenty - five GM crops having received regulatory approval. In 2015, 92 % of corn, 94 % of soybeans, and 94 % of cotton produced in the US were genetically modified strains.
The first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was AquAdvantage salmon in 2015. The salmon were transformed with a growth hormone - regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout enabling it to grow year - round instead of only during spring and summer.
In April 2016, a white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) modified using the CRISPR technique received de facto approval in the United States, after the USDA said it would not have to go through the agency 's regulatory process. The agency considers the mushroom exempt because the editing process did not involve the introduction of foreign DNA.
The most widely planted GMOs are designed to tolerate herbicides. By 2006 some weed populations had evolved to tolerate some of the same herbicides. Palmer amaranth is a weed that competes with cotton. A native of the southwestern US, it traveled east and was first found resistant to glyphosate in 2006, less than 10 years after GM cotton was introduced.
Genetically engineered organisms are generated and tested in the laboratory for desired qualities. The most common modification is to add one or more genes to an organism 's genome. Less commonly, genes are removed or their expression is increased or silenced or the number of copies of a gene is increased or decreased.
Once satisfactory strains are produced, the producer applies for regulatory approval to field - test them, called a "field release. '' Field - testing involves cultivating the plants on farm fields or growing animals in a controlled environment. If these field tests are successful, the producer applies for regulatory approval to grow and market the crop. Once approved, specimens (seeds, cuttings, breeding pairs, etc.) are cultivated and sold to farmers. The farmers cultivate and market the new strain. In some cases, the approval covers marketing but not cultivation.
According to the USDA, the number of field releases for genetically engineered organisms has grown from four in 1985 to an average of about 800 per year. Cumulatively, more than 17,000 releases had been approved through September 2013.
Papaya was genetically modified to resist the ringspot virus. ' SunUp ' is a transgenic red - fleshed Sunset papaya cultivar that is homozygous for the coat protein gene PRSV; ' Rainbow ' is a yellow - fleshed F1 hybrid developed by crossing ' SunUp ' and nontransgenic yellow - fleshed ' Kapoho '. The New York Times stated, "in the early 1990s, Hawaii 's papaya industry was facing disaster because of the deadly papaya ringspot virus. Its single - handed savior was a breed engineered to be resistant to the virus. Without it, the state 's papaya industry would have collapsed. Today, 80 % of Hawaiian papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no conventional or organic method to control ringspot virus. '' The GM cultivar was approved in 1998. In China, a transgenic PRSV - resistant papaya was developed by South China Agricultural University and was first approved for commercial planting in 2006; as of 2012 95 % of the papaya grown in Guangdong province and 40 % of the papaya grown in Hainan province was genetically modified.
The New Leaf potato, a GM food developed using naturally occurring bacteria found in the soil known as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), was made to provide in - plant protection from the yield - robbing Colorado potato beetle. The New Leaf potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast food market. It was withdrawn in 2001 after retailers rejected it and food processors ran into export problems.
As of 2005, about 13 % of the Zucchini (a form of squash) grown in the US was genetically modified to resist three viruses; that strain is also grown in Canada.
In 2011, BASF requested the European Food Safety Authority 's approval for cultivation and marketing of its Fortuna potato as feed and food. The potato was made resistant to late blight by adding resistant genes blb1 and blb2 that originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum. In February 2013, BASF withdrew its application.
In 2013, the USDA approved the import of a GM pineapple that is pink in color and that "overexpresses '' a gene derived from tangerines and suppress other genes, increasing production of lycopene. The plant 's flowering cycle was changed to provide for more uniform growth and quality. The fruit "does not have the ability to propagate and persist in the environment once they have been harvested, '' according to USDA APHIS. According to Del Monte 's submission, the pineapples are commercially grown in a "monoculture '' that prevents seed production, as the plant 's flowers are n't exposed to compatible pollen sources. Importation into Hawaii is banned for "plant sanitation '' reasons.
In 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company that contained ten genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried. The modifications eliminate specific proteins from the potatoes, via RNA interference, rather than introducing novel proteins.
In February 2015 Arctic Apples were approved by the USDA, becoming the first genetically modified apple approved for sale in the US. Gene silencing is used to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing the fruit from browning.
Corn used for food and ethanol has been genetically modified to tolerate various herbicides and to express a protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that kills certain insects. About 90 % of the corn grown in the US was genetically modified in 2010. In the US in 2015, 81 % of corn acreage contained the Bt trait and 89 % of corn acreage contained the glyphosate - tolerant trait. Corn can be processed into grits, meal and flour as an ingredient in pancakes, muffins, doughnuts, breadings and batters, as well as baby foods, meat products, cereals and some fermented products. Corn - based masa flour and masa dough are used in the production of taco shells, corn chips and tortillas.
Genetically modified soybean has been modified to tolerate herbicides and produce healthier oils. In 2015, 94 % of soybean acreage in the U.S. was genetically modified to be glyphosate - tolerant.
As of December 2017, genetically modified wheat has been evaluated in field trials, but has not been released commercially.
Starch or amylum is a polysaccharide produced by all green plants as an energy store. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odourless powder. It consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25 % amylose and 75 to 80 % amylopectin by weight.
Starch can be further modified to create modified starch for specific purposes, including creation of many of the sugars in processed foods. They include:
Lecithin is a naturally occurring lipid. It can be found in egg yolks and oil - producing plants. it is an emulsifier and thus is used in many foods. Corn, soy and safflower oil are sources of lecithin, though the majority of lecithin commercially available is derived from soy. Sufficiently processed lecithin is often undetectable with standard testing practices. According to the FDA, no evidence shows or suggests hazard to the public when lecithin is used at common levels. Lecithin added to foods amounts to only 2 to 10 percent of the 1 to 5 g of phosphoglycerides consumed daily on average. Nonetheless, consumer concerns about GM food extend to such products. This concern led to policy and regulatory changes in Europe in 2000, when Regulation (EC) 50 / 2000 was passed which required labelling of food containing additives derived from GMOs, including lecithin. Because of the difficulty of detecting the origin of derivatives like lecithin with current testing practices, European regulations require those who wish to sell lecithin in Europe to employ a comprehensive system of Identity preservation (IP).
The US imports 10 % of its sugar, while the remaining 90 % is extracted from sugar beet and sugarcane. After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate - resistant sugar beet was extensively adopted in the United States. 95 % of beet acres in the US were planted with glyphosate - resistant seed in 2011. GM sugar beets are approved for cultivation in the US, Canada and Japan; the vast majority are grown in the US. GM beets are approved for import and consumption in Australia, Canada, Colombia, EU, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, the Russian Federation and Singapore. Pulp from the refining process is used as animal feed. The sugar produced from GM sugar beets contains no DNA or protein -- it is just sucrose that is chemically indistinguishable from sugar produced from non-GM sugar beets. Independent analyses conducted by internationally recognized laboratories found that sugar from Roundup Ready sugar beets is identical to the sugar from comparably grown conventional (non-Roundup Ready) sugar beets.
Most vegetable oil used in the US is produced from GM crops canola, corn, cotton and soybeans. Vegetable oil is sold directly to consumers as cooking oil, shortening and margarine and is used in prepared foods. There is a vanishingly small amount of protein or DNA from the original crop in vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is made of triglycerides extracted from plants or seeds and then refined and may be further processed via hydrogenation to turn liquid oils into solids. The refining process removes all, or nearly all non-triglyceride ingredients. Medium - chain triglycerides (MCTs) offer an alternative to conventional fats and oils. The length of a fatty acid influences its fat absorption during the digestive process. Fatty acids in the middle position on the glycerol molecules appear to be absorbed more easily and influence metabolism more than fatty acids on the end positions. Unlike ordinary fats, MCTs are metabolized like carbohydrates. They have exceptional oxidative stability, and prevent foods from turning rancid readily.
Livestock and poultry are raised on animal feed, much of which is composed of the leftovers from processing crops, including GM crops. For example, approximately 43 % of a canola seed is oil. What remains after oil extraction is a meal that becomes an ingredient in animal feed and contains canola protein. Likewise, the bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil and meal. The high - protein defatted and toasted soy meal becomes livestock feed and dog food. 98 % of the US soybean crop goes for livestock feed. In 2011, 49 % of the US maize harvest was used for livestock feed (including the percentage of waste from distillers grains). "Despite methods that are becoming more and more sensitive, tests have not yet been able to establish a difference in the meat, milk, or eggs of animals depending on the type of feed they are fed. It is impossible to tell if an animal was fed GM soy just by looking at the resulting meat, dairy, or egg products. The only way to verify the presence of GMOs in animal feed is to analyze the origin of the feed itself. ''
A 2012 literature review of studies evaluating the effect of GM feed on the health of animals did not find evidence that animals were adversely affected, although small biological differences were occasionally found. The studies included in the review ranged from 90 days to two years, with several of the longer studies considering reproductive and intergenerational effects.
Enzymes produced by genetically modified microorganisms are also integrated into animal feed to enhance availability of nutrients and overall digestion. These enzymes may also provide benefit to the gut microbiome of an animal, as well as hydrolyse antinutritional factors present in the feed.
Rennet is a mixture of enzymes used to coagulate milk into cheese. Originally it was available only from the fourth stomach of calves, and was scarce and expensive, or was available from microbial sources, which often produced unpleasant tastes. Genetic engineering made it possible to extract rennet - producing genes from animal stomachs and insert them into bacteria, fungi or yeasts to make them produce chymosin, the key enzyme. The modified microorganism is killed after fermentation. Chymosin is isolated from the fermentation broth, so that the Fermentation - Produced Chymosin (FPC) used by cheese producers has an amino acid sequence that is identical to bovine rennet. The majority of the applied chymosin is retained in the whey. Trace quantities of chymosin may remain in cheese.
FPC was the first artificially produced enzyme to be approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. FPC products have been on the market since 1990 and as of 2015 had yet to be surpassed in commercial markets. In 1999, about 60 % of US hard cheese was made with FPC. Its global market share approached 80 %. By 2008, approximately 80 % to 90 % of commercially made cheeses in the US and Britain were made using FPC.
In some countries, recombinant (GM) bovine somatotropin (also called rBST, or bovine growth hormone or BGH) is approved for administration to increase milk production. rBST may be present in milk from rBST treated cows, but it is destroyed in the digestive system and even if directly injected into the human bloodstream, has no observable effect on humans. The FDA, World Health Organization, American Medical Association, American Dietetic Association and the National Institutes of Health have independently stated that dairy products and meat from rBST - treated cows are safe for human consumption. However, on 30 September 2010, the United States Court of Appeals, Sixth Circuit, analyzing submitted evidence, found a "compositional difference '' between milk from rBGH - treated cows and milk from untreated cows. The court stated that milk from rBGH - treated cows has: increased levels of the hormone Insulin - like growth factor 1 (IGF - 1); higher fat content and lower protein content when produced at certain points in the cow 's lactation cycle; and more somatic cell counts, which may "make the milk turn sour more quickly. ''
Genetically modified livestock are organisms from the group of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, birds, horses and fish kept for human consumption, whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. In some cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the animals which does not occur naturally in the species, i.e. transgenesis.
A 2003 review published on behalf of Food Standards Australia New Zealand examined transgenic experimentation on terrestrial livestock species as well as aquatic species such as fish and shellfish. The review examined the molecular techniques used for experimentation as well as techniques for tracing the transgenes in animals and products as well as issues regarding transgene stability.
Some mammals typically used for food production have been modified to produce non-food products, a practice sometimes called Pharming.
A GM salmon, awaiting regulatory approval since 1997, was approved for human consumption by the American FDA in November 2015, to be raised in specific land - based hatcheries in Canada and Panama.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case - by - case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
Opponents claim that long - term health risks have not been adequately assessed and propose various combinations of additional testing, labeling or removal from the market. The advocacy group European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER), disputes the claim that "science '' supports the safety of current GM foods, proposing that each GM food must be judged on case - by - case basis.
The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Countries such as the United States, Canada, Lebanon and Egypt use substantial equivalence to determine if further testing is required, while many countries such as those in the European Union, Brazil and China only authorize GMO cultivation on a case - by - case basis. In the U.S. the FDA determined that GMO 's are "Generally Recognized as Safe '' (GRAS) and therefore do not require additional testing if the GMO product is substantially equivalent to the non-modified product. If new substances are found, further testing may be required to satisfy concerns over potential toxicity, allergenicity, possible gene transfer to humans or genetic outcrossing to other organisms.
Government regulation of GMO development and release varies widely between countries. Marked differences separate GMO regulation in the U.S. and GMO regulation in the European Union. Regulation also varies depending on the intended product 's use. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.
In the U.S., three government organizations regulate GMOs. The FDA checks the chemical composition of organisms for potential allergens. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) supervises field testing and monitors the distribution of GM seeds. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for monitoring pesticide usage, including plants modified to contain proteins toxic to insects. Like USDA, EPA also oversees field testing and the distribution of crops that have had contact with pesticides to ensure environmental safety. In 2015 the Obama administration announced that it would update the way the government regulated GM crops.
In 1992 FDA published "Statement of Policy: Foods derived from New Plant Varieties. '' This statement is a clarification of FDA 's interpretation of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act with respect to foods produced from new plant varieties developed using recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) technology. FDA encouraged developers to consult with the FDA regarding any bioengineered foods in development. The FDA says developers routinely do reach out for consultations. In 1996 FDA updated consultation procedures.
As of 2015, 64 countries require labeling of GMO products in the marketplace.
US and Canadian national policy is to require a label only given significant composition differences or documented health impacts, although some individual US states (Vermont, Connecticut and Maine) enacted laws requiring them. In July 2016, Public Law 114 - 214 was enacted to regulate labeling of GMO food on a national basis.
In some jurisdictions, the labeling requirement depends on the relative quantity of GMO in the product. A study that investigated voluntary labeling in South Africa found that 31 % of products labeled as GMO - free had a GM content above 1.0 %.
In the European Union all food (including processed food) or feed that contains greater than 0.9 % GMOs must be labelled.
Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques such as PCR and bioinformatics.
In a January 2010 paper, the extraction and detection of DNA along a complete industrial soybean oil processing chain was described to monitor the presence of Roundup Ready (RR) soybean: "The amplification of soybean lectin gene by end - point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was successfully achieved in all the steps of extraction and refining processes, until the fully refined soybean oil. The amplification of RR soybean by PCR assays using event - specific primers was also achieved for all the extraction and refining steps, except for the intermediate steps of refining (neutralisation, washing and bleaching) possibly due to sample instability. The real - time PCR assays using specific probes confirmed all the results and proved that it is possible to detect and quantify genetically modified organisms in the fully refined soybean oil. To our knowledge, this has never been reported before and represents an important accomplishment regarding the traceability of genetically modified organisms in refined oils. ''
According to Thomas Redick, detection and prevention of cross-pollination is possible through the suggestions offered by the Farm Service Agency (FSA) and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Suggestions include educating farmers on the importance of coexistence, providing farmers with tools and incentives to promote coexistence, conduct research to understand and monitor gene flow, provide assurance of quality and diversity in crops, provide compensation for actual economic losses for farmers.
The genetically modified foods controversy consists of a set of disputes over the use of food made from genetically modified crops. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, environmental and political activists and scientists. The major disagreements include whether GM foods can be safely consumed, harm the environment and / or are adequately tested and regulated. The objectivity of scientific research and publications has been challenged. Farming - related disputes include the use and impact of pesticides, seed production and use, side effects on non-GMO crops / farms, and potential control of the GM food supply by seed companies.
The conflicts have continued since GM foods were invented. They have occupied the media, the courts, local, regional and national governments and international organizations.
The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food / feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.
Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants '' (PDF). Environment International. 37 (4): 734 -- 42. doi: 10.1016 / j. envint. 2011.01. 003. PMID 21296423. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.
Krimsky, Sheldon (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment '' (PDF). Science, Technology, & Human Values. 40 (6): 1 -- 32. doi: 10.1177 / 0162243915598381. I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.
And contrast:
Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (January 14, 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons ''. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 37 (2): 1 -- 5. doi: 10.3109 / 07388551.2015. 1130684. ISSN 0738 - 8551. PMID 26767435. Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm.
The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.
and
Yang, Y.T.; Chen, B. (2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health ''. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 96 (6): 1851 -- 55. doi: 10.1002 / jsfa. 7523. PMID 26536836. It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA (citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011).
Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer - reviewed literature to date.
Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.
Pinholster, Ginger (October 25, 2012). "AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers '' ". American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved February 8, 2016.
"Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods '' (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from the original on September 7, 2012. Retrieved March 19, 2016. Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and / or substantiated in the peer - reviewed literature. CS1 maint: BOT: original - url status unknown (link)
GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.
"Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement '' (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. Retrieved March 21, 2016. In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns can not, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available.
When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case - by - case basis.
Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.
The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.
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the testing effect refers to the fact that | Testing effect - wikipedia
The testing effect is the finding that long - term memory is often increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to - be-remembered information. The effect is also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice, practice testing, or test - enhanced learning. The testing effect on memory should be distinguished from more general practice effects, defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology (2007) as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities. '' The term testing effect is also sometimes used in a more general sense; The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (2003) defines a testing effect as "any effect of taking tests on the respondents, a typical example being test sophistication. '' Whereas psychologists who develop tests for personality and intelligence want to avoid practice effects, cognitive psychologists working with educators have begun to understand how to take advantage of tests -- not as an assessment tool, but as a teaching / learning tool.
It is useful for people to test their knowledge of the to - be-remembered material during the learning process, instead of only or reading or otherwise passively studying the material. For example, a student can use flashcards to self - test and receive feedback as they study. The testing effect provides a larger benefit to long - term memory when the tested material is difficult enough to require effort, the rate of retrieval success is high, and feedback with correct answers is given after testing.
The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott. An important step in proving the existence of the testing effect was presented in a 1992 study by Carrier and Pashler. Carrier and Pashler showed that testing does not just provide an additional practice opportunity, but produces better results than other forms of studying. In their experiment, learners who tested their knowledge during practice later remembered more information than learners who spent the same amount of time studying the complete information. The abstract summarizes the results as follows:
In the pure study trial (pure ST condition) method, both items of a pair were presented simultaneously for study. In the test trial / study trial (TTST condition) method, subjects attempted to retrieve the response term during a period in which only the stimulus term was present (and the response term of the pair was presented after a 5 - sec delay). Final retention of target items was tested with cued - recall tests. In Experiment 1, there was a reliable advantage in final testing for nonsense - syllable / number pairs in the TTST condition over pairs in the pure ST condition. In Experiment 2, the same result was obtained with Eskimo / English word pairs. This benefit of the TTST condition was not apparently different for final retrieval after 5 min or after 24 h. Experiments 3 and 4 ruled out two artifactual explanations of the TTST advantage observed in the first two experiments. Because performing a memory retrieval (TTST condition) led to better performance than pure study (pure ST condition), the results reject the hypothesis that a successful retrieval is beneficial only to the extent that it provides another study experience.
Carrier and Pashler 's study did not reveal a very large advantage of testing over studying, but paved the way for numerous further studies that have shown a more marked advantage. The results of a 2010 study by Agarwal et al. showed that the desirable difficulty of open - book and closed - book tests better enhanced learning compared to restudying or testing without feedback. Additionally, a study done by Roediger and Karpicke showed that students in a repeated - testing condition recalled much more after a week than did students in a repeated - study condition (61 % vs. 40 %), even though students in the former condition read the passage only 3.4 times and those in the latter condition read it 14.2 times. Another study by Butler investigated the possibility that testing only promotes the learning of a specific response. The results showed that the mnemonic benefits of retrieving information from memory are seen well beyond this retention of a specific response. Thus, most studies show greater advantages for testing compared to passive studying as it relates to long - term retention of to - be-remembered information. However, some studies have produced results contrary to this claim. Using retrieval practices also produces less forgetting than studying and restudying.
In order for a testing effect to be demonstrated, the test trials must have a medium to high retrieval success. If the test trials are so difficult that no items are recalled, or if there is not proper feedback providing answers to the non-recalled items, then minimal information will be encoded and stored to memory.
Benefits of testing are often only visible after a substantial delay and not immediately after practice, when outcomes may even be better for passively restudied materials than for tested materials. Some authors suggest that this can be explained in part by limited retrieval success during practice.
According to the retrieval effort hypothesis, "difficult but successful retrievals are better for memory than easier successful retrievals ''. For example, Pyc and Rawson showed that repeated testing is more beneficial for learning if the intervals between repeated testing are long and each test is therefore more difficult than when the intervals are short and tests are easy. This finding is related to the theory that certain conditions that make learning more effortful through so - called desirable difficulties are beneficial. Another finding showed that weaker cues for recalling information will be more beneficial to future recollection compared to that of stronger cues. Although these strong cues were shown to be more advantageous for initial recall, these stronger cues reduced the likelihood of activating more elaborative information that could be beneficial for retention. On the hand, the weak cues better allowed the to - be-remembered information to be better retained over time, enhancing long - term memory of the information.
Two views have arisen as to why testing seems to provide such a benefit over repeated study. The first view, provided by McDaniel, states that testing allows people to formulate newer, more lasting connections between items than does repeated study. The second view, provided by Karpicke and Roediger studied the effect of testing on memory retention. They found that re-studying or re-reading memorized information had no effect, but trying to recall the information had an effect. New findings show more support for the second view. Spacing has also been shown to improve memory in younger and older adults. The spacing effect improves long - term memory from learning material with a break in between learning other information, while the testing effect improves long - term memory by restudying learned information through testing. Both of these methods have been combined to be referred to as space retrieval practice.
Before much experimental evidence had been collected, the utility of testing was already evident to some perceptive observers. In his 1932 book Psychology of Study, C.A. Mace said "On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced. '' In other words, the testing effect shows that when material is reviewed, the reviewer actively challenges their memory to recall than when re-reading or re-studying the materials. This is called active recall.
Clearly the largest application for any human memory studies of learning effects is for education and finding better ways to relate information to students at every grade level. Extensive research has been done in this area in the last decade. With findings showing that the testing effect can have a greater impact after a delay even though students themselves seemed more confident in studying (which turned out to be false in the data). Additional reviews have sought to provide more reliable results of the testing effect to improve education, a trend that after nearly 100 years, seems to be catching on.
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when did the asus zenfone v live come out | Asus ZenFone - Wikipedia
The Asus ZenFone is a series of Android smartphones designed, marketed and produced by Asus. The first - generation ZenFones were announced at the 2014 Consumer Electronic Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. In addition to its Intel Atom, Qualcomm Snapdragon, and MediaTek processors and the Android operating system, ZenFone also features the Zen UI, a user interface from Asus.
The ZenFone 4 is the 4 - inch WVGA (800 × 480) TFT display model. The ZenFone 4 features a 1.2 GHz dual - core Intel Atom Z2520 saltwell processor, a 5 MP rear & 0.3 MP front camera and 1 GB RAM. However, ZenFone 4 does not have an LED flash unlike the rest of the models in the ZenFone series.
The ZenFone 4.5 is the 4.5 - inch WVGA (854 × 480) TFT display model. Using the same processor as the ZenFone 4 and having 8GB of internal storage, 1GB of RAM and a MicroSD Card Slot supporting up to 64GB Storage, it does have a better rear camera than the ZenFone 4. The phone carries an 8 MP rear camera, and uses the same 0.3 MP front camera as the ZenFone 4 does.
The ZenFone 5 is the mid range of the series and includes a 5 - inch 1280 × 720 HD IPS display protected with Corning Gorilla Glass 3. This Zenfone features either a dual - core hyper - threaded (dubbed Multicore) Intel Atom or a quad - core Qualcomm Snapdragon processor, an 8 MP rear and 2 MP front camera.
This phone comes with 2 GB of RAM in comparison to other models and features at a competitive price. However, some of the earlier productions and certain variants of this phone came with 1 GB of RAM.
The ZenFone 6 features a 6 - inch 1280 × 720 IPS display. The ZenFone 6 features a 2 GHz dual - core Intel Atom Z2580 processor, a 13 megapixel rear camera and 2 megapixel front - facing camera. The ZenFone 6 is equipped with 8 GB, 16 GB or 32 GB of internal memory, depending upon the version, external memory of up to 64 GB, and 2 GB of RAM.
The ZenFone 2 was announced at CES 2015. The flagship phablet model (ZE551ML) launched with Android 5.0 Lollipop running Asus 's custom Zen UI and has a 5.5 '' Full HD (1920 × 1080) IPS display. The phone is powered by Intel Atom Moorefield SoCs with up to 4 GB of RAM, a first for smartphones. The phone also includes dual MicroSIM card slots, 13 / 5 MP rear and front cameras, a non-removable 3000 mAh Lithium polymer battery, up to 16 / 32 / 64 / 128 GB of internal storage, and a MicroSD Card slot.
Additionally, Asus announced two other models of the Zenfone 2. The ZE550ML comes with a 5.5 '' HD (1280 × 720) IPS display, but otherwise features similar specifications to the ZE551ML. The ZE500CL, the low cost variant, comes with a 5 '' HD display, an Intel Atom Cloverview CPU, 2 GB of RAM, a single MicroSIM slot, 8 / 2 MP rear and front cameras, and a 2500 mAh battery.
The ZenFone 2 was launched in Taiwan on March 9, 2015 - followed by India, Japan, Indonesia and Thailand
In July 2015, the ZenFone 2E was released in the United States as an exclusive prepaid AT&T GoPhone.
Deluxe editions was released on September 2015. It is basically a ZE551ML with extended memory and a special back cover dubbed "Illusion Case '', which has a 3D polygonal pattern that gives it a more premium look and feel than the original ZE551ML. Other markets offered the Deluxe Special Edition with red bezels, extended 256 GB of memory and Intel Atom Z3590 2.5 GHz processor. Colors offered are white and blue with purple shade, while the special edition available in silver or carbon fiber pattern. It is priced at around $299 for the deluxe edition and $469 for the special edition.
The ZenFone 2 won the 2015 iF product design award for top design in innovation, ergonomics, and functionality.
The ZenFone Zoom was announced at CES 2015 and along with ZenFone 2, it 's one of the first phones to offer 4 GB of RAM. The specifications are largely the same as the Zenfone 2, with the exception of the camera. It has a 13 MP at the rear along with 3 × optical zoom and 12 × digital zoom, Real Tone Flash, optical image stabilization and laser auto - focus. It is priced at around US $399 for the 2 GB version.
Asus unveiled the third generation ZenFone series at Computex Taipei on May 30, 2016. Some devices in the ZenFone 3 series (ZenFone 3 Max, ZenFone 3 Laser, ZenFone 3 Deluxe, and ZenFone 3 Ultra) use an aluminum frame body with no visible antenna lines and feature fingerprint sensors for easy unlocking. Each ZenFone 3 model has its own defining features. The ZenFone 3 uses 2.5 D Corning Gorilla Glass on its front and rear panels. The ZenFone 3 Deluxe uses a Super AMOLED display and a Sony rear camera. The ZenFone 3 Ultra features a 4600mAh battery that can double as a powerbank for other devices with a 1.5 A output. The ZenFone 3 Laser is notable for its low price, and the ZenFone 3 Max is notable for its large battery. The ZenFone 3, ZenFone 3 Deluxe, and ZenFone 3 Ultra use the USB Type - C connector. The third generation ZenFone series drops Intel while retaining Qualcomm and MediaTek as CPU suppliers.
First unveiled at CES 2017, the ZenFone AR is the first smartphone to support the Tango augmented reality and Google Daydream VR platforms and to be offered with 6 or 8 GB of RAM. The ZenFone AR is equipped with a 23 megapixel camera with optical hardware that takes advantage of Tango applications and extreme performance for gaming and data.
Asus announced the fourth generation ZenFone on August 17, 2017. The line will go under the name "ZenFone 4 '', which was previously used for the 4 '' and 4.5 '' variants of the first generation line. The main feature of the flagship ZenFone 4 is its dual lens camera, which enables wide - angle photography.
Asus unveiled the fifth generation ZenFone at the 2018 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona. The ZenFone 5 has a screen size of 6.2 '' with a 19: 9 aspect ratio and bears a resemblance to the iPhone X. According to Asus, the new phone will have 10 new AI features.
LPDDR4 RAM
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who is said be the father of volleyball | William G. Morgan - wikipedia
William George Morgan (January 23, 1870 -- December 27, 1942) was the inventor of volleyball, originally called "Mintonette '', a name derived from the game of badminton which he later agreed to change to better reflect the nature of the sport. He was born in Lockport, New York, US.
He met James Naismith, inventor of basketball, while Morgan was studying at Springfield College in 1892. Like Naismith, Morgan pursued a career in Physical Education at the YMCA. Influenced by Naismith and basketball, in 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts, Morgan invented "Mintonette '' a less vigorous team sport more suitable for older members of the YMCA but one that still required athletic skill. Later Alfred S. Halstead watched it being played and renamed it "Volleyball '', because the point of the game is to volley the ball back and forth over the net.
William George Morgan graduated high school at Northfield Mount Hermon School and moved on to attend the YMCA International Training School (Later renamed Springfield College) in Massachusetts with James Naismith, the inventor of basketball. Both Morgan and Naismith pursued careers in Physical Education at the YMCA (Young Men 's Christian Association). Auburn, Maine, at the YMCA, was where Morgan spent one year working prior to graduating from Springfield College. During the summer of 1895, Morgan moved to Holyoke, Massachusetts, where he continued to work for the YMCA, becoming the Director of Physical Education. With Morgan being the Director, it allowed him to devise workout plans and teach sports in depth to the young male adult.
As William Morgan worked as the Director of Physical Education at the YMCA in Holyoke, he started to notice that the game of basketball was not meant for everyone to play. The weaker young men, non-athletic adults, and the older adults were not able to keep up with running up and down the court, along with the amount of contact they would occasionally run into. Morgan then had to think of a game in where everyone would have an equal amount of participation but also had similar objectives to basketball. He wanted to create a game which everyone could play, no matter their age or physical ability.
Between trying to run classes at the YMCA and creating a new sport suitable for all, Morgan decided it was best that he use ideas from various sports such as handball, tennis, and badminton, and his own knowledge from sports training methods and experience, to create this new sport. He decided that the game would involve a six - foot, six - inch net in the middle dividing the 2 separate playing areas, and that it would be played on a 30 ft. × 60 ft. court, so that it could be played in gyms anywhere across the nation.
After creating some ground rules, William Morgan had to experiment with his game. First, he had to decide which ball to use. A basketball was too heavy while the basketball bladder was too light. After testing all of the balls he had available, he had come to the conclusion that his best option was to ask A.G. Spalding & Bros. to make him a ball. A young A.G. Spalding & Bros. equipment designer and master marine cloth tailor, Dale Callaghan, developed and produced the first prototype volleyball. Morgan was very pleased with Spalding & Bros. work. They created Morgan the perfect ball for his sport, which was covered in leather, with the circumference of 25 -- 27 inches. The ball was also the perfect weight for Morgan 's sport. The ball weighed 9 -- 12 ounces. This new ball that had been made for Morgan 's sport was the perfect finishing touch to the basics of the sport. The last thing that had to be done by Morgan was to create a name. Morgan came up with "Mintonette '' as the new name for his game.
The first time Morgan revealed his sport to the other Directors of Physical was at the YMCA located in Springfield, in 1896. He presented his new, creative idea to Dr. Luther Halsey Gulick (director of the professional physical education training school) and the rest of the YMCA Directors of Physical Education. Dr. Gulick was so pleased that he asked Morgan to present his sport at the school 's new stadium.
In preparation for his big debut, Morgan created 2 teams of 5 men, who would help in demonstrating "Mintonette '' in front of the conference delegates in the East Gymnasium at Springfield College.
On February 9, 1895, William Morgan presented his new sport to the world. When Morgan was explaining the game before the demonstration, he named a few key guidelines in the game of "Mintonette '' such as that the game was created so that it could be played in open air and in gyms as well as the objective of the game was to keep the ball in action as it goes from one side of the high net, to the other.
One of the conference delegates, Professor Alfred T. Halsted, loved the game of Mintonette, but he felt like something was just not right. Professor Halsted suggested that the name of the game should be Volleyball, since the main point of the game was to "volley '' the ball to a player or over the net. Morgan agreed with Halsted 's idea and since then the original game of "Mintonette '' has been referred to as Volleyball.
Morgan continued to tweak the rules of the game until July 1896, where his sport was added into the first official handbook of the North American YMCA Athletic League.
On July 7, 1896, the first game of volleyball was played at Springfield College.
William Morgan left his job at the YMCA in 1897 to start a new career with General Electric and Westinghouse. He stayed in touch with Springfield College and stated that he was "content in the knowledge that the game brought a richer life to millions of people throughout the world. ''
Morgan died on December 27, 1942.
In 1995, The Morgan Trophy Award was created. The Award is presented annually to the most outstanding male and female collegiate volleyball player in the US. An elementary school in Holyoke, William Morgan School, bears his name.
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who played guitar in bill and ted's excellent adventure | Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure - wikipedia
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure is a 1989 American science - fiction comedy buddy film in which two slackers travel through time to assemble a menagerie of historical figures for their high school history presentation.
The film was written by Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon and directed by Stephen Herek. It stars Alex Winter as Bill S. Preston, Esquire; Keanu Reeves as Ted "Theodore '' Logan; and George Carlin as Rufus. Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure received generally positive reviews upon release and was commercially successful. It is now considered a cult classic. A sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, was released two years later.
In Futuristic City, 2688, humanity exists as a utopian society due to the inspiration of the music and wisdom of the Two Great Ones: Bill S. Preston, Esq. and Ted "Theodore '' Logan. Rufus is tasked by the leaders to travel back to San Dimas, California, in 1988 using a time machine disguised as a telephone booth to ensure that Bill and Ted, who are dimwitted metalhead slacker high school students, get a good grade in their final history oral report and pass the class. Should they fail, Ted 's father, Police Captain John Logan, plans to ship Ted to a military academy in Alaska, ending Bill and Ted 's fledgling band, the "Wyld Stallyns '', thus altering the future. Bill, meanwhile, has a crush on his father 's new wife Missy who 's just a few years older than Bill himself.
Bill and Ted struggle with the report, which asks them to envision how three historical figures would see San Dimas in the present. While they are asking strangers at the local Circle K convenience store for help, Rufus arrives in the time machine. The two are distrustful until the time machine arrives again nearby, out from which step future versions of Bill and Ted. They prove to their younger selves that they are really them and that they should trust Rufus. They privately ask Rufus a question and then depart. The younger versions of Bill and Ted accept Rufus ' offer to take them into the past. Rufus takes them to a battlefield in Austria, 1805 where Napoleon Bonaparte is commanding the French army against Austria. They return to the present, unaware that the time machine has caught Napoleon in its wake and pulled him along. Landing near Ted 's house, Rufus reminds them that they must still reach the school on time to give their report and then departs, returning the time machine to them. The two discover Napoleon after he falls out of a nearby tree, and come up with the idea of kidnapping other historical figures to bring to the present. They leave Napoleon with Ted 's younger brother, Deacon, and start traveling through time.
The two befriend Billy the Kid in The Old West, 1879 and Socrates in Ancient Greece, 410 BC before stopping in London, 1461 where they become infatuated with Princesses Elizabeth and Joanna. The teens anger the princesses ' father, Henry VI of England, who orders their beheading, but they are rescued by Billy and Socrates. They are forced to leave without the princesses and, in the escape, the telephone booth is damaged. Dialing a random number, they land next in the Utopian future, where Bill and Ted are amazed by the music playing and that the citizens worship them. They leave after a brief stay and, believing they have plenty of time before the report, start collecting more historical figures for extra credit, including Sigmund Freud in Vienna, 1901, Ludwig van Beethoven in Kassel, 1810, Joan of Arc in Orléans, 1429, Genghis Khan in Mongolia, 1209, and Abraham Lincoln in Washington, D.C., 1863. Having run out of room in the phone booth, Bill and Ted finally discover the time machine is damaged.
After making ad hoc repairs to the time machine, Bill and Ted try to return to the present but land outside the Circle K, recognizing the situation they previously witnessed. After reassuring their younger selves, they learn from Rufus how to dial the right number to get to their present and that they are running out of time. Once they arrive to the present, Bill 's mother has him, Ted, and the historical figures get their household chores done before taking them to the local mall, where the historical figures are left to experience San Dimas while Bill and Ted look for Napoleon; Ted finds Deacon had ditched Napoleon earlier out of embarrassment, but they later find him at the water slide park "Waterloo '' (the name based on the Napoleon 's famous battle of "Waterloo '') with the irony lost on Bill and Ted. Meanwhile, the historical figures had caused trouble at the mall and have been arrested by Captain Logan. Upon discovering this, Bill and Ted figure out how they can use the time machine to set up an event at the police station to allow them to free the historical figures without getting caught. After freeing them, Bill 's mother drives them all to the high school and arrive just in time, where they give an impressive presentation with the help of the historical figures that receives a standing ovation. They pass their course and return the historical figures to their proper times.
Later, as Bill and Ted are practicing, Rufus arrives, showing he had rescued the princesses from England and introduced them to the modern world, and that they become part of Wyld Stallyns. Elated, Bill and Ted resume their practice with their usual ineptitude, with Rufus breaking the fourth wall and promising, "They do get better... ''
The film was shot in 1987 in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan area, mostly in and around Scottsdale 's Coronado High School. Coronado 's auditorium was torn down during 2005 - 07 renovations, but its unique roof and intricate exterior mosaic, seen in an opening scene when Bill and Ted leave school in a red Mustang, was saved and moved, piece by piece, to the new auditorium. The interior shots of the auditorium were filmed inside the East High School auditorium, which was in Phoenix on 48th Street just north of Van Buren. East High School was demolished in 2002 as part of a redevelopment project. The production also shot a sequence on the Western Street on the back lot of Southwestern Studio in Carefree, Arizona. Odescalchi castle was used as Henry VI 's castle.
The scenes at Waterloo are a combination of establishing shots at Raging Waters in San Dimas and shots with the actors at Golfland Sunsplash in Mesa, Arizona. The bowling alley was a Fair Lanes - branded alley at that time but is now the AMF Tempe Village Lanes on Rural Road at US 60, three miles south of Arizona State University. The mall was Phoenix Metrocenter, between Peoria and Dunlap Avenues at Interstate 17. It has since been renovated and no longer looks as it did in the film. The Circle K store is at the intersection of Southern and Hardy in Tempe.
The film also employs computer - generated imagery for the scenes where Bill & Ted are travelling through the ' Circuits of Time ', created by the VFX house Perpetual Motion Pictures.
The film 's writers, Ed Solomon and Chris Matheson, appear in the film 's ice cream scene. Solomon is credited as the "stupid '' waiter, and Matheson is credited as the "ugly '' waiter. They are given similar credits in Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey.
When Rufus plays his guitar solo, the hands in the close - up are those of Stevie Salas, who composed the film 's guitar music.
The film took nearly two years to make. Filming took place from February to May 1987 and it was planned to be released in 1988. However, the film 's original distributor, De Laurentiis Entertainment Group, went bankrupt. Orion Pictures and Nelson Entertainment bought the rights to the movie in 1988, and it was released theatrically on February 17, 1989. As a partial result of the delay, certain dates in the film originally scripted as "1987 '' had to be re-dubbed as "1988 ''. The copyright date of this film is 1989, while 1988 incorrectly appears on the DVD cover (though some copies still note 1989 as its release date) and 1987 appears on the back of the Blu - ray release.
It was followed in 1991 by a sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey.
Writing for Wired to mark the 25th anniversary of the film 's release, Angela Watercutter noted:
"There 's a longstanding urban legend that Reeves auditioned for the role of Bill and Winter auditioned for Ted, but that 's not exactly how Winter remembers it. ' The reason that that ended up in lore was because at a certain point Keanu got it in his head that he was playing Bill and I was playing Ted, ' he says. ' To be fair to Reeves, it 's possible that out of the 80 trillion times we had to do the scenes (in auditions) the very, very last time we went in he happened to get the Bill sides and I happened to get the Ted sides. ' After Reeves found out he was playing Ted, though, he was Sad Keanu. ' We 're sitting in the office waiting to meet the producers for the first time and I 'm pretty jazzed and he 's miserable, ' Winters says. ' I 'm like, "Dude, what 's wrong? We finally got it after all this bullshit, '' you know? And he 's like, "Yeah, but I 'm Ted. '' And I was like, "Yeah, you 're Ted. That 's awesome. '' He was like, "I thought I was Bill. '' I was like, "What fucking difference does it make? For god 's sake, they 're completely interchangeable. If you want you can be Bill and I 'll be Ted, I really do n't care. It 's not going to impact the way I play this guy one iota. ' ''
In earlier drafts of the script, Rufus was 28 years old and historical figures Bill and Ted plucked from history included Charlemagne (whom they referred to as "Charlie Mangay ''), Babe Ruth, and a non-famous medieval person called "John the Serf ''. John is listed in the credits.
In a 1991 interview, co-writer Ed Solomon said the characters of Bill and Ted were originally envisaged as "14 - year - old skinny guys, with low - rider bell - bottoms and heavy metal T - shirts '' who were despised by the popular kids at school. Casting Reeves and Winter changed the filmmakers ' images of the characters because "... once you cast Alex and Keanu, who look like pretty cool guys, that was hard to believe ''.
Originally, the time machine was to be a 1969 Chevrolet van, but the idea was abandoned as being too close in concept to the DeLorean used in the Back to the Future trilogy. Instead, despite the similarities to Doctor Who 's time machine, the TARDIS, the film 's time machine was styled after a 1960s American telephone booth, though a newer model Ford van would be used as the rock concert "band wagon '' for the sequel.
In April 2013, Winter commented on Carlin 's casting: "He was a very happy accident. They were going after serious people first. Like Sean Connery. And someone had the idea, way after we started shooting, of George. That whole movie was a happy accident. No one thought it would ever see the light of day. ''
The film 's soundtrack was released in 1989. The tracks are as follows:
These tracks are ordered for the album differently than they are in the movie. In the movie, the songs show up in the following order: "I Ca n't Break Away '', "Dancing with a Gypsy '', "Father Time '', "Dangerous '', "In Time '', "Two Heads Are Better Than One '', "The Boys and Girls Are Doing It '', "Play with Me '', "Walk Away '', "Not So Far Away '' and "Two Heads '' (reprised over the credits).
The following songs appeared in the film but were not included in the soundtrack:
A theatrical sequel, Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, was released in 1991.
A third theatrical film in the Bill & Ted franchise was planned, and a screenplay was written, though it never got past the pre-production phase. Although rumors claimed that the script was adapted into the 1996 film Bio-Dome, Alex Winter has said that it was not.
In 2010, Reeves indicated that Matheson and Solomon were working on a script for a third film, confirming in April 2011 that a draft was complete. Winter said in March 2012 that he and Reeves both liked the finished script, which revisits the two characters after the changes of the past twenty years. The current script does not feature the return of the Grim Reaper from Bogus Journey, but since actor William Sadler has expressed interest, the writers are considering ways to include the character. In August 2012, Dean Parisot (director of the sci - fi / comedy film Galaxy Quest) signed on to direct the film, although MGM, which holds the rights to the Bill & Ted franchise, has yet to give the movie an official greenlight. In an April 2014 article on the original film 's 25th anniversary, Alex Winter reported that work on going ahead with the second sequel was still in progress.
Two spin - off television series were produced; both were titled Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventures.
DC Comics produced a tie - in comic following the plot of the first movie timed to coincide with that film 's release on home video. The sequel was adapted by DC 's competitor Marvel Comics, published to coincide with the second film 's release in theaters. Its popularity led to the ongoing Marvel series Bill & Ted 's Excellent Comic Book by Evan Dorkin, which lasted for 12 issues.
There was a weekly 2 / 4 page semi-adaptation of the animated series published for a year by UK 's defunct Look - In Magazine from 1991 to 1992.
There were also Game Boy, NES and Atari Lynx games released, which were very loosely based on the film 's plot. A PC title and nearly identical Amiga and Commodore 64 port were made in 1991 by Off the Wall Productions and IntraCorp, Inc. under contract by Capstone Software and followed the original film very closely.
The annual Halloween Horror Nights events at Universal Studios Orlando and Hollywood have featured since 1992 (Orlando) and 1997 - 1999 / 2007 (Hollywood) Bill & Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure, a show satirizing pop culture of the year with Bill & Ted as the protagonists fighting villains who steal their phone booth for their own schemes.
The show differs from year to year, with spoofs of various pop culture icons. The main plot involves Bill and Ted being threatened by an evil villain from a popular film of that year, with appearances by a host of villains, heroes, and celebrities. The show usually includes elaborate dance numbers, stunts, and multiple double - entendres for the late night event crowd. In 2013, the Hollywood version of the show was cancelled in the middle of its run following complaints of homophobic humor.
On August 15, 2017, Universal announced that 2017 will be the final year of Bill and Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure in Orlando. And in November 4, 2017, Bill and Ted 's Excellent Halloween Adventure came to a final close, but not before a surprise appearance of Rufus.
Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure grossed $40.4 million domestically on a budget of about $10 million. The Washington Post gave the film a negative review, finding the script written by Chris Matheson and Ed Solomon as "made only the sketchiest attempts to draw their historical characters. They exist as foils and nothing else, and the gags that are hung on them are far from first - rate '', and that if director "Stephen Herek, has any talent for comedy, it 's not visible here. More than anything, the picture looks paltry and undernourished. '' Variety wrote about each historical figure that Bill & Ted meet, stating that "Each encounter is so brief and utterly cliched that history has little chance to contribute anything to this pic 's two dimensions. '' Vincent Canby of The New York Times referred to the film as a "painfully inept comedy '' and that the "one dimly interesting thing about Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure is the way the two teen - age heroes communicate in superlatives. We are about to fail most egregiously, says Ted to Bill, or maybe it 's Bill to Ted. They are also fond of odd words, such as bodacious. '' In the Los Angeles Times, Chris Willman was also unimpressed, concluding: "Make no mistake, Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure (...) is not a satire of mindlessness; it 's unabashed glorification of dumbness for dumbness ' sake. Bill and Ted are heroic in their ability to reduce some of history 's great minds to their level. However, writing for Radio Times, Alan Jones decided: "A nonstop giggle from start to finish, this beguiling grab - bag of time - travel clichés, hard - rock music and Valley - speaking cool dudes is a flawless, purpose - built junk movie ''.
The film has an 78 % "Certified fresh '' rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 45 reviews with an average rating of 6.5 / 10, the site 's critical consensus reads: "Keanu Reeves and Alex Winter are just charming, goofy, and silly enough to make this fluffy time - travel Adventure work ''.
The successes of the film and the animated series spawned a short - lived breakfast cereal called Bill & Ted 's Excellent Cereal.
The phone booth used in the film was given away in a contest presented by Nintendo Power magazine, to promote Bill & Ted 's Excellent Video Game Adventure. It was won by Kenneth Grayson of Mississippi.
In 2010, the city of San Dimas celebrated 50 years of incorporation. The celebration 's slogan was San Dimas, 1960 -- 2010 -- An Excellent Adventure.
Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure was selected as number 8 in Rolling Stone 's ' 10 Best Stoner Movies of All Time ' in 2013.
Writing in The Guardian on the occasion of the film 's 25th anniversary, Hadley Freeman found: "Of all the delightfully improbable scenarios depicted in Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure -- from Napoleon Bonaparte causing havoc on a waterslide to Billy the Kid and Socrates (aka "So - crayts '', of course) picking up chicks in a California mall to George Carlin acting in a film alongside Keanu Reeves and a member of the Go - Go 's -- none would have seemed more unlikely on its release than the idea that one day, with much media fanfare, the public would be celebrating the film 's 25th anniversary. By the time Bill & Ted was released in 1989, the 80s teen film explosion was starting to taper out. (...) Moreover, there had already been plenty of films about time - travelling teens by the time Bill & Ted rocked up in cinemas, such as Peggy Sue Got Married and Back to the Future. Few who were around then would have bet that a goofy movie about a pair of California metalheads skipping back through time in a phonebox collecting historical characters to bring back to 20th - century California for their history report would still be remembered today. But I am very much among those few ".
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
Writing in British Sunday newspaper The Observer, Tom Holland noted,
"Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure does not tend to be rated as one of cinema 's profounder treatments of the relationship between present and past. The story of two Californian slackers with a time machine who, for complicated reasons, have to assemble assorted celebrities from history in order to pass a high - school project, it is chiefly remembered for bringing Keanu Reeves to the attention of a mass audience. Classicists, however, will always cherish it as the only film ever to combine the music of Van Halen with Greek philosophy. When Bill and Ted embark on their quest, what should be their first destination if not classical Athens, and who should be the very first ' historical dude ' bundled into their time machine if not a bald - headed man in a sheet whom they persist in calling ' Soh - kraytz '? ''
Holland continued:
"Even to metalheads, then, the philosophy of ancient Greece serves as something that is both primal and emblematic of civilisation as a whole. Socrates, in particular, the ' lover of wisdom ' who insisted that the most fundamental presumptions of his countrymen should be subjected to experimental investigation, and who ended up being made to drink hemlock for his pains, has always been admired as the very fountainhead of rationalism. Yet when it comes to identifying what he taught and believed, there is a problem, on which Bill & Ted 's Excellent Adventure, rather unexpectedly, puts its finger. Socrates, transplanted to 1980s California, can only communicate with his abductors by gesturing and gurning -- since Bill and Ted, it goes without saying, speak not a word of ancient Greek. Even the miracle of time travel, it appears, can not serve to alter what is, for any historian, a most awkward fact: that it is impossible to be certain of what Socrates actually said. ''
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how many miles to jacksonville florida from here | Jacksonville, Florida - Wikipedia
Jacksonville is the largest city by population in the U.S. state of Florida, and the largest city by area in the contiguous United States. It is the county seat of Duval County, with which the city government consolidated in 1968. Consolidation gave Jacksonville its great size and placed most of its metropolitan population within the city limits; with an estimated population of 913,010 as of 2017, Jacksonville is the most populous city in the state of Florida and the southeastern United States. The Jacksonville metropolitan area has a population of 1,626,611. It is the 34th largest MSA in the United States and fourth largest in Florida.
Jacksonville is centered on the banks of the St. Johns River in the First Coast region of northeast Florida, about 25 miles (40 km) south of the Georgia state line and 340 miles (550 km) north of Miami. The Jacksonville Beaches communities are along the adjacent Atlantic coast. The area was originally inhabited by the Timucua people, and in 1564 was the site of the French colony of Fort Caroline, one of the earliest European settlements in what is now the continental United States. Under British rule, settlement grew at the narrow point in the river where cattle crossed, known as Wacca Pilatka to the Seminole and the Cow Ford to the British. A platted town was established there in 1822, a year after the United States gained Florida from Spain; it was named after Andrew Jackson, the first military governor of the Florida Territory and seventh President of the United States.
Harbor improvements since the late 19th century have made Jacksonville a major military and civilian deep - water port. Its riverine location facilitates Naval Station Mayport, Naval Air Station Jacksonville, the U.S. Marine Corps Blount Island Command, and the Port of Jacksonville, Florida 's third largest seaport. Jacksonville 's military bases and the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay form the third largest military presence in the United States. Significant factors in the local economy include services such as banking, insurance, healthcare and logistics. As with much of Florida, tourism is also important to the Jacksonville area, particularly tourism related to golf. People from Jacksonville may be called "Jacksonvillians '' or "Jaxsons '' (also spelled "Jaxons '').
The area of the modern city of Jacksonville has been inhabited for thousands of years. On Black Hammock Island in the national Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, a University of North Florida team discovered some of the oldest remnants of pottery in the United States, dating to 2500 BC. In the 16th century, the beginning of the historical era, the region was inhabited by the Mocama, a coastal subgroup of the Timucua people. At the time of contact with Europeans, all Mocama villages in present - day Jacksonville were part of the powerful chiefdom known as the Saturiwa, centered around the mouth of the St. Johns River. One early map shows a village called Ossachite at the site of what is now downtown Jacksonville; this may be the earliest recorded name for that area.
French Huguenot explorer Jean Ribault charted the St. Johns River in 1562, calling it the River of May because that was the month of his discovery. Ribault erected a stone column at the site, claiming the newly discovered land for France. In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière established the first European settlement, Fort Caroline, on the St. Johns near the main village of the Saturiwa. Philip II of Spain ordered Pedro Menéndez de Avilés to protect the interest of Spain by attacking the French presence at Fort Caroline. On September 20, 1565, a Spanish force from the nearby Spanish settlement of St. Augustine attacked Fort Caroline, and killed nearly all the French soldiers defending it. The Spanish renamed the fort San Mateo, and following the ejection of the French, St. Augustine 's position as the most important settlement in Florida was solidified. The location of Fort Caroline is subject to debate but a reconstruction of the fort was established on the St. Johns River in 1964.
Spain ceded Florida to the British in 1763 after the French and Indian War, and the British soon constructed the King 's Road connecting St. Augustine to Georgia. The road crossed the St. Johns River at a narrow point, which the Seminole called Wacca Pilatka and the British called the Cow Ford; these names ostensibly reflect the fact that cattle were brought across the river there. The British introduced the cultivation of sugar cane, indigo and fruits, as well the export of lumber. As a result, the northeastern Florida area prospered economically more than it had under the Spanish. Britain ceded control of the territory to Spain in 1783, after being defeated in the American Revolutionary War, and the settlement at the Cow Ford continued to grow. After Spain ceded the Florida Territory to the United States in 1821, American settlers on the north side of the Cow Ford decided to plan a town, laying out the streets and plats. They soon named the town Jacksonville, after Andrew Jackson. Led by Isaiah D. Hart, residents wrote a charter for a town government, which was approved by the Florida Legislative Council on February 9, 1832.
During the American Civil War, Jacksonville was a key supply point for hogs and cattle being shipped from Florida to feed the Confederate forces. The city was blockaded by Union forces, who gained control of nearby Fort Clinch. Though no battles were fought in Jacksonville proper, the city changed hands several times between Union and Confederate forces. In the Skirmish of the Brick Church in 1862, Confederates won their first victory in the state. However, Union forces captured a Confederate position at the Battle of St. Johns Bluff, and occupied Jacksonville in 1862. Slaves escaped to freedom in Union lines. In February 1864 Union forces left Jacksonville and confronted a Confederate Army at the Battle of Olustee, going down to defeat.
Union forces retreated to Jacksonville and held the city for the remainder of the war. In March 1864 a Confederate cavalry confronted a Union expedition in the Battle of Cedar Creek. Warfare and the long occupation left the city disrupted after the war.
During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, Jacksonville and nearby St. Augustine became popular winter resorts for the rich and famous. Visitors arrived by steamboat and later by railroad. President Grover Cleveland attended the Sub-Tropical Exposition in the city on February 22, 1888 during his trip to Florida. This highlighted the visibility of the state as a worthy place for tourism. The city 's tourism, however, was dealt major blows in the late 19th century by yellow fever outbreaks. In addition, extension of the Florida East Coast Railway further south drew visitors to other areas. From 1893 to 1938, Jacksonville was the site of the Florida Old Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Home; it operated a nearby cemetery.
On May 3, 1901, downtown Jacksonville was ravaged by a fire that started as a kitchen fire. Spanish moss at a nearby mattress factory was quickly engulfed in flames and enabled the fire to spread rapidly. In just eight hours, it swept through 146 city blocks, destroyed over 2,000 buildings, left about 10,000 homeless and killed seven residents. The Confederate Monument in Hemming Park was one of the few landmarks to survive the fire. Governor William Sherman Jennings declared martial law and sent the state militia to maintain order; on May 17, municipal authority resumed. It is said the glow from the flames could be seen in Savannah, Georgia, and the smoke plumes seen in Raleigh, North Carolina. Known as the "Great Fire of 1901 '', it was one of the worst disasters in Florida history and the largest urban fire in the southeastern United States. Architect Henry John Klutho was a primary figure in the reconstruction of the city. The first multi-story structure built by Klutho was the Dyal - Upchurch Building in 1902. The St. James Building, built on the previous site of the St. James Hotel that burned down, was built in 1912 as Klutho 's crowning achievement.
In the 1910s, New York -- based filmmakers were attracted to Jacksonville 's warm climate, exotic locations, excellent rail access, and cheap labor. Over the course of the decade, more than 30 silent film studios were established, earning Jacksonville the title of "Winter Film Capital of the World ''. However, the emergence of Hollywood as a major film production center ended the city 's film industry. One converted movie studio site, Norman Studios, remains in Arlington; it has been converted to the Jacksonville Silent Film Museum at Norman Studios.
During this time, Jacksonville also became a banking and insurance center, with companies such as Barnett Bank, Atlantic National Bank, Florida National Bank, Prudential, Gulf Life, Afro - American Insurance, Independent Life and American Heritage Life thriving in the business district. The U.S. Navy became a major employer and economic force during the 1940s and the Second World War, constructing two Navy bases in the city and the U.S. Marine Corps establishing Blount Island Command.
Jacksonville, like most large cities in the United States, suffered from negative effects of rapid urban sprawl after World War II. The construction of federal highways was a kind of subsidy that enabled development of suburban housing, and wealthier, better established residents moved to newer housing in the suburbs. After World War II, the government of the city of Jacksonville began to increase spending to fund new public building projects in the postwar economic boom. Mayor W. Haydon Burns ' Jacksonville Story resulted in the construction of a new city hall, civic auditorium, public library and other projects that created a dynamic sense of civic pride. However, the development of suburbs and a subsequent wave of middle class "white flight '' resulted in a remaining population with a higher level of poverty overall.
Given the postwar migration of residents, businesses, and jobs, the city 's tax base declined. It had difficulty funding education, sanitation, and traffic control within the city limits. In addition, residents in unincorporated suburbs had difficulty obtaining municipal services, such as sewage and building code enforcement. In 1958, a study recommended that the city of Jacksonville begin annexing outlying communities in order to create the needed larger geographic tax base to improve services throughout the county. Voters outside the city limits rejected annexation plans in six referendums between 1960 and 1965. The city 's largest ethnic group, non-Hispanic white, declined from 75.8 % of the population in 1970 to 55.1 % by 2010.
On December 29, 1963 the Hotel Roosevelt fire killed 22 people, the highest one - day death toll in Jacksonville. On September 10, 1964, Hurricane Dora made landfall near St. Augustine, causing major damage to buildings in North Florida. Hurricane Dora was the first hurricane to make a direct hit to North Florida.
In the mid 1960s, corruption scandals arose among city officials, who were mainly part of a traditional conservative Democratic, white old boy network that had dominated politics for decades. After a grand jury was convened to investigate, 11 officials were indicted and more were forced to resign.
Jacksonville Consolidation, led by J.J. Daniel and Claude Yates, began to win more support during this period, from both inner - city blacks, who wanted more involvement in government after passage of civil rights legislation restored their ability to vote, and whites in the suburbs, who wanted more services and more control over the central city. In 1964 all 15 of Duval County 's public high schools lost their accreditation. This added momentum to proposals for government reform. Lower taxes, increased economic development, unification of the community, better public spending, and effective administration by a more central authority were all cited as reasons for a new consolidated government.
When a consolidation referendum was held in 1967, voters approved the plan. On October 1, 1968, the city and county governments merged to create the Consolidated City of Jacksonville. Fire, police, health & welfare, recreation, public works, and housing & urban development were all combined under the new government. In honor of the occasion, then - Mayor Hans Tanzler posed with actress Lee Meredith behind a sign marking the new border of the "Bold New City of the South '' at Florida 13 and Julington Creek. The consolidation created a 900 square mile entity.
The Better Jacksonville Plan, promoted as a blueprint for Jacksonville 's future and approved by Jacksonville voters in 2000, authorized a half - penny sales tax. This would generate most of the revenue required for the $2.25 billion package of major projects that included road & infrastructure improvements, environmental preservation, targeted economic development and new or improved public facilities.
The NFL awarded Jacksonville an NFL franchise called the Jacksonville Jaguars on November 30, 1993. In 2005, Jacksonville hosted Super Bowl XXXIX that was seen by an estimated 86 million viewers.
In October 2016, Hurricane Matthew caused major flooding and damage to Jacksonville, Jacksonville Beach, Atlantic Beach and Neptune Beach, the first such damage in the area since 2004. In September 2017, Hurricane Irma caused record breaking floods in Jacksonville not seen since 1846.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 874.3 square miles (2,264 km), making Jacksonville the largest city in land area in the contiguous United States; of this, 86.66 % (757.7 sq mi or 1,962 km) is land and 13.34 % (116.7 sq mi or 302 km) is water. Jacksonville surrounds the town of Baldwin. Nassau County lies to the north, Baker County lies to the west, and Clay and St. Johns County lie to the south; the Atlantic Ocean lies to the east, along with the Jacksonville Beaches. The St. Johns River divides the city. The Trout River, a major tributary of the St. Johns River, is located entirely within Jacksonville.
The state of Florida, including Jacksonville, is a huge flat plateau with a high water table, and surface lakes are very shallow. The United States Geological Survey states that the highest point in Jacksonville is only 40 feet (12.2 meters) above sea level, making the area susceptible to flooding and storm surge. Soil composition is primarily sand and clay rather than limestone, so very few sinkholes develop; however deep, large diameter sinkholes do occur.
The architecture of Jacksonville varies in style. Few structures in the city center predate the Great Fire of 1901. The city is home to one of the largest collections of Prairie School style buildings outside the Midwest. following the Great Fire of 1901, Henry John Klutho would come to influence generations of local designers with his works by both the Chicago School, championed by Louis Sullivan, and the Prairie School of architecture, popularized by Frank Lloyd Wright. Jacksonville is also home to a notable collection of Mid-Century modern architecture. Local architects Robert C. Broward, Taylor Hardwick, and William Morgan adapted a range design principles, including International style, Brutalism, Futurism and Organicism, all applied with an American interpretation generally referred to today as Mid-century modern design. The architecture firms of Reynolds, Smith & Hills (RS&H) and Kemp, Bunch & Jackson (KBJ) have also contributed a number of important works to the city 's modern architectural movement.
Jacksonville 's early predominant position as a regional center of business left an indelible mark on the city 's skyline. Many of the earliest skyscrapers in the state were constructed in Jacksonville, dating to 1902. The city last held the state height record from 1974 to 1981. The tallest building in Downtown Jacksonville 's skyline is the Bank of America Tower, constructed in 1990 as the Barnett Center. It has a height of 617 ft (188 m) and includes 42 floors. Other notable structures include the 37 - story Wells Fargo Center (with its distinctive flared base making it the defining building in the Jacksonville skyline), originally built in 1972 - 74 by the Independent Life and Accident Insurance Company, and the 28 - floor Riverplace Tower. When completed in 1967, it was the tallest precast, post-tensioned concrete structure in the world.
Laura Street Trio (1902 - 1912)
The Carling (1925)
11 East Forsyth (1926)
Aetna Building (1955)
Riverplace Tower (1967)
Wells Fargo Center (1974)
EverBank Center (1983)
Bank of America Tower (1990)
Like much of the south Atlantic region of the United States, Jacksonville has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with mild weather during winters and hot and humid weather during summers. Seasonal rainfall is concentrated in the warmest months from May through September, while the driest months are from November through April. Rainfall averages around 52 inches (1,300 mm) a year. Due to Jacksonville 's low latitude and coastal location, the city has infrequent cold weather, and winters are typically mild and sunny. Summer thunderstorms with torrential but brief downpours are common.
Mean monthly temperatures range from around 53 ° F (12 ° C) in January to 82 ° F (28 ° C) in July. High temperatures average 64 to 92 ° F (18 to 33 ° C) throughout the year. High heat indices are common for the summer months in the area, with indices above 110 ° F (43.3 ° C) possible. The highest temperature recorded was 104 ° F (40 ° C) on July 11, 1879 and July 28, 1872. It is common for thunderstorms to erupt during a typical summer afternoon. These are caused by the rapid heating of the land relative to the water, combined with extremely high humidity.
During winter, there can be hard freezes during the night. Such cold weather is usually short lived, as the city averages only 10 to 15 nights at or below freezing and around 5 days where the high does not rise above 50 ° F (10 ° C). The coldest temperature recorded at Jacksonville International Airport was 7 ° F (− 14 ° C) on January 21, 1985. Jacksonville has recorded three days with measurable snow since 1911, most recently a one - inch (2.5 cm) snowfall in December 1989 and flurries in December 2010.
Jacksonville has suffered less damage from hurricanes than most other east coast cities, although the threat does exist for a direct hit by a major hurricane. The city has only received one direct hit from a hurricane since 1871; however, Jacksonville has experienced hurricane or near - hurricane conditions more than a dozen times due to storms crossing the state from the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean, or passing to the north or south in the Atlantic and brushing past the area. The strongest effect on Jacksonville was from Hurricane Dora in 1964, the only recorded storm to hit the First Coast with sustained hurricane - force winds. The eye crossed St. Augustine with winds that had just barely diminished to 110 mph (180 km / h), making it a strong Category 2 on the Saffir - Simpson Scale. Jacksonville also suffered damage from 2008 's Tropical Storm Fay which crisscrossed the state, bringing parts of Jacksonville under darkness for four days. Similarly, four years prior to this, Jacksonville was inundated by Hurricane Frances and Hurricane Jeanne, which made landfall south of the area. These tropical cyclones were the costliest indirect hits to Jacksonville. Hurricane Floyd in 1999 caused damage mainly to Jacksonville Beach. During Floyd, the Jacksonville Beach pier was severely damaged, and later demolished. The rebuilt pier was later damaged by Fay, but not destroyed. Tropical Storm Bonnie would cause minor damage in 2004, spawning a minor tornado in the process. On May 28, 2012, Jacksonville was hit by Tropical Storm Beryl, packing winds up to 70 miles per hour (113 km / h) which made landfall near Jacksonville Beach.
The City of Jacksonville has a unique park system, with various lands operated by the National Park Service, Florida State Parks and the City of Jacksonville Department of Parks and Recreation. Jacksonville operates the largest urban park system in the United States, providing facilities and services at more than 337 locations on more than 80,000 acres (320 km) located throughout the city. Jacksonville enjoys natural beauty from the St. Johns River and Atlantic Ocean. Many parks provide access for people to boat, swim, fish, sail, jetski, surf and waterski. Several parks around the city have received international recognition.
The Timucuan Preserve is a U.S. National Preserve comprising over 46,000 acres (19,000 ha) of wetlands and waterways. It includes natural and historic areas such as the Fort Caroline National Memorial and the Kingsley Plantation, the oldest standing plantation in the state.
There are several state parks within the city limits of Jacksonville, these include Amelia Island State Park, Big Talbot Island State Park, Fort George Island Cultural State Park, George Crady Bridge Fishing Pier State Park, Little Talbot Island State Park, Pumpkin Hill Creek Preserve State Park and Yellow Bluff Fort Historic State Park.
There are more than 500 neighborhoods within Jacksonville 's vast area. These include Downtown Jacksonville and its surrounding neighborhoods, including LaVilla, Brooklyn, Riverside and Avondale, Springfield, Eastside, and San Marco. Additionally, greater Jacksonville is traditionally divided into several amorphous areas, comprising large parts of Duval County. These are Northside, Westside, Southside, and Arlington, as well as the Jacksonville Beaches.
There are four municipalities that have retained their own governments since consolidation; these are Baldwin and the three Jacksonville Beaches towns of Atlantic Beach, Neptune Beach, and Jacksonville Beach. Four of Jacksonville 's neighborhoods, Avondale, Ortega, Springfield, and Riverside, have been identified as U.S. historic districts and are in the National Register of Historic Places.
LaVilla
Brooklyn
Northbank
Southbank
Springfield
San Marco
Ortega
Riverside and Avondale
Jacksonville is the most populous city in Florida, and the twelfth most populous city in the United States. As of 2010, there were 821,784 people and 366,273 households in the city. Jacksonville has the country 's tenth - largest Arab population, with a total population of 5,751 according to the 2000 United States Census. Jacksonville has Florida 's largest Filipino American community, with 25,033 in the metropolitan area as of the 2010 Census. Much of Jacksonville 's Filipino community served in or has ties to the United States Navy.
As of 2010, those of Hispanic or Latino ancestry accounted for 7.7 % of Jacksonville 's population. Out of the 7.7 %, 2.6 % Puerto Rican, 1.7 % Mexican, and 0.9 % were Cuban.
As of 2010, those of African ancestry accounted for 30.7 % of Jacksonville 's population, which includes African Americans. Out of the 30.7 %, 1.8 % were Sub-Saharan Africa, 1.4 % were West Indian or Afro - Caribbean American (0.5 % Haitian, 0.4 % Jamaican, 0.1 % Other or Unspecified West Indian, 0.1 % Bahamian, 0.1 % Barbadian), and 0.6 % were Black Hispanics.
As of 2010, those of (non-Hispanic white) European ancestry accounted for 55.1 % of Jacksonville 's population. Out of the 55.1 %, 10.4 % were German, 10.2 % Irish, 8.8 % English, 3.9 % Italian, 2.2 % French, 2.0 % Scottish, 2.0 % Scotch - Irish, 1.7 % Polish, 1.1 % Dutch, 0.6 % Russian, 0.5 % Norwegian, 0.5 % Swedish, 0.5 % Welsh, and 0.5 % were French Canadian.
As of 2010, those of Asian ancestry accounted for 4.3 % of Jacksonville 's population. Out of the 4.3 %, 1.8 % Filipino, 0.9 % were Indian, 0.6 % Other Asian, 0.5 % Vietnamese, 0.3 % Chinese, 0.2 % Korean, and 0.1 % were Japanese.
In 2010, 6.7 % of the population considered themselves to be of only American ancestry (regardless of race or ethnicity.) And 0.9 % were of Arab ancestry, as of 2010.
As of 2010, there were 366,273 households out of which 11.8 % were vacant. 23.9 % of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.8 % were married couples, 15.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.4 % were non-families. 29.7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.21. In the city, the population was spread out with 23.9 % under the age of 18, 10.5 % from 18 to 24, 28.5 % from 25 to 44, 26.2 % from 45 to 64, and 10.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35.5 years. For every 100 females there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males.
In 2010, the median income for a household in the county was $48,829, and the median income for a family was $59,272. Males had a median income of $42,485 versus $34,209 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,227. About 10.5 % of families and 14.3 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.4 % of those under age 18 and 9.9 % of those aged 65 or over.
In 2010, 9.2 % of the county 's population was foreign born, with 49.6 % being naturalized American citizens. Of foreign born residents, 38.0 % were born in Latin America, 35.7 % born in Asia, 17.9 % were born in Europe, 5.9 % born in Africa, 1.9 % in North America, and 0.5 % were born in Oceania.
As of 2010, 87.1 % of Jacksonville 's population age five and over spoke only English at home while 5.8 % of the population spoke Spanish at home. About 3.3 % spoke other Indo - European languages at home. About 2.9 % spoke Asian languages or Pacific Islander languages / Oceanic languages at home. The remaining 0.9 % of the population spoke other languages at home. In total, 12.9 % spoke another language other than English.
As of 2000, speakers of English as a first language accounted for 90.60 % of all residents, while those who spoke Spanish made up 4.13 %, Tagalog 1.00 %, French 0.47 %, Arabic 0.44 %, German 0.43 %, Vietnamese at 0.31 %, Russian was 0.21 % and Italian made up 0.17 % of the population.
Jacksonville has a diverse religious population. The largest religious group is Protestant. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), in 2010 the Jacksonville metropolitan area had an estimated 365,267 Evangelical Protestants, 76,100 Mainline Protestants, and 56,769 Black Protestants, though figures for the latter were incomplete. There were around 1200 Protestant congregations in various denominations. Notable Protestant churches include Bethel Baptist Institutional Church and First Baptist Church, the city 's oldest Baptist churches. The Episcopal Diocese of Florida has its see at St. John 's Cathedral, the current building dating to 1906.
Jacksonville is part of the Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine, which covers seventeen counties in North Florida. ARDA estimated 133,155 Catholics attending 25 parishes in the Jacksonville metropolitan area in 2010. One notable Catholic church in Jacksonville is the Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, a minor basilica added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. There are also two Eastern Catholic parishes, one of the Syriac Catholic Church and one of the Maronite Church. According to ARDA, in 2010 there were 2520 Eastern Orthodox Christians representing four churches in the Eastern Orthodox communion, as well as congregations of Syriac Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Coptic Orthodox Christians.
ARDA also estimated 14,886 members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) and 511 Unitarian Universalists in 2010. There were an estimated 8,581 Muslims attending seven mosques, the largest being the Islamic Center of Northeast Florida. The Jewish community, which numbered 6,028 in 2010, is largely centered in the neighborhood of Mandarin. There are five Orthodox, two Reform, two Conservative, and one Reconstructionist synagogues. The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute teaches courses for the community.
ARDA also estimated 4,595 Hindus, 3,530 Buddhists and 650 Bahá'ís in the Jacksonville area in 2010.
First Baptist Church of Jacksonville
Basilica of the Immaculate Conception
St. Andrew 's Episcopal Church
Mount Zion AME Church
Riverside Baptist Church
Snyder Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church
First Presbyterian Church
Jacksonville 's location on the St. Johns River and the Atlantic Ocean proved providential in the growth of the city and its industry. Jacksonville has a sizable deepwater port, which helps make it a leading port in the U.S. for automobile imports, as well as the leading transportation and distribution hub in the state. However, the strength of the city 's economy lies in its broad diversification. While the area once had many thriving dairies such as Gustafson 's Farm and Skinner Dairy, this aspect of the economy has declined over time. The area 's economy is balanced among distribution, financial services, biomedical technology, consumer goods, information services, manufacturing, insurance and other industries.
Jacksonville is home to many prominent corporations and organizations, including the headquarters of four Fortune 500 companies: CSX Corporation, Fidelity National Financial, Fidelity National Information Services and Southeastern Grocers. Interline Brands is based in Jacksonville and is currently owned by The Home Depot. The Florida East Coast Railway, Swisher International, Inc., and the large short line railroad holding company RailAmerica are also based in Jacksonville.
In 2008, Jacksonville had approximately 2.8 million visitors who stayed overnight, spending nearly $1 billion. Research Data Services of Tampa was commissioned to undertake the study, which quantified the importance of tourism. The total economic impact was $1.6 billion and supported nearly 43,000 jobs, 10 % of the local workforce.
Jacksonville has long had a regional legacy in banking and finance. Locally headquartered Atlantic National Bank, Florida National Bank and Barnett Bank dominated the industry in Florida from the turn of the 20th century through the 1980s, before all being acquired in a national wave of mergers and acquisitions throughout the entire financial sector. Acquired by NationsBank in 1997, Barnett Bank was the last of these banks to succumb to acquisition, and at the time was the largest banking merger in U.S. history. The city still holds distinction nationally and internationally, boosting two Fortune 500 financial services companies, Fidelity National Financial and FIS, FIS being well recognized as a global leader in financial technology. Headquartered on the banks of the St. Johns River in Downtown Jacksonville, EverBank holds the title of largest bank in the state by deposits. The city is home to other notable financial services institutions including Ameris Bancorp, Atlantic Coast Financial, Black Knight Financial Services, MedMal Direct Insurance Company, US Assure, and VyStar Credit Union. The city is also home to the Jacksonville Branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta.
Jacksonville 's financial sector has benefited from a rapidly changing business culture, as have other Sunbelt cities like Atlanta, Tampa, and Charlotte. In a concept known as nearshoring, financial intuitions are shifting operations away from high - cost addresses like Wall Street, and have even shifted trading functions to Jacksonville. With relatively low - cost real estate, easy access to New York City, high - quality of life and 19,000 financial sector employees, Jacksonville has become an appealing option for relocating staff. Perhaps the best example of this is the growth of Deutsche Bank 's presence in the city. Jacksonville is home to Deutsche Bank 's second largest US operation, only New York is larger. Other institutions with a notable presence in Jacksonville include Macquarie Group, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, JPMorgan Chase, Citi, Citizens Property Insurance, Fidelity Investments, Ally Financial and Aetna.
Jacksonville is a rail, air, and highway focal point and a busy port of entry, with Jacksonville International Airport, ship repair yards and extensive freight - handling facilities. Lumber, phosphate, paper, cigars and wood pulp are the principal exports; automobiles and coffee are among imports. The city 's manufacturing base provides just 4.5 % of local jobs, versus 8.5 % nationally. According to Forbes in 2007, Jacksonville, Florida ranked 3rd in the top ten U.S. cities to relocate to find a job. Jacksonville was also the 10th fastest growing city in the U.S.
To emphasize the city 's transportation business and capabilities, the Jacksonville Regional Chamber of Commerce filed Jacksonville America 's Logistics Center as a trademark on November 9, 2007. It was formally registered on August 4, 2009. Cornerstone began promoting the city as "Jacksonville: America 's Logistics Center '' in 2009. Signs were added to the existing city limit markers on Interstate 95.
The Port of Jacksonville, a seaport on the St. Johns River, is a large component of the local economy. Approximately 50,000 jobs in Northeast Florida are related to port activity and the port has an economic impact of $2.7 billion in Northeast Florida:
Cecil Commerce Center is located on the site of the former Naval Air Station Cecil Field which closed in 1999 following the 1993 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) decision. Covering a total area of 22,939 acres (92.83 km), it was the largest military base in the Jacksonville area. The parcel contains more than 3 % of the total land area in Duval County (17,000 acres (69 km)). The industrial and commercial - zoned center offers mid to large - size parcels for development and boasts excellent transportation and utility infrastructure as well as the third - longest runway in Florida.
The Florida Times - Union is the major daily newspaper in Jacksonville and the First Coast. Jacksonville.com is its official website. The Financial News & Daily Record is a daily paper focused on the business and legal communities. Weekly papers include the Jacksonville Business Journal, an American City Business Journals publication focused on business news, Folio Weekly, the city 's chief alternative weekly, and The Florida Star and the Jacksonville Free Press, two weeklies catering to African Americans. Jax4Kids, a monthly newspaper, caters to parents. Jax4Kids.com is its official website. EU Jacksonville is a monthly entertainment magazine. Metro Jacksonville is an online - only publication.
Jacksonville is the 47th largest local television market in the United States,. Despite its large population, Jacksonville has always been a medium - sized market because the surrounding suburbs and rural areas are not much larger than the city itself. It is served by television stations affiliated with major American networks including WTLV 12 (NBC) and its sister station WJXX 25 (ABC), WJAX - TV 47 (CBS) and WFOX - TV 30 (Fox; with MyNetworkTV / MeTV on DT2), which operates WJAX - TV under a joint sales and shared services agreement, WJCT 7 (PBS), and WCWJ 17 (CW). WJXT 4, WCWJ 's sister station, is a former longtime CBS affiliate that turned independent in 2002.
Jacksonville is the 49th largest local radio market in the United States, and is dominated by the same two large ownership groups that dominate the radio industry across the United States: Cox Radio and iHeartMedia. The dominant AM radio station in terms of ratings is WOKV 690AM, which is also the flagship station for the Jacksonville Jaguars. In May 2013, WOKV began simulcasting on 104.5 FM as WOKV FM. There are two radio stations broadcasting a primarily contemporary hits format; WAPE 95.1 has dominated this niche for over twenty years, and more recently has been challenged by WKSL 97.9 FM (KISS FM). WJBT 93.3 (The Beat) is a hip - hop / R&B station, 96.9 The Eagle WJGL operates a Classic Hits format while its HD subchannel WJGL - HD2 operates an Urban CHR format under the moniker Power 106.1, WWJK 107.3 is an Adult Variety station. WXXJ 102.9 is an alternative station, WQIK 99.1 is a country station as well as WGNE - FM 99.9, WCRJ FM 88.1 / WSOS - FM 94.1 (The Promise) is the main Contemporary Christian music station operating since 1984, and WJCT 89.9 is the local National Public Radio affiliate. WJKV 90.9 FM is an Educational Media Foundation K - LOVE outlet. The NPR and PRX radio show, State of the Re: Union, hosted by performance poet and playwright, Al Letson, is headquartered and produced in Jacksonville.
Jacksonville is home to three naval facilities, and with Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay nearby makes Jacksonville the third largest naval presence in the country. Only Norfolk, Virginia and San Diego, California are bigger. The military is by far the largest employer in Jacksonville and its total economic impact is approximately $6.1 billion annually. Several veterans service organizations are also headquartered in Jacksonville including Wounded Warrior Project.
Naval Air Station Jacksonville is a military airport located 4 miles (6.4 km) south of the central business district. Approximately 23,000 civilian and active - duty personnel are employed on the base. There are 35 operational units / squadrons assigned there and support facilities include an airfield for pilot training, a maintenance depot capable of virtually any task, from changing a tire to intricate micro-electronics or total engine disassembly. Also on - site is a Naval Hospital, a Fleet Industrial Supply Center, a Navy Family Service Center, and recreational facilities.
Naval Station Mayport is a Navy Ship Base that is the third largest fleet concentration area in the U.S. Mayport 's operational composition is unique, with a busy harbor capable of accommodating 34 ships and an 8,000 - foot (2,400 m) runway capable of handling any aircraft used by the Department of Defense. Until 2007, it was home to the aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy, which locals called "Big John ''. In January 2009, the Navy committed to stationing a nuclear - powered carrier at Mayport when the official Record of Decision was signed. The port will require approximately $500 million in facility enhancements to support the larger vessel, which would take several years to complete. The carrier was projected to arrive in 2019, however an amphibious group was sent before the carrier.
Blount Island Command is a Marine Corps Logistics Base whose mission is to support the Maritime Prepositioning Force (MPF) which provides for rapid deployment of personnel to link up with prepositioned equipment and supplies embarked aboard forward deployed Maritime Prepositioning Ships (MPS).
USS Jacksonville, a nuclear - powered Los Angeles class submarine, is a U.S. Navy ship named for the city. The ship 's nickname is The Bold One and Pearl Harbor is her home port.
The Florida Air National Guard is based at Jacksonville International Airport.
Coast Guard Sector Jacksonville is located on the St. Johns River next to Naval Station Mayport. Sector Jacksonville controls operations from Kings Bay, Ga. south to Cape Canaveral, Fla. The CGC Kingfisher, CGC Maria Bray, and CGC Hammer are stationed at the Sector. Station Mayport is co-located with Sector Jacksonville and includes 25 - foot (7.6 m) Response Boats, and 47 - foot (14 m) Motor Life Boats.
Throughout the year, many annual events of various types are held in Jacksonville. In sports, the annual Gate River Run has been held annually since March 1977. It has been the US National 15 - kilometre (9.3 mi) road race Championship since 1994 and is the largest race of its distance in the country with over 13,000 runners, spectators, and volunteers, making it Jacksonville 's largest participation sporting event. In college football, the Gator Bowl is held on January 1. It has been continuously held since 1946. Also, the Florida -- Georgia game (also known as the "World 's Largest Outdoor Cocktail Party ''), the annual college football game between the rival Florida Gators and Georgia Bulldogs has been held in Jacksonville almost yearly since 1933. For six days in July the Jacksonville Kingfish Tournament is held for fishermen of all skills. With $500,000 of prizes up for grabs, up to 1000 boats participate with almost 30,000 spectators watching. Jacksonville is also home of River City Pride which is Northeast Florida 's largest Gay Pride parade. The parade and festivities usually take place over the course of the weekend usually the first or second weekend in October in Jacksonville 's Riverside neighborhood. The first pride parade was held in 1978.
A number of cultural events are also held in Jacksonville. The Jacksonville Jazz Festival, held downtown, is the second - largest jazz festival in the nation, while Springing the Blues, one of the oldest and largest blues festivals, has been held in Jacksonville Beach since 1990. The World of Nations Celebration has been held in Metropolitan Park since 1993, and features a number of events, food and souvenirs from various countries.
The Art Walk, a monthly outdoor art festival on the first Wednesday of each month, is sponsored by Downtown Vision, Inc, an organization which works to promote artistic talent and venues on the First Coast. Other events include the Blessing of the Fleet held in March since 1985 and the Greater Jacksonville Agricultural Fair in November at the Jacksonville Fairgrounds and Exposition Center featuring games, rides, food, entertainment and livestock exhibition. One Spark is an annual and the largest crowdfunding event held for creators to showcase their ideas for a chance to win part of $300,000 in funding. Riverside Arts Market (RAM), an outdoor arts - and - crafts market on the Riverwalk, occurs every Saturday from March to December under the canopy of the Fuller Warren Bridge. Holiday celebrations include the Freedom, Fanfare & Fireworks celebration on July 4, the lighting of Jacksonville 's official Christmas tree at the Jacksonville Landing on the day after Thanksgiving and the Jacksonville Light Parade of boats the following day.
The Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena, which opened in 2003, is a 16,000 - seat performance venue that attracts national entertainment, sporting events and also houses the Jacksonville Sports Hall of Fame. It replaced the outdated Jacksonville Coliseum that was built in 1960 and demolished on June 26, 2003. The Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens boasts the second largest animal collection in the state. The zoo features elephants, lions, and, of course, jaguars (with an exhibit, Range of the Jaguar, hosted by the former owners of the Jacksonville Jaguars, Delores and Wayne Weaver). It also has a multitude of reptile houses, free flight aviaries, and many other animals. Adventure Landing is an amusement park with locations in Jacksonville and Jacksonville Beach. The Jacksonville Beach location contains Shipwreck Island, Duval County 's only waterpark.
Theatre Jacksonville was organized in 1919 as the Little Theatre and is one of the oldest continually producing community theatres in the United States. The Alhambra Dinner Theatre, located on the Southside near the University of North Florida, has offered professional productions that frequently starred well - known actors since 1967. There are also a number of popular community theatres such as Players by the Sea located in Jacksonville Beach. The Murray Hill Art Center was reopened in February 2012 through a partnership of the Jacksonville Parks and Recreation (JaxParks) and the Art League of Jacksonville, a nonprofit dedicated to arts education. The center is located in the historic Murray Hill area and offers community arts classes as well as shared studio space for aspiring artists. Visitors are welcomed year around for events and classes.
Jacksonville has two fully enclosed shopping malls. The oldest is the Regency Square Mall, which opened in 1967 and is located on former sand dunes in the Arlington area. The other is The Avenues Mall, which opened in 1990 on the Southside, at the intersection of I - 95 and US 1. The Orange Park Mall is another mall located just south of the city in the suburb of Orange Park, Florida, in Clay County, off of Blanding Boulevard (State Road 21). The end of the indoor shopping mall may be indicated by the opening of The St. Johns Town Center in 2005 and the River City Marketplace, on the Northside in 2006. Both of these are "open air '' malls, with a similar mix of stores, but without being contained under a single, enclosed roof. According to the International Council of Shopping Centers (ICSC), only one enclosed mall has been built in the United States since 2006. The Avenues, Orange Park Mall, and St. Johns Town Center are all owned by Simon Property Group; Regency is owned by General Growth Properties; River City Marketplace is owned by Ramco - Gershenson.
A handful of significant literary works are associated with Jacksonville and the surrounding area. Perhaps the most important of these is that of James Weldon Johnson. His first success as a writer was the poem "Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing '' (1899), which his brother Rosamond set to music; the song became unofficially known as the "Negro National Anthem. '' Already famous for having written Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852), Harriet Beecher Stowe published Palmetto Leaves in 1873. A travel guide and memoir about her winters in the town of Mandarin, Florida, it was one of the first guides written about Florida and stimulated Florida 's first boom of tourism and residential development in the 1880s.
Sun - Ray Cinema, formerly the 5 Points Theatre and Riverside Theatre, opened in 1927. It was the first theater equipped to show talking pictures in Florida and the third nationally. It is located in the Five Points section of town and was renamed the Five Points Theater in 1949. The Florida Theatre, opened in 1927, is located in downtown Jacksonville and is one of only four remaining high - style movie palaces built in Florida during the Mediterranean Revival architectural boom of the 1920s. Since that time, Jacksonville has been chosen by a number of film and television studios for on - location shooting. Notable motion pictures that have been partially or completely shot in Jacksonville since the silent film era include Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954), The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking (1988), Brenda Starr (1989), G.I. Jane (1997), The Devil 's Advocate (1997), Ride (1998), Why Do Fools Fall In Love (1998), Forces of Nature (1999), Tigerland (2000), Sunshine State (2002), Basic (2003), The Manchurian Candidate (2004), Lonely Hearts (2006), Moving McAllister (2007), The Year of Getting to Know Us (2008), The Ramen Girl and Like Dandelion Dust.
Notable television series or made - for - television films that have been partially or completely shot in Jacksonville include Inherit the Wind (1988), Orpheus Descending (1990), Saved by the Light (1995), The Babysitter 's Seduction (1996), First Time Felon (1997), Safe Harbor (2009), Recount (2008), American Idol (2009), and Ash vs Evil Dead (2015).
The Cummer Museum of Art and Gardens is an art museum in Jacksonville 's Riverside neighborhood. It was founded in 1961, following the death of Ninah Mae Holden Cummer, who willed her collection, home, and gardens to the museum. Its galleries display one of the world 's three most comprehensive collections of Meissen porcelain as well as large collections of American, European, and Japanese art. The grounds also contain two acres of Italian and English gardens begun by Ninah Cummer.
The Museum of Contemporary Art Jacksonville (MOCA Jacksonville) is a contemporary art museum funded and operated as a "cultural resource '' of the University of North Florida. Tracing its roots back to the formation of Jacksonville 's Fine Arts Society in 1924, it opened its current 60,000 - square - foot (6,000 m) facility next to the Main Library downtown in 2003. The museum features eclectic permanent and traveling exhibitions and a collection of over 700 works.
The Museum of Science & History (MOSH), located in downtown 's Southbank Riverwalk, specializes in science and local history exhibits. It features a main exhibit that changes quarterly, plus three floors of nature exhibits, an extensive exhibit on the history of Northeast Florida, a hands - on science area and the area 's only astronomy theater, the Bryan Gooding Planetarium.
Kingsley Plantation is a historic plantation built in 1798. The house of Zephaniah Kingsley, barn, kitchen and slave cabins still exist today.
Alexander Brest, founder of Duval Engineering and Contracting Co., was also the benefactor for the Alexander Brest Museum and Gallery on the campus of Jacksonville University. The exhibits are a diverse collection of carved ivory, Pre-Columbian artifacts, Steuben glass, Chinese porcelain and Cloisonné, Tiffany glass, Boehm porcelain and rotating exhibitions containing the work of local, regional, national and international artists.
The Jacksonville Maritime Museum, located in the Jacksonville Landing, includes models of ships, paintings, photographs and artifacts dating to 1562.
Three other art galleries are located at educational institutions in town. Florida State College at Jacksonville has the Kent Gallery on their westside campus and the Wilson Center for the Arts at their main campus. The University Gallery is located on the campus of the University of North Florida.
The Jacksonville Karpeles Manuscript Library Museum is a branch of the world 's largest private collection of original manuscripts and documents. The museum in Jacksonville is in a 1921 neoclassical building on the outskirts of downtown. In addition to document displays, there is also an antique - book library, with volumes dating from the late 19th century.
The Catherine Street Fire Station building is on the National Register of Historic Places and was relocated to Metropolitan Park in 1993. It houses the Jacksonville Fire Museum and features 500 + artifacts including an 1806 hand pumper.
The LaVilla Museum opened in 1999 and features a permanent display of African - American history. The art exhibits are changed periodically.
There are also several historical properties and items of interest in the city, including the Klutho Building, the Old Morocco Temple Building, the Palm and Cycad Arboretum, and the Prime F. Osborn III Convention Center, originally built as Union Station train depot. The Jacksonville Historical Society showcases two restoration projects: the 1887 St. Andrews Episcopal Church and the 1879 Merrill House, both located near the sports complex.
The Ritz Theatre, opened in 1929, is located in the LaVilla neighborhood of the northern part of Jacksonville 's downtown. The Jacksonville music scene was active in the 1930s in LaVilla, which was known as "Harlem of the South ''. Black musicians from across the country visited Jacksonville to play standing room only performances at the Ritz Theatre and the Knights of Pythias Hall. Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong were a few of the legendary performers who appeared. After his mother died when he was 15, Ray Charles lived with friends of his mother while he played piano at the Ritz for a year, before moving on to fame and fortune. The Ritz Theatre was rebuilt and opened in October 1999.
Jacksonville native Pat Boone was a popular 1950s singer and teen idol. During the 1960s, the Classics IV was the most successful pop rock band from Jacksonville. Southern Rock was defined by the Allman Brothers Band, which formed in 1969 in Jacksonville. Lynyrd Skynyrd achieved near cult status and inspired Blackfoot, Molly Hatchet and. 38 Special, all successful in the 1970s. The 1980s were a quiet decade for musical talent in Jacksonville.
The Times - Union Center for the Performing Arts consists of three distinct halls: the Jim & Jan Moran Theater, a venue for touring Broadway shows; the Jacoby Symphony Hall, home of the Jacksonville Symphony Orchestra; and the Terry Theater, intended for small shows and recitals. The building was originally erected as the Civic Auditorium in 1962 and underwent a major renovation and construction in 1996.
The next local group to achieve national success was the nu metal band Limp Bizkit, formed in 1994. Other popular Hip Hop acts in the 1990s included 95 South, 69 Boyz and the Quad City DJ 's. The bands Inspection 12, Cold and Yellowcard were also well known and had a large following. Following the millennium, Fit For Rivals, Burn Season, Evergreen Terrace, Shinedown, The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, and Black Kids became notable bands from the city.
Jacksonville is home to one major league sports team, the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL). The Jaguars joined the NFL as an expansion team in the 1995 season; they play their home games at EverBank Field. In 2005, Jacksonville hosted Super Bowl XXXIX. The PGA Tour, which organizes the main professional golf tournaments in the U.S., is headquartered in the suburb of Ponte Vedra Beach, where it holds The Players Championship every year.
Jacksonville is also home to several minor league - level teams. The Jacksonville Jumbo Shrimp, a class Double - A baseball team, have played in Jacksonville continuously since 1970, longer than any other Double - A team has been in its city, and are the top - selling franchise in the Southern League. The Jacksonville Sharks, who began play in 2010, were the champions of the Arena Football League 's ArenaBowl XXIV in 2011 and now play in the National Arena League. The Jacksonville Axemen are a semi-professional rugby league team founded in 2006, and now play in the USA Rugby League. The Jacksonville Giants basketball team started play in the new American Basketball Association in December 2010. The Giants won the 2012 ABA Championship in March 2012 in Tampa, Florida. The Jacksonville Armada FC is a soccer team that began play in the North American Soccer League (NASL) in 2015.
College sports, especially college football, are popular in Jacksonville. The city hosts the Florida -- Georgia game, an annual college football game between the University of Florida and the University of Georgia, and the Gator Bowl, a post-season college bowl game. Jacksonville 's two universities compete in NCAA Division I: the University of North Florida Ospreys and the Jacksonville University Dolphins, both in the Atlantic Sun Conference.
The most noteworthy feature of Jacksonville government is its consolidated nature, an arrangement brought about in the 1968 Jacksonville Consolidation. The Duval County - Jacksonville consolidation eliminated any type of separate county executive or legislature, and supplanted these positions with the Mayor of Jacksonville and the City Council of the City of Jacksonville, respectively. Because of this, voters who live outside of the city limits of Jacksonville but inside Duval County are allowed to vote in elections for these positions and to run for them. In fact, in 1995, John Delaney, a resident of Neptune Beach, was elected mayor of the city of Jacksonville.
Jacksonville is organized under the city charter and provides for a "strong '' mayor -- council form of city government. The Mayor of Jacksonville is elected to four - year terms and serves as the head of the government 's executive branch. The Jacksonville City Council comprises nineteen members, fourteen representing electoral districts and five more in at - large seats. The mayor oversees most city departments, though some are independent or quasi-independent. Law enforcement is provided by the Jacksonville Sheriff 's Office, headed by an elected sheriff, public schools are overseen by Duval County Public Schools, and several services are provided by largely independent authorities. The mayor holds veto power over all resolutions and ordinances made by the city council and also has the power to hire and fire the head of various city departments.
Some government services remained -- as they had been before consolidation -- independent of both city and county authority. In accordance with Florida law, the school board continues to exist with nearly complete autonomy. Jacksonville also has several quasi-independent government agencies which only nominally answer to the consolidated authority, including electric authority, port authority, transportation authority, housing authority and airport authority. The main environmental and agricultural body is the Duval County Soil and Water Conservation District, which works closely with other area and state agencies.
The Jacksonville Housing Authority (JHA) is the quasi-independent agency responsible for public housing and subsidized housing in Jacksonville. The Mayor and City Council of Jacksonville established the JHA in 1994 to create an effective, community service oriented, public housing agency with innovative ideas and a different attitude. The primary goal was to provide safe, clean, affordable housing for eligible low and moderate income families, the elderly, and persons with disabilities. The secondary goal was to provide effective social services, work with residents to improve their quality of life, encourage employment and self - sufficiency, and help residents move out of assisted housing. To that end, JHA works with HabiJax to help low and moderate income families to escape the public housing cycle and become successful, productive, homeowners and taxpayers.
The present mayor is Lenny Curry, who assumed office on July 1, 2015. The past mayor was Alvin Brown.
Federally, most of the city is in the 4th district, represented by Republican John Rutherford. Most of central Jacksonville is in the 5th district, represented by Democrat Al Lawson. The 4th and 5th districts are some of the most gerrymandered districts in the country.
In 2010, Duval County 's crime rate was 5,106 per 100,000 people, according to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement. The county 's murder rate had been the highest among Florida 's counties with a population of 500,000 or more for eleven years in 2009, leading to widespread discussion in the community about how to deal with the problem. In 2010 Duval County 's violent crime rate decreased by 9.3 % from the previous year, with total crime decreasing 7.3 %, putting the murder rate behind that of Miami - Dade County.
Jacksonville and Duval County historically maintained separate police agencies: the Jacksonville Police Department and Duval County Sheriff 's Office. As part of consolidation in 1968, the two merged, creating the Jacksonville Sheriff 's Office (JSO). The JSO is headed by the elected Sheriff of Jacksonville, currently Mike Williams, and is responsible for law enforcement and corrections in the county.
Jacksonville is home to a number of institutions of higher education. The University of North Florida (UNF), opened in 1972, is a public institution and a member of the State University System of Florida. Former mayor John Delaney has been president of UNF since 2003. Jacksonville University (JU) is a private institution founded in 1934. Edward Waters College, established in 1866, is the oldest college in Jacksonville and the state 's oldest historically black college. Florida State College at Jacksonville is a state college and a member of the Florida College System, offering two - year associate 's degrees as well as some four - year bachelor 's degrees. The University of Florida has its second campus of the J. Hillis Miller Health Science Center in Jacksonville.
Other colleges and universities in Jacksonville include Florida Coastal School of Law and Jones College. Also in the area are St. Johns River State College, a state college with campuses in Clay, St. Johns, and Putnam Counties, and Flagler College in St. Augustine.
University of North Florida
Jacksonville University
Florida State College at Jacksonville
Florida Coastal School of Law
Edward Waters College
Public primary and secondary schools in Jacksonville and Duval County are administered by Duval County Public Schools, which is governed by an elected, seven - member Duval County School Board. In the 2009 -- 2010 school year the district enrolled 123,000 students. It administers 172 total schools, including 103 elementary schools, 25 middle schools, 19 high schools, 3 K -- 8 schools, and 1 6 -- 12 school, as well as 13 charter schools and a juvenile justice school program. Of these, 62 are designated magnet schools.
Three of Jacksonville 's high schools, Stanton College Preparatory School, Darnell - Cookman School of the Medical Arts and Paxon School for Advanced Studies regularly appear at the top of Newsweek magazine 's annual list of the country 's top public high schools, coming in respectively at # 3 # 7, and # 8 in the 2010 edition. Five other schools, Douglas Anderson School of the Arts (# 33), Mandarin High School (# 97), Duncan U. Fletcher High School (# 205) Sandalwood High School (# 210), and Englewood High School (# 1146) were also included in the list.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of St. Augustine operates a number of Catholic schools in Jacksonville, including two high schools, Bishop Kenny High School and Bishop John J. Snyder High School. Other private schools in Jacksonville include Arlington Country Day School, the Bolles School, Trinity Christian Academy, and the Episcopal School of Jacksonville.
The Jacksonville Public Library had its beginnings when May Moore and Florence Murphy started the "Jacksonville Library and Literary Association '' in 1878. The Association was populated by various prominent Jacksonville residents and sought to create a free public library and reading room for the city.
Over the course of 127 years, the system has grown from that one room library to become one of the largest in the state. The Jacksonville library system has twenty branches, ranging in size from the 54,000 sq ft (5,000 m) West Regional Library to smaller neighborhood libraries like Westbrook and Eastside. The Library annually receives nearly 4 million visitors and circulates over 6 million items. Nearly 500,000 library cards are held by area residents.
On November 12, 2005, the new 300,000 sq ft (30,000 m) Main Library opened to the public, replacing the 40 - year - old Haydon Burns Library. The largest public library in the state, the opening of the new main library marked the completion of an unprecedented period of growth for the system under the Better Jacksonville Plan. The new Main Library offers specialized reading rooms, public access to hundreds of computers and public displays of art, an extensive collection of books, and special collections ranging from the African - American Collection to the recently opened Holocaust Collection.
There are seven bridges over the St. Johns River at Jacksonville. They include (starting from furthest downstream) the Napoleon Bonaparte Broward Bridge (Dames Point) (which carries Interstate 295 Eastern Beltway traffic), the John E. Mathews Bridge, the Isaiah D. Hart Bridge, the John T. Alsop Jr. Bridge (Main Street), the St. Elmo W. Acosta Bridge, the Fuller Warren Bridge (which carries I - 95 traffic) and the Henry Holland Buckman Bridge (which carries I - 295 North / South traffic). Also, next to the Acosta Bridge is a large jackknife railroad bridge built in the 1920s by Henry flagler 's FEC railroad.
Beginning in 1953, tolls were charged on the Hart, Mathews, Fuller Warren and the Main Street bridges to pay for bridge construction, renovations and many other highway projects. As Jacksonville grew, toll plazas created bottlenecks and caused delays and accidents during rush hours. In 1988, Jacksonville voters chose to eliminate toll collection and replace the revenue with a 1⁄2 cent local sales tax increase. In 1989, the toll booths were removed.
Interstate 10 (I - 10) and I - 95 intersect in Jacksonville, forming the busiest intersection in the region with 200,000 vehicles each day. I - 10 ends at this intersection (the other end being in Santa Monica, California). Additionally, State Road 202 (SR 202, J. Turner Butler Boulevard) connects Jacksonville to the beaches.
I - 95 has a bypass route, I - 295, which encircles the downtown area. The major interchange at I - 295 and SR 202 was finally completed on December 24, 2008. SR 9B is under construction and will connect I - 295 's southeast corner to the Bayard Area. SR 9B will be called I - 795 when it is completed. U.S. Highway 1 (US 1) and US 17 travel through the city from the south to the north, and US 23 enters the city running concurrently with US 1. In downtown, US 23 splits from US 1 and quickly runs to its southern terminus. The eastern terminus of US 90 is in nearby Jacksonville Beach near the Atlantic Ocean. US 23 's other end is in Mackinaw City, Michigan.
Several regional transportation projects have been undertaken in recent years to deal with congestion on Jacksonville freeways. A $152 million project to create a high - speed interchange at the intersection of Interstates 10 and 95 began in February 2005, after the conclusion of Super Bowl XXXIX. Construction was expected to take nearly six years with multiple lane flyovers and the requirement that the interchange remain open throughout the project. The previous configuration utilized single lane, low speed, curved ramps which created backups during rush hours and contributed to accidents. Also, construction of 9B, future Interstate 795, is currently underway.
I - 95 passing by downtown Jacksonville
Acosta Bridge
Mathews Bridge
Fuller Warren Bridge
Main St Bridge
Hart Bridge
Dames Point Bridge
Buckman Bridge
The Jacksonville Skyway is an automated people mover connecting Florida State College at Jacksonville downtown campus, the Northbank central business district, Convention Center, and Southbank locations. The system includes 8 stops connected by two lines. The existing train is a UMIII monorail built by Bombardier. The guideway consists of concrete beams which rest atop an unusually large support structure not used in most monorail systems. Maximum speed for the train is 48 km / h (30 mph).
A monorail was first proposed in the 1970s as part of a mobility plan hoping to attract interest from the Urban Mass Transit Administration 's Downtown Peoplemover Program. The initial study was undertaken by the Florida Department of Transportation and Jacksonville 's planning department, who took the Skyway project to the Jacksonville Transportation Authority (JTA) in 1977. Following further development and a final 18 - month feasibility study, the UMTA selected Jacksonville as one of seven cities to receive federal funding for an automated people mover. Two other related projects are Miami 's Metromover and Detroit 's People Mover. UMTA 's approved plan called for the construction of a 2.5 - mile (4.0 km) Phase I system to be built in three segments.
Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides daily service from the Jacksonville Amtrak Station on Clifford Lane in the northwest section of the city. Two trains presently stop there, the Silver Meteor and Silver Star. Jacksonville was also served by the thrice - weekly Sunset Limited and the daily Silver Palm. Service on the Silver Palm was cut back to Savannah, Georgia in 2002. The Sunset Limited route was truncated at San Antonio, Texas as a result of the track damage in the Gulf Coast area caused by Hurricane Katrina on August 28, 2005. Service was restored as far east as New Orleans by late October 2005, but Amtrak has opted not to fully restore service into Florida.
Jacksonville is the headquarters of two significant freight railroads. CSX Transportation, owns a large building on the downtown riverbank that is a significant part of the skyline. Florida East Coast Railway also calls Jacksonville home.
Jacksonville is served by Jacksonville International Airport (IATA: JAX, ICAO: KJAX, FAA LID: JAX), 13 miles north of downtown, with 82 departures a day to 27 nonstop destination cities. Airports in Jacksonville are managed by the Jacksonville Aviation Authority (JAA). Smaller aircraft use Jacksonville Executive at Craig Airport (IATA: CRG, ICAO: KCRG, FAA LID: CRG) in Arlington, Herlong Recreational Airport (ICAO: KHEG, FAA LID: HEG) on the Westside, and Cecil Airport (IATA: VQQ, ICAO: KVQQ, FAA LID: VQQ), at Cecil Commerce Center. The state of Florida has designated Cecil Airport a space port, allowing horizontal lift spacecraft to use the facility.
Public seaports in Jacksonville are managed by the Jacksonville Port Authority, known as JAXPORT. Four modern deepwater (40 ft) seaport facilities, including America 's newest cruise port, make Jacksonville a full - service international seaport. In FY2006, JAXPORT handled 8.7 million tons of cargo, including nearly 610,000 vehicles, which ranks Jacksonville 2nd in the nation in automobile handling, behind only the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.
The 20 other maritime facilities not managed by the Port Authority move about 10 million tons of additional cargo in and out of the St. Johns River. In terms of total tonnage, the Port of Jacksonville ranks 40th nationally; within Florida, it is 3rd behind Tampa and Port Everglades.
In 2003, the JAXPORT Cruise Terminal opened, providing cruise service for 1,500 passengers to Key West, Florida, the Bahamas, and Mexico via Carnival Cruise Lines ship, Celebration, which was retired in April 2008. For almost five months, no cruises originated from Jacksonville until September 20, 2008, when the cruise ship Fascination departed with 2,079 passengers. In Fiscal year 2006, there were 78 cruise ship sailings with 128,745 passengers. A JaxPort spokesperson said in 2008 that they expect 170,000 passengers to sail each year.
Jacksonville Fire and Rescue operates a fleet of three fireboats. Its vessels are called on to fight approximately 75 fires per year.
The Mayport Ferry connects the north and south ends of State Road A1A between Mayport and Fort George Island, and is the last active ferry in Florida. The state of Florida transferred responsibility for ferry operations to JAXPORT on October 1, 2007.
Basic utilities in Jacksonville (water, sewer, electric) are provided by JEA (formerly the Jacksonville Electric Authority). According to Article 21 of the Jacksonville City Charter,
JEA is authorized to own, manage and operate a utilities system within and outside the City of Jacksonville. JEA is created for the express purpose of acquiring, constructing, operating, financing and otherwise have plenary authority with respect to electric, water, sewer, natural gas and such other utility systems as may be under its control now or in the future.
People 's Gas is Jacksonville 's natural gas provider. Comcast is Jacksonville 's local cable provider. AT&T (formerly BellSouth) is Jacksonville 's local phone provider, and their U-Verse service offers TV, internet, and VoIP phone service to customers served by fiber - to - the - premises or fiber - to - the - node using a VRAD. The city has a successful recycling program with separate pickups for garbage, yard waste and recycling. Collection is provided by several private companies under contract to the City of Jacksonville.
Major players in the Jacksonville health care industry include St. Vincent 's HealthCare, Baptist Health and UF Health Jacksonville for local residents. Additionally, Nemours Children 's Clinic and Mayo Clinic Jacksonville each draw patients regionally.
The TaxExemptWorld.com website, which compiles Internal Revenue Service data, reported that in 2007, there are 2,910 distinct, active, tax exempt / non-profit organizations in Jacksonville which, excluding Credit Unions, had a total income of $7.08 billion and assets of $9.54 billion. There are 333 charitable organizations with assets of over $1 million. The largest share of assets was tied to Medical facilities, $4.5 billion. The problems of the homeless are addressed by several non-profits, most notably the Sulzbacher Center and the Clara White Mission.
Jacksonville has eight sister cities. They are:
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what kind of horse is bob on free rein | Free Rein - wikipedia
Free Rein is a British television series created and written by Vicki Lutas and Anna McCleery. The series stars Jaylen Barron, Céline Buckens, and Kerry Ingram. The ten - part series premiered on Netflix on 22 June 2017. The show is produced in the UK by Lime Pictures. Although the island where the series is set is fictional and unnamed, it is based on the Isle of Wight but referred to as "an island off the coast of England '' throughout the show. The scenes on the pier are shot in a town called Beaumaris, located on the isle of Anglesey. The series has been renewed, and a second season of ten episodes will be produced. The second season premiered on 6 July 2018. Shortly after, the show was renewed for a third season, as well as two feature length special episodes.
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this is the physical arrangement of a text and graphics on a page | Page layout - Wikipedia
Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement of visual elements on a page. It generally involves organizational principles of composition to achieve specific communication objectives.
The high - level page layout involves deciding on the overall arrangement of text and images, and possibly on the size or shape of the medium. It requires intelligence, sentience, and creativity, and is informed by culture, psychology, and what the document authors and editors wish to communicate and emphasize. Low - level pagination and typesetting are more mechanical processes. Given certain parameters - boundaries of text areas, the typeface, font size, and justification preference can be done in a straightforward way. Until desktop publishing became dominant, these processes were still done by people, but in modern publishing they are almost always automated. The result might be published as - is (as for a residential phone book interior) or might be tweaked by a graphic designer (as for a highly polished, expensive publication).
Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand - copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media, elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place - holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die / laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.
With manuscripts, all of the elements are added by hand, so the creator can determine the layout directly as they create the work, perhaps with an advance sketch as a guide.
With ancient woodblock printing, all elements of the page were carved directly into wood, though later layout decisions might need to be made if the printing was transferred onto a larger work, such as a large piece of fabric, potentially with multiple block impressions.
With the Renaissance invention of letterpress printing and cold - metal moveable type, typesetting was accomplished by physically assembling characters using a composing stick into a galley -- a long tray. Any images would be created by engraving.
The original document would be a hand - written manuscript; if the typesetting was performed by someone other than the layout artist, markup would be added to the manuscript with instructions as to typeface, font size, and so on. (Even after authors began to use typewriters in the 1860s, originals were still called "manuscripts '' and the markup process was the same.)
After the first round of typesetting, a galley proof might be printed in order for proofreading to be performed, either to correct errors in the original, or to make sure that the typesetter had copied the manuscript properly, and correctly interpreted the markup. The final layout would be constructed in a "form '' or "forme '' using pieces of wood or metal ("furniture '') to space out the text and images as desired, a frame known as a chase, and objects which lock down the frame known as quoins. This process is called imposition, and potentially includes arranging multiple pages to be printed on the same sheet of paper which will later be folded and possibly trimmed. An "imposition proof '' (essentially a short run of the press) might be created to check the final placement.
The invention of hot metal typesetting in 1884 sped up the typesetting process by allowing workers to produce slugs -- entire lines of text -- using a keyboard. The slugs were the result of molten metal being poured into molds temporarily assembled by the typesetting machine. The layout process remained the same as with cold metal type, however: assembly into physical galleys.
Offset lithography allows the bright and dark areas of an image (at first captured on film) to control ink placement on the printing press. This means that if a single copy of the page can be created on paper and photographed, then any number of copies could be printed. Type could be set with a typewriter, or to achieve professional results comparable to letterpress, a specialized typesetting machine. The IBM Selectric Composer, for example, could produce type of different size, different fonts (including proportional fonts), and with text justification. With photoengraving and halftone, physical photographs could be transferred into print directly, rather than relying on hand - made engravings.
The layout process then became the task of creating the paste up, so named because rubber cement or other adhesive would be used to physically paste images and columns of text onto a rigid sheet of paper. Completed pages become known as camera - ready, "mechanical '' or "mechanical art ''.
Phototypesetting was invented in 1945; after keyboard input, characters were shot one - by - one onto a photographic negative, which could then be sent to the print shop directly, or shot onto photographic paper for paste - up. These machines became increasingly sophisticated, with computer - driven models able to store text on magnetic tape.
As the graphics capabilities of computers matured, they began to be used to render characters, columns, pages, and even multi-page signatures directly, rather than simply summoning a photographic template from a pre-supplied set. In addition to being used as display devices for computer operators, cathode ray tubes were used to render text for phototypesetting. The curved nature of the CRT display however, led to distortions of text and art on the screen towards the outer edges of the screens. The advent of "flat screen '' monitors (LCD, LED, and more recently OLED) in early 2010 eliminated the distortion problems caused by older CRT displays. As of 2016 flat panel displays have almost completely replaced CRT displays.
Printers attached directly to computers allowed them to print documents directly, in multiple copies or as an original which could be copied on a ditto machine or photocopier. WYSIWYG word processors made it possible for general office users and consumers to make more sophisticated page layouts, use text justification, and use more fonts than were possible with typewriters. Early dot matrix printing was sufficient for office documents, but was of too low a quality for professional typesetting. Inkjet printing and laser printing did produce sufficient quality type, and so computers with these types of printers quickly replaced phototypesetting machines.
With modern desktop publishing software such as flagship software Adobe Indesign and cloud - based Lucidpress, the layout process can occur entirely on - screen. (Similar layout options that would be available to a professional print shop making a paste - up are supported by desktop publishing software; in contrast, "word processing '' software usually has a much more limited set of layout and typography choices available, trading off flexibility for ease of use for more common applications.) A finished document can be directly printed as the camera - ready version, with no physical assembly required (given a big enough printer). Greyscale images must be either half toned digitally if being sent to an offset press, or sent separately for the print shop to insert into marked areas. Completed works can also be transmitted digitally to the print shop, who may print it themselves, shoot it directly to film, or use computer to plate technology to skip the physical original entirely. PostScript and Portable Document Format (PDF) have become standard file formats for digital transmission.
Since the advent of personal computing, page layout skills have expanded to electronic media as well as print media. E-books, PDF documents, and static web pages mirror paper documents relatively closely, but computers can also add multimedia animation, and interactivity. Page layout for interactive media overlaps with interface design and user experience design; an interactive "page '' is better known as a graphical user interface (GUI).
Modern web pages are typically produced using HTML for content and general structure, cascading style sheets to control presentation details such as typography and spacing, and JavaScript for interactivity. Since these languages are all text - based, this work can be done in a text editor, or a special HTML editor which may have WYSIWYG features or other aids. Additional technologies such as Macromedia Flash may be used for multimedia content. Web developers are responsible for actually creating a finished document using these technologies, but a separate web designer may be responsible for establishing the layout. A given web designer might be a fluent web developer as well, or may merely be familiar with the general capabilities of the technologies and merely visualize the desired result for the development team.
Projected slides used in presentations or entertainment often have similar layout considerations to printed pages.
The magic lantern and opaque projector were used during lectures in the 1800s, using printed, typed, photographed, or hand - drawn originals. Two sets of photographic film (one negative and one positive) or one reversal film can be used to create positive images that can be projected with light passing through. Intertitles were used extensively in the earliest motion pictures when sound was not available; they are still used occasionally in addition to the ubiquitous vanity cards and credits.
It became popular to use transparent film for presentations (with opaque text and images) using overhead projectors in the 1940s, and slide projectors in the 1950s. Transparencies for overhead projectors could be printed by some photocopiers. Computer presentation programs became available in the 1980s, making it possible to lay out a presentation digitally. Computer - developed presentations could be printed to a transparency with some laser printers, transferred to slides, or projected directly using LCD overhead projectors. Modern presentations are often displayed digitally using a video projector, computer monitor, or large - screen television.
Laying out a presentation presents slightly different challenges than a print document, especially because a person will typically be speaking and referring to the projected pages. Consideration might be given to:
Grids and templates are page layout design patterns used in advertising campaigns and multiple - page publications, including websites.
A grid is a set of guidelines, able to be seen in the design process and invisible to the end - user / audience, for aligning and repeating elements on a page. A page layout may or may not stay within those guidelines, depending on how much repetition or variety the design style in the series calls for. Grids are meant to be flexible. Using a grid to lay out elements on the page may require just as much or more graphic design skill than that which was required to design the grid.
In contrast, a template is more rigid. A template involves repeated elements mostly visible to the end - user / audience. Using a template to lay out elements usually involves less graphic design skill than that which was required to design the template. Templates are used for minimal modification of background elements and frequent modification (or swapping) of foreground content.
Most desktop publishing software allows for grids in the form of a page filled with coloured lines or dots placed at a specified equal horizontal and vertical distance apart. Automatic margins and booklet spine (gutter) lines may be specified for global use throughout the document. Multiple additional horizontal and vertical lines may be placed at any point on the page. Invisible to the end - user / audience shapes may be placed on the page as guidelines for page layout and print processing as well. Software templates are achieved by duplicating a template data file, or with master page features in a multiple - page document. Master pages may include both grid elements and template elements such as header and footer elements, automatic page numbering, and automatic table of contents features.
Static layouts allow for more control over the aesthetics, and thorough optimization of space around and overlapping irregular - shaped content than dynamic layouts. In web design, this is sometimes referred to as a fixed width layout; but the entire layout may be scalable in size while still maintaining the original proportions, static placement, and style of the content. All raster image formats are static layouts in effect; but a static layout may include searchable text by separating the text from the graphics.
In contrast, electronic pages allow for dynamic layouts with swapping content, personalization of styles, text scaling, image scaling, or reflowable content with variable page sizes often referred to as fluid or liquid layout. Dynamic layouts are more likely to separate presentation from content, which comes with its own advantages. A dynamic layout lays out all text and images into rectangular areas of rows and columns. As these areas ' widths and heights are defined to be percentages of the available screen, they are responsive to varying screen dimensions. They 'll automatically ensure maximized use of available space while always staying adapted optimally both on screen resizes and hardware - given restrictions. Text may freely be resized to provide users ' individual needs on legibility while never disturbing a given layout 's proportions. The content 's overall arrangement on screen this way may always remain as it was originally designed.
Static layout design may involve more graphic design and visual art skills, whereas dynamic layout design may involve more interactive design and content management skills to thoroughly anticipate content variation.
Motion graphics do n't fit neatly into either category, but may involve layout skills or careful consideration of how the motion may affect the layout. In either case, the element of motion makes it a dynamic layout, but one that warrants motion graphic design more than static graphic design or interactive design.
Electronic pages may utilize both static and dynamic layout features by dividing the pages or by combining the effects. For example, a section of the page such as a web banner may contain static or motion graphics contained within a swapping content area. Dynamic or live text may be wrapped around irregular shaped images by using invisible spacers to push the text away from the edges. Some computer algorithms can detect the edges of an object that contain transparency and flow content around contours.
With modern media content retrieval and output technology, there is much overlap between visual communications (front - end) and information technology (back - end). Large print publications (thick books, especially instructional in nature) and electronic pages (web pages) require meta data for automatic indexing, automatic reformatting, database publishing, dynamic page display and end - user interactivity. Much of the meta data (meta tags) must be hand coded or specified during the page layout process. This divides the task of page layout between artists and engineers, or tasks the artist / engineer to do both.
More complex projects may require two separate designs: page layout design as the front - end, and function coding as the back - end. In this case, the front - end may be designed using an alternative page layout technology such as image editing software or on paper with hand rendering methods. Most image editing software includes features for converting a page layout for use in a "What You See Is What You Get '' (WYSIWYG) editor or features to export graphics for desktop publishing software. WYSIWYG editors and desktop publishing software allow front - end design prior to back - end coding in most cases. Interface design and database publishing may involve more technical knowledge or collaboration with information technology engineering in the front - end. Sometimes, a function on the back - end is to automate the retrieval and arrangement of content on the front - end.
Page layout might be prescribed to a greater or lesser degree by a house style which might be implemented in a specific desktop publishing template. There might also be relatively little layout to do in comparison to the amount of pagination (as in novels and other books with no figures).
Typical page layout decisions include:
Specific elements to be laid out might include:
In newspaper production, final selection and cropping of photographs accompanying stories might be left to the layout editor (since the choice of photo could affect the shape of the area needed, and thus the rest of the layout), or there might be a separate photo editor. Likewise, headlines might be written by the layout editor, a copy editor, or the original author.
To make stories fit the final layout, relatively inconsequential copy tweaks might be made (for example, rephrasing for brevity), or the layout editor might make slight adjustments to typography elements like font size or leading.
A floating block in writing and publishing is any graphic, text, table, or other representation that is unaligned from the main flow of text. Use of floating blocks to present pictures and tables is a typical feature of academic writing and technical writing, including scientific articles and books. Floating blocks are normally labeled with a caption or title that describes its contents and a number that is used to refer to the figure from the main text. A common system divides floating block into two separately numbered series, labeled figure (for pictures, diagrams, plots, etc.) and table. An alternative name for figure is image or graphic.
Floating blocks are said to be floating because they are not fixed in position on the page at the place, but rather drift to the side of the page. By placing pictures or other large items on the sides of pages rather than embedding them in the middle of the main flow of text, typesetting is more flexible and interruption to the flow of the narrative is avoided.
For example, an article on geography might have "Figure 1: Map of the world '', "Figure 2: Map of Europe '', "Table 1: Population of continents '', "Table 2: Population of European countries '', and so on. Some books will have a table of figures -- in addition to the table of contents -- that lists centrally all the figures appearing in the work.
Other kinds of floating blocks may be differentiated as well, for example:
A mockup of a layout might be created to get early feedback, usually before all the content is actually ready. Whether for paper or electronic media, the first draft of a layout might be simply a rough paper and pencil sketch. A comprehensive layout for a new magazine might show placeholders for text and images, but demonstrate placement, typographic style, and other idioms intended to set the pattern for actual issues, or a particular unfinished issue. A website wireframe is a low - cost way to show layout without doing all the work of creating the final HTML and CSS, and without writing the copy or creating any images.
Lorem ipsum text is often used to avoid the embarrassment any improvised sample copy might cause if accidentally published. Likewise, placeholder images are often labelled "for position only ''.
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who did the gsw lose to this season | 2016 -- 17 Golden State Warriors season - wikipedia
The 2016 -- 17 Golden State Warriors season was the 71st season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA), and its 55th in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Warriors won their fifth NBA Championship, setting the best postseason record in NBA history by going 16 -- 1. They entered the season as runners - up in the 2016 NBA Finals, after a record breaking regular - season in 2015 -- 16. With the acquisition of free agent Kevin Durant in the offseason, the Warriors were hailed as a "Superteam '' by the media and fans, forming a new All - Star "Fantastic Four '' of Durant, Stephen Curry, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green. The Warriors broke over 20 NBA records on their way to equaling their 2014 -- 15 regular - season record of 67 -- 15, their second most wins in franchise history.
In the postseason, Golden State clinched the top seed in the playoffs for the third successive year. The Warriors swept the Portland Trail Blazers 4 -- 0 in the first round, the Utah Jazz 4 -- 0 in the Western Conference semi-finals and the San Antonio Spurs 4 -- 0 in the Western Conference Finals. The Warriors claimed their fifth NBA Championship by beating the Cleveland Cavaliers 4 -- 1 in the NBA Finals, the first time in NBA history two teams have met for a third consecutive year. Golden State became the first team ever to start 15 -- 0 in the playoffs and their fifteen straight wins were the most consecutive postseason wins in NBA history. They also became the first team in all four major professional sports in America to start 15 -- 0 in the postseason. The Warriors set the best playoff record in NBA history by going 16 -- 1 (. 941).
Golden State won the Pacific Division title and Western Conference Championship for the third consecutive season. The Warriors became only the second team in NBA history to win 30 road games in back - to - back seasons, joining the 1995 -- 96 and 1996 -- 97 Chicago Bulls. Stephen Curry set numerous three - point NBA records this season; including most three - pointers made in a single game with 13 and most consecutive games (regular - season and postseason combined) with a made three - pointer with 196. Curry also surpassed 300 three - pointers in the regular - season for the second time in NBA history; he finished with 324.
Draymond Green won the Defensive Player of the Year Award at the NBA Awards, the first time a Warrior has won it. Kevin Durant won the NBA Finals MVP award, the third time a Warrior has won it. The Warriors won the Team of the Year Award at the Espy Awards. Durant, Stephen Curry, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green were all named to the All - Star Game, the first time Golden State have had four All - Stars and just the eighth time in NBA history a single team has had four players in the game. The Warriors were the only team with multiple players named to the All - NBA Team this season, with Curry, Durant and Green all selected. Bob Myers won the Executive of the Year Award, his second win in three years. The Warriors were the fastest team in NBA history to clinch a playoff berth this season, achieving the feat on February 25, 2017.
The 2016 NBA Draft was held on June 23, 2016, at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn. The Warriors chose center Damian Jones out of Vanderbilt with the 30th pick of the first round. They also acquired the draft rights of swingman Patrick McCaw, the 38th pick of the second round. Warriors forwards Harrison Barnes and Draymond Green and guard Klay Thompson were selected to participate on the 2016 USA Basketball National Team that competed in the 2016 Olympic Games. The Warriors were the only team with three representatives on the Olympic squad. Stephen Curry withdrew from selection due to injury.
On July 4, seven time All - star forward Kevin Durant announced he was leaving the Oklahoma City Thunder to join the Warriors. To clear cap space for Durant, the Warriors traded Andrew Bogut to the Dallas Mavericks and did n't match offers for five of their out of contract free agents, losing Harrison Barnes to the Dallas Mavericks, Brandon Rush to the Minnesota Timberwolves, Leandro Barbosa to the Phoenix Suns, Festus Ezeli to the Portland Trail Blazers and Marreese Speights to the Los Angeles Clippers. Golden State added veteran big men Zaza Pachulia and David West to their roster and retained Ian Clark, James Michael McAdoo and Anderson Varejão. The Warriors added Mike Brown as assistant coach on July 6, replacing Luke Walton, who left to take over as the Los Angeles Lakers head coach.
On August 21, the United States beat Serbia 96 -- 66 at the Rio Summer Olympics to win the Gold medal. Kevin Durant, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green joined Chris Mullin (in 1992), as the only Warriors players to capture Olympic Gold medals. Durant led the team by averaging 19.4 points during Team USA 's 8 -- 0 run to victory.
The Warriors lost their opening preseason game against the Toronto Raptors on October 1, they then beat the Clippers, Kings, Nuggets, Lakers (twice) and Trail Blazers, to finish preparation for the season with a 6 -- 1 record. Kevin Durant led the team in scoring, averaging 20.9 points per game, followed by Stephen Curry (19.7) and Klay Thompson (18.0). On October 20, Golden State finalized their 15 - man roster, with the addition of free agent center JaVale McGee.
The Warriors opened the season on October 25, 2016, with a 29 - point home loss to the San Antonio Spurs in which Kawhi Leonard scored a career - high 35 points. They would respond by winning their next 4 games, including a 26 - point victory over the Oklahoma City Thunder at home on November 3. This marked the first and highly anticipated meeting between former teammates Kevin Durant and Russell Westbrook. Durant scored 39 points in the win, the most by any player debuting against his former team.
After having his streak of consecutive games with a three - pointer come to an end the previous game, Stephen Curry set a new record of 13 three - pointers made in a single game during a victory over the New Orleans Pelicans on November 7.
On January 26, Kevin Durant, Stephen Curry, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green were all named to the All - Star Game, the first time Golden State have had four All - Stars and just the eighth time in NBA history a single team has had four players in the game. Golden State 's Steve Kerr coached the Western Conference team.
On February 25, with the Warriors winning against the Brooklyn Nets, they secured a playoff berth for the fifth consecutive season, the first team in the league for the second consecutive season, and the fastest in the NBA history, beating out their record last season by two days.
In the playoffs, the Warriors clinched the top seed in the playoffs for the third successive year. The Warriors swept the Portland Trail Blazers, Utah Jazz and San Antonio Spurs all 4 -- 0, to reach their third NBA Finals in a row for the first time in franchise history. The Warriors won its fifth NBA Championship by defeating the Cleveland Cavaliers 4 -- 1 in the Finals; it was the first time in NBA history two teams have met for a third consecutive year. The Warriors are the first team ever to start 15 -- 0 in the playoffs and their fifteen - game win streak to start the playoffs set the record for most consecutive postseason wins in NBA history. Their 16 -- 1 record is the best playoff record in NBA history, ousting the 2000 -- 01 Los Angeles Lakers.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2017 - 05 - 31
Bold -- Leaders (Qualified) * -- Recorded statistics when playing for Golden State
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most points by a player in a quarter | NBA Regular season records - wikipedia
This article lists all - time records achieved in the NBA regular season in major statistical categories recognized by the league, including those set by teams and individuals in a game, season, and career. The NBA also recognizes records from its original incarnation, the Basketball Association of America (BAA).
In 2006, the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must wait a year before entering the NBA, making age - related records harder to break.
Note: Other than the longest game and disqualifications in a game, all records in this section are since the 24 - second shot clock was instituted for 1954 -- 55 season onward.
* This award has only been given since the 1968 -- 69 season. * * This award has only been given since the 1982 -- 83 season.
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where is the tv series father brown filmed | Father Brown (2013 TV series) - wikipedia
Father Brown is a British television period drama which began airing on BBC One on 14 January 2013. It features Mark Williams as the eponymous crime - solving Roman Catholic priest. The series is loosely based on short stories by G.K. Chesterton of the same name.
The series is set during the early 1950s, in the fictional Cotswold village of Kembleford, where Father Brown, priest at St Mary 's Catholic Church, solves murder cases. A bumbling police inspector, who often arrests the wrong suspect, gets annoyed by Father Brown 's success.
Father Brown uses the distinctive skills of his close friends as well as his own wits to solve cases, occasionally to the neglect of his more mundane parish duties. His vocation as a priest often gives him an insight to the truth, so that justice (but occasionally, not the letter of the law) may be served. His commitment to obeying the Seal of the Confessional often presents unique circumstances. The time period is when Britain was still struggling with deprivation and shortages in the aftermath of the hardships of the Second World War. The country still applies the death penalty as a sentence for capital crimes such as murder. Father Brown opposes capital punishment.
Various people have guest starred in the show, including Laura Main, Annette Badland, Guy Henry, Penny Downie, Roberta Taylor, James Fleet, Robert Cavanah, Emma Fielding, James Laurenson, Steffan Rhodri, Michael Maloney, Dominic Mafham, Camilla Power, Selina Cadell, Tracy - Ann Oberman, Jamie Glover, Holly Earl, Stephen Boxer, Flora Spencer - Longhurst, Gareth Hale, Christopher Villiers, Katie Leung, Marcia Warren, Caroline Blakiston, Adrian Rawlins, Ronni Ancona, Georgina Leonidas, Roger Ashton - Griffiths, John Sessions, and Martin Kemp.
The series is a BBC Birmingham production and filming for the first series of ten episodes of Father Brown began in the Cotswolds in summer 2012. The BBC renewed Father Brown for a second series of ten episodes in 2013. A third series of 15 episodes was commissioned in 2014. A fourth series of ten episodes was commissioned in 2015.
In 2014 Father Brown was shown on various public television stations in the United States and on the satellite "Film&Arts '' channel in South America.
BBC Daytime wanted a home - grown detective show for the afternoons on BBC1. Initially, original ideas from writers were pitched, but the BBC wanted something that was less of a risk and was already well known. Father Brown had not been filmed since the 1970s with Kenneth More. Executive Producer John Yorke came up with the idea after hearing a radio documentary about G.K. Chesterton presented by Ann Widdecombe.
Writers were given the choice of adapting an existing story or to come up with an original idea. Half of the first ten episodes made were loosely based on Chesterton stories. The Chesterton stories were set all over the world and at different times, but a decision was made to anchor the stories in a fixed place and time.
The Cotswolds was chosen as it had few modern buildings and was close to the production base in Birmingham. The 1950s was chosen as the detective could solve the puzzle using his mind and knowledge of human nature instead of relying on modern technology. The lead writers, Rachel Flowerday and Tahsin Guner, created the world and the characters. Other writers contributed stand - alone scripts that were not part of a story arc.
Significant changes were made in some of the episodes ostensibly based on the original works, including "The Hammer of God '', "The Wrong Shape '', and "The Eye of Apollo ''.
Filming takes place in the Gloucestershire village of Blockley using the church of Saints Peter and Paul (Church of England) as the St Mary Roman Catholic church of the series and the vicarage transformed into presbytery for Father Brown 's residence. Other villages used are Winchcombe, Upper Slaughter, Kemerton and Guiting Power. Filming also took place at Winchcombe railway station on the heritage Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway. Sudeley Castle was the main location for "The Eye of Apollo ''. Princethorpe College, once a Catholic convent, now a secondary school, was used to film "St Agnes Convent '' in Series One Episode 6.
Filming for the second series included the Warwickshire village of Ilmington. Chastleton House and Berkeley Castle were used to portray Pryde Castle in the episode broadcast on 8 January 2014. Kenilworth Castle in Warwickshire provided the location for the final resting place of the famed rosary in the episode "Mysteries of the Rosary '' airing 10 January 2014. The gardens at Snowshill Manor featured in the same episode. "The Time Machine '' episode, in series 3, was based around the Warwickshire estate, Alscot.
Filming has also taken place at Ashdown WW2 Camp, Evesham, Worcestershire where the TV series the Land Girls was also filmed. Laid out as a WW2 camp, Ashdown Camp is made up of 11 nissen huts, air raid shelters, and outbuildings. Also used were the 1930s portion of Shire Hall, Warwick, headquarters of Warwickshire County Council, Bloxham School in Oxfordshire and Worcester Guildhall.
Filming in Blockley Churchyard
St Peter & St Paul Church, Blockley and the Riley RMA used for filming Father Brown
Blockley Church with artificial snow (2016 Christmas Special)
Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire
Winchcombe railway station
St Peter 's Church in Upper Slaughter doubled as the Anglican church in Kembleford
The old Moreton - in - Marsh police station featured as Kembleford police station
The old Moreton - in - Marsh hospital was the new Kembleford police station
Kembleford police station in series 5
The Quaker Meeting House in Broad Campden featured as "Kembleford Parish Hall ''
Guiting Power doubled as part of Kembleford
High Street, Blockley
Princethorpe College
Spetchley Park was used for "The Curse of Amenhotep '' (2015)
Kenilworth Castle
Sudeley Castle, Gloucestershire
Chastleton House, Oxfordshire
Series four began filming at Gloucester Cathedral in June 2015.
The first episode of the fifth series also serves as a Christmas special episode.
Series 6 began seventy days of filming in the Cotswolds on 24 April 2017.
Father Brown has been sold to 162 territories by BBC Worldwide. Broadcasters across the world including Australia (ABC), the Netherlands (KRO), Finland (YLE), Sweden (TV8), Denmark (DR), Norway (NRK) and Iceland (RÚV). In the US, Father Brown has been sold to 40 public television stations with a reach of 30 % of all US television households. The first four seasons were added to NetFlix streaming service on March 31, 2017.
All titles are published by Dazzler Media.
Christopher Stevens from the Daily Mail gave Father Brown four stars out of five.
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where is the headquarter of the small industries development bank of india | Small Industries Development Bank of India - Wikipedia
Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) is a development financial institution in India headquartered at Lucknow. Set up on April 2, 1990 through an Act of Parliament, SIDBI acts as the Principal Financial Institution for the Promotion, Financing and Development of the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector and for co-ordination of functions of institutions engaged in similar activities. SIDBI is active in the development of Micro Finance Institutions, rural enterprises promotion, direct assistance to MSEs and increasing and supporting the money supply to the MSE sector through its refinance programme.
On 28 August 2017, Mohammad Mustafa, IAS, was appointed Chairman and Managing Director of SIDBI. As of February 1, 2018, the shares of SIDBI are held by the Government of India and 33 other institutions such as public sector banks and insurance companies.
Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), set up on April 2, 1990 under small industries development bank of India act, is the Principal Financial Institution for the Promotion, Financing and Development of the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise (MSME) sector and for Co-ordination of the functions of the institutions engaged in similar activities. The Charter establishing it, The Small Industries Development Bank of India Act, 1989 envisaged SIDBI to be "the principal financial institution for the promotion, financing and development of industry in the small scale sector and to co-ordinate the functions of the institutions engaged in the promotion and financing or developing industry in the small scale sector.
The purpose is to provide refinance facilities and short term lending to industries. It is headquartered in Lucknow. It is an institution for the Promotion, Financing and Development of the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise (MSME) sector and also co-ordinates the functions of the institutions engaged in similar activities.
SIDBI has also floated several other entities for related activities. SIDBI provides a gamut of integrated services to MSMEs through its associates and subsidiaries, such as:
SIDBI supports the Government of India in its initiatives and work as a nodal agency for some of the schemes related to development of MSMEs, such as Make in India and Startup India.
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where is the best place to be born | Where - to - be-born index - Wikipedia
The Economist Intelligence Unit 's where - to - be-born index (previously called the quality - of - life index, abbreviated QLI) attempts to measure which country will provide the best opportunities for a healthy, safe and prosperous life in the years ahead. It is based on a method that links the results of subjective life - satisfaction surveys to the objective determinants of quality of life across countries along with a forward - looking element.
The index calculated for 2013 includes data from 80 countries and territories. The survey used ten quality of life factors along with forecasts of future GDP per capita to determine a nation 's score.
The life satisfaction scores for 2006 (on scale of 1 to 10) for 130 countries (from the Gallup Poll) are related in a multivariate regression to various factors. As many as 11 indicators are statistically significant. Together these indicators explain some 85 % of the inter-country variation in life satisfaction scores. The values of the life satisfaction scores that are predicted by the indicators represent a country 's quality of life index. The coefficients in the estimated equation weight automatically the importance of the various factors. The estimated equation for 2006 can be utilized to calculate index values for year in the past and future, allowing for comparison over time as well across countries.
The independent variables in the estimating equation for 2006 include:
The original Where - to - be-born Index was released in 1988. However, this index was a little less serious than the 2013 one, as it included a "philistine factor '' for a lack of culture and a "yawn index '' which measured how boring a country might be despite all its other advantages.
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number of constituencies in 14th lok sabha election | List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha - wikipedia
The Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, is made up of Members of Parliament (MPs). Each MP, represents a single geographic constituency. There are currently 543 constituencies.
The maximum size of the Lok Sabha as outlined in the Constitution of India is 552 members made up of up to 530 members representing people of the states of India and up to 20 members representing people from the Union Territories on the basis of their population and 2 Anglo - Indians are nominated by President.
Under the Delimitation Act of 2002, the Delimitation Commission of India has redefined the list of parliamentary constituencies, their constituent assembly segments and reservation status (whether reserved for Scheduled castes (SC) candidates or Scheduled tribes (ST) candidates or unreserved). Karnataka Legislative Assembly election, 2008, which took place in May 2008, was the first state election to use newly demarcated assembly constituencies. Consequently, all assembly elections scheduled in 2008, viz. in the states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, NCT of Delhi, Mizoram and Rajasthan are based on newly defined assembly constituencies.
The size and shape of the Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies are determined, according to section 4 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, by an independent Delimitation Commission. Under a constitutional amendment of 1976, delimitation was suspended until after the census of 2001. However, certain amendments to the Constitution made in 2001 and 2003 have, while putting a freeze on the total number of existing seats as allocated to various States in the House of People and the State Legislative Assemblies on the basis of 1971 census until the first census to be taken after the year 2026, provided that each State shall be delimited into territorial Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies on the basis of 2001 census and the extent of such constituencies as delimited shall remain frozen until the first census to be taken after the year 2026. The number of seats to be reserved for SC / ST shall be re-worked out on the basis of 2001 census. The constituency shall be delimited in a manner that the population of each Parliamentary and Assembly Constituency in a State so far as practicable be the same throughout the State.
Constituencies 1 to 17 fall under the State of Telangana and therefore, have been omitted in this table.
(SC / ST / None)
Constituencies of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Constituencies of Chandigarh
Constituencies of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Constituencies of Daman and Diu
Constituencies of Lakshadweep
Constituencies of National Capital Territory of Delhi
Constituencies of Puducherry
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the game put you on the game download | Put You on the Game - wikipedia
"Put You on the Game '' is a single by American rapper and West Coast hip hop artist The Game, released as the final single from his debut album, The Documentary. Written by The Game himself and produced by both Timbaland and co-produced by Danja, the song was the album 's fifth official single, and it was released on August 30, 2005. This was the first single released by The Game after a beef with former fellow G - Unit member 50 Cent fell apart and after The Game released the mixtape titled You Know What It Is Vol. 3. Also failing to match the popularity of his previous singles, and failing to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, the song peaked at number 96 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. The song was placed 44th on About.com 's Best Hip - Hop Songs of 2005.
The Game refers to a number of artists, songs and albums in "Put You on The Game '', including The Chronic, N.W.A, Makaveli, The Notorious B.I.G., Public Enemy, Flavor Flav, G - Unit, 50 Cent, Dr. Dre and his song "Let Me Ride '', Eve, and Snoop Dogg. During the DVD Stop Snitchin, Stop Lyin The Game watches the video for this song pausing at specific spots in the video which shows a dead man at on the ground blocked off by police tape. The Game then repeatedly states that he is wearing G - Unit sneakers, a diss at 50 Cent saying his career is dead.
Two years after its release a lawsuit was filed from a Major India Record Company Saregama India, Timbaland, co-producer Nate "Danja '' Hills, The Game, Interscope Records along with a few other Production companies were being sued for using an uncleared sample. The sample in question is from the Bollywood song "Baghon Mein Bahar Hai '' from the 1969 soundtrack to the movie Aradhana.
The music video features The Game with many appearances by his current and former Black Wall Street affiliates. The video shows various places in Los Angeles County, including downtown Los Angeles and Compton. The video shows many Los Angeles landmarks such as Staples Center, The Watts Towers, and LAX.
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what were the causes of the red scare in the united states | Red Scare - wikipedia
A "Red Scare '' is promotion of widespread fear by a society or state about a potential rise of communism, anarchism, or radical leftism. The term is most often used to refer to two periods in the history of the United States with this name. The First Red Scare, which occurred immediately after World War I, revolved around a perceived threat from the American labor movement, anarchist revolution and political radicalism. The Second Red Scare, which occurred immediately after World War II, was preoccupied with national or foreign communists infiltrating or subverting U.S. society or the federal government.
The first Red Scare began following the Bolshevik Russian Revolution of 1917 and the intensely patriotic years of World War I as anarchist and left - wing social agitation aggravated national, social, and political tensions. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist Party Murray B. Levin wrote that the Red Scare was "a nationwide anti-radical hysteria provoked by a mounting fear and anxiety that a Bolshevik revolution in America was imminent -- a revolution that would change Church, home, marriage, civility, and the American way of Life. '' Newspapers exacerbated those political fears into anti-foreign sentiment because varieties of radical anarchism were becoming popular as possible solutions to poverty, often by recent European immigrants (cf. hyphenated - Americans). When the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) backed several labor strikes in 1916 and 1917, the press portrayed them as "radical threats to American society '' inspired by "left - wing, foreign agents provocateurs. '' Those on the side of the IWW claim that the press "misrepresented legitimate labor strikes '' as "crimes against society, '' "conspiracies against the government, '' and "plots to establish communism. '' Opponents, on the other hand, saw these as an extension of the radical, anarchist foundations of the IWW, which contends that all workers should be united as a social class and that capitalism and the wage system should be abolished.
In April 1919, authorities discovered a plot for mailing 36 bombs to prominent members of the U.S. political and economic establishment: J.P. Morgan Jr., John D. Rockefeller, Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, U.S. Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, and immigration officials. On June 2, 1919, in eight cities, eight bombs simultaneously exploded. One target was the Washington, D.C., house of U.S. Attorney General Palmer, where the explosion killed the bomber, who evidence indicated was an Italian - American radical from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Afterwards, Palmer ordered the U.S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids (1919 -- 21).
Yet, in 1918, before the bombings, President Woodrow Wilson had pressured the Congress to legislate the anti-anarchist Sedition Act of 1918 to protect wartime morale by deporting putatively undesirable political people. Law professor David D. Cole reports that President Wilson 's "federal government consistently targeted alien radicals, deporting them... for their speech or associations, making little effort to distinguish terrorists from ideological dissidents. ''
Initially, the press praised the raids; The Washington Post said, "There is no time to waste on hairsplitting over (the) infringement of liberty '', and The New York Times said the injuries inflicted upon the arrested were "souvenirs of the new attitude of aggressiveness which had been assumed by the Federal agents against Reds and suspected - Reds. '' In the event, the Palmer Raids were criticized as unconstitutional by twelve publicly prominent lawyers, including (future Supreme Court Justice) Felix Frankfurter, who published A Report on the Illegal Practices of The United States Department of Justice, documenting systematic violations of the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution via Palmer - authorized "illegal acts '' and "wanton violence ''. Defensively, Palmer then warned that a government - deposing left - wing revolution would begin on 1 May 1920 -- May Day, the International Workers ' Day. When it failed to happen, he was ridiculed and lost much credibility. Strengthening the legal criticism of Palmer was that fewer than 600 deportations were substantiated with evidence, out of the thousands of resident aliens arrested and deported. In July 1920, Palmer 's once - promising Democratic Party bid for the U.S. presidency failed. Wall Street was bombed on September 2, 1920, near Federal Hall National Memorial and the JP Morgan Bank. Although both anarchists and Communists were suspected as being responsible for the bombing, ultimately no individuals were indicted for the bombing in which 38 died and 141 were injured.
In 1919 -- 20, several states enacted "criminal syndicalism '' laws outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social change. The restrictions included free speech limitations. Passage of these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected of being either communist or left - wing. Regardless of ideological gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism, anarchism, socialism, or social democracy.
The second Red Scare occurred after World War II (1939 -- 45), and was popularly known as "McCarthyism '' after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthyism coincided with increased popular fear of communist espionage consequent to a Soviet Eastern Europe, the Berlin Blockade (1948 -- 49), the Chinese Civil War, the confessions of spying for the Soviet Union given by several high - ranking U.S. government officials, and the Korean War.
The events of the late 1940s, early 1950s - the trial of Ethel and Julius Rosenberg (1953), the trial of Alger Hiss, the Iron Curtain (1945 -- 1991) around Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union 's first nuclear weapon test in 1949 (RDS - 1) - surprised the American public, influencing popular opinion about U.S. National Security, that, in turn, connected to fear of the Soviet Union hydrogen - bombing the United States, and fear of the Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA).
In Canada, the 1946 Kellock -- Taschereau Commission investigated espionage after top secret documents concerning RDX, radar and other weapons were handed over to the Soviets by a domestic spy - ring.
At the House Un-American Activities Committee, former CPUSA members and NKVD spies, Elizabeth Bentley and Whittaker Chambers, testified that Soviet spies and communist sympathizers had penetrated the U.S. government before, during and after World War II. Other U.S. citizen spies confessed to their acts of espionage in situations where the statute of limitations on prosecuting them had run out. In 1949, anti -- communist fear, and fear of American traitors, was aggravated by the Chinese Communists winning the Chinese Civil War against the Western - sponsored Kuomintang, their founding of the People 's Republic of China, and later Chinese intervention in the Korean War (1950 -- 53) against U.S. ally South Korea.
A few of the events during the Red Scare were also due to a power struggle between director of FBI J. Edgar Hoover and the Central Intelligence Agency. Hoover had instigated and aided some of the investigations of members of the CIA with "leftist '' history, like Cord Meyer. This conflict could also be traced back to the conflict between Hoover and William J. Donovan, going back to the first Red Scare, but especially during World War II. Donovan ran the OSS (CIA 's predecessor). They had differing opinions on the nature of the alliance with the Soviet Union, conflicts over jurisdiction, conflicts of personality, the OSS hiring of communists and criminals as agents, etc.
By the 1930s, communism had become an attractive economic ideology, particularly among labor leaders and intellectual elites. By 1939, the CPUSA had some 50,000 members. In 1940, soon after World War II began in Europe, the U.S. Congress legislated the Alien Registration Act (aka the Smith Act, 18 USC § 2385) making it a crime to "knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise or teach the duty, necessity, desirability or propriety of overthrowing the Government of the United States or of any State by force or violence, or for anyone to organize any association which teaches, advises or encourages such an overthrow, or for anyone to become a member of or to affiliate with any such association '' -- and required Federal registration of all foreign nationals. Although principally deployed against communists, the Smith Act was also used against right - wing political threats such as the German - American Bund, and the perceived racial disloyalty of the Japanese - American population, (cf. hyphenated - Americans).
In 1941, after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, the CPUSA 's official position became pro-war, opposing labor strikes in the weapons industry and supporting the U.S. war effort against the Axis Powers. With the slogan "Communism is Twentieth - Century Americanism '', the chairman, Earl Browder, advertised the CPUSA 's integration to the political mainstream. In contrast, the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party opposed U.S. participation in the war and supported labor strikes, even in the war - effort industry. For this reason, James P. Cannon and other SWP leaders were convicted per the Smith Act.
In March 1947, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9835, creating the "Federal Employees Loyalty Program '' establishing political - loyalty review boards who determined the "Americanism '' of Federal Government employees, and recommended termination of those who had confessed to spying for the Soviet Union, as well as some suspected of being "Un-American ''. It also was the template for several state legislatures ' loyalty acts, such as California 's Levering Act. The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) and the committees of Senator Joseph McCarthy (R., Wisc.) conducted character investigations of "American communists '' (actual and alleged), and their roles in (real and imaginary) espionage, propaganda, and subversion favoring the Soviet Union -- in the process revealing the extraordinary breadth of the Soviet spy network in infiltrating the federal government; the process also launched the successful political career of Richard Nixon, and Robert F. Kennedy, as well as that of Joseph McCarthy. (McCarthy died in 1957) Senator McCarran introduced the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 that was passed by the U.S. Congress and which modified a great deal of law to restrict civil liberties in the name of security. President Truman declared the act a "mockery of the Bill of Rights '' and a "long step toward totalitarianism '' because it represented a government restriction on the freedom of opinion. He vetoed the act but his veto was overridden by Congress. Much of the bill eventually was repealed.
The Second Red Scare profoundly altered the temper of American society. Its later characterizations may be seen as contributory to the popularity of anti-communist espionage (My Son John, 1952) and science fiction movies (The Thing From Another World, 1951) with stories and themes of the infiltration, subversion, invasion, and destruction of American society by un -- American thought and inhuman beings. Even a baseball team, the Cincinnati Reds, temporarily renamed themselves the "Cincinnati Redlegs '' to avoid the money - losing and career - ruining connotations inherent in being ball - playing "Reds '' (communists).
In 1995, the American government revealed details of the Venona Project, which when combined with the opening of the USSR ComIntern archives, provided substantial validation of intelligence gathering, outright spying, and policy influencing, by Americans on behalf of the Soviet Union, from 1940 through 1980.
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what does a death certificate look like uk | Death certificate - wikipedia
The phrase death certificate can refer either to a document issued by a medical practitioner certifying the deceased state of a person or, popularly, to a document issued by a person such as a registrar of vital statistics that declares the date, location and cause of a person 's death as later entered in an official register of deaths.
Each governmental jurisdiction prescribes the form of the document for use in its preview and the procedures necessary to legally produce it. One purpose of the certificate is to review the cause of death to determine if foul - play occurred as it can rule out an accidental death or a murder going by the findings and ruling of the medical examiner. It may also be required in order to arrange a burial or cremation to provide prima facie evidence of the fact of death, which can be used to prove a person 's will or to claim on a person 's life insurance. Lastly, death certificates are used in public health to compile data on leading causes of death among other statistics (See: Descriptive statistics)
Before issuing a death certificate, the authorities usually require a certificate from a physician or coroner to validate the cause of death and the identity of the deceased. In cases where it is not completely clear that a person is dead (usually because their body is being sustained by life support), a neurologist is often called in to verify brain death and to fill out the appropriate documentation. The failure of a physician to immediately submit the required form to the government (to trigger issuance of the death certificate) is often both a crime and cause for loss of one 's license to practice. This is because of past scandals in which dead people continued to receive public benefits or voted in elections. Death certificates may also be issued pursuant to a court order or an executive order in the case of individuals who have been declared dead in absentia. Missing persons and victims of mass disasters (such as the sinking of the RMS Lusitania) may be issued death certificates in one of these manners.
In some jurisdictions, a police officer or a paramedic may be allowed to sign a death certificate under specific circumstances. This is usually when the cause of death seems obvious and no foul play is suspected, such as in extreme old age. In such cases, an autopsy is rarely performed. This varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction; in some areas police officers may sign death certificates for victims of SIDS, but in others all deaths of individuals under 18 must be certified by a physician. Accident deaths where there is no chance of survival (decapitations, for instance) may be certified by police or paramedics, but autopsies are still commonly performed if there is any chance that alcohol or other drugs played a role in the accident.
A full explanation of the cause of death includes four items:
In most of the United States, death certificates are considered public domain documents and can therefore be obtained for any individual regardless of the requester 's relationship to the deceased. Other jurisdictions take a different view, and restrict the issue of certificates. For example, in the State of New York, death certificates are only obtainable by close relatives, including the spouse, parent, child or sibling of the deceased, and other persons who have a documented lawful right or claim, documented medical need, or a New York State Court Order.
In Europe and North America, death records were kept by the local churches, along with baptism and marriage records. In what would become the United States, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first to have the secular courts keep these records, in 1639. By the end of the 19th century, European countries were pursuing centralized systems for recording deaths.
In the United States, a standard model death certificate was developed around 1910. This promoted uniformity and consistency in record keeping.
In the United States, certificates issued to the general public for deaths after 1990 may in some states be redacted to erase the specific cause of death (in cases where death was from natural causes) to comply with HIV confidentiality rules. In New York State, for instance, the cause of death on a general death certificate is only specified if death was accidental, homicide, suicide, or declared in absentia; all other deaths are only referred to as natural. All states have provisions, however, whereby immediate family members, law enforcement agencies, and governmental authorities (such as occupational health and safety groups) are able to obtain death certificates containing the full cause of death, even in cases of natural death.
In some cases, such as the death of a minor or infant, certificates may be kept confidential from the public as requested by legal guardian and therefore can not be obtained by the general public but rather through immediate family members.
Registration in the UK is organised separately in the constituent jurisdictions. A register of deaths contains the information supplied by an informant, nowadays usually containing and repeating the information given in a Medical Certificate of Death (MCOD) supplied by the medical practitioner who certifies that life is extinct, this being the real "death certificate '' distinct from the "registration of a death '' in a register. Further information might be added after the first registration if the death was the subject of an inquest (Northern Ireland or England and Wales) or a Fatal Accident Inquiry (Scotland); this can result in a later copy of a death registration giving more details of the cause of death or the associated circumstances.
In England and Wales, compulsory national registration of deaths began in 1837. Originally the death registration listed when and where a person died, their name and surname, the parent or parents (if the deceased was a child), sex, age, occupation, cause of death, the description and residence of the informant, when the death was registered and the registrar 's signature. Further details have since been recorded including the deceased 's date and place of birth, maiden surnames and other former surnames of women who have been divorced.
Beginning in 1879, a doctor 's certificate was necessary for the issuance of a death certificate (prior to that, no cause of death needed to be given).
The form of indexing and the layout of register pages generally follows that of England and Wales.
National registration began in 1855; registrations are rather more detailed than in England and Wales. In the first year of registration many more details than in later years were recorded including the children of the deceased with their ages, the deceased 's birthplace and how long they were resident in the district where they died. The burial place was recorded from 1855 to 1860. Standard details have until now included the deceased 's name, age, marital status, spouse (s) (if any), details of both parents, cause of death and the informant 's description. Current (2011) registrations show the date of birth. The prescribed forms are part of secondary legislation and those for recent years can thus be seen online in the Statute Law Database.
Unlike England and Wales, information is not limited to being supplied in the form of certified copies; original register pages (or filmed images) can be viewed in person at local register offices or at the General Register Office in Edinburgh, online (fees apply) on the Scotlands People website or in microfilms (1855 - 1875, 1881, 1891) available at family history centres operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints.
These jurisdictions do not form part of the United Kingdom and each has its own registration system. Their older records tend to follow the layout used in England and Wales.
Stillbirths (beyond 24 weeks gestation) have been registered since 1927 in a register that is closed from public access. A single stillbirth registration takes the place of both birth and death registration for the stillborn infant. Prior to 1960 such certificates gave no cause of death.
Stillbirth certificates can only be ordered by the mother or father of the deceased contacting the General Register Office by phone or letter. In the event of the parents both having died, an adult sibling can order the certificate if they can provide the dates of death for both parents.
Registration of still - births commenced in 1939. The registers are not open to public view and extracts are only issued "in exceptional circumstances ''.
A 2007 article in People magazine revealed that in the case of a stillbirth it is not standard practice to issue both a birth certificate and a death certificate. Most states instead issue a "certificate of birth resulting in stillbirth ''.
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where does the term liberal arts come from | Liberal arts education - wikipedia
The liberal arts (Latin: artes liberales) are those subjects or skills that in classical antiquity were considered essential for a free person (Latin: liberalis, "worthy of a free person '') to know in order to take an active part in civic life, something that (for Ancient Greece) included participating in public debate, defending oneself in court, serving on juries, and most importantly, military service. Grammar, logic, and rhetoric were the core liberal arts, while arithmetic, geometry, the theory of music, and astronomy also played a (somewhat lesser) part in education.
Liberal arts education can refer to academic subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics, and social and physical sciences, or it can also refer to overall studies in a liberal arts degree program. For example, Harvard University offers a Bachelor of Arts degree, which covers the social and natural sciences as well as the humanities. For both interpretations, the term generally refers to matters not relating to the professional, vocational, or technical curriculum.
Rooted in the basic curriculum -- the enkuklios paideia or "education in a circle '' -- of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece, the "liberal arts '' or "liberal pursuits '' (Latin liberalia studia) were already so called in formal education during the Roman Empire; Seneca the Younger discusses liberal arts in education from a critical Stoic point of view in Moral Epistle 88. The exact classification of the liberal arts varied however in Roman times, and it was only after Martianus Capella in the 5th century AD influentially brought the seven liberal arts as bridesmaids to the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, that they took on canonical form.
The four ' scientific ' artes -- music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy (or astrology) -- were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the Quadrivium. After the 9th century, the remaining three arts of the ' humanities ' -- grammar, logic, and rhetoric -- were classed as well, as the Trivium. It was in that two-fold form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university. During the Middle Ages, logic gradually came to take predominance over the other parts of the Trivium.
In the Renaissance, the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts, despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages, reversed that process. Re-christening the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name: Studia humanitatis, and also increasing its scope, they downplayed logic as opposed to the traditional Latin grammar and rhetoric, and added to them history, Greek, and moral philosophy (ethics), with a new emphasis on poetry as well. The educational curriculum of humanism spread throughout Europe during the sixteenth century and became the educational foundation for the schooling of European elites, the functionaries of political administration, the clergy of the various legally recognized churches, and the learned professions of law and medicine. The ideal of a liberal arts, or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature, persisted until the middle of the twentieth century.
Some subsections of the liberal arts are in the trivium -- the verbal arts: grammar, logic, and rhetoric; and in the quadrivium -- the numerical arts: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Analyzing and interpreting information is also included.
Academic areas that are associated with the term liberal arts include:
For example, the core courses for Georgetown University 's Doctor of Liberal Studies program cover philosophy, theology, history, art, literature, and the social sciences. Wesleyan University 's Master of Arts in Liberal Studies program includes courses in visual arts, art history, creative and professional writing, literature, history, mathematics, film, government, education, biology, psychology, and astronomy.
The liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students. In addition to the usual curriculum, students of a liberal arts education often study Latin and Ancient Greek.
Some liberal arts education provide general education, others have a specific focus. (This also differs from country to country.) The four traditional branches are:
Curricula differ from school to school, but generally include language, mathematics, informatics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, art (as well as crafts and design), music, history, philosophy, civics / citizenship, social sciences, and several foreign languages.
Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects, but on producing well - rounded individuals, so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory, even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent. For example, the German constitution guarantees the separation of church and state, so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory, students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all.
Today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, with the rights to continue education in a gymnasium. Here, the prefix "pro '' is equivalent to "pre ''.
In the United States, liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts. The teaching at liberal arts colleges is often Socratic, typically with small classes, and often has a lower student - to - teacher ratio than at large universities; professors teaching classes are often allowed to concentrate more on their teaching responsibilities than primary research professors or graduate student teaching assistants in universities.
In addition, most four - year colleges that are not devoted exclusively or primarily to liberal arts degrees also offer those degrees, and students not majoring in liberal arts take courses to satisfy distribution requirements in liberal arts.
Traditionally, a bachelor 's degree either in liberal arts in general or in one particular area within liberal arts, with substantial study outside that main area, is earned over four years of full - time study. However, some universities such as Saint Leo University, Pennsylvania State University, Florida Institute of Technology and New England College have begun to offer an associate degree in liberal arts. Colleges like New Saint Andrews College in Moscow, Idaho offer a unique program with only one degree offering, a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies, and colleges like the University of Oklahoma College of Liberal Studies offers an online, part - time option for adult and nontraditional students.
Most students earn either a Bachelor of Arts degree or a Bachelor of Science degree; on completing undergraduate study, students might progress to either a liberal arts graduate school or a professional school (public administration, engineering, business, law, medicine, theology).
In most parts of Europe, liberal arts education is deeply rooted. In Germany, Austria and countries influenced by their education system, e.g. it is called "humanistische Bildung '' (humanistic education). The term is not to be mixed up with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording. Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a "Gymnasium '' (high school, grammar school). They aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education (Bildung) in order to form personality with regard to a pupil 's own humanity as well as his / her innate intellectual skills. Going back to the long tradition of the liberal arts in Europe, education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking and re-shaped by the theorists of enlightenment. In particular, Wilhelm von Humboldt played a key role in that regard. Since students are considered to have received a comprehensive liberal arts education at grammar schools, very often, the role of liberal arts education in undergraduate education at universities is reduced compared to the US educational system. Students are expected to use their skills received at the grammar school in order to further develop their personality in their own responsibility, e.g. in universities ' music clubs, theater groups, language clubs etc. Universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities, but do not make such activities part of the university 's curriculum.
Thus, on the level of higher education, despite the European origin of the liberal arts college, the term liberal arts college usually denotes liberal arts colleges in the United States. With the exception of pioneering institutions such as Franklin University Switzerland (formerly known as Franklin College), established as a Europe - based, US - style liberal arts college in 1969, only recently some efforts have been undertaken to systematically "re-import '' liberal arts education to continental Europe, as with Leiden University College The Hague, University College Utrecht, University College Maastricht, Amsterdam University College, Roosevelt Academy (now University College Roosevelt), ATLAS University College, Erasmus University College, University College Groningen, Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts, and Bard College Berlin, formerly known as the European College of Liberal Arts. As well as the colleges listed above, some universities in the Netherlands offer bachelors programs in Liberal Arts and Sciences (Tilburg University). Liberal arts (as a degree program) is just beginning to establish itself in Europe. For example, University College Dublin offers the degree, as does St. Marys University College Belfast, both institutions coincidentally on the island of Ireland. In the Netherlands, universities have opened constituent liberal arts colleges under the terminology university college since the late 1990s. The four - year bachelor 's degree in Liberal Arts and Sciences at University College Freiburg is the first of its kind in Germany. It started in October 2012 with 78 students. The first Liberal Arts degree program in Sweden was established at Gothenburg University in 2011, followed by a Liberal Arts Bachelor Programme at Uppsala University 's Campus Gotland in the autumn of 2013. The first Liberal Arts program in Georgia was introduced in 2005 by American - Georgian Initiative for Liberal Education (AGILE), an NGO. In collaboration with AGILE, Ilia State University became the first higher education institution in Georgia to establish a liberal arts program.
In France, Chavagnes Studium, a Liberal Arts Study Centre in partnership with the Institut catholique d'études supérieures, and based in a former Catholic seminary, is launching a two - year intensive BA in the Liberal Arts, with a distinctively Catholic outlook. It has been suggested that the liberal arts degree may become part of mainstream education provision in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other European countries. In 1999, the European College of Liberal Arts (now Bard College Berlin) was founded in Berlin and in 2009 it introduced a four - year Bachelor of Arts program in Value Studies taught in English, leading to an interdisciplinary degree in the humanities.
In England, the first institution to retrieve and update a liberal arts education at undergraduate level was The University of Winchester with their BA (Hons) Modern Liberal Arts programme which launched in 2010. In 2012, University College London began its interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences BASc degree (which has kinship with the liberal arts model) with 80 students. King 's College London launched the BA Liberal Arts, which has a slant towards arts, humanities and social sciences subjects. The New College of the Humanities also launched a new liberal education programme. In 2016, the University of Warwick launched a three / four - year liberal arts BA degree, which focuses on transdisciplinary approaches and Problem - based learning techniques in addition to providing structured disciplinary pathways. And for 2017 entry UCAS lists 20 providers of liberal arts programmes.
In Scotland, the four - year undergraduate Honours degree, specifically the Master of Arts, has historically demonstrated considerable breadth in focus. In the first two years of Scottish MA and BA degrees students typically study a number of different subjects before specialising in their Honours years (third and fourth year). The University of Dundee and the University of Glasgow (at its Crichton Campus) are the only Scottish universities that currently offer a specifically named ' Liberal Arts ' degree.
The Commission on Higher Education of the Philippines mandates a General Education curriculum required of all higher education institutions; it includes a number of liberal arts subjects, including history, art appreciation, and ethics, plus interdisciplinary electives. Many universities have much more robust liberal arts core curricula; most notably, the Jesuit universities such as Ateneo de Manila University have a strong liberal arts core curriculum that includes philosophy, theology, literature, history, and the social sciences. Forman Christian College (A Chartered University) is a liberal arts education institution in Lahore, Pakistan. It is one of the oldest institutions in Indo - Pakistan subcontinent. It is a chartered university recognized by Higher Education Commission Pakistan. Habib University in Karachi, Pakistan offers a holistic liberal arts and sciences experience to its students through its uniquely tailored liberal core program which is compulsory for all undergraduate degree students. The Underwood International College of Yonsei University, Korea, has compulsory liberal arts course for all the student body. Symbiosis & FLAME University in Pune, Ashoka University, Lingnan University and University of Liberal Arts - Bangladesh (ULAB) are also a few such liberal arts colleges in Asia. International Christian University in Tokyo is the first and one of the very few liberal arts universities in Japan.
Campion College is a Roman Catholic dedicated liberal arts college, located in the western suburbs of Sydney. Founded in 2006, it is the first tertiary educational liberal arts college of its type in Australia. Campion offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts as its sole undergraduate degree. The key disciplines studied are history, literature, philosophy, and theology.
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when does the next mtg set come out | List of Magic: the Gathering sets - wikipedia
The trading card game Magic: The Gathering has released a large number of sets since it was first published by Wizards of the Coast. After the 1993 release of Limited Edition, also known as Alpha and Beta, roughly 3 - 4 major sets have been released per year, in addition to various spin - off products. Magic has made three types of sets since Alpha and Beta: base / core sets, expansion sets, and compilation sets. Expansion sets are the most numerous and prevalent type of expansion; they primarily consist of new cards, with few or no reprints, and either explore a new setting, or advance the plot in an existing setting. Hour of Devastation is the most recent expansion set as of August, 2017. Base sets, later renamed core sets, are the successors to the original Limited Edition and are meant to provide a baseline Magic experience; they tended to consist either largely or entirely of reprints. Compilation sets also exist entirely of reprints, and tend to be made as either a special themed product, or as a way to increase supply of cards with small printings. Examples of compilation sets with randomized boosters include Chronicles and Modern Masters. There also exist compilation products with a pre-selected and fixed card pool, such as the Duel Decks and From The Vault series. Theme decks serve a similar function; however, they are always attached to a specific set or block, while compilations are free to pick and choose cards from any set.
All expansion sets, and all editions of the base set from Sixth Edition onward, are identified by an expansion symbol printed on the right side of cards, below the art and above the text box. From Exodus onward, the expansion symbols are also color - coded to denote rarity: black for common and basic land cards, silver for uncommon, and gold for rare. Beginning with the Shards of Alara set, a red - orange expansion symbol denotes a new rarity: "Mythic Rare '' (the Time Spiral set featured an additional purple coloration for "timeshifted '' cards). For the early expansion sets (from Arabian Nights to Alliances), the rarities of cards were often much more complicated than the breakdown into common, uncommon, and rare suggests. Cards in compilations are assigned rarity by Wizards, however, they do not necessarily match within the set, with some singletons rare and some mythic rare in a given set.
After the second version (Beta) of the first set, which contained two cards mistakenly excluded from the first version (Alpha), all subsequent base sets through 10th Edition consisted of cards that had been printed before in either the original base set or an expansion set. Alpha through Fifth Edition did not have set symbols printed on the actual cards, though those sets were retroactively given set symbols in Wizards of the Coast 's official Gatherer database of Magic cards.
Expansion sets from Ice Age to Rivals of Ixalan (with the exception of Homelands) came in groups called "blocks ''. (From 1997 -- 2008, Wizards of the Coast also used the term "cycle '' when describing the associated storyline.) Blocks were cohesive products: they centered around one plane, followed a particular storyline, and contained cards and mechanics that supported both. Blocks generally consisted of one large "stand - alone '' expansion set of 250 -- 300 cards, followed by one or two small expansion sets of 150 -- 200 cards which continue the themes introduced in the large set. Like the base set, stand - alone expansion sets contain basic land cards; other expansion sets do not. Beginning with Alliances, expansion sets were given codenames while in development; the code names of the expansions of a cycle usually fit together to form a phrase or common theme. Starting with Mirage in 1996, blocks were officially refined in form: they would consist of would be three sets, large - small - small. With Zendikar block in 2009, the traditional large - small - small block structure began to be varied, with some blocks including a second large set later in the block. Starting with the Battle for Zendikar block in 2015, the default structure of a block was changed to large - small, with each block consisting of only two sets and two blocks released per year.
Ice Age and Alliances were the first two sets to have a well - defined relationship, but were not created as a canonical block at the time of printing. Also beginning with Alliances in June 1996, expansion sets were released in a regular pattern: the base sets were released in October with the small expansion sets being released in February and June (Alliances was originally the third set of the block; it was retroactively made a second set with the release of Coldsnap in 2006). With the exceptions of Stronghold, a 1998 set released in March rather than February, and Scourge, a 2003 set which was released in May rather than June, this pattern of months was never broken, over a 10 - year period, until 2006, when Dissension was also released a month early in May instead of June, because of the July release of Coldsnap. The third set in a block has since been released in late April or early May. From 2005 -- 2015, there was a fourth release date each year in mid-July, usually reserved for Core Sets. Other summer releases included Coldsnap and Eventide.
Fallen Empires was an experimental expansion in which most card have three or four different pieces of artwork. You could see them as 121 common cards, by art, or 36 cards by the text. It was also a major expansion in the idea of tribes, especially Goblins and Merfolk.
Most early expansion sets did not have exact release dates; they were just shipped out within the space of a week, and retailers could start selling them as soon as the sets were received. By the time of Alliances in 1996, however, release dates were set as Mondays (the earliest set with an exact Monday release date might possibly have preceded Alliances, but Alliances is the earliest set with a cited and confirmed Monday release date). Beginning with Mirrodin in 2003, the release dates were changed from Monday to Friday. All sets beginning with Homelands also have a pre-release date, on which cards are sold in limited quantities in pre-release tournaments. These tournaments were formerly always held two weeks before the release date, but since Shards of Alara they are now held one week before the release date.
Premium foil cards have been inserted into booster packs since Urza 's Legacy. Originally 1 foil card was inserted for every 100 cards. The ratio was changed to 1 in 70 cards with the Torment expansion. Beginning with Tenth Edition the rate was increased to 1 in 56 cards.
Starting with Kaladesh block, sets sometimes also contain an entry in the Masterpiece Series.
The block model has evolved as time went on. In addition to a formalized structure (which was occasionally variated on), Wizards began to have trouble developing small sets that satisfied their own quality standards. Players also reported fatigue at playing in the same environment for a year at a time. The decision to remove one small set from each block, as showcased in Battle For Zendikar block, was a result of this dissatisfaction. It culminated in the decision to delete small sets entirely: After the Ixalan block concludes, forthcoming sets will all be large - sized sets. However, not all large - size sets will involve travel to a new plane; some will be sequels to the set prior to it, if the depth of the plane 's story and mechanics allows. Dominaria, to be released in 2018, will be the first set under this model.
Starting with Kaladesh block, some blocks and sets also include an entry in the Masterpiece Series. The Zendikar Expeditions from Battle for Zendikar were not released under the title of Masterpiece Series, but were retroactively included in the series. Cards in the Masterpiece Series entry for a given block appear in booster packs for that block 's sets at a rate lower than that of Mythic Rares, and consist of either reprints, or cards from the set whose packs they appear in. However, they are not considered part of that set, and instead get their own expansion symbol; moreover, as with reprint sets (see below), printing in a Masterpiece Series entry does not affect format legality. Note that entries in the Masterpiece Series do not have expansion codes, except for Zendikar Expeditions, which has code "EXP ''.
Reprint sets are sets of certain cards from previous sets that were re-released for different reasons. Some reasons include the cards were fan favorites and popular demand brought them back or in some cases, reprints were to commemorate certain events such as widely known matches or anniversary sets. Some reprint sets revolved around a certain theme; for example, Beatdown was themed around old, out - of - print, heavy - hitting creatures. Reprinting a card in one of these sets does not affect when it leaves Standard.
Deck Builder 's Toolkits are released at the same time as a core set and contain only cards from sets that are legal in Standard at that time; they are not sets as such. These boxed sets therefore have no symbol or code of their own.
Starting with Planechase in 2009, Wizards of the Coast has occasionally printed sets intended primarily for multiplayer play, which do not necessarily consist entirely of reprints but are not legal in Standard; a card printed in one of these is legal only in eternal formats, and reprinting a card in one of these sets does not affect when it leaves Standard. These sets usually consist of fixed decks.
These introductory sets were intended for novice Magic: The Gathering players. They were illegal in sanctioned tournaments until October 2005, when they became legal in Legacy and Vintage.
These sets, though also published by Wizards of the Coast, are not legal for DCI - sanctioned tournament play.
These sets are exclusive to Magic: The Gathering Online.
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when were the proverbs in the bible written | Book of Proverbs - wikipedia
The Book of Proverbs (Hebrew: מִשְלֵי, Míshlê (Shlomoh), "Proverbs (of Solomon) '') is the second book of the third section (called Writings) of the Hebrew Bible and a book of the Christian Old Testament. When translated into Greek and Latin, the title took on different forms: in the Greek Septuagint (LXX) it became Παροιμίαι Paroimiai ("Proverbs ''); in the Latin Vulgate the title was Proverbia, from which the English name is derived.
Proverbs is not merely an anthology but a "collection of collections '' relating to a pattern of life which lasted for more than a millennium. It is an example of the Biblical wisdom tradition, and raises questions of values, moral behaviour, the meaning of human life, and right conduct. The repeated theme is that "the fear of God (meaning submission to the will of God) is the beginning of wisdom. '' Wisdom is praised for her role in creation; God acquired her before all else, and through her he gave order to chaos; and since humans have life and prosperity by conforming to the order of creation, seeking wisdom is the essence and goal of the religious life.
The superscriptions divide the collections as follows:
"Proverbs '' translates to the Hebrew word mashal, but "mashal '' has a wider range of meaning than the short catchy sayings implied by the English word. Thus, while roughly half the book is made up of "sayings '' of this type, the other half is made up of longer poetic units of various types. These include "instructions '' formulated as advice from a teacher or parent addressed to a student or child, dramatic personifications of both Wisdom and Folly, and the "words of the wise '' sayings, longer than the Solomonic "sayings '' but shorter and more diverse than the "instructions ''.
The first section (chapters 1 -- 9) consists of an initial invitation to young men to take up the course of wisdom, ten "instructions '', and five poems on personified Woman Wisdom. Proverbs 10: 1 -- 22: 16, with 375 sayings, consists of two parts, the first contrasting the wise man and the fool (or the righteous and the wicked), the second addressing wise and foolish speech. Chapters 25 -- 29, attributed to editorial activity of "the men of Hezekiah, '' contrasts the just and the wicked and broaches the topic of rich and poor. Chapter 30: 1 -- 4, the "sayings of Agur '', introduces creation, divine power, and human ignorance.
It is impossible to offer precise dates for the sayings in Proverbs, a "collection of collections '' relating to a pattern of life which lasted for more than a millennium. The phrase conventionally used for the title is taken from chapter 1: 1, mishley shelomoh, Proverbs of Solomon (the phrase is repeated at 10: 1 and 25: 1), is likely more concerned with labeling the material than ascribing authorship.
The book is an anthology made up of six discrete units. The first, chapters 1 -- 9, was probably the last to be composed, in the Persian or Hellenistic periods. This section has parallels to prior cuneiform writings. The second, chapters 10 -- 22: 16, carries the superscription "the proverbs of Solomon '', which may have encouraged its inclusion in the Hebrew canon. The third unit is headed "bend your ear and hear the words of the wise '': a large part of it is a recasting of a second - millennium BCE Egyptian work, the Instruction of Amenemope, and may have reached the Hebrew author (s) through an Aramaic translation. Chapter 24: 23 begins a new section and source with the declaration, "these too are from the wise. '' The next section at chapter 25: 1 has a superscription to the effect that the following proverbs were transcribed "by the men of Hezekiah '', indicating at face value that they were collected in the reign of Hezekiah in the late 8th century BCE. Chapters 30 and 31 (the "words of Agur, '' the "words of Lemuel, '' and the description of the ideal woman) are a set of appendices, quite different in style and emphasis from the previous chapters.
The "wisdom '' genre was widespread throughout the ancient Near East, and reading Proverbs alongside the examples recovered from Egypt and Mesopotamia reveals the common ground shared by international wisdom. The wisdom literature of Israel may have been developed in the family, the royal court, and houses of learning and instruction; nevertheless, the overwhelming impression is of instruction within the family in small villages.
Along with the other examples of the Biblical wisdom tradition -- Job and Ecclesiastes and some other writings -- Proverbs raises questions of values, moral behavior, the meaning of human life, and righteous conduct. The three retain an ongoing relevance for both religious and secular readers, Job and Ecclesiastes through the boldness of their dissent from received tradition, Proverbs in its worldliness and satiric shrewdness. Wisdom is as close as Biblical literature comes to Greek philosophy, of which it was a contemporary; it shares with the Greeks an inquiry into values and reflections on the human condition, although there is no discussion of ontology, epistemology, metaphysics, and the other abstract issues raised by the Greeks.
Proverbs was almost excluded from the Bible because of its contradictions (the result of the book 's origins as not just an anthology but an anthology of anthologies). The reader is told, for example, both to "not answer a fool according to his folly '', according to 26: 4, and to "answer a fool according to his folly '', as 26: 5 advises. More pervasively, the recurring theme of the initial unit (chapters 1 -- 9) is that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, but the following units are much less theological, presenting wisdom as a transmissible human craft, until with 30: 1 -- 14, the "words of Agur, '' we return once more to the idea that God alone possesses wisdom.
"The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom '' (Proverbs 9: 10 -- the phrase implies submission to God 's will). Wisdom is praised for her role in creation ("God by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding he established the heavens '' -- Proverbs 3: 19). God acquired her before all else, and through her he gave order to chaos ("When (God) established the heavens... when he drew a circle on then face of the Deeps... when he marked out the foundations of the earth, then I was beside him '' -- Proverbs 8: 27 -- 31). Since humans have life and prosperity by conforming to the order of creation, seeking wisdom is the essence and goal of the religious life. Wisdom, or the wise person, is compared and contrasted with foolishness or the fool, meaning one who is lacking in wisdom and uninterested in instruction, not one who is merely silly or playful (though see the words of Agur for a "fool '' who has wisdom, and could be seen as playful).
For the most part Proverbs offers a simplistic view of life with few grey areas: life lived according to the rules brings reward, life in violation of them is certain to bring disaster. In contrast, Job and Ecclesiastes appear to be direct contradictions of the simplicities of Proverbs, each in its own way all but dismissing the assumptions of the "wise ''. Noteworthy also is the fact that the "mighty acts of God '' (the Exodus, the giving of the Torah at Sinai, the Covenant between God and Israel, etc.) which make up Israel 's history are completely or almost completely absent from Proverbs and the other Wisdom books: in contrast to the other books of the Hebrew bible, which appeal to divine revelation for their authority ("Thus says the Lord! ''), wisdom appeals to human reason and observation.
The pre-Exilic (i.e. pre-586 BCE) Old Testament allowed no equals to YHWH in heaven, despite the continued existence of an assembly of subordinate servant - deities. The post-Exilic writers of the Wisdom tradition developed the idea that Wisdom existed before creation and was used by God to create the universe: "Present from the beginning, Wisdom assumes the role of master builder while God establishes the heavens, restricts the chaotic waters, and shapes the mountains and fields. '' Borrowing ideas from Greek philosophers who held that reason bound the universe together, the Wisdom tradition taught that God 's Wisdom, Word and Spirit were the ground of cosmic unity. Christianity in turn adopted these ideas and applied them to Jesus: the Epistle to the Colossians calls Jesus "... image of the invisible God, first - born of all creation... '', while the Gospel of John identifies him with the creative word ("In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God '').
In the 4th century, when Christianity was caught up in heresies and still developing the creeds which would define its beliefs, Proverbs 8: 22 was used both to support and refute the claims of the Arians. The Arians, assuming that Christ could be equated with the "Wisdom of God '' (1 Corinthians 1: 24), argued that the Son, like Wisdom, was "created '' (Proverbs 8: 22), and therefore subordinate to the Creator; their opponents, who argued that the relevant Hebrew word should be translated as "begot '', won the debate, and the Nicene Creed declared that the Son was "begotten, not made '', meaning that God and Christ were consubstantial.
Online translations of Book of Proverbs:
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when is a thing considered lost in law | Opportunity cost - wikipedia
In microeconomic theory, the opportunity cost, also known as alternative cost, is the value (not a benefit) of the choice in terms of the best alternative while making a decision. A choice needs to be made between several mutually exclusive alternatives; assuming the best choice is made, it is the "cost '' incurred by not enjoying the benefit that would have been had by taking the second best available choice. The New Oxford American Dictionary defines it as "the loss of potential gain from other alternatives when one alternative is chosen. '' Opportunity cost is a key concept in economics, and has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice. '' The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in attempts to ensure that scarce resources are used efficiently. Thus, opportunity costs are not restricted to monetary or financial costs: the real cost of output forgone, lost time, pleasure or any other benefit that provides utility should also be considered an opportunity cost.
The term was first used in 1914 by Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in his book Theorie der gesellschaftlichen Wirtschaft (Theory of Social Economy). The idea had been anticipated by previous writers including Benjamin Franklin and Frédéric Bastiat. Franklin coined the phrase "Time is Money '', and spelt out the associated opportunity cost reasoning in his "Advice to a Young Tradesman '' (1746): "Remember that Time is Money. He that can earn Ten Shillings a Day by his Labour, and goes abroad, or sits idle one half of that Day, tho ' he spends but Sixpence during his Diversion or Idleness, ought not to reckon That the only Expence; he has really spent or rather thrown away Five Shillings besides. ''
Bastiat 's 1848 essay "What Is Seen and What Is Not Seen '' used opportunity cost reasoning in his critique of the broken window fallacy, and of what he saw as spurious arguments for public expenditure.
Explicit costs are opportunity costs that involve direct monetary payment by producers. The explicit opportunity cost of the factors of production not already owned by a producer is the price that the producer has to pay for them. For instance, if a firm spends $100 on electrical power consumed, its explicit opportunity cost is $100. This cash expenditure represents a lost opportunity to purchase something else with the $100.
Implicit costs (also called implied, imputed or notional costs) are the opportunity costs that are not reflected in cash outflow but implied by the failure of the firm to allocate its existing (owned) resources, or factors of production to the best alternative use. For example: a manufacturer has previously purchased 1000 tons of steel and the machinery to produce a widget. The implicit part of the opportunity cost of producing the widget is the revenue lost by not selling the steel and not renting out the machinery instead of using it for production.
One example of opportunity cost is in the evaluation of "foreign '' (to the US) buyers and their allocation of cash assets in real estate or other types of investment vehicles. With the recent downturn (circa June / July 2015) of the Chinese stock market, more and more Chinese investors from Hong Kong and Taiwan are turning to the United States as an alternative vessel for their investment dollars; the opportunity cost of leaving their money in the Chinese stock market or Chinese real estate market is too high relative to yields available in the US real estate market.
Opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives when those alternatives are, in turn, mutually exclusive to each other. It is the highest value option forgone. The opportunity cost of a city 's decision to build the hospital on its vacant land is the loss of the land for a sporting center, or the inability to use the land for a parking lot, or the money the city could have made by selling the land. Use for any one of those purposes precludes all the others.
If someone loses the opportunity to earn money, that is part of the opportunity cost. If someone chooses to spend money, that money could be used to purchase other goods and services so the spent money is part of the opportunity cost as well. Add the value of the next best alternatives and you have the total opportunity cost. If you miss work to go to a concert, your opportunity cost is the money you would have earned if you went to work plus the cost of the concert.
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who is running for governor of maine in 2018 | Maine gubernatorial Election, 2018 - wikipedia
Paul LePage Republican
The 2018 Maine gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect the next governor of Maine. It will occur along with elections for the U.S. Senate, U.S. House, and other state and local elections. Incumbent Republican Governor Paul LePage is term limited and can not seek reelection to a third consecutive term in office.
The primaries for this election were the first in Maine to be conducted with ranked choice voting (RCV), as opposed to a simple plurality, after voters passed a citizen referendum approving the change in 2016. An advisory opinion by the Maine Supreme Judicial Court held that RCV would be unconstitutional for general elections for governor and the state legislature. This led state legislators to vote to delay its implementation pending approval of a state constitutional amendment. Backers of a "people 's veto '' turned in enough signatures to suspend this law until a June referendum vote, which restored RCV for future primary and congressional elections.
Governor Paul LePage threatened not to certify the results of the primary elections, saying he would "leave it up to the courts to decide. '' He also called the use of ranked - choice voting the "most horrific thing in the world. '' Secretary of State Matthew Dunlap said the results would be binding regardless of whether LePage certified them.
The Republican nominee is businessman and 2010 independent candidate for governor Shawn Moody. The Democratic candidate is Attorney General Janet Mills. State Treasurer Terry Hayes and businessman Alan Caron have qualified for the ballot as independents. Former State Senator and former Mayor of Lewiston and Auburn John Jenkins, conservative activist Aaron Chadbourne and perennial candidate Kenneth Capron are running write - in campaigns.
Incumbent Republican Paul LePage is term - limited, having been elected twice consecutively in 2010 and 2014. LePage did not win a majority of the vote either time (receiving 37.6 % in a crowded four - way race in 2010 and 48.2 % in a three - way race in 2014), with Democrats accusing independent candidate Eliot Cutler of splitting the anti-LePage vote in both instances, though Cutler finished closer to LePage than Democratic candidate Libby Mitchell in the 2010 election.
Maine 's history of governors elected without majorities, including LePage, was one impetus for the citizen 's referendum to implement ranked choice voting. Though it was approved by voters in a 2016 referendum, the Maine Legislature voted to delay and potentially repeal RCV for all elections after an advisory opinion by the Maine Supreme Judicial Court ruled it unconstitutional for general elections for state offices. RCV supporters succeeded in a people 's veto effort to prevent the delay, which suspends it until a June 2018 referendum vote. RCV supporters were victorious in the June referendum, and ranked - choice voting will remain in place for state and federal primaries and federal general elections.
Speculation that U.S. Senator Susan Collins was considering running for governor arose during the 2015 Maine Legislative session when Representative Matt Moonen (D - Portland) introduced a bill to strip the governor (LePage) of the power to appoint replacement U.S. Senators in the event of a vacancy and to instead have a special primary and general election. Moonen denied that he was motivated by Collins 's possible candidacy, saying he was interested only in counterbalancing Republican - sponsored bills to change how the Maine Attorney General and Maine Secretary of State are chosen. Moonen said Collins had told him speculation about her running for governor was "silly. '' Collins, who was the 1994 Republican nominee for governor, told MPBN News on January 4, 2016 that though she was "baffled '' by the rumors about her being interested in running for governor, many had encouraged her to run, and she would not rule it out. In October 2017, Collins said she would not run for governor in 2018.
No Republican candidate has ruled out challenging the results of a ranked - choice primary in court. Mary Mayhew called for the immediate repeal of RCV, calling it a "scam '' and "probably illegal ''.
The Maine Republican Party filed a federal lawsuit in U.S. District Court in Bangor on May 4, 2018, seeking to bar the use of RCV for its own primary on the grounds that requiring the party to use it violates its First Amendment rights to choose its nominee as it sees fit. U.S. District Court Judge Jon Levy rejected the suit on May 29.
Hypothetical polling
Almost all Democratic candidates said that they would abide by the results of the ranked - choice primary, with only Janet Mills refusing to comment on the issue because it was being heard by the courts.
All endorsers are Democrats unless otherwise specified
Capron and Jenkins failed to qualify for the ballot, but are continuing their campaigns as write - in candidates Chadbourne is a registered Republican, but filed his write - in candidacy on June 14, 2018, two days after Shawn Moody won the Republican nomination.
The general election will use plurality voting, not ranked - choice voting.
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which of the following are necessary components for miranda to apply | Miranda warning - wikipedia
The Miranda warning, which also can be referred to as a person 's Miranda rights, is a right to silence warning given by police in the United States to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial interrogation) before they are interrogated to preserve the admissibility of their statements against them in criminal proceedings.
A typical Miranda warning can read as follows:
The Miranda warning is part of a preventive criminal procedure rule that law enforcement are required to administer to protect an individual who is in custody and subject to direct questioning or its functional equivalent from a violation of his or her Fifth Amendment right against compelled self - incrimination. In Miranda v. Arizona (1966), the Supreme Court held that the admission of an elicited incriminating statement by a suspect not informed of these rights violates the Fifth Amendment and the Sixth Amendment right to counsel, through the incorporation of these rights into state law. Thus, if law enforcement officials decline to offer a Miranda warning to an individual in their custody, they may interrogate that person and act upon the knowledge gained, but may not use that person 's statements as evidence against him or her in a criminal trial.
The concept of "Miranda rights '' was enshrined in U.S. law following the 1966 Miranda v. Arizona Supreme Court decision, which found that the Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights of Ernesto Arturo Miranda had been violated during his arrest and trial for armed robbery, kidnapping, and rape of a mentally handicapped young woman (Miranda was subsequently retried and convicted, based primarily on his estranged ex-partner, who had been tracked down by the original arresting officer via Ernesto 's own parents, suddenly claiming that Ernesto had confessed to her when she had visited him in jail; Ernesto 's lawyer later confessed that he ' goofed ' the trial).
The circumstances triggering the Miranda safeguards, i.e. Miranda rights, are "custody '' and "interrogation ''. Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest. Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. The Supreme Court did not specify the exact wording to use when informing a suspect of his / her rights. However, the Court did create a set of guidelines that must be followed. The ruling states:
... The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he / she has the right to remain silent, and that anything the person says will be used against that person in court; the person must be clearly informed that he / she has the right to consult with an attorney and to have that attorney present during questioning, and that, if he / she is indigent, an attorney will be provided at no cost to represent him / her.
In Berkemer v. McCarty (1984), the Supreme Court decided that a person subjected to custodial interrogation is entitled to the benefit of the procedural safeguards enunciated in Miranda, regardless of the nature or severity of the offense of which he is suspected or for which he was arrested.
As a result, American English developed the verb Mirandize, meaning "read the Miranda rights to '' a suspect (when the suspect is arrested).
Notably, the Miranda rights do not have to be read in any particular order, and they do not have to precisely match the language of the Miranda case as long as they are adequately and fully conveyed (California v. Prysock, 453 U.S. 355 (1981)).
In Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010), the Supreme Court held that unless a suspect expressly states that he or she is invoking this right, subsequent voluntary statements made to an officer can be used against them in court, and police can continue to interact with (or question) the alleged criminal.
Every U.S. jurisdiction has its own regulations regarding what, precisely, must be said to a person arrested or placed in a custodial situation. The typical warning states:
The courts have since ruled that the warning must be "meaningful '', so it is usually required that the suspect be asked if he / she understands their rights. Sometimes, firm answers of "yes '' are required. Some departments and jurisdictions require that an officer ask "do you understand? '' after every sentence in the warning. An arrestee 's silence is not a waiver, but on June 1, 2010, the Supreme Court ruled 5 -- 4 that police are allowed to interrogate suspects who have invoked or waived their rights ambiguously, and any statement given during questioning prior to invocation or waiving is admissible as evidence. Evidence has in some cases been ruled inadmissible because of an arrestee 's poor knowledge of English and the failure of arresting officers to provide the warning in the arrestee 's language.
While the exact language above is not required by Miranda, the police must advise the suspect that:
There is no precise language that must be used in advising a suspect of their Miranda rights. The point is that whatever language is used the substance of the rights outlined above must be communicated to the suspect. The suspect may be advised of their rights orally or in writing. Also, officers must make sure the suspect understands what the officer is saying, taking into account potential education levels. It may be necessary to "translate '' to the suspect 's level of understanding. Courts have ruled this admissible as long as the original waiver is said and the "translation '' is recorded either on paper or on tape.
The Supreme Court has resisted efforts to require officers to more fully advise suspects of their rights. For example, the police are not required to advise the suspect that they can stop the interrogation at any time, that the decision to exercise the right can not be used against the suspect, or that they have a right to talk to a lawyer before being asked any questions. Nor have the courts required to explain the rights. For example, the standard Miranda right to counsel states You have a right to have an attorney present during the questioning. Police are not required to explain that this right is not merely a right to have a lawyer present while the suspect is being questioned. The right to counsel includes:
The circumstances triggering the Miranda safeguards, i.e. Miranda warnings, are "custody '' and "interrogation ''. Custody means formal arrest or the deprivation of freedom to an extent associated with formal arrest. Interrogation means explicit questioning or actions that are reasonably likely to elicit an incriminating response. Suspects in "custody '' who are about to be interrogated must be properly advised of their Miranda rights -- namely, the Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination (and, in furtherance of this right, the right to counsel while in custody). The Sixth Amendment right to counsel means that the suspect has the right to consult with an attorney before questioning begins and have an attorney present during the interrogation. The Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination is the right to remain silent -- the right to refuse to answer questions or to otherwise communicate information.
The duty to warn only arises when police officers conduct custodial interrogations. The Constitution does not require that a defendant be advised of the Miranda rights as part of the arrest procedure, or once an officer has probable cause to arrest, or if the defendant has become a suspect of the focus of an investigation. Custody and interrogation are the events that trigger the duty to warn.
Some jurisdictions provide the right of a juvenile to remain silent if their parent or guardian is not present. Some departments in New Jersey, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Alaska modify the "providing an attorney '' clause as follows:
We have no way of giving you a lawyer, but one will be appointed for you, if you wish, if and when you go to court.
Even though this sentence may be somewhat ambiguous to some laypersons, who can, and who have actually interpreted it as meaning that they will not get a lawyer until they confess and are arraigned in court, the U.S. Supreme Court has approved of it as an accurate description of the procedure in those states.
In states bordering Mexico, including Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, suspects who are not United States citizens are given an additional warning:
If you are not a United States citizen, you may contact your country 's consulate prior to any questioning.
Some states including Virginia require the following sentence, ensuring that the suspect knows that waiving Miranda rights is not a one - time absolute occurrence:
You can decide at any time from this moment on to terminate the interview and exercise these rights.
California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington and Pennsylvania also add the following questions, presumably to comply with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations:
Question 1: Do you understand each of these rights I have explained to you? Question 2: Having these rights in mind, do you wish to talk to us now?
An affirmative answer to both of the above questions waives the rights. If the suspect responds "no '' to the first question, the officer is required to re-read the Miranda warning, while saying "no '' to the second question invokes the right at that moment; in either case the interviewing officer or officers can not question the suspect until the rights are waived.
Generally, when defendants invoke their Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination and refuse to testify or submit to cross-examination at trial, the prosecutor can not indirectly punish them for the exercise of a constitutional right by commenting on their silence and insinuating that it is an implicit admission of guilt. Since Miranda rights are simply a judicial gloss upon the Fifth Amendment which protects against coercive interrogations, the same rule also prevents prosecutors from commenting about the post-arrest silence of suspects who invoke their Miranda rights immediately after arrest. However, neither the Fifth Amendment nor Miranda extend to pre-arrest silence, which means that if a defendant takes the witness stand at trial (meaning he just waived his Fifth Amendment right to remain silent), the prosecutor can attack his credibility with his pre-arrest silence (based on his failure to immediately turn himself in and confess to the things he voluntarily testified about at trial).
Under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, Article 31 provides for the right against compelled self - incrimination. Interrogation subjects under Army jurisdiction must first be given Department of the Army Form 3881, which informs them of the charges and their rights, and the subjects must sign the form. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps require that all arrested personnel be read the "rights of the accused '' and must sign a form waiving those rights if they so desire; a verbal waiver is not sufficient.
It has been discussed whether a Miranda warning -- if spoken or in writing -- could be appropriately given to disabled persons. For example, "the right to remain silent '' means little to a deaf individual and the word "constitutional '' may not be understood by people with only an elementary education. In one case, a deaf murder suspect was kept at a therapy station until he was able to understand the meaning of the Miranda warning and other judicial proceedings.
The Miranda rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings that is the product of custodial police interrogation. The Miranda right to counsel and right to remain silent are derived from the self - incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. Therefore, for Miranda to apply, six requirements must be fulfilled:
Assuming that the six requirements are present and Miranda applies, the statement will be subject to suppression unless the prosecution can demonstrate:
The defendant may also be able to challenge the admissibility of the statement under provisions of state constitutions and state criminal procedure statutes.
It is important to note that immigrants who live in the United States illegally are also protected and should receive their Miranda warnings as well when being interrogated or placed under arrest. "Aliens receive constitutional protections when they have come within the territory of the United States and (have) developed substantial connections with this country ''.
The Fifth Amendment right to counsel, a component of the Miranda Rule, is different from the Sixth Amendment right to counsel. In the context of the law of confessions the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is defined by the Massiah Doctrine (Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964)).
Simply advising the suspect of their rights does not fully comply with the Miranda rule. The suspect must also voluntarily waive their Miranda rights before questioning can proceed. An express waiver is not necessary. However, most law enforcement agencies use written waiver forms. These include questions designed to establish that the suspect expressly waived their rights. Typical waiver questions are
The waiver must be "knowing and intelligent '' and it must be "voluntary ''. These are separate requirements. To satisfy the first requirement the state must show that the suspect generally understood their rights (right to remain silent and right to counsel) and the consequences of forgoing those rights (that anything they said could be used against them in court). To show that the waiver was "voluntary '' the state must show that the decision to waive the rights was not the product of police coercion. If police coercion is shown or evident, then the court proceeds to determine the voluntariness of the waiver under the totality of circumstances test focusing on the personal characteristics of the accused and the particulars of the coercive nature of the police conduct. The ultimate issue is whether the coercive police conduct was sufficient to overcome the will of a person under the totality of the circumstances. As noted previously, courts traditionally focused on two categories of factors in making this determination: (1) the personal characteristics of the suspect and (2) the circumstances attendant to the waiver. However, the Supreme Court significantly altered the voluntariness standard in the case of Colorado v. Connelly. In Connelly, the Court held that "Coercive police activity is a necessary predicate to a finding that a confession is not ' voluntary ' within the meaning of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. '' The Court has applied this same standard of voluntariness in determining whether a waiver of a suspect 's Fifth Amendment Miranda rights was voluntary. Thus, a waiver of Miranda rights is voluntary unless the defendant can show that their decision to waive their rights and speak to the police was the product of police misconduct and coercion that overcame the defendant 's free will. After Connelly, the traditional totality of circumstances analysis is not even reached unless the defendant can first show such coercion by the police. Under Connelly, a suspect 's decisions need not be the product of rational deliberations. In addition to showing that the waiver was "voluntary '', the prosecution must also show that the waiver was "knowing '' and "intelligent ''. Essentially this means the prosecution must prove that the suspect had a basic understanding of their rights and an appreciation of the consequences of forgoing those rights. The focus of the analysis is directly on the personal characteristics of the suspect. If the suspect was under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or suffered from an emotional or mental condition that substantially impaired their capacity to make rational decisions, the courts may well decide that the suspect 's waiver was not knowing and intelligent.
A waiver must also be clear and unequivocal. An equivocal statement is ineffective as a waiver and the police may not proceed with the interrogation until the suspect 's intentions are made clear. The requirement that a waiver be unequivocal must be distinguished from situations in which the suspect made an equivocal assertion of their Miranda rights after the interrogation began. Any post-waiver assertion of a suspect 's Miranda rights must be clear and unequivocal. Any ambiguity or equivocation will be ineffective. If the suspect 's assertion is ambiguous, the interrogating officers are permitted to ask questions to clarify the suspect 's intentions, although they are not required to. In other words, if a suspect 's assertion is ambiguous, the police may either attempt to clarify the suspect 's intentions or they may simply ignore the ineffective assertion and continue with the interrogation. The timing of the assertion is significant. Requesting an attorney prior to arrest is of no consequence because Miranda applies only to custodial interrogations. The police may simply ignore the request and continue with the questioning; however, the suspect is also free to leave.
If the defendant asserts his right to remain silent all interrogation must immediately stop and the police may not resume the interrogation unless the police have "scrupulously honored '' the defendant 's assertion and obtain a valid waiver before resuming the interrogation. In determining whether the police "scrupulously honored '' the assertion the courts apply a totality of the circumstances test. The most important factors are the length of time between termination of original interrogation and commencement of the second and a fresh set of Miranda warnings before resumption of interrogation.
The consequences of assertion of Sixth Amendment right to counsel are stricter. The police must immediately cease all interrogation and the police can not reinitiate interrogation unless counsel is present (merely consulting with counsel is insufficient) or the defendant of his own volition contacts the police. If the defendant does reinitiate contact, a valid waiver must be obtained before interrogation may resume.
In Berghuis v. Thompkins (2010), the Supreme Court declared in a 5 -- 4 decision that criminal defendants who have been read their Miranda rights (and who have indicated they understand them and have not already waived them), must explicitly state during or before an interrogation begins that they wish to be silent and not speak to police for that protection against self - incrimination to apply. If they speak to police about the incident before invoking the Miranda right to remain silent, or afterwards at any point during the interrogation or detention, the words they speak may be used against them if they have not stated they do not want to speak to police. Those who oppose the ruling contend that the requirement that the defendant must speak to indicate his intention to remain silent further erodes the ability of the defendant to stay completely silent about the case. This opposition must be put in context with the second option offered by the majority opinion, which allowed that the defendant had the option of remaining silent, saying: "Had he wanted to remain silent, he could have said nothing in response or unambiguously invoked his Miranda rights, ending the interrogation. '' Thus, having been "Mirandized '', a suspect may avow explicitly the invocation of these rights, or, alternatively, simply remain silent. Absent the former, "anything (said) can and will be used against (the defendant) in a court of law ''.
Assuming that the six factors are present, the Miranda rule would apply unless the prosecution can establish that the statement falls within an exception to the Miranda rule. The three exceptions are:
Arguably only the last is a true exception -- the first two can better be viewed as consistent with the Miranda factors. For example, questions that are routinely asked as part of the administrative process of arrest and custodial commitment are not considered "interrogation '' under Miranda because they are not intended or likely to produce incriminating responses. Nonetheless, all three circumstances are treated as exceptions to the rule. The jail house informant exception applies to situations where the suspect does not know that he is speaking to a state - agent; either a police officer posing as a fellow inmate, a cellmate working as an agent for the state or a family member or friend who has agreed to cooperate with the state in obtaining incriminating information.
The "public safety '' exception is a limited and case - specific exception, allowing certain unadvised statements (given without Miranda warnings) to be admissible into evidence at trial when they were elicited in circumstances where there was great danger to public safety; thus, the Miranda rule provides some elasticity.
The public safety exception derives from New York v. Quarles (1984), a case in which the Supreme Court considered the admissibility of a statement elicited by a police officer who apprehended a rape suspect who was thought to be carrying a firearm. The arrest took place during the middle of the night in a supermarket that was open to the public but apparently deserted except for the clerks at the checkout counter. When the officer arrested the suspect, he found an empty shoulder holster, handcuffed the suspect, and asked him where the gun was. The suspect nodded in the direction of the gun (which was near some empty cartons) and said, "The gun is over there ''. The Supreme Court found that such an unadvised statement was admissible in evidence because "(i) na kaleidoscopic situation such as the one confronting these officers, where spontaneity rather than adherence to a police manual is necessarily the order of the day, the application of the exception we recognize today should not be made to depend on post hoc findings at a suppression hearing concerning the subjective motivation of the police officer ''. Thus, the jurisprudential rule of Miranda must yield in "a situation where concern for public safety must be paramount to adherence to the literal language of the prophylactic rules enunciated in Miranda ''.
Under this exception, to be admissible in the government 's direct case at a trial, the questioning must not be "actually compelled by police conduct which overcame his will to resist '', and must be focused and limited, involving a situation "in which police officers ask questions reasonably prompted by a concern for the public safety ''.
In 2010, the Federal Bureau of Investigation encouraged agents to use a broad interpretation of public safety - related questions in terrorism cases, stating that the "magnitude and complexity '' of terrorist threats justified "a significantly more extensive public safety interrogation without Miranda warnings than would be permissible in an ordinary criminal case '', continuing to list such examples as: "questions about possible impending or coordinated terrorist attacks; the location, nature and threat posed by weapons that might pose an imminent danger to the public; and the identities, locations, and activities or intentions of accomplices who may be plotting additional imminent attacks ''. A Department of Justice spokesman described this position as not altering the constitutional right, but as clarifying existing flexibility in the rule.
Prosecutors initially argued for this exception to be applied to the 16 - hour interrogation of Dzhokhar Tsarnaev in 2013. However, the exception was not considered by the court because the prosecutors later decided not to use any of that evidence in their case against Tsarnaev.
The New York Court of Appeals upheld the exception in a 2013 murder case, People v Doll, where a man with blood on his clothes was detained and questioned.
The window of opportunity for the exception is small. Once the suspect is formally charged, the Sixth Amendment right to counsel would attach and surreptitious interrogation would be prohibited. The public safety exception applies where circumstances present a clear and present danger to the public 's safety and the officers have reason to believe that the suspect has information that can end the emergency.
Assuming that a Miranda violation occurred -- the six factors are present and no exception applies -- the statement will be subject to suppression under the Miranda exclusionary rule. That is, if the defendant objects or files a motion to suppress, the exclusionary rule would prohibit the prosecution from offering the statement as proof of guilt. However, the statement can be used to impeach the defendant 's testimony. Further, the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine does not apply to Miranda violations. Therefore, the exclusionary rule exceptions, attenuation, independent source and inevitable discovery, do not come into play, and derivative evidence would be fully admissible. For example, suppose the police continue with a custodial interrogation after the suspect has asserted his right to silence. During his post-assertion statement the suspect tells the police the location of the gun he used in the murder. Using this information the police find the gun. Forensic testing identifies the gun as the murder weapon, and fingerprints lifted from the gun match the suspect 's. The contents of the Miranda - defective statement could not be offered by the prosecution as substantive evidence, but the gun itself and all related forensic evidence could be used as evidence at trial.
Although the rules vary by jurisdiction, generally a person who wishes to contest the admissibility of evidence on the grounds that it was obtained in violation of his constitutional rights must comply with the following procedural requirements:
Failure to comply with a procedural requirement may result in summary dismissal of the motion. If the defendant meets the procedural requirement, the motion will normally be considered by the judge outside the presence of the jury. The judge hears evidence, determines the facts, makes conclusions of law and enters an order allowing or denying the motion.
In addition to Miranda, confession may be challenged under the Massiah Doctrine, the Voluntariness Standard, Provisions of Federal and State rules of criminal procedure and State Constitutional provisions.
The Massiah Doctrine (established by Massiah v. United States) prohibits the admission of a confession obtained in violation of the defendant 's Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Specifically, the Massiah rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings deliberately elicited by the police from a defendant after formal charges have been filed. The events that trigger the Sixth Amendment safeguards under Massiah are (1) the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings and (2) deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents.
The Sixth Amendment guarantees a defendant a right to counsel in all criminal prosecutions. The purposes of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel are to protect a defendant 's right to a fair trial and to assure that the adversarial system of justice functions properly by providing competent counsel as an advocate for the defendant in his contest against the "prosecutorial forces '' of the state.
The Sixth Amendment right "attaches '' once the government has committed itself to the prosecution of the case by the initiation of adversarial judicial proceedings "by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information or arraignment ''. Determining whether a particular event or proceeding constitutes the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings requires both an examination of the rules of criminal procedure for the jurisdiction in which the crime is charged and the Supreme Courts cases dealing with the issue of when formal prosecution begins. Once adversarial criminal proceedings commence the right to counsel applies to all critical stages of the prosecution and investigation. A critical stage is "any stage of the prosecution, formal or informal, in court or out, where counsel 's absence might derogate from the accused 's right to a fair trial ''.
Government attempts to obtain incriminating statement related to the offense charged from the defendant by overt interrogation or surreptitious means is a critical stage and any information thus obtained is subject to suppression unless the government can show that an attorney was present or the defendant knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently waived his right to counsel.
Deliberate elicitation is defined as the intentional creation of circumstances by government agents that are likely to produce incriminating information from the defendant. Clearly express questioning (interrogation) would qualify but the concept also extends to surreptitious attempts to acquire information from the defendant through the use of undercover agents or paid informants.
The definition of "deliberate elicitation '' is not the same as the definition of "interrogation '' under the Miranda rule. Miranda interrogation includes express questioning and any actions or statements that an officer would reasonably foresee as likely to cause an incriminating response. Massiah applies to express questioning and any attempt to deliberately and intentionally obtain incriminating information from the defendant regarding the crime charged. The difference is purposeful creation of an environment likely to produce incriminating information (Massiah) and action likely to induce an incriminating response even if that was not the officer 's purpose or intent (Miranda).
The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense - specific -- the right only applies to post-commencement attempts to obtain information relating to the crime charged. The right does not extend to uncharged offenses if factually related to the charged crime.
As noted, information obtained in violation of the defendant 's Sixth Amendment right to counsel is subject to suppression unless the government can establish that the defendant waived his right to counsel. The waiver must be knowing, intelligent and voluntary. A valid Miranda waiver operates as a waiver of Sixth Amendment right.
The voluntariness standard applies to all police interrogations regardless of the custodial status of the suspect and regardless of whether the suspect has been formally charged. The remedy for a violation of the standard is complete suppression of the statement and any evidence derived from the statement. The statement can not be used as either substantive evidence of guilt or to impeach the defendant 's testimony. The reason for the strictness is the common law 's aversion to the use of coerced confessions because of their inherent unreliability. Further the rights to be free from coerced confession can not be waived nor is it necessary that the victim of coercive police conduct assert his right. In considering the voluntariness standard one must consider the Supreme Court 's decision in Colorado v. Connelly. Although federal courts ' application of the Connelly rule has been inconsistent and state courts have often failed to appreciate the consequences of the case, Connelly clearly marked a significant change in the application of the voluntariness standard. Before Connelly the test was whether the confession was voluntary considering the totality of the circumstances. "Voluntary '' carried its everyday meaning: the confession had to be a product of the exercise of the defendant 's free will rather than police coercion. After Connelly the totality of circumstances test is not even triggered unless the defendant can show coercive police conduct. Questions of free will and rational decision making are irrelevant to a due process claim unless police misconduct existed and a causal connection can be shown between the misconduct and the confession.
Every state constitution has articles and provision guaranteeing individual rights. In most cases the subject matter is similar to the federal bill of rights. Most state courts interpretation of their constitution is consistent with the interpretation federal court 's of analogous provisions of the federal constitution. With regard to Miranda issues, state courts have exhibited significant resistance to incorporating into their state jurisprudence some of the limitations on the Miranda rule that have been created by the federal courts. As a consequence a defendant may be able to circumvent the federal limitation on the Miranda rule and successfully challenge the admissibility under state constitutional provisions. Practically every aspect of the Miranda rule has drawn state court criticism. However the primary point of contention involve the following limitations on the scope of the Miranda rule: (1) the Harris exception (2) the Burbine rule and (3) the Fare rule.
In addition to constitutionally based challenge, states permit a defendant to challenge the admissibility of a confession on the grounds that the confession was obtained in violation of a defendant 's statutory rights. For example, North Carolina Criminal Procedure Act permits a defendant to move to suppress evidence obtained as a result of a "substantial '' violation of the provision of the North Carolina Rules of Criminal Procedure.
Due to the prevalence of American television programs and motion pictures in which the police characters frequently read suspects their rights, it has become an expected element of arrest procedure -- in the 2000 Dickerson decision, Chief Justice William Rehnquist wrote that Miranda warnings had "become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of our national culture ''.
While arrests and interrogations can legally occur without the Miranda warning being given, this procedure would generally make the arrestee 's pre-Miranda statements inadmissible at trial. (However, pursuant to the plurality opinion in United States v. Patane, physical evidence obtained as a result of pre-Miranda statements may still be admitted. There was no majority opinion of the Court in that case.)
In some jurisdictions, a detention differs at law from an arrest, and police are not required to give the Miranda warning until the person is arrested for a crime. In those situations, a person 's statements made to police are generally admissible even though the person was not advised of their rights. Similarly, statements made while an arrest is in progress before the Miranda warning was given or completed are also generally admissible.
Because Miranda applies only to custodial interrogations, it does not protect detainees from standard booking questions such as name and address. Because it is a protective measure intended to safeguard the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination, it does not prevent the police from taking blood without a warrant from persons suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol. (Such evidence may be self - incriminatory, but are not considered statements of self - incrimination.)
If an inmate is in jail and invoked Miranda on one case, it is unclear whether this extends to any other cases that they may be charged with while in custody. For example: a subject is arrested, charged with cattle rustling, and is held in county jail awaiting trial. He invoked his Miranda rights on the cow case. While in custody, he is involved in a fight where a staff member loses his ability to walk. He speaks to the custodial staff regarding the fight without staff first invoking Miranda. It is unclear if this statement is admissible because of the original Miranda statement.
Many police departments give special training to interrogators with regard to the Miranda warning; specifically, how to influence a suspect 's decision to waive the right. For instance, the officer may be required to specifically ask if the rights are understood and if the suspect wishes to talk. The officer is allowed, before asking the suspect a question, to speak at length about evidence collected, witness statements, etc. The officer will then ask if the suspect wishes to talk, and the suspect is then more likely to talk in an attempt to refute the evidence presented. Another tactic commonly taught is never to ask a question; the officer may simply sit the suspect down in an interrogation room, sit across from him and do paperwork, and wait for the suspect to begin talking. These tactics are intended to mitigate the restrictions placed on law officers against compelling a suspect to give evidence, and have stood up in court as valid lawful tactics. Nevertheless, such tactics are condemned by legal rights groups as deceptive.
In Illinois v. Perkins, 496 U.S. 292 (1990), the United States Supreme Court held that undercover officers do not have to give suspects a Miranda warning prior to asking questions that may elicit incriminating responses. In this case, an undercover agent posed as an inmate and carried on a 35 - minute conversation with another inmate that he suspected of committing a murder that was being investigated. During this conversation, the suspect implicated himself in the murder that the undercover agent was investigating.
The Supreme Court came to this conclusion despite the government 's admission that a custodial interrogation had been conducted by a government agent.
Beginning in 2009, some detainees captured in Afghanistan have been read their Miranda rights by the FBI, according to Congressman Michael Rogers of Michigan, who claims to have witnessed this himself. According to the Justice Department, "There has been no policy change nor blanket instruction for FBI agents to Mirandize detainees overseas. While there have been specific cases in which FBI agents have Mirandized suspects overseas at both Bagram and in other situations, in order to preserve the quality of evidence obtained, there has been no overall policy change with respect to detainees. ''
Whether arising from their constitutions, common law, or statute, many nations recognize a defendant 's right to silence. Those rights may be considerably more limited than those available to U.S. criminal defendants under the Miranda ruling.
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title of sir to sir syed ahmed khan | Syed Ahmad Khan - Wikipedia
Syed Ahmad Taqvi bin Syed Muhammad Muttaqi KCSI (Urdu: سید احمد خان ; 17 October 1817 -- 27 March 1898), commonly known as Sir Syed, was an Indian Muslim pragmatist, Islamic reformist, philosopher of nineteenth century British India and the Father of Two Nation Theory. Born into a family with strong ties with Mughal court, Syed studied the Quran and sciences within the court. He was awarded honorary LLD from the University of Edinburgh.
In 1838, Syed Ahmad entered the service of East India Company and went on to become a judge at a Small Causes Court in 1867, and retired from service in 1876. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he remained, loyal to the British Empire and was noted for his actions in saving European lives. After the rebellion, he penned the booklet The Causes of the Indian Mutiny -- a daring critique, at the time, of British policies that he blamed for causing the revolt. Believing that the future of Muslims was threatened by the rigidity of their orthodox outlook, Sir Syed began promoting Western -- style scientific education by founding modern schools and journals and organising Muslim entrepreneurs.
In 1859, Syed established Gulshan School at Muradabad, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society for Muslims in 1864. In 1875, founded the Muhammadan Anglo - Oriental College, the first Muslim university in South Asia. During his career, Syed repeatedly called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Empire and promoted the adoption of Urdu as the lingua franca of all Indian Muslims. Syed heavily critiqued the Indian National Congress.
Syed maintains a strong legacy in Pakistan and Indian Muslims. He strongly influenced other Muslim leaders including Allama Iqbal and Jinnah. His advocacy of Islam 's rationalist (Muʿtazila) tradition, and at broader, radical reinterpretation of the Quran to make it compatible with science and modernity, continues to influence the global Islamic reformation. Many universities and public buildings in Pakistan bear Sir Syed 's name.
Aligarh Muslim University celebrated his 200th birth centenary with much enthusiasm on 17 October 2017. Former President of India shri Pranab Mukherjee was the chief guest.
Sir Syed Ahmed ' Khan Bahadur ' was born on 17 October 1817 to an Syed family in Delhi, which was the capital of the Mughal Empire. His family were desandants of Muhammad and then moved to the Indian subcontinent in the ruling times of Mughal emperor Akbar -- I. Many generations of his family had since been highly connected with the administrative position in Mughal Empire. His maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as Wazir (lit. Minister) in the court of Emperor Akbar -- II. His paternal grandfather Syed Hadi Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a mansab (lit. General) -- a high - ranking administrative position and honorary name of "Mir Jawwad Ali Khan '' in the court of Emperor Alamgir II. Sir Syed 's father, Syed Muttaqi Muhammad bin Hadi Khan, was personally close to Emperor Akbar -- II and served as his personal adviser.
However, Syed Ahmad was born at a time when rebellious governors, regional insurrections aided and led by the East India Company, and the British Empire had diminished the extent and power of the Mughal state, reducing its monarch to figurehead. With his elder brother Syed Muhammad bin Muttaqi Khan, Sir Syed was raised in a large house in a wealthy area of the city. They were raised in strict accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Aziz - un-Nisa played a formative role in Sir Syed 's early life, raising him with rigid discipline with a strong emphasis on modern education. Sir Syed was taught to read and understand the Holy Qur'an by a female tutor, which was unusual at the time. He received an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. Under the charge of Lord Wellesley, Sir Syed was trained in Persian, Arabic, Urdu and orthodox religious subjects. He read the works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Rumi and Ghalib. Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and Islamic jurisprudence. Sir Syed was also adept at swimming, wrestling and other sports. He took an active part in the Mughal court 's cultural activities.
Syed Ahmad 's elder brother founded the city 's first printing press in the Urdu language along with the journal Sayyad - ul - Akbar. Sir Syed pursued the study of medicine for several years but did not complete the course. Until the death of his father in 1838, Sir Syed had lived a life customary for an affluent young Muslim noble. Upon his father 's death, he inherited the titles of his grandfather and father and was awarded the title of Arif Jung by the emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. Financial difficulties put an end to Sir Syed 's formal education, although he continued to study in private, using books on a variety of subjects. Sir Syed assumed editorship of his brother 's journal and rejected offers of employment from the Mughal court.
Having recognized the steady decline in Mughal political power, Sir Syed decided to enter the service of the East India Company. He could not enter the English civil service because it was only in the 1860s that natives were admitted. He did not attend the East India Company College which was not a College and did not grant degrees in law or anything else. His first appointment was as a Serestadar (lit. Clerk) at the courts of law in Agra, responsible for record - keeping and managing court affairs. In 1840, he was promoted to the title of munshi. In 1858, he was appointed to a high - ranking post at the court in Muradabad, where he began working on his most famous literary work.
Acquainted with high - ranking British officials, Sir Syed obtained close knowledge about British colonial politics during his service at the courts. At the outbreak of the Indian rebellion, on 10 May 1857, Sir Syed was serving as the chief assessment officer at the court in Bijnor. Northern India became the scene of the most intense fighting. The conflict had left large numbers of civilians dead. Erstwhile centres of Muslim power such as Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Kanpur were severely affected. Sir Syed was personally affected by the violence and the ending of the Mughal dynasty amongst many other long - standing kingdoms. Sir Syed and many other Muslims took this as a defeat of Muslim society. He lost several close relatives who died in the violence. Although he succeeded in rescuing his mother from the turmoil, she died in Meerut, owing to the privations she had experienced.
Social reforms in the Muslim society were initiated by Abdul Latif who founded "The Mohammedan Literary Society '' in Bengal. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan established the MAO College which eventually became the Aligarh Muslim University. He opposed ignorance, superstitions and evil customs prevalent in Indian Muslim society. He firmly believed that Muslim society would not progress without the acquisition of western education and science. As time passed, Sir Syed began stressing on idea of pragmatic modernism and started advocating for strong interfaith relations between Islam and Christianity.
Sir Syed supported the British during the 1857 uprising, a role which has been criticised by some nationalists such as Jamaluddin Afghani. In 1859 Sir Syed published the booklet Asbab - e-Baghawat - e-Hind (The Causes of the Indian Revolt) in which he studied the causes of the Indian revolt. In this, his most famous work, he rejected the common notion that the conspiracy was planned by Muslim élites, who were insecure at the diminishing influence of Muslim monarchs. He blamed the British East India Company for its aggressive expansion as well as the ignorance of British politicians regarding Indian culture. Sir Syed advised the British to appoint Muslims to assist in administration, to prevent what he called ' haramzadgi ' (a vulgar deed) such as the mutiny.
Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali wrote in the biography of Sir Syed that:
"As soon as Sir Syed reached Muradabad, he began to write the pamphlet entitled ' The Causes of the Indian Revolt ' (Asbab - e-Baghawat - e-Hind), in which he did his best to clear the people of India, and especially the Muslims, of the charge of Mutiny. In spite of the obvious danger, he made a courageous and thorough report of the accusations people were making against the Government and refused the theory which the British had invented to explain the causes of the Mutiny. ''
When the work was finished, without waiting for an English translation, Sir Syed sent the Urdu version to be printed at the Mufassilat Gazette Press in Agra. Within a few weeks, he received 500 copies back from the printers. His friend warned him not to send the pamphlet to Parliament or to the Government of India. Rae Shankar Das, a great friend of Sir Syed, begged him to burn the books rather than put his life in danger. Sir Syed replied that he was bringing these matters to the attention of the British for the good of his own people, of his country, and of the government itself. He said that if he came to any harm while doing something that would greatly benefit the rulers and the subjects of India alike, he would gladly suffer whatever befell him. When Rae Shankar Das saw that Sir Syed 's mind was made up and nothing could be done to change it, he wept and remained silent. After performing a supplementary prayer and asking God 's blessing, Sir Syed sent almost all the 500 copies of his pamphlet to England, one to the government, and kept the rest himself.
When the government of India had the book translated and presented before the Council, Lord Canning, the governor - general, and Sir Bartle Frere accepted it as a sincere and friendly report. The foreign secretary Cecil Beadon, however, severely attacked it, calling it ' an extremely seditious pamphlet '. He wanted a proper inquiry into the matter and said that the author, unless he could give a satisfactory explanation, should be harshly dealt with. Since no other member of the Council agreed with his opinion, his attack did no harm.
Later, Sir Syed was invited to attend Lord Canning 's durbar in Farrukhabad and happened to meet the foreign secretary there. He told Sir Syed that he was displeased with the pamphlet and added that if he had really had the government 's interests at heart, he would not have made his opinion known in this way throughout the country; he would have communicated it directly to the government. Sir Syed replied that he had only had 500 copies printed, the majority of which he had sent to England, one had been given to the government of India, and the remaining copies were still in his possession. Furthermore, he had the receipt to prove it. He was aware, he added, that the view of the rulers had been distorted by the stress and anxieties of the times, which made it difficult to put even the most straightforward problem in its right perspective. It was for this reason that he had not communicated his thoughts publicly. He promised that for every copy that could be found circulating in India he would personally pay 1,000 rupees. At first, Beadon was not convinced and asked Sir Syed over and over again if he was sure that no other copy had been distributed in India. Sir Syed reassured him on this matter, and Beadon never mentioned it again. Later he became one of Sir Syed 's strongest supporters.
Many official translations were made of the Urdu text of The Causes of the Indian Revolt. The one undertaken by the India Office formed the subject of many discussions and debates. The pamphlet was also translated by the government of India and several members of parliament, but no version was offered to the public. A translation which had been started by a government official was finished by Sir Syed 's great friend, Colonel G.F.I. Graham, and finally published in 1873.
In 1855, he finished his scholarly, well researched and illustrated edition of Abul Fazl 's Ai'n - e Akbari, itself an extraordinarily difficult book. Having finished the work to his satisfaction, and believing that Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib was a person who would appreciate his labours, Syed Ahmad approached the great Ghalib to write a taqriz (in the convention of the times, a laudatory foreword) for it. Ghalib obliged, but what he did produce was a short Persian poem castigating the Ai'n - e Akbari, and by implication, the imperial, sumptuous, literate and learned Mughal culture of which it was a product. The least that could be said against it was that the book had little value even as an antique document. Ghalib practically reprimanded Syed Ahmad Khan for wasting his talents and time on dead things. Worse, he praised sky - high the "sahibs of England '' who at that time held all the keys to all the a'ins in this world.
The poem was unexpected, but it came at the time when Syed Ahmad Khan 's thought and feelings themselves were inclining toward change. Ghalib seemed to be acutely aware of a European (English) - sponsored change in world polity, especially Indian polity. Syed Ahmad might well have been piqued at Ghalib 's admonitions, but he would also have realized that Ghalib 's reading of the situation, though not nuanced enough, was basically accurate. Syed Ahmad Khan may also have felt that he, being better informed about the English and the outside world, should have himself seen the change that now seemed to be just round the corner.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan never again wrote a word in praise of the Ai'n - e Akbari and in fact gave up taking active interest in history and archaeology. He did edit another two historical texts over the next few years, but neither of them was anything like the Ai'n: a vast and triumphalist document on the governance of Akbar.
While continuing to work as a junior clerk, Sir Syed began focusing on writing, from the age of 23 (in 1840), on various subjects (from mechanics to educational issues), mainly in Urdu, where he wrote, at least, 6000 pages. His career as an author began when he published a series of treatises in Urdu on religious subjects in 1842. He published the book Asaar - us - sanadeed (Great Monuments) documenting antiquities of Delhi dating from the medieval era. This work earned him the reputation of a cultured scholar. In 1842, he completed the Jila - ul - Qulub bi Zikr - il Mahbub and the Tuhfa - i - Hasan, along with the Tahsil fi jar - i - Saqil in 1844. These works focused on religious and cultural subjects. In 1852, he published the two works Namiqa dar bayan masala tasawwur - i - Shaikh and Silsilat ul - Mulk. He released the second edition of Ansar - as - sanadid in 1854. He also started work on a commentary on the Bible -- the first by a Muslim -- in which he argued that Islam was the closest religion to Christianity, with a common lineage from Abrahamic religions. He began with Genesis and Matthew, the first books of the Old and New Testament, but quit his project before even completing those first two. His other writings such as Loyal Muhammadans of India, Tabyin - ul - Kalam and A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein helped to create cordial relations between the British authorities and the Muslim community.
Throughout his life Syed Ahmad found time for literary and scholarly pursuits. The range of his literary and scholarly interests was very wide: history, politics, archaeology, journalism, literature, religion and science. The scope of his major writings is indeed amazing, majority are listed as follows:
He was appointed the fellow of the Calcutta University and Allahabad University by the Viceroy in the year 1876 and 1887 respectively.
UykjhuhfPar, Agra. 1889.
Through the 1850s, Syed Ahmed Khan began developing a strong passion for education. While pursuing studies of different subjects including European jurisprudence, Sir Syed began to realise the advantages of Western - style education, which was being offered at newly established colleges across India. Despite being a devout Muslim, Sir Syed criticised the influence of traditional dogma and religious orthodoxy, which had made most Indian Muslims suspicious of British influences. Sir Syed began feeling increasingly concerned for the future of Muslim communities. A scion of Mughal nobility, Sir Syed had been reared in the finest traditions of Muslim élite culture and was aware of the steady decline of Muslim political power across India. The animosity between the British and Muslims before and after the rebellion (Independence War) of 1857 threatened to marginalise Muslim communities across India for many generations. Sir Syed intensified his work to promote co-operation with British authorities, promoting loyalty to the Empire amongst Indian Muslims. Committed to working for the upliftment of Muslims, Sir Syed founded a modern madrassa in Muradabad in 1859; this was one of the first religious schools to impart scientific education. Sir Syed also worked on social causes, helping to organise relief for the famine - struck people of North - West Province in 1860. He established another modern school in Ghazipur in 1863.
Upon his transfer to Aligarh in 1864, Sir Syed began working wholeheartedly as an educator. He founded the Scientific Society of Aligarh, the first scientific association of its kind in India. Modelling it after the Royal Society and the Royal Asiatic Society, Sir Syed assembled Muslim scholars from different parts of the country. The Society held annual conferences, disbursed funds for educational causes and regularly published a journal on scientific subjects in English and Urdu. Sir Syed felt that the socio - economic future of Muslims was threatened by their orthodox aversions to modern science and technology. He published many writings promoting liberal, rational interpretations of Islamic scriptures. One example was the reaction to his argument -- which appeared in his tafsir (exegesis) of the Quran -- that riba referred to interest charges when lending money to the poor, but not to the rich, nor to borrowers "in trade or in industry '', since this finance supported "trade, national welfare and prosperity ''. While many jurists declared all interest to be riba, (according to Sir Syed) this was based "on their own authority and deduction '' rather than the Quran.
Clerics and Scholars of Deobandi Ulama and other orthodox Sunni schools condemned him as out of the fold of Islam i.e. kafir. According to J.M.S. Balijon his ideas created "a real hurricane of protests and outbursts of wrath '' among by local clerics "in every town and village '' in Muslim India, who issued fatawa "declaring him to be a kafir '' (unbeliever). He was also accused of having converted to Christianity.
In face of this pressure from religious Muslims, Sir Syed avoided further discussion of religious subjects in his writings, focusing instead on promoting education.
The onset of the Hindi - Urdu controversy of 1867 saw the emergence of Sir Syed as a champion for cause of the Urdu language. He became a leading Muslim voice opposing the adoption of Hindi as a second official language of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). Sir Syed perceived Urdu as the lingua franca of the United Provinces. Having been developed by during the Mughal period, Urdu was used as a secondary language to Persian, the official language of the Mughal court. Since the decline of the Mughal dynasty, Sir Syed promoted the use of Urdu through his own writings. Under Sir Syed, the Scientific Society translated Western works only into Urdu. The schools established by Sir Syed imparted education in the Urdu medium. The demand for Hindi, led largely by Hindus, was to Sir Syed an erosion of the centuries - old Muslim cultural domination of India. Testifying before the British - appointed education commission, Sir Syed controversially exclaimed that "Urdu was the language of gentry and Hindi that of the vulgar. '' His remarks provoked a hostile response from Hindu leaders, who unified across the nation to demand the recognition of Hindi.
The success of the Hindi movement led Sir Syed to further advocate Urdu as the symbol of Muslim heritage and as the language of all Indian Muslims. His educational and political work grew increasingly centred around and exclusively for Muslim interests. He also sought to persuade the British to give Urdu extensive official use and patronage. His colleagues such as Mohsin - ul - Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq developed organisations such as the Urdu Defence Association and the Anjuman Taraqqi - i - Urdu, committed to the perpetuation of Urdu. All these colleagues led efforts that resulted in the adoption of Urdu as the official language of the Hyderabad State and as the medium of instruction in the Osmania University. To Muslims in northern and western India, Urdu had become an integral part of political and cultural identity. However, the division over the use of Hindi or Urdu further provoked communal conflict between Muslims and Hindus in India.
On 1 April 1869 he went, along with his son Syed Mahmood, to England, where he was awarded the Order of the Star of India from the British government on 6 August. Travelling across England, he visited its colleges and was inspired by the culture of learning established after the Renaissance. Sir Syed returned to India in the following year determined to build a "Muslim Cambridge. '' Upon his return, he organised the "Committee for the Better Diffusion and Advancement of Learning among Muhammadans '' (Muslims) on 26 December 1870. Sir Syed described his vision of the institution he proposed to establish in an article written sometime in 1872 and re-printed in the Aligarh Institute Gazette of 5 April 1911:
I may appear to be dreaming and talking like Shaikh Chilli, but we aim to turn this MAO College into a University similar to that of Oxford or Cambridge. Like the churches of Oxford and Cambridge, there will be mosques attached to each College... The College will have a dispensary with a Doctor and a compounder, besides a Unani Hakim. It will be mandatory on boys in residence to join the congregational prayers (namaz) at all the five times. Students of other religions will be exempted from this religious observance. Muslim students will have a uniform consisting of a black alpaca, half - sleeved chugha and a red Fez cap... Bad and abusive words which boys generally pick up and get used to, will be strictly prohibited. Even such a word as a "liar '' will be treated as an abuse to be prohibited. They will have food either on tables of European style or on chaukis in the manner of the Arabs... Smoking of cigarette or huqqa and the chewing of betels shall be strictly prohibited. No corporal punishment or any such punishment as is likely to injure a student 's self - respect will be permissible... It will be strictly enforced that Shia and Sunni boys shall not discuss their religious differences in the College or in the boarding house. At present it is like a day dream. I pray to God that this dream may come true. ''
By 1873, the committee under Sir Syed issued proposals for the construction of a college in Aligarh. He began publishing the journal Tahzib - al - Akhlaq (Social Reformer) on 24 December 1870 to spread awareness and knowledge on modern subjects and promote reforms in Muslim society. Sir Syed worked to promote reinterpretation of Muslim ideology in order to reconcile tradition with Western education. He argued in several books on Islam that the Qur'an rested on an appreciation of reason and natural law, making scientific inquiry important to being a good Muslim. Sir Syed established a modern school in Aligarh and, obtaining support from wealthy Muslims and the British, laid the foundation stone of the Muhammadan Anglo - Oriental College on 24 May 1875. He retired from his career as a jurist the following year, concentrating entirely on developing the college and on religious reform. Sir Syed 's pioneering work received support from the British. Although intensely criticised by orthodox religious leaders hostile to modern influences, Sir Syed 's new institution attracted a large student body, mainly drawn from the Muslim gentry and middle classes. The curriculum at the college involved scientific and Western subjects, as well as Oriental subjects and religious education. The first chancellor was Sultan Shah Jahan Begum, a prominent Muslim noblewoman, and Sir Syed invited an Englishman, Theodore Beck, to serve as the first college principal. The college was originally affiliated with Calcutta University but was transferred to the Allahabad University in 1885. Near the turn of the 20th century, it began publishing its own magazine and established a law school. In 1920, the college was transformed into a university.
In 1878, Sir Syed was nominated to the Viceroy 's Legislative Council. He testified before the education commission to promote the establishment of more colleges and schools across India. In the same year, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Association to promote political co-operation amongst Indian Muslims from different parts of the country. In 1886, he organised the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Aligarh, which promoted his vision of modern education and political unity for Muslims. His works made him the most prominent Muslim politician in 19th century India, often influencing the attitude of Muslims on various national issues. He supported the efforts of Indian political leaders Surendranath Banerjee and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation for Indians in the government and civil services. In 1883, he founded the Muhammadan Civil Service Fund Association to encourage and support the entry of Muslim graduates into the Indian Civil Service (ICS). While fearful of the loss of Muslim political power owing to the community 's backwardness, Sir Syed was also averse to the prospect of democratic self - government, which would give control of government to the Hindu - majority population:
"At this time our nation is in a bad state in regards education and wealth, but God has given us the light of religion and the Quran is present for our guidance, which has ordained them and us to be friends. Now God has made them rulers over us. Therefore we should cultivate friendship with them, and should adopt that method by which their rule may remain permanent and firm in India, and may not pass into the hands of the Bengalis... If we join the political movement of the Bengalis our nation will reap a loss, for we do not want to become subjects of the Hindus instead of the subjects of the "people of the Book... ''
Later in his life he said, "Suppose that the English community and the army were to leave India, taking with them all their cannons and their splendid weapons and all else, who then would be the rulers of India?... Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations -- the Mohammedans and the Hindus -- could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not. It is necessary that one of them should conquer the other. To hope that both could remain equal is to desire the impossible and the inconceivable. But until one nation has conquered the other and made it obedient, peace can not reign in the land. ''
Sir Syed 's educational model and progressive thinking inspired Muslim elites who supported the AIML. Ahmad Khan founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 in order to promote Western education, especially science and literature, among India 's Muslims. The conference, in addition to generating funds for Ahmad Khan 's Muhammadan Anglo - Oriental College, motivated Muslim elites to propose expansion of educational uplift elsewhere, known as the Aligarh Movement. In turn this new awareness of Muslim needs helped stimulate a political consciousness among Muslim elites that went on to form the AIML.
Overall, Syed Ahmed is hailed as a Muslim social reformer who promoted communal harmony and peaceful coexistence of all communities in India. In an undivided India under the British rule, he was worried about Muslim backwardness and unwillingness to adopt modern education. He worked towards social and educational upliftment of Muslims so as to enable them to walk shoulder to shoulder with all other communities in India.
Syed Ahmad is widely commemorated across South Asia as a great Muslim social reformer and visionary. At the same time, Syed Ahmad sought to politically ally Muslims with the British government. An avowed loyalist of the British Empire, he was nominated as a member of the Civil Service Commission in 1887 by Lord Dufferin. In 1888, he established the United Patriotic Association at Aligarh to promote political co-operation with the British and Muslim participation in the British government.
Syed Ahmed was bestowed with the suffix of ' Khan Bahadur ' and was subsequently knighted by the British government in 1888 and was awarded Knight Commander of the order of Star of India (KCSI) for his loyalty to the British crown, through his membership of the Imperial Legislative Council and in the following year he received an LL. D. honoris causa from the Edinburgh University.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur lived the last two decades of his life in Aligarh, regarded widely as the mentor of 19th and 20th century Muslim entrepreneurs and illuminati. Battling illnesses and old age, Sir Syed died on 27 March 1898. He was buried besides Sir Syed Masjid inside the campus of the Aligarh university.
The university he founded remains one of India 's most prominent institutions. Prominent alumni of Aligarh include Muslim political leaders Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulvi Abdul Haq, who is hailed in Pakistan as Baba - e-Urdu (Father of Urdu). The first two Prime Ministers of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin, as well as the late Indian President Dr. Zakir Hussain, are amongst Aligarh 's most famous graduates. In India, Sir Syed is commemorated as a pioneer who worked for the socio - political upliftment of Indian Muslims.
Muslim University (Aligarh)
Graham, George Farquhar Irving. The Life and Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1974)
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in para-virtualization vms run on hypervisor that interacts with the hardware | Paravirtualization - wikipedia
In computing, paravirtualization is a virtualization technique that presents to virtual machines a software interface, which is similar yet not identical to the underlying hardware - software interface.
The intent of the modified interface is to reduce the portion of the guest 's execution time spent performing operations which are substantially more difficult to run in a virtual environment compared to a non-virtualized environment. The paravirtualization provides specially defined ' hooks ' to allow the guest (s) and host to request and acknowledge these tasks, which would otherwise be executed in the virtual domain (where execution performance is worse). A successful paravirtualized platform may allow the virtual machine monitor (VMM) to be simpler (by relocating execution of critical tasks from the virtual domain to the host domain), and / or reduce the overall performance degradation of machine - execution inside the virtual - guest.
Paravirtualization requires the guest operating system to be explicitly ported for the para-API -- a conventional OS distribution that is not paravirtualization - aware can not be run on top of a paravirtualizing VMM. However, even in cases where the operating system can not be modified, components may be available that enable many of the significant performance advantages of paravirtualization. For example, the Xen Windows GPLPV project provides a kit of paravirtualization - aware device drivers, licensed under the terms of the GPL, that are intended to be installed into a Microsoft Windows virtual - guest running on the Xen hypervisor.
Paravirtualization is a new term for an old idea. IBM 's VM operating system has offered such a facility since 1972 (and earlier as CP - 67). In the VM world, this is designated a "DIAGNOSE code '', because it uses an instruction code used normally only by hardware maintenance software and thus undefined.
The Parallels Workstation operating system calls its equivalent a "hypercall ''. All are the same thing: a system call to the hypervisor below. Such calls require support in the "guest '' operating system, which has to have hypervisor - specific code to make such calls.
The term "paravirtualization '' was first used in the research literature in association with the Denali Virtual Machine Manager. The term is also used to describe the Xen, L4, TRANGO, VMware, Wind River and XtratuM hypervisors. All these projects use or can use paravirtualization techniques to support high performance virtual machines on x86 hardware by implementing a virtual machine that does not implement the hard - to - virtualize parts of the actual x86 instruction set.
A hypervisor provides the virtualization of the underlying computer system. In full virtualization, a guest operating system runs unmodified on a hypervisor. However, improved performance and efficiency is achieved by having the guest operating system communicate with the hypervisor. By allowing the guest operating system to indicate its intent to the hypervisor, each can cooperate to obtain better performance when running in a virtual machine. This type of communication is referred to as paravirtualization.
In 2005, VMware proposed a paravirtualization interface, the Virtual Machine Interface (VMI), as a communication mechanism between the guest operating system and the hypervisor. This interface enabled transparent paravirtualization in which a single binary version of the operating system can run either on native hardware or on a hypervisor in paravirtualized mode. As AMD and Intel CPUs added support for more efficient hardware - assisted virtualization, the standard became obsoleted and VMI support was removed from Linux kernel in 2.6. 37 and from VMware products in 2011.
At the USENIX conference in 2006 in Boston, Massachusetts, a number of Linux development vendors (including IBM, VMware, Xen, and Red Hat) collaborated on an alternative form of paravirtualization, initially developed by the Xen group, called "paravirt - ops ''. The paravirt - ops code (often shortened to pv - ops) was included in the mainline Linux kernel as of the 2.6. 23 version, and provides a hypervisor - agnostic interface between the hypervisor and guest kernels. Distribution support for pv - ops guest kernels appeared starting with Ubuntu 7.04 and RedHat 9. Xen hypervisors based on any 2.6. 24 or later kernel support pv - ops guests, as does VMware 's Workstation product beginning with version 6. VirtualBox also supports it from version 5.0.
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what section of the constitution gives congress its power | Powers of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers.
Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes. The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress ' primary checks on the executive branch. Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.
The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's Constitutionally - defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent. Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action '' and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war. In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times '' before 1970. In 1993, one writer noted "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II. '' President George H.W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post -- Cold War decision to start a war '' without Congressional approval. Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization. Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history.
Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress ' subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.
Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.
Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:
1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
7. To establish post offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
13. To provide and maintain a navy;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.
Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress ' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
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